EPA Air Quality Report 2003

8/1/2019 EPA Air Quality Report 2003

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Air Quality andEmissions to Air Report 2003


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Air Quality andEmissions to Air Report

2003

John Delaney and Michael McGettigan

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCYAn Ghnomhaireacht um Chaomhn Comhshaoil

PO Box 3000, Johnstown Castle, Co.Wexford, Ireland

Telephone: +353 53 60600 Fax: +353 53 60699

Email: [email protected] Website: www.epa.ie

Lo Call: 1890 33 55 99


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Environmental Protection Agency 2005

Although every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of the material contained in this

publication, complete accuracy cannot be guaranteed. Neither the Environmental Protection Agency

nor the author(s) accept any responsibility whatsoever for loss or damage occasioned or claimed to

have been occasioned, in part or in full, as a consequence of any person acting, or refraining from

acting, as a result of a matter contained in this publication. Parts of this publication may be

reproduced without further permission, provided the source is acknowledged.

Air Quality and

Emissions to Air Report

2003

Published by the Environmental Protection Agency, Ireland

ISBN: 1-84095-147-8 03/05/500Price: 20


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Table of Contents:

Executive Summary ________________________________________________________ 1

Part I Ambient Air Quality__________________________________________ 4

Introduction:______________________________________________________________ 41.Air QualityLegislation, Monitoring and Assessment___________________ 5

1.1 Air Quality Framework Directive__________________________________________ 5

1.2 Air Quality Standards Regulations_________________________________________ 7

1.3 Status of Air Quality Monitoring in 2003____________________________________ 8

2. Air Quality Assessment in 2003 ______________________________________ 12

2.1 Sulphur Dioxide and Particulate Matter ___________________________________ 12

2.2 Continuous Sulphur Dioxide Monitoring___________________________________ 13

2.3 Particulate Matter (PM10) _______________________________________________ 15

2.4 Nitrogen Oxides _______________________________________________________ 17

2.5 Ozone ________________________________________________________________ 19

2.6 Lead, Carbon Monoxide and Benzene _____________________________________ 22

Part II Emissions to Air_____________________________________________ 25

Introduction:_____________________________________________________________ 25

3.1 Trends in Greenhouse Gas Emissions _____________________________________ 26

3.2 Trends by Sector and Gas_______________________________________________ 28

3.3 Emissions of Sulphur Dioxide____________________________________________ 30

3.4 Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides____________________________________________ 30

3.5 Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds _________________________________ 31

3.6 Emissions of Ammonia__________________________________________________ 31

3.7 Progress Towards National Emission Limits _______________________________ 33

Part IIIKey Challenges_____________________________________________ 35

4.1 Meeting the new air quality standards _____________________________________ 35

4.2 Ambient Air Quality and Transport_______________________________________ 37

4.3 Compliance with the Kyoto Protocol ______________________________________ 37

4.4 Compliance with the National Emissions Ceilings Directive ___________________ 38

References _______________________________________________________________ 40

Appendix A

Appendix B


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List of Tables and Figures

Table No.

1.1 Parameters measured at Continuous Air Quality Stations in Ireland 82.1 National Air Quality Standards for SO2 and Smoke 11

2.2 Smoke and SO2 summary statistics in 2003 13

2.3a Summary Continuous SO2 Statistics in 2003: Zone A 14

2.3b Summary Continuous SO2 Statistics in 2003: Other Zones 14

2.4 Summary PM10 concentrations in 2003 15

2.5 Summary NO2 and NOx Statistics in 2003 18

2.6 Hourly Summary Ozone Statistics in 2003 19

2.7 Thresholds set in Ozone Directive 92/72/EC 20

2.8 Exceedances of hourly, 8-hour and daily ozone thresholds in 2003 21

2.9 AOT40 values from rural stations in Ireland in 2002 and 2003 22

2.10 Summary lead concentration statistics in 2003 232.11 Statistics for 8-hour running average CO concentrations in 2003 23

2.12 Summary Benzene concentration statistics in 2003 24

3.1 National Emissions Ceilings Targets 34

Figure No.

1.1 Zones for Air Quality Assessment and Management in Ireland 6

1.2 Concept of Limit Values, Thresholds and Margins of Tolerance 7

1.3 Interior of Mobile Monitoring Unit_____________________________________ 9

1.4 Fixed Air Monitoring Stations in Ireland 101.5 Fixed Air Monitoring Stations in Dublin 11

2.1 Number of Days with PM10 concentrations >50g/m3

16

2.2 Calibration of NOX monitor at Glashaboy, Co. Cork 18

2.3 Time series of daily ozone concentrations in 2003 20

3.1(a) Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Source Category 26

3.1(b) Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Gas 27

3.2(c) Total Primary Energy Requirement 27

3.2(b) Component Emissions from Energy Use 28

3.3(a) Main Drivers in Agriculture 29

3.3(b) Component CH4 and N2O Emissions in Agriculture 29

3.4 Trends in SO2 Emissions 1990-2003 323.5 Trends in NOx Emissions 1990-2003 32

3.6 Trends in VOC Emissions 1990-2003 33

3.7 Trends in NH3 Emissions 1990-2003 33

3.8 Distance from Kyoto Protocol Target Path for Ireland 34


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Acknowledgements

The authors wish to acknowledge the contributions of their colleagues Barbara O'Leary, John

Finnan and Ciaran O'Donnell who are responsible for EPA monitoring operations at fixed

sites and those carried out by the EPA Mobile Units. The input of Local Authority and Health

Board personnel and others who provided data for inclusion in this report is also

appreciated.


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1irExecutive Summary

Executive Summary

This report provides an overview of ambient air quality in 2003 and air emissions

trends between 1990 and 2003. The first part of the report examines the state of

ambient air quality in Ireland by comparing measured concentrations with current and

future air quality standards for a suite of air pollutants. These new standards set downin the Air Quality Standards Regulations 2002 (DELG, 2002), correspond to limