EnglishTown. Gramática

8/18/2019 EnglishTown. Gramática

1/134

A

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

Events may be related in the active or the passive voice. In thepassive, the person or thing receiving the action becomes thegrammatical subject.

For example (the entity receiving the action is in boldface):

• active voice: Eric ohmer made this film.

• passive voice: This film !as made by Eric ohmer.

"ne forms the passive by conjugating the verb #to be# before thepast participle of the principal verb. the tense of the verb #to be# !illdetermine the tense of action. $hen an agent of the action (that is,the person or entity performing the action) must be described, onedoes so by using the preposition #by#:

• %his industry !ill soon be developed in the third !orld.

• &orry, but this car has been purchased by another customer.

English uses the passive voice fre'uently, although it is best to avoidit !hen possible. n option is to use an impersonal subject, such as#one# or #someone#

• (passive voice): %his job needs to be done.

• (active voice): &omeone needs to do this job.


2/134

ADJECTIVES

• Forms

• sage

• elated topics

Forms

djectives are generally invariable in English and do not agree !ithnouns in number and gender* nor do they ta+e case endings:

• a blue car

• the great outdoors

• a group of young !omen

o!ever, a fe! adjectives have a connotation !hich is slightlymasculine or feminine. %hus, one says that a !omanis beautiful !hile a man !ould be called hansome.

djectives indicating religion or nationality (or a region, state orprovince) generally begin !ith a capital letter, !hether they refer topeople or objects:

• &he is an Ameri!an student.

• %hey go to a Catholi! school.

• %hey enjoy "reton music.

#sage$

In a noun cluster an adjective !ill be placed, !ith very fe!exceptions, in front of the noun it modifies. $hen t!o adjectivesprecede a noun, they can be connected by a comma (,) or by the

conjunction#an.# In a series of three or more adjectives, oneusually uses #an# before the last adjective in the list.

http://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/22.html#formehttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/22.html#emploihttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/22.html#relatedhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/22.html#emploihttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/22.html#relatedhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/22.html#forme


3/134

Examples:

• I li+e short novels.

•

%hat fello! !ill be a !om%etent !or+er.• &he !rites long and flo&ery letters.

• e !or+s long, har hours.

• &he had a mean, ol and o'erbearing step-mother.

n adjective may follo! the noun !hen it is in a predicate (after theverb) or in a relative clause. (In relative clauses the relative pronounmay be implicit.)

Examples:

• e !as a man (!ho !as) al!ays ha%%y to help others.

• &he is a !oman (!ho is) true to herself.

• %hey !ere entirely satisfie.


4/134

NO#NS

• ender

• /lural

• elated topics

(ener

In English nouns rarely change form, even to indicate gender. s ageneral rule, only nouns referring to people and some animalsreflect gender in their form. 0y the same to+en, unli+e many otherlanguages, the adjectives modifying nouns !ill remain unchanged.

Example:

• 1y poor little dog died.

o!ever, certain nouns -- especially those referring to people -- mayhave different forms to indicate masculin or feminine usage:

• man -- !oman

• gentleman -- lady

• actor -- actress

• uncle -- aunt

http://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/21.html#genrehttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/21.html#plurielhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/21.html#relatedhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/21.html#genrehttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/21.html#plurielhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/21.html#related


5/134

• father -- mother

%he same can be said of certain male and female animals:

•

a buc+, a doe• a ram, a e!e

• a bull, a co!

• a stallion, a mare

In other cases, the !ord #male# or #female# is added, if it isconsidered necessary to be specific:

• a female cat

• a male giraffe

2ote: If the gender of the person or animal is +no!n, one !illgenerally use the pronoun #he# or #she# to refer to it, as appropriate.$hen the gender is left unstated, the pronoun #he# is generally used!hen spea+ing of people, or #it# !hen spea+ing of animals. &ome

objects are also considered to be gendered in certain usages: somepeople may refer to a boat or a car as #she.#

3ertain nouns (especially the names of professions) are traditionallyassociated !ith men or !omen, in !hich case one signalsexceptions to the tradition by adding #!oman# (or #lady#) or #man# tothe term:

• %hey are in a group of male dancers.

• 1y !ife prefers to see a !oman doctor.

Plurals

s a general rule, the plural is formed by adding #-s# to the singularform of nouns.

• shoe --4 shoes

• boo+ --4 boo+s


6/134

• river --4 rivers

2ouns ending in #s# or #s# !ill generally ta+e the ending #-es# :

•

bus --4 buses• +iss --4 +isses

$ords ending in #y# !ill generally ta+e the ending #-ies# in place ofthe #y#:

• party --4 parties

• supply --4 supplies

3ertain !ords have very irregular forms in the plural:

• one man --4 t!o men

• one !oman --4 t!o !omen

• one person --4 t!o people

• one foot --4 t!o feet

• one mouse --4 t!o mice

• one goose --4 t!o geese

• one tooth --4 t!o teeth

• one !ife --4 t!o !ives

• one child --4 t!o children

• one +nife --4 t!o +nives

• one thief --4 t!o thieves

• one d!arf --4 t!o d!arves (ou$ d!arfs)

• one potato --4 t!o potatoes


7/134

• one leaf --4 t!o leaves

• one life --4 t!o lives

•

one loaf --4 t!o loaves

• one half --4 t!o halves

small set of !ords do not change form in the plural:

• one moose --4 t!o moose

• one sheep --4 t!o sheep

• one aircraft --4 t!o aircraft

$ords of ree+ or 5atin origin !hich have retained their originalendings !ill generally ta+e the plural form associated !ith thelanguage they are dra!n from:

• one alumnus --4 t!o alumni

• one syllabus --4 t!o syllabi

• one alumna --4 t!o alumnae

• one alga --4 many algae

• one criterion --4 many criteria

• one forum --4 many fora (or $ forums)

• one thesis --4 t!o theses

• one hypothesis --4 t!o hypotheses

• one phenomenon --4 t!o phenomena

• one cactus --4 t!o cacti (or $ cactuses)

• one diagnosis --4 t!o diagnoses

• one oasis --4 t!o oases


8/134

• one analysis --4 t!o analyses

fe! nouns are invariable or collective, al!ays indicating a pluralmeaning:

• &he gave me some information.

• 1ichelle has a lot of !lothes.

Ca%ital letters

3ertain nouns are generally capitali6ed, including: days of the !ee+and months* names of holidays, cities (or states, etc.) and religions*nouns of nationality:

• 1inneapolis

• 7e!ish

• 1onday

• pril


9/134

ADJECTIVE O)DE)

$hen t!o or more adjectives are used to describe something theyare put in a certain order. For example, opinions come before facts.

• 0eautiful long blac+ hair

• handsome young man

• nice ne! shirt

2ice, beautiful and handsome are opinions. 8oung, ne!, long andblac+ are facts. "pinions come first. &i6e comes before age. gecomes before color. %he follo!ing chart sho! the basic order ofadjectives, but you should +no! that sometimes this order is notfollo!ed.


10/134

92"%E I2 %E 0"E 3% ;shape< (round, s'uare) should beput bet!een ;age< and ;color

Example:$e rented a nice little bro!n log cabin by a la+e.

2ote: $e usually limit the number of adjectives preceding a noun tothree.


11/134

ADVE)"S

• Formation

• /osition

• elated topics

Formation

*. 1ost adverbs are formed from the adjective. "ne addsthe ending #++ly# to the adjectival form:

• intelligent --4 intelligently

•

slo! --4 slo!ly

http://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/34.html#formationhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/34.html#positionhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/34.html#relatedhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/34.html#formationhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/34.html#positionhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/34.html#related


12/134

• precise --4 precisely

&ome adverbs are irregular:

A. If the adjective ends !ith #++le,# simply replace the #e#!ith #y#:

• simple --4 simply

• subtle --4 subtly

". %he adverb corresponding to the adjective #goo# isirregular:

• good --4 !ell

C. &ome adverbs have the same form as the adjective:

• high

• lo!

• hard

• better

• fast

D. In general, adverbs of time and space have nocorresponding adjective* the same can be said of adverbsof 'uantity:

• yesterday

• today


13/134

• tomorro!

• early

• soon

• late

• here

• there

•

less• more

• as

• very

• much

• a lot of

• little of

Position

$hen an adverb modifies a verb, it generally comes at theend of the clause (but before any prepositional phrases orsubordinated clauses):

• e !rites poorly.

• &he pronounced that !ord !ell..

•

7oseph !or+ed diligently.


14/134

• %hey !or+ed hard before coming home.

Exceptions: certain adverbs signaling the spea+er?sopinion, such as #%robably,# #unoubtely,# #surely,#

#!ertainly,# etc., come at the beginning of thesentence, or else bet!een the modalverb (or auxiliary) and the principal verb:

o $e are probably going to spend the summer in3orsica.

o 3ertainly !e !ould never do that@

o $e !ill undoubtedly see a dirty political campaignthis year.

A'erbs of time an s%a!e generally come at the end ofthe sentence* ho!ever, they may be placed at thebeginning of the sentence if the predicate clause is long andcomplicated:

• I sa! her yesterday.

• $e?re going to the beach today.

• &he !ent to bed very early.

• %omorro! !e !ill try to get up early to prepare for ourtrip.

A'erbs moifying a,e!ti'es or an other a'erb areplaced before the adjective or adverb they modify:

• &he !as really very happy to see you.

• It !as a brilliantly staged performance.

http://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/3.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/3.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/7.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/3.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/3.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/7.html


15/134

-#ESTIONS

• &imple 'uestions

o #Ao#

o Inversion

o 1odal verbs (#!ill#, #!ould#, etc.)

• Interrogative adverbs (#ho!B#, #!hen#, #!hyB#, etc.)

• Interrogative pronouns (#!ho#, #!hom#, #!hat#, etc.)

• #$hich#, #!hich one#

Sim%le uestions

&imple 'uestions (that is, 'uestions to !hich one can respond by asimple #yes# or #no#) may be formed in three different !ays:

*. /Do/: one precedes an assertion !ith #o# or #oes# (or #on0t#or #oesn0t# for a negative expression, or #i#, #in0t# for thepast):

• Ao you !ant to go to the moviesB

http://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#simplehttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#dohttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#inversionhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#modalhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#adverbhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#pronomhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#whichhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#simplehttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#dohttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#inversionhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#modalhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#adverbhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#pronomhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#which


16/134

• Aoes she !or+ at I01B

• Aon?t you travel 'uite a bitB

•

Ao they ans!er 'uestions 'uic+lyB

• Aidn?t they !ant to eatB

"ut: "ne never places #o# or #oes# before the verb #to be#or before modal verbs in 'uestions* in this case it is preferableto invert the subject and verb:

o re you coming to the receptionB

o $as the meeting boringB

o $eren?t you hungryB

1. In'ersion: !ith certain verbs (especially the verbs #to be#, #too#, #to ha'e#, and modal verbs) 'uestions are formed by invertingthe subject and object. (In the case of the verb #to ha'e,# !hich is

usually combined !ith #o# in interrogatives, inversion signals aliterary style.)

• Is 7ac+ homeB

• ave you nothing to declareB

• $ould you li+e to go to the moviesB

•

$ill they ever come to visitB• 3an the employees tal+ to the bossB

• $on?t you sit do!nB

2. 3oal %hrases$ If a modal verb is used in a sentence, or if it isstrongly implied, a modal phrase can be used to ma+e an

interrogative form. %he modal phrase is typically an in'ersion of the

http://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/3.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#inversionhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/3.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/3.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/3.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#inversionhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/3.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/3.html


17/134

subject and verb, in the negati'e, repeated at the end of thesentence:

• It?s time to go, isn?t itB

• e?d li+e to come !ith us, !ouldn?t heB

• 8ou !ould li+e to go !ith us, !ouldn?t youB

• 8ou can understand that, can?t youB

In the case of a negative 'uestion, the modal phrase !ould bein the affirmative:

• 8ou !ouldn?t !ant to try it, !ould youB

• &he !on?t be bac+, !ill sheB

(&ee also: negations)

Interrogati'e a'erbs

&imple 'uestions solicit a #yes# or #no# ans!er. 1ore precise

'uestions may be formed by using the interrogative adverbs: &hen4&hy4 ho&4 ho& mu!h4 &here. enerally, the interrogative adverbprecedes the rest of the 'uestion* then the order of the sentencefollo!s the rules indicated for inversion or for 'uestions formed !ith# o 5 oes#.

• $here are you goingB

• $hy do you !ant to ta+e this classB

• o! much do you earn a monthB

• o! do these machines !or+B (Où vont ces étudiants ?)

• $hen do you expect to get homeB (A quelle heure penses-turentrer ?)

&ee also: Cuestions, Interrogative pronouns.

http://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/32.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#simplehttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#inversionhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#dohttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#dohttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#dohttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#dohttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#simplehttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#pronomhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/32.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#simplehttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#inversionhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#dohttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#dohttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#simplehttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#pronom


18/134

Interrogati'e %ronouns

Interrogative pronouns are used to as+ !ho has done !hat, to!hom, !hy, !ith !hat, etc. 2ormally these pronouns are placed atthe beginning of the sentence* hen the order of the sentence follo!sthe rules indicated for inversion or for 'uestions formed !ith #o 5oes#.

"ne chooses the pronoun based on its function, according to thefollo!ing table:

subject (person) : &ho 6 uestion

• $ho did this paintingB

• $ho !ants to get an ice creamB

subject (thing) : &hat 6 uestion

• $hat interests youB

• $hat is good in this restaurantB

direct object (person) : &hom 6 uestion

• $hom did you see in FranceB

• $hom are you going to meet at this receptionB

direct objet (thing) : &hat 6 uestion

• $hat do you !ant to do this eveningB

• $hat are you preparingB

http://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#inversionhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#dohttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#dohttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#dohttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#dohttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#inversionhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#dohttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#do


19/134

object of a preposition (person) : %re%osition 6 &hom 6 uestion

• bout !hom are you thin+ingB

•

$ith !hom did you go outBNote$ In spo+en English, one often places the preposition atthe end of the sentence, in !hich case one uses #&ho#instead of #&hom#

o $ho are you thin+ing aboutB

o $ho did you go out !ithB

object of a preposition (thing) : %re%osition 6 &hat 6 uestion

• $ith !hat did you open itB

• In !hat !ay does that concern youB

Note$ In spo+en English, the preposition is often put at the endof the sentence:

•

$hat did you open it !ithB• $hat did did they base their opinion onB

7hi!h4 &hi!h one4 &hi!h ones.

%he adjective #&hi!h# and its pronominal forms (#&hi!h#, /&hi!hone#, #&hi!h ones#) as+ that a person ma+e a choice. sually

these pronouns !ill be placed at the beginning of the sentence*2ormalement, ces pronoms se trouveront au dDbut de la phrase *then the order of the sentence follo!s the rules indicatedfor inversion or for 'uestions formed !ith #o 5 oes#.

• $hich film do you !ant to seeB

• $hich date did you chooseB

• ere are t!o pi66as. $hich one do you preferB

http://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#inversionhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#dohttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#dohttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#dohttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#inversionhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.html#do


20/134

• %here are many different 0urgundy !ines. $hich ones do youli+eB

AFFI)3ATIVE SENTENCES

If the same is true foryou...Btd4

If the same is not truefor you...Btd4

&o = auxiliary = subjectsubject = (negative)

auxiliaryI?m very sociable.&o am I. I?m not.


21/134

DEFINITE A)TIC8ES

• eneral principles

• "mission of the article

• se in negatives and interrogatives

• elated topics

(eneral %rin!i%les

%he definite article #the# (invariable in form) designates a person,place, or event !hich has been specified or defined by the spea+er:

• ere?s the boo+ I bought.

• %he cat is on the roof.

• e said he !ould bring the money.

Omission of the efinite arti!le

%he definite article does not al!ays precede nouns:sometimes indefinite articles or partitive articles !ill be used. "ften,though, no article at all is necessary, as in the follo!ing cases:

*. s a general rule, the definite article is omitted before abstractnouns or nouns representing general categories. It is often omittedafter verbs expressing opinions or preferences:

• %ruth is the highest good.

http://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/38.html#generalhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/38.html#omissionhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/38.html#negativehttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/38.html#relatedhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/39.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/40.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/38.html#generalhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/38.html#omissionhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/38.html#negativehttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/38.html#relatedhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/39.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/40.html


22/134

• I don?t li+e animals.

• 3ats are nicer than dogs.

•

%ime flies.

• &he li+es coffee, but she hates tea.

1. enerally, the article is omitted before days of the !ee+ anddates:

• "n %uesdays the museums are closed.

• "n &aturdays I sleep in.

• Friday night !e are going dancing.

• I !as born on 7une G, HJ.

2. enerally, the article is omitted before names of countries, states,cities, and regions:

• France is seventeen times smaller than the nited &tates.

• 3alifornia is larger than 0rittany.

Exception: &ome names actually include the definite article,such as %he ague.

9. enerally, the article is omitted before titles or nouns indicatingprofessions:

• /resident 1itterrand completed t!o terms.

• $e sa! /rofessor 1iller at the restaurant.

• &he met !ith Aoctor &chmidt.

The use of the efinite arti!le oes not !hange in interrogati'esan negati'es.


23/134

INDEFINITE A)TIC8ES

%he indefinite article has t!o forms: before singular nouns one uses#a# (or #an# before most vo!els)* before plural nouns one uses#some#:

• a cat

• an accident

• some dogs

0ut: before vo!els producing a #y# sound (as in #you#), #a# is used,rather than #an#:

• a unit

• not a one


24/134

• a unicorn

s a general rule, the indefinite article signals a person, thing orevent that has not been clearly defined by the spea+er. It does not

indicate a specific objection (!hich is the role of the definite article)*rather, it indicates any one object out of many possible ones (in thesingular), or any assortment or 'uantity from many possibleassortments or 'uantities (in the plural). It is often used after verbsof possession or consumption:

• ive me a coffee, please.

• I have a boo+ you might li+e.

• &he has some cherries for sale.

In the negative, the plural indefinite article changes: #some/ isgenerally replaced by #any# (this change also occurs in negative'uestions) :

• Aon?t you have any coo+ies B

• %hey don?t have any boo+s for sale.

• I have never had an accident.

PA)TITIVE A)TIC8E$/SO3E/

$hen the article #some# appears before a plural noun it functionsli+e an indefinite article:

• e has some tic+ets for the game.

• &ome students decided not to attend the class.

http://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/38.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/38.html


25/134

o!ever, !hen #some# appears before a singular noun, it is beingused as a partitive. %his is to say that a part of something isindicated, or a partial (or indeterminate) 'uantity is referred to. It isoften used after verbs of possession or consumption:

• Ao you have some timeB

• $e?re going to buy some mil+.

• I heard some bad ne!s.

• &he has some money to spend.

• $ould you li+e some help B

Note$ fter expressions of 'uantity, the partitive articleis not used:

• &tudents buy a lot of pastries.

• %oday people have more activities than before.

In negative expressions, the partitive article #some# generally

becomes #any# (this change !ill also occur in negativeinterrogatives):

• &he doesn?t have any money.

• %hey didn?t have any mil+.

• Aon?t you have any moneyB

%he !ord #any# is not strictly necessary in the negative,and it mayoften be omitted:

• I never have accidents.

• %hey didn?t have mil+.


26/134

A#:I8IA); VE)"S

n auxiliary verb (#helping# verb) is combined !ith the principal verbto form certain tenses or moods. (&ee also the modal verbs, !hich

nuance the meaning of the verbs they accompany.) %he only trueauxiliary verbs in English are #to be,# #to ha'e,# and #to o.#

#To be# is an auxiliary verb for the progressive teneses (&ee thepresent progressive, the past progressive, the future progressive):

• I am going home.

• &he !as fishing !ith her father.

• $e !ill be calling on you later.

#To ha'e# is an auxiliary verb for the perfect tenses, including thepresent perfect, the present perfect progressive, the pluperfect, thefuture perfect, the past conditional:

• $e have finished.

• %hey hadn?t !aited for us.

#To o# is an auxiliary verb for ma+ing 'uestions and negations inboth the present simple and the preterit :

• Ao you have any moneyB

• Aid you hear meB

• e doesn?t !ant to help us.

http://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/3.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/4.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/4.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/11.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/19.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/5.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/5.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/6.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/10.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/20.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/20.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/9.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/2.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/14.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/3.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/4.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/4.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/11.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/19.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/5.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/5.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/6.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/10.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/20.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/20.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/9.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/2.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/14.html


27/134

B

A#:I8IA); VE)"S

n auxiliary verb (#helping# verb) is combined !ith the principal verbto form certain tenses or moods. (&ee also the modal verbs, !hichnuance the meaning of the verbs they accompany.) %he only true

auxiliary verbs in English are #to be,# #to ha'e,# and #to o.##To be# is an auxiliary verb for the progressive teneses (&ee thepresent progressive, the past progressive, the future progressive):

• I am going home.

• &he !as fishing !ith her father.

• $e !ill be calling on you later.

#To ha'e# is an auxiliary verb for the perfect tenses, including thepresent perfect, the present perfect progressive, the pluperfect, thefuture perfect, the past conditional:

• $e have finished.

• %hey hadn?t !aited for us.

#To o# is an auxiliary verb for ma+ing 'uestions and negations inboth the present simple and the preterit :

• Ao you have any moneyB

• Aid you hear meB

• e doesn?t !ant to help us.

http://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/3.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/4.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/4.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/11.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/19.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/5.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/5.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/6.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/10.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/20.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/20.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/9.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/2.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/14.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/3.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/4.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/4.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/11.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/19.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/5.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/5.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/6.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/10.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/20.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/20.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/9.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/33.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/2.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/14.html


28/134

"E8ON(

The 'erb /to belong to/

%he verb #to belong to# indicates o!nership or possession:• %hat poodle belongs to 5ouise.

• %he !orld belongs to you.


29/134

C

CA#SATIVE CONST)#CTIONS

$hen one does not carry out an action oneself but rather has theaction done by someone else, this is expressed by a causativeconstruction. In English it is the verb #to have# that introduces thecausative. %he model !ill generally be: #to have# (conjugated) =direct object (noun or pronoun) = principal verb (in its past participleform):

• $e?ll have a monument erected on this site.

• I had my hair cut.

$hen one !ishes to designate the agent of the action (the person!ho has carried out the described action), there are t!o possibilities:

. -- #to have# (conjugated) = direct object (noun or pronoun) =principal verb (in its past participle form) = #by# = agent (usually not

as a pronoun):• %he professor had the !or+ done by his lab assistants.

• I had it done by my employees.

K. -- #to have# (conjugated) = agent (as a direct object noun orpronoun) = principal verb (in its infinitive form) = the object (also inthe form of a direct object noun or pronoun)

• %he professor had his students !rite an essay.


30/134

• I had him do it.

2ote: Especially in spo+en English, the verb #to get# often replaces#to have,# in !hich case #to# is added to the infinitive (but not before

past participles). %his construction also suggests that it may be (orhave been) difficult to produce a certain reaction on the part of theagent:

• $e?ll get a monument erected on this site.

• %he professor got his students to !rite an essay.

$hen one !ishes to express a change in temperament or in generalconditions, it is the construction #to ma+e = adjective# !hich is used:

• %hat letter made her sad.

• e ma+es me furious@

• %hat ne! problem made negotiations really hard@


31/134

CO3PA)ATIVES


• djectives

• dverbs

• 2ouns

• erbs

• elated topics

(eneral %rin!i%les

Com%arati'es are used to compare t!o things and to highlight thesuperiority, inferiority, or e'uality of one term compared to another.%he comparative can apply to adjectives, adverbs, nouns, or evenverbs. $hatever the part of speech concerned, the structure of thecomparison remains the same:

http://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/36.html#generalitehttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/36.html#adjectifhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/36.html#adverbehttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/36.html#nomhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/36.html#verbehttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/36.html#relatedhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/36.html#generalitehttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/36.html#adjectifhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/36.html#adverbehttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/36.html#nomhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/36.html#verbehttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/36.html#related


32/134

E


33/134

• chilly --4 chillier

If the adjective ends in #++e# only an #r # is needed:

•

!ise --4 !iser • large --4 larger

• simple --4 simpler

• late --4 later

If the adjective ends !ith #single 'o&el = !onsonant# theconsonant is doubled and one adds #++er # :

• red --4 redder

• big --4 bigger

• thin --4 thinner

• hot --4 hotter

&ome very common adjectives have irregular comparatives:

• good --4 better

• bad --4 !orse

• far --4 farther

A'erbs

dverbial comparisons follo! these models:

• %he students are !or+ing more diligently than the professor.

• %his fello! spea+s less elo'uently than a schoolboy.

• %hey are all !or+ing as hard as possible@

Note$ In comparisons indicating su%eriority4 adverbs ending in #++ly# do not ta+e the adverb #more,# but only the ending #++er #.


34/134

(o!ever, these adverbs !ill function normally in comparisons using#less# or #as.#)

• fast --4 faster

• hard --4 harder

nd some adverbs have irregular comparative forms :

• !ell --4 better

• badly --4 !orse

• far --4 farther

Nouns

2oun comparisons follo! these patterns:

• I have more !or+ than you.

•

e has less home!or+ than the rest of us.• If only I had as much talent as she@

%he comparative can signal 'uantities of nouns:

• I have less than five francs in my poc+et.

• &he has more than five hours !orth of !or+ to do.

o!ever, in comparisons of inferiority, and !hen the 'uantityrepresents a #countable# noun, one should use the term#fe&er # rather than #less# :

• e !or+s fe!er than ten hours per !ee+.

• &am has fe!er students than I do.

Verbs


35/134

#3ore,# #less,# and #as# can be used as adverbs to modify verbs:

• e eats more than he used to.

•

%hat boy reads less than his friends.• 8ou ought to listen as much as you tal+.

CONDITIONA8

%he conditional is formed using the modal #&oul# in front of aninfinitive (dropping the !ord #to#). %he conditional is used especially

in three contexts:

) /oliteness

• I !ould li+e the menu, please.

• $ould you have a couple of minutes for meB

K) %o indicate the #future !ithin the past#:

• &he said she !ould come to the party.

• I thought he !ould arrive before me.

M) In hypothetical constructions !ith #if .# $hen #if # is follo!ed by thepreterit or the subjunctive, the conditional is expected in the secondclause:

• If I had the time, I !ould do my home!or+.

• If you told me the truth, I !ould believe you.

%he #if # of hypothetical expressions can be implicit:

• In your position (N if I !ere you), I !ouldn?t have stayed.



36/134

PAST CONDITIONA8

%he past conditional is expressed using the modal #&oul# before apast infinitive (N /ha'e/ 6 %ast %arti!i%le). %his construction servesto express missed opportunities and past hypotheses:

• &he told me that she !ould have li+ed to come and see us.

• In your position, I !ould have done the same thing.

"ne finds it often in hypothetical constructions !ith #if .# $hen #if # isfollo!ed by the pluperfect, the conditional past is expected in thesecond clause:

• If I had had the time, I !ould have done my home!or+.

• If you had told me the truth, I !ould have believed you.

• If he had !or+ed harder, he?d have received a better grade.

Note$ In certain regions (principally in the nited &tates) one hearsthe conditional past in both clauses of hypothetical expressions:

• If you !ould have told me he !as going to !in, I !ouldn?t havebelieved you.

http://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/3.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/15.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/3.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/15.html


37/134

CONDITIONA8S

%here are four common conditional forms. %he 6ero and firstconditionals are also called OrealP conditionals. %he second and thirdconditionals are also called OunrealP conditionals.

Qero 3onditional%he 6ero conditional is an ifthen statement that is used to express ascientific fact or something that is generally true.

Form: If = subject =present simple verb, subject = present simpleverb."r &ubject = present simple verb = if = subject = present simple verb.

Examples:If you put sugar in your tea, it becomes s!eet.

%he trip ta+es MR minutes if you ta+e the express train.First 3onditional%he first conditional is an ifthen statement that expresses theconse'uence of a probable or possible situation in the future.

Form: If = subject = present simple verb, subject = !ill = verb"r&ubject = !ill = verb = if = subject = present simple verb


38/134

Examples:If you call before p.m., I !ill pic+ you up from the station.IPll burst if I eat any more food@

&econd 3onditional%he second conditional is an ifthen statement that expresses theconse'uence of a hypothetical, imaginary, impossible, or improbablesituation in the future.

Form: If = subject = simple past verb, subject = !ould = verb"r &ubject = !ould= verb = if = subject = simple past verb

Examples:If I had a million dollars, I !ould buy a mansion in Florida.I !ould !ear a coat if I !ere you. (ItPs really cold outside.)

%hird 3onditional%he third conditional is an ifthen statement that expresses !hat!ould have happened if events in the past !ere different. It is oftenused to express regret about actions in the past the spea+er !ould

li+e to change.

Form: If = subject = past perfect, subject = !ould = have = pastparticiple"r&ubject = !ould = have = past participle = if = subject =past perfect

Examples:

If I had +no!n about the divorce, I !ouldnPt have as+ed him abouthis !ife.(I didnPt +no! about the divorce and I as+ed him about this !ife. Iregret that I as+ed him and !ould change the past if possible.)&ally !ould have bought a ne! car if she had received a raise at her

job. (&ally didnPt buy the ne! car but !ould have under differentcircumstances in the past.)


39/134

CO#NTA"8E AND #NCO#NTA"8E NO#NS

3ountable nouns are used to name things !e can count."ne apple, t!o apples, three carrots, four fingers, etc.

ncountable nouns are used to name things !e cannot count.0read, !ater, air, sand, etc.

3ountable nouns have a singular as !ell as a plural form.

a chair t!o chairs some chairsa banana the bananas many bananas

emember@ se an in front of a !ord that begins !ith a vo!elsound.

n apple an orange an hour

ncountable nouns do not usually ta+e the indefinite article a or an.

%hey are often used !ithout any article at all, and they do notusually have a plural form.


40/134

(some) bread (some) coffee (some) fruit

D

DEFININ( AND NON+DEFININ( )E8ATIVE C8A#SES

relative clause gives us information about the noun it modifies. defining relative clause gives essential information about the noun itmodifies. %he sentence !ould not ma+e sense if the clause !ereremoved. Aefining relative clauses often come right after the nouns

that they modify, !ithout a comma.

/eople !ho eat healthy foods live longer.$hatPs the name of the hotel that you stayed atB

non-defining relative clause gives us additional but non-essentialinformation about the noun it modifies. %he sentence !ould stillma+e sense if the non-defining clause !ere removed. In !riting,

non-defining relative clauses are usually separated from the rest ofthe sentence by commas before and after the clause.


41/134

Isabel llende, !ho !rote Aaughter of Fortune, lives in the &anFrancisco 0ay rea.$atership Ao!n, !hich is my favorite novel, is a story about rabbits.

DI)ECT AND INDI)ECT DISCO#)SE

$hen one reports !hat others have said !ord for !ord, this is called#direct discourse.# It is generally signaled by the presence of'uoation mar+s:

• /hilippe said, #I?ll come if I have the time.#

• 1y roommate said, #3lean the place up, or get out of here@#

$hen one paraphrases the !ords of others, !riting them so as toavoid direct 'uotation, this is called #indirect discourse.# Indirectdiscourse entails certain changes:

A. Cuotation mar+s are not used:

ire!t is!ourse$ e told me, #8ou?re stupid#inire!t is!ourse$ e told me that I !as stupid.

". $hen the verb in the reported discourse is conjugated, is itgenerally preceded by #that#* ho!ever, the inclusion of #that# isoptional

• &he said that she !ould be late.


42/134

• O)$ &he said she !ould be late.

• %hey informed us that the plane !as delayed.

•

O)$ %hey informed us the plane !as delayed.

C. Imperative forms, !hen recounted in indirect discourse, generallybecome infinitive constructions:

ire!t is!ourse$ e told me, #$rite to me.#inire!t is!ourse$ e told me to !rite him.

ire!t is!ourse$ I told them, #et out of here@#inire!t is!ourse$ I told them to get out of here.

D. $hen a 'uotation is put in indirect discourse, care must be ta+ento verify that verb tenses reflect the change in temporal context:

ire!t is!ourse$ &he said, #I !ill be on time.#inire!t is!ourse$ &he said she !ould be on time.

ire!t is!ourse$ $hen he called he said, #I am at the airport#inire!t is!ourse$ $hen he called he said he !as at the airport.

DO AND 3A=E

$e often use do follo!ed by !ords for !or+ or indefinite activities.Ao your home!or+.3an you do the dishes tonightB&tan did the grocery shopping every &aturday morning.8ou must do something about the mice in the basement@

$e often use ma+e !ith the meaning of .5etPs ma+e some travel plans.1om made a ca+e for QacharyPs birthday.Ao you !ant me to ma+e brea+fast for youB

%here are also many idiomatic expressions that use the verbs do orma+e.%o do onePs best, to ma+e progress, to do onePs duty, to ma+e a

fortune


43/134

F

NEA) F#T#)E

Especially in spo+en English one finds the near future used as a!ay of describing imminent events. &trictly spea+ing, the near futureis not a future tense, for it is formed by combining the present tenseof the verb #to go,# conjugated in the present progressive, !ith theinfinitive of the principal verb.

• $e are going to leave soon.

• I?m going to give her a call.



44/134

lso used to express imminent actions is the construction #to beabout to do something,# also conjugated in the present.

• I am about to lose my temper@

• %he detective is about to stop the criminal.

"ne can also conjugate these forms in the past progressive in orderto express a #future !ithin the past#:

• e said he !as going to do it.

• &he !as going to buy a ne! car, but she never did.

• $hen I sa! them, they !ere about to ma+e a decision.

F#T#)E PE)FECT

elatively rare in English, the future perfect serves to express onefuture action !hich %re!ees a future moment or another futureaction. 1oreover, it asserts that these actions !illbe !om%lete before the principal action. It is formed by addingthe modal#&ill# to the auxiliary #ha'e,# preceding the past participle:

• &he !ill have finished before eight o?cloc+.

• %omorro! morning they !ill all have left.

http://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/11.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/3.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/7.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/15.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/11.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/3.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/7.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/15.html


45/134

• %hey !ill already have finished eating by the time !e getthere.

"ne can often use the simple future instead of the future perfect, but

a nuance is lost: the simple future does not emphasi6e thecompletion of the first action:

• %omorro! morning they !ill all leave. (%he future perfect !ouldemphasi6e that they !ill already havedeparted before tomorro! morning.)

• %hey !ill finish eating by the time !e get there. (%hey mayfinish just as !e arrive* the future perfect !ould emphasi6ethat they !ill have finished before !e arrive.)

F#T#)E P)O()ESSIVE

%he future progressive serves to express an action !hich !ill be inthe process of occurring. It is formed by putting the presentprogressive into the future: &ill be 6 %resent %arti!i%le.

• I !ill be !aiting for you at six o?cloc+.



46/134

• e !ill be eating by the time you arrive.

>int for usage$ o! to choose bet!een the future progressive andthe simple futureB If it is possible to use the expression #!ill be inthe process of,# it is the future progressive that best expresses theaction. %he future progressive indicates that an action !illbe continuing at a given moment* the simple future suggests that theaction !ill be complete. %hus the verb tense can nuance meaning.3onsider these sentences, both of !hich are grammatically correct:

• I !ill be finishing my home!or+ at J:JJ. (%his suggests that Imay finish my home!or+ at J:JR or J:R* I !ill be nearingcompletion, in the process of completion.)

• I !ill finish my home!or+ at J:JJ. (%his suggests that I !illfinish at J:JJ sharp.)

G

(E)#NDS AND INFINITIVES


47/134

erunds as &ubjects%he gerund is the Sing form of the verb !hen it is used as a noun.$e can use a gerund as a subject or as an object.$al+ing is good for your health.

%oo much dieting can be dangerous.%erry 'uit smo+ing.$e go dancing every &aturday night.ePs very good at listening to other peoplePs problems.I am tired of !orrying about money.

erbs follo!ed by gerundsere are some verbs that can be follo!ed by a gerund but not an

infinitve.+eeppostponedisli+erecommendavoiddetestfeel li+egive up

put off practicefinish

$hat !ould you recommend tryingBI disli+e !atching violence on television.

ere are some verbs that can be follo!ed directly by an infinitive but

not a gerund.


48/134

hopeexpectintendagree

refuseappear managepromiseafforddecidechoose

fail!aitvolunteer

&usan refuses to try ne! food.$e intend to as+ for a raise.

&ome verbs can be follo!ed by a gerund or an infinitive. 0e careful@In some cases the meaning changes.tryremember li+eforgetloveprefer startbegincontinuecanPt stand

I li+e eating in fancy restaurants. nnie li+es to eat fast food.


49/134

(O$ NEA) F#T#)E

Especially in spo+en English one finds the near future used as a!ay of describing imminent events. &trictly spea+ing, the near futureis not a future tense, for it is formed by combining the present tenseof the verb #to go,# conjugated in the present progressive, !ith theinfinitive of the principal verb.

• $e are going to leave soon.

• I?m going to give her a call.

lso used to express imminent actions is the construction #to beabout to do something,# also conjugated in the present.

• I am about to lose my temper@

• %he detective is about to stop the criminal.

"ne can also conjugate these forms in the past progressive in orderto express a #future !ithin the past#:

• e said he !as going to do it.

• &he !as going to buy a ne! car, but she never did.

• $hen I sa! them, they !ere about to ma+e a decision.



50/134

H

>A"IT#A8 ACTIONS IN T>E PAST

%o describe habitual, repeated actions in the past, one generallyuses the construction #use to 6 'erb.# %hus:

• $hen I !as little, !e used to go camping a lot.

• $hen my father !as in school, they used to slap children !hodidn?t behave.

• I used to !or+ days, but no! I !or+ the night shift.

In spo+en English, one often uses the common construction !iththe modal #&oul,# follo!ed by the main verb:

• $hen !e !ere +ids, !e !ould ha6e each other 'uite a bit.

• $hen I !as little, !e !ould go camping a lot.

• $hen my father !as in school, they !ould slap children !ho

didn?t behave.

&ee also:

• %he preterit

• %he past progressive



51/134

The %reterit

s a general rule, the preterit is formed by adding the ending #--e#to the infinitive (dropping any unpronounced #e# in final position, andchanging any final #y# to #i#):

• to !al+ --4 !al+ed

• to ans!er --4 ans!ered

• to !ant --4 !anted

• to smile --4 smiled

• to cry --4 cried

%he preterit forms of many common verbs are irregular:

• to be --4 !as (singular), !ere (plural)

• to have --4 had

• to do --4 did

• to ma+e --4 made

• to eat --4 ate

•

to go --4 !ent


52/134

• to drin+ --4 dran+

• to thin+ --4 thought

•

to bring --4 brought

• to drive --4 drove

• to !rite --4 !rote

• to sing --4 sang

• to build --4 built

(For a complete list of this irregular forms, see Irregular preterits andpast participles).

#sage

%he preterit expresses actions !hich !ere completed in the past.nli+e those described by the present perfect, these actions do notcontinue in the present. nli+e the past progressive, the preteritdoes not describe the process or duration of actions: it states them

only as completed actions:

• &he !ent to the store this afternoon.

• %hey called the police.

• e came, he sa!, he con'uered.

%he duration of the action is of no importance: the preterit may

describe an action lasting an instant or many years. %hus verbsindicating belief, emotion, possession, location, etc. !ill often beexpressed in the preterit:

• I lived in 5ondon for three years.

• &he o!ned three dogs throughout her childhood.

• I never trusted !hat they told me.



53/134

In the negative and interrogative, the auxiliary verb #to o# --conjugated in the preterit -- !ill be used !ith the infinitive to expressthe past:

•

Aid you arrive in timeB• Aidn?t you eat yetB

• $e didn?t go to the movies after all.

Past %rogressi'e

%he past progressive is a past tense !hich emphasi6es the ongoing

nature of the action described. It is formed by using the auxiliary #tobe# !ith the present participle:



54/134

• I !as !or+ing.

• e !as eating his dinner !hen the phone rang.

•

%he cat !as meo!ing last night !hile !e tried to sleep.

2ormally, if an idea could be expressed !ith the expression #!as inthe process of doing# or !ith #!as in the midst of doing,# the pastprogressive !ill be more appropriate than the simple past.3onse'uently, verbs indicating belief, emotion, possession, etc., arerarely conjugated in the past progressive:

• I thought that !as right. 9#I !as in the process of thin+ing...#!ould be a!+!ard.>

• 3heryl o!ned her o!n house. 9#3heryl !as in the midst ofo!ning...# !ould be a!+!ard.>

Note$ Ao not use the past progressive in order to describe habitualactions in the past.

I

IMPERATIVE

T>E I3PE)ATIVE



55/134

Imperatives are used to issue commands. %hey use the infinitive ofverbs (dropping the !ord #to#)* in the first person plural (#&e#), theinfinitive is preceded by #let0s# (or: #let us#):

•

&pea+@• Finish your home!or+@

• 5et?s eat@

• 3lose the door@

%he negative imperative is formed by placing #on0t# (or #o not#)before the imperative form* in the first person plural one uses #let0snot# (or #let us not#) :

• 5et?s not forget !ho helped us.

• Aon?t leave me@

• Aon?t !al+ on the grass@

• /lease don?t eat the daisies@

%he imperative has no effect on the !ord order of the rest of thesentence.


56/134

INDI)ECT SPEEC>

Airect and Indirect &peech

Airect speech can also be called #'uoted# speech. $e use directspeech !hen !e !ant to reproduce someone?s !ords exactly. $eal!ays use 'uotation mar+s.

Eli6abeth said, #I?m tired.< 7essie said, #I !ant a ne! job.#

Indirect speech can also be called #reported# speech. $e use

indirect speech !hen !e !ant to reproduce the idea of someone?s!ords !ithout using their exact !ords. %he verb forms and pronounsmay change, and 'uotation mar+s are not used.

Eli6abeth said that she !as tired. 7essie said that she !anted a ne! job.

2otice that the verbs in the examples changed to the past in theindirect speech statements to coordinate !ith the past tense verb#said#. 5oo+ at these verb changes:

&am says, #I drive to !or+.#&am says that he drives to !or+.

&am said, TI drive to !or+.4 &am said (that) he drove to !or+.&am said, TI am driving to !or+.4 &am said (that) he !as driving to !or+.

&am said, TI have driven to !or+.4 &am said (that) he had driven to !or+.&am said, TI drove to !or+.4 &am said (that) he had driven to !or+.&am said, TI !ill drive to !or+.4 &am said (that) he !ould drive to !or+.&am said, TI can drive to !or+.4 &am said (that) he could drive to !or+.


57/134

&am said, TI may drive to !or+.4 &am said (that) he might drive to !or+.

"-ING" ?P)ESENT PA)TICIP8E@

P)ESENT PA)TICIP8ES

Formation

%he present participle is formed by adding the ending#++ing# to theinfinitive (dropping any silent #e#at the end of the infinitive):

• to sing --4 singing

• to tal+ --4 tal+ing

• to ba+e --4 ba+ing

• to be --4 being

• to have --4 having

#se

A. %he present participle may often function as an adjective:

• %hat?s an interesting boo+.

• %hat tree is a !eeping !illo!.

". %he present participle can be used as a noun denoting an activity(this form is also called a gerund):

• &!imming is good exercise.

• %raveling is fun.

http://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/41.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/41.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/41.html


58/134

C. %he present participle can indicate an action that is ta+ing place,although it cannot stand by itself as a verb. In these cases itgenerally modifies a noun (or pronoun), an adverb, or a pastparticiple:

• %hin+ing myself lost, I gave up all hope.

• $ashing clothes is not my idea of a job.

• 5oo+ing ahead is important.

D. %he present participle is used in progressive verb tenses, !hichindicate continuing actions or actions in progress (the presentprogressive, the future progressive, the present perfectprogressive) :

• I am eating my dinner.

• e !as !al+ing across the par+.

• $e !ill be calling you tomorro!.

E. %he present participle may be used !ith #&hile#or #by# to expressan idea of simultaneity (#&hile#) or causality (#by#) :

• e finished dinner !hile !atching television.

• 0y using a dictionary he could find all the !ords.

• $hile spea+ing on the phone, she doodled.

• 0y calling the police you saved my life@

F. %he present participle of the auxiliary #ha'e#may be used !ith the

past participle to describe a past condition resulting in anotheraction:

http://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/11.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/11.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/19.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/6.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/6.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/11.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/11.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/19.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/6.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/6.html


59/134

• aving spent all his money, he returned home.

• aving told herself that she !ould be too late, sheaccelerated.

INVE)SION

Inversion occurs !hen !e change the order of the subject and theverb in a declarative sentence after an adverbial in initial position. Itis used for emphasis, in more formal or poetic discourse, and insome day-to-day fixed expressions. Inversion only occurs if thesentence contains an auxiliary verb, modal verb, or the verb be.

%he follo!ing are some common adverbials that can be used !ithinversion.

at no time, little, never, not until, no!here, only after, only then, onlylater, rarely, seldom, scarcely, under no circumstances


60/134

I))E(#8A) P)ETE)ITS AND PAST PA)TICIP8ES

%his alphabetical list sho!s the irregular forms of the most commonverbs. Each entry includes the infinitive, the preterit, and the pastparticiple. In cases !here variant forms exist, they !ill be sho!n atthe end of the entry. 5iterary or archaic forms are flagged by a cross:

U. %he past participle is used in many conjugations, includingthe present perfect, the pluperfect,the past conditional, andthe future perfect.

can N could 9pret.>, been able 9p.p.>may N might 9pret.>to abide N abode 9pret., p.p.>to arise N arose 9pret.>, arisen 9p.p.>to a!a+e N a!o+e 9pret.>, a!a+ened 9p.p.>

to be N !as, !ere 9pret.>, been 9p.p.>to bear N bore 9pret.>, borne 9p.p.>



61/134

to beat N beat 9pret.>, beaten 9p.p.>to become N became 9pret.>, become 9p.p.>to befall N befell 9pret.>, befallen 9p.p.>to begin N began 9pret.>, begun 9p.p.>

to bend N bent 9pret., p.p.>to beseech N besought 9pret., p.p.>to bet N bet 9pret., p.p.>to bid N bid 9pret., p.p.>* bade 9pret.>Uto bind N bound 9pret., p.p.>to bite N bit 9pret.>, bitten 9p.p.>to bleed N bled 9pret., p.p.>to blo! N ble! 9pret.>, blo!n 9p.p.>to brea+ N bro+e 9pret.>, bro+en 9p.p.>to breed N bred 9pret., p.p.>to bring N brought 9pret., p.p.>to build N built 9pret., p.p.>to burn N burned 9pret., p.p.>* burnt 9pret., p.p.>Uto burst N burst 9pret., p.p.>to buy N bought 9pret., p.p.>to cast N cast 9pret., p.p.>to catch N caught 9pret., p.p.>to choose N chose 9pret.>, chosen 9p.p.>to cleave N cleaved 9pret., p.p.>* cleft 9pret., p.p.>U

to cling N clung 9pret., p.p.>to come N came 9pret.>, come 9p.p.>to cost N cost 9pret., p.p.>to creep N crept 9pret., p.p.>* creeped 9pret.>to cut N cut 9pret., p.p.>to deal N dealt 9pret., p.p.>to dig N dug 9pret., p.p.>to do N did 9pret.>, done 9p.p.>to dra! N dre! 9pret.>, dra!n 9p.p.>

to dream N dreamed 9pret., p.p.>* dreamt 9pret., p.p.>Uto drin+ N dran+ 9pret.>, drun+ 9p.p.>to drive N drove 9pret.>, driven 9p.p.>to d!ell N d!elled 9pret., p.p.>* d!elt 9pret., p.p.>Uto eat N ate 9pret.>* eaten 9p.p.>to fall N fell 9pret.>, fallen 9p.p.>to feed N fed 9pret., p.p.>to fight N fought 9pret., p.p.>to find N found 9pret., p.p.>

to flee N fled 9pret., p.p.>to fling N flung 9pret., p.p.>


62/134

to fly N fle! 9pret.>* flo!n 9p.p.>to forbid N forbad 9pret.>* forbidden 9p.p.>to forget N forgot 9pret.>* forgotten 9p.p.>to forsa+e N forsoo+ 9pret.>* forsa+en 9p.p.>

to free6e N fro6e 9pret.>* fro6en 9p.p.>to get N got 9pret., p.p.>* gotten 9p.p.>to gild N gild 9p.p.>to give N gave 9pret.>, given 9p.p.>to go N !ent 9pret.>, gone 9p.p.>to grind N ground 9pret., p.p.>to gro! N gre! 9pret.>, gro!n 9p.p.>to hang N hung 9pret., p.p.>* hanged (VDxDcutionV) 9pret., p.p.>to have N had 9pret., p.p.>to hear N heard 9pret., p.p.>to he! N he!n 9p.p.>to hide N hid 9pret.>* hidden 9p.p.>to hit N hit 9pret., p.p.>to hold N held 9pret., p.p.>to hurt N hurt 9pret., p.p.>to +eep N +ept 9pret., p.p.>to +neel N +neeled 9pret., p.p.>to +neel N +nelt 9pret., p.p.>to +no! N +ne! 9pret.>, +no!n 9p.p.>

to lay N laid 9pret., p.p.>to lead N led 9pret., p.p.>to lean N leaned 9pret., p.p.>to lean N leant 9pret., p.p.>to leap N leaped 9pret., p.p.>to leap N leapt 9pret., p.p.>to learn N learned 9pret., p.p.>to learn N learnt 9pret., p.p.>to leave N left 9pret., p.p.>

to lend N lent 9pret., p.p.>to let N let 9pret., p.p.>to lie N lay 9pret.>, lain 9p.p.>to light N lit 9pret., p.p.>to lose N lost 9pret., p.p.>to ma+e N made 9pret., p.p.>to mean N meant 9pret., p.p.>to meet N met 9pret., p.p.>to mo! N mo!ed 9pret.>, mo!n 9p.p.>

to pay N paid 9pret., p.p.>to put N put 9pret., p.p.>


63/134

to 'uit N 'uit 9pret., p.p.>to read N read 9pret., p.p.>to rebuild N rebuilt 9pret., p.p.>to recut N recut 9pret., p.p.>

to redeal N redealt 9pret., p.p.>to redo N redid 9pret.>, redone 9p.p.>to relay N relaid 9pret., p.p.>to rema+e N remade 9pret., p.p.>to rend N rent 9pret., p.p.>to repay N repaid 9pret., p.p.>to reread N reread 9pret., p.p.>to rerun N reran 9pret.>, rerun 9p.p.>to resend N resent 9pret., p.p.>to reset N reset 9pret., p.p.>to reta+e N retoo+ 9pret.>, reta+en 9p.p.>to reteach N retaught 9pret., p.p.>to retell N retold 9pret., p.p.>to rethin+ N rethought 9pret., p.p.>to re!rite N re!rote 9pret.>, re!ritten 9p.p.>to rid N rid 9pret., p.p.>to ride N rode 9pret.>, ridden 9p.p.>to ring N rang 9pret.>, rung 9p.p.>to rise N rose 9pret.>, risen 9p.p.>

to run N ran 9pret.>, run 9p.p.>to sa! N sa!ed 9pret., p.p.>* sa!n 9p.p.>Uto say N said 9pret., p.p.>to see N sa! 9pret.>, seen 9p.p.>to see+ N sought 9pret., p.p.>to sell N sold 9pret., p.p.>to send N sent 9pret., p.p.>to set N set 9pret., p.p.>to se! N se!ed 9pret., p.p.>* se!n 9p.p.>

to sha+e N shoo+ 9pret.>, sha+en 9p.p.>to shave N shaved 9pret., p.p.>* shaven 9p.p.>to shear N sheared 9pret., p.p.>* shorn 9p.p.>to shed N shed 9pret., p.p.>to shine N shone 9pret., p.p.>* shined 9pret.>to shoe N shod 9pret., p.p.>to shoot N shot 9pret., p.p.>to sho! N sho!ed 9pret., p.p.>* sho!n 9p.p.>to shrin+ N shran+ 9pret.>, shrun+ 9p.p.>

to shut N shut 9pret., p.p.>to sing N sang 9pret.>, sung 9p.p.>


64/134

to sin+ N san+ 9pret.>, sun+ 9p.p.>to sit N sat 9pret., p.p.>to slay N sle! 9pret.>, slain 9p.p.>to sleep N slept 9pret., p.p.>

to slide N slid 9pret., p.p.>to sling N slung 9pret., p.p.>to slin+ N slun+ 9pret., p.p.>to slit N slit 9pret., p.p.>to smell N smelled 9pret., p.p.>to smell N smelt 9pret., p.p.>to smite N smote 9pret.>, smitten 9p.p.>to so! N so!ed 9pret., p.p.>* so!n 9p.p.>to spea+ N spo+e 9pret.>, spo+en 9p.p.>to speed N sped 9pret., p.p.>to spell N spelled 9pret., p.p.>to spell N spelt 9pret., p.p.>to spend N spent 9pret., p.p.>to spill N spilled 9pret., p.p.>to spill N spilt 9pret., p.p.>to spin N spun 9pret., p.p.>to spit N spat 9pret., p.p.>to split N split 9pret., p.p.>to spoil N spoiled 9pret., p.p.>* spoilt 9pret., p.p.>

to spread N spread 9pret., p.p.>to spring N sprang 9pret.>* sprung 9p.p.>to stand N stood 9pret., p.p.>to steal N stole 9pret.>, stolen 9p.p.>to stic+ N stuc+ 9pret., p.p.>to sting N stung 9pret., p.p.>to stin+ N stan+ 9pret.>, stun+ 9p.p.>to stride N strode 9pret.>, stridden 9p.p.>to stri+e N struc+ 9pret., p.p.>* stric+en 9p.p.>

to string N strung 9pret., p.p.>to strive N strove 9pret.>, striven 9p.p.>to s!ear N s!ore 9pret.>, s!orn 9p.p.>to s!eep N s!ept 9pret., p.p.>to s!ell N s!elled 9pret.>, s!ollen 9p.p.>to s!im N s!am 9pret.>, s!um 9p.p.>to s!ing N s!ung 9pret., p.p.>to ta+e N too+ 9pret.>, ta+en 9p.p.>to teach N taught 9pret., p.p.>

to tear N tore 9pret.>, torn 9p.p.>to tell N told 9pret., p.p.>


65/134

to thin+ N thought 9pret., p.p.>to thrive N thrived 9pret., p.p.>to thro! N thre! 9pret.>, thro!n 9p.p.>to thrust N thrust 9pret., p.p.>

to tread N trod 9pret.>, trodden 9p.p.>to undo N undid 9pret.>, undone 9p.p.>to unlearn N unlearned 9pret., p.p.>* unlearnt 9pret., p.p.>Uto un!ind N un!ound 9pret., p.p.>to !a+e N !o+e 9pret.>, !o+en 9p.p.>to !ear N !ore 9pret.>, !orn 9p.p.>to !eave N !ove 9pret.>, !oven 9p.p.>* !eaved 9pret.>to !eep N !ept 9pret., p.p.>to !in N !on 9pret., p.p.>to !ind N !ound 9pret., p.p.>to !ithdra! N !ithdre! 9pret.>, !ithdra!n 9p.p.>to !ring N !rung 9pret., p.p.>to !rite N !rote 9pret.>, !ritten 9p.p.>

M

3ODA8 VE)"S


• 3ontractions

• Cuestion tag phrases: #isn?t it,# #!asn?t it,# etc.

• elated topics

(eneral %rin!i%les

http://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/3.html#generaliteshttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/3.html#contractionshttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/3.html#n'est-ce%20pashttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/3.html#relatedhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/3.html#generaliteshttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/3.html#contractionshttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/3.html#n'est-ce%20pashttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/3.html#related


66/134

%he auxiliary modals #&oul,# may,# #might,# #shoul,# #must,##ought to,# #!an,# #!oul,# #&ill,# #shall# are invariable. %hey existonly in the present, and unli+e most verbs in the simple present,their form does not change in the third person singular.

1odal verbs are auxiliaries, or #helping# verbs: they are used inconjunction !ith another verb (in infinitive form) as a !ay to modifyits meaning. 1odals can nuance the meaning of the principal verb ina number of !ays:

++ Possibility or ability4 by #!an# or #!oul#

• I can do this job.

• 3ould you please do the dishesB

++ Possibility or %ermission by #may# or #might# (often translatedin other languages by a different mood, such as the subjonctif ).

• I may finish my paper tonight.

• 8ou may come !ith us, if you !ish.

•

It might be helpful to have a map.

++ Obligation4 or moral obligation, by #must,# #ought to,# or#shoul#:

• &tudents must hand in their !or+ on time.

• 8ou ought to see a doctor.

• 8ou should never play !ith fire.

Note that #must# can also indicate probability:

• 8ou must be exhausted@

• e must play tennis pretty !ell.

%he modal verb #&oul# is used to express the conditional:

• If he had time, he !ould pic+ up some groceries.



67/134

%he modal verb #&ill# expresses the future:

• %he train !ill arrive in an hour.

Contra!tions

fter a pronoun subject, #&oul# is often contracted into #++0# (#I0#,#&e0#, #she0#, etc.), !hile #&ill# is contracted into #++0ll# (#I0ll#,#you0ll#, #they0ll#, etc.). fter all modal verbs, the !ord#not# of thenegative can be contracted into #++n0t# (#&ouln0t#, #shouln0t#,etc.).

E

#!an0t#.

Note$ %he contraction of the modal verbs #shall,# #ought,# and#may,# is considered slightly archaic or literary.

examples of contractions:

• I !ouldn?t (!ould not) do that, if I !ere you@

•

%hey?ll (they !ill) never believe it@• &he !on?t (!ill not) bother you anymore.

-uestion tag %hrases ?/isn0t it4/ /&asn0t it4/ et!.@

1odals can be used in a negative interrogative form after anaffirmative expression. %he function of such an expression is to

prompt the listener to reassert or reaffirm !hat has been stated:

• 8ou !ould li+e to go !ith us, !ouldn?t youB

• 8ou can understand that, can?t youB

%he modal verb used in the interrogative tag is generally the sameas the modal found in the main clause* the subject pronoun is alsorepeated.



68/134

fter a negati'e sentence, the modal tag phrase is inthe affirmati'e$

• 8ou !ouldn?t !ant to try it, !ould youB (Je suppose que tu ne

voudrais pas l'essayer.)

• &he !on?t be bac+, !ill sheB

N

NE(ATION


69/134

• #2ot#

•

2egative 'uestions• 2egative constructions (#never#, #no one#, #nothing#, etc.)

/Not/

%he most common !ay to put a phrase in the negative is by using#not.# enerally, #not# must follo! an auxiliary verb (#to be#, #to

o#) or a modal (#shall#, #must#, #might#, #&ill#, etc.), even if thisverb adds no meaning to the sentence. $hen no other modal ispresent or appropriate, the verb #to o# is used.

ere are some sample phrases in both affirmative and negativeform:

• I !ant to play the piano.--4 I do not !ant to play the piano.

• e !ill arrive on time.--4 e !ill not arrive on time.

• %hey should go out together.--4 %hey should not go out together.

Note$ 1ost often, the adverb #not# !ill be contracted to #++n0t#after an auxiliary or modal verb:

o is not --4 isn?t

o should not --4 shouldn?t

o does not --4 doesn?t

o must not --4 mustn?t

o has not --4 hasn?t

o !ill not --4 !on?t

http://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/32.html#nothttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/32.html#interrogationhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/32.html#constructionshttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/7.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/3.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/7.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/3.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/32.html#nothttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/32.html#interrogationhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/32.html#constructionshttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/7.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/3.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/7.htmlhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/3.html


70/134

-uestions

%he same structure (placing #not# after the verb) !ill hold for'uestions:

• Isn?t it time to leaveB

• $ouldn?t you care for a drin+B

Note$ If one chooses not contract #not# to #++n0t#, the adverb

#not# !ill be placed after the subject in the 'uestion. %his styleis considered literary:

o Is it not time to leave.

o $ould you not care for a drin+B

sing #not# instead of the contraction can produce certain stylisticeffects:

To stress the negati'e meaning of the senten!e$

• #e !ill not come to your house# is stronger than #e !on?tcome to your house#

To affe!t a literary style, especially in the formation of a 'uestions:

• $ill you not come by and see usB

Negati'e !onstru!tions

"ther negative constructions are possible. 0ecause English doesnot allo! double or triple negatives, it is important to avoid using#not# !ith other negative constructions. $hen #not# is included, usethe affirmative forms of other adverbs:

No more 5 not... any more

• I !ant no more of your money


71/134

• I don?t !ant any more of your money.

No one 5 not... anyone

•

2o one called tonight.• I don?t !ant to see anyone tonight.

Ne'er 5 not... e'er

• &he never !ants to see him again.

• &he doesn?t ever !ant to see him again.

Nothing 5 not... anything

• e does nothing at all.

• 3an?t you do anything rightB

No&here 5 not... any&here

• $here are you goingB -- 2o!here.

• I don?t !ant to go any!here.

Not a single 5 not... a single

• 2ot a single letter arrived today.

• e doesn?t have a single idea !hat !e?re doing.

Neither... nor...

• $e neither ate nor dran+ during the ceremony.

• I li+e neither tomatoes nor 6ucchini.

Only (al!ays placed before the element one !hichs to limit):

• &he only has seven dollars.

• $e !ere only playing.


72/134

• %hey !ere the only ones to come.

O

O"JECTS

Airect "bject: direct object !ill most often be a noun (thing or idea)

that receives the action of the transitive (action) verb. I thre! theball.

Indirect "bject: n indirect object !ill most often be the person orpersons expressed as the recipient of the direct object and !ill be

found immediately after the transitive verb and before the directobject. I thre! him the ball.

/hrase: phrase adds to the meaning of a sentence but does notcontain a subject or a verb.%he yello! house is at the bottom of the drive!ay.

3lause: clause !ill contain a subject and a verb and function as

either a dependent or an independent clause.&ee Aependent 3lause


73/134

djective 3lause: n adjective clause !ill begin !ith a relativepronoun and give us more information about a noun or pronoun!ithin a sentence. &ee Aependent 3lause.

dverb 3lause: n adverb clause !ill begin !ith a subordinatingconjunction and offer readers more information about the verb(usually giving us information about time, place, or !hy somethinghappened). &ee Aependent 3lause.

2oun 3lause: noun clause also begins !ith a relative pronoun butfunctions differently from an adjective clause. %he noun clauseoperates in the subject position of a sentence, in the object position

of a sentence, or in the subject complement position of a sentence.%hat I studied the assignment !as evident to the teacher. (2oun3lause as &ubject)I forgot that I needed my passport. (2oun 3lause as Airect "bject)/edro !as loo+ing for !hatever he needed for the baseball game.(2oun 3lause as "bject of the /reposition)

/repositional /hrase: prepositional phrase al!ays begins !ith apreposition and ends !ith a noun (the object of the preposition). Insome cases, the object of the preposition !ill be a noun clause. %heprepositional phrase functions either as an adjective, telling us moreabout a noun or pronoun, or an adverb, providing us moreinformation about the verb. (1ay be as short as t!o !ords or asmany as several !ords)

%he student in the purple dress !al+ed do!n the hall!ay. (djectiveand dverb /repositional /hrases, respectively)

/articipial /hrase: participial phrase joins together a participle andits corresponding !ords, functioning, al!ays, as an adjective. %heparticiple may be present (ending in -ing) or past (ending in -ed or itsirregular form).%he school, aged and bent from years of harsh !eather, fell from its

state of grace. (/ast /articipial /hrase)&!imming in a sea of grammar, the students splashed each other


74/134

!ith verbs and nouns. (/resent /articipial /hrase)%he singing bird trilled high notes in the early morning. (/articiple)

ORDER OF PREPOSITIONS

P)EPOSITIONA8 VE)"S

• &ingle preposition verbs

o &entence structure

• 1ulitple preposition verbs

o &entence structure

•

elated topics

Single %re%osition 'erbs

great number of verbs in English can be modified by the additionof a preposition. "ften the preposition !ill nuance, or evendramatically change, the meaning of the base verb. %he meaningsare often idiomatic, and the meaning expressed by any givenpreposition may be very different from one verb to another.

http://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/25.html#simplehttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/25.html#ordre%20simplehttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/25.html#composehttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/25.html#ordre%20composehttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/25.html#relatedhttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/25.html#simplehttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/25.html#ordre%20simplehttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/25.html#composehttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/25.html#ordre%20composehttp://englishlive.ef.com/EtownResources/Grammar/25.html#related


75/134

It !ould be impossible to list all such verbs here (but you !ill findthem in the dictionary itself). %hese examples !ill suffice to providean illustration of the principle:

•

to spea+ -- to say !ords• to spea+ up -- to spea+ loudly

• to spea+ do!n (to someone) -- to be condescending to!ardsomeone

• to spea+ for (someone) -- to spea+ in someone?s place

• to put -- to set do!n

• to put up -- to place up high

• to put up -- to put in jars or cans

• to put a!ay -- to put something bac+ !here it belongs

• to put do!n -- to release one?s grasp of something

• to put out -- to place outside, or to ta+e outside

• to put on -- to !ear

• to turn -- to t!ist

• to turn on -- to ma+e something function (a light, a motor)

• to turn off -- to remove the po!er to (a light, a motor)

• to turn around -- to turn to face the opposite direction

• to turn up -- to augment the sound, the light

• to turn do!n -- to diminish the sound, the light


76/134

• to turn out -- to become

• to turn red, !hite, etc. -- to change colors

Senten!e stru!ture

$hen the sentence includes a noun object, the object !ill follo! thepreposition* if the object is replaced by a pronoun, thepronoun precedes the preposition:

• e turned on the television.

• e turned it on.

• &he put a!ay her boo+s.

• &he put them a!ay.

3ulti%le %re%osition 'erbs

%here are many prepositional verbs that ta+e t!o prepositions:

• to put up !ith (something, someone) -- to tolerate someone

• to go out !ith -- to accompany someone

• to go off on (a digression, an adventure) -- to begin, to start

• to run a!ay from -- to flee

Senten!e stru!ture

$hen the verb is follo!ed by t!o prepositions, the object follo!s thet!o prepositions, !hether the object is a noun or a pronoun:

• o! can you put up !ith himB

• 0ill should not go out !ith 1onica.


77/134

P

PA)TICIP8E C8A#SES

/articiple clauses use a present parti

Documents

EnglishTown. Gramática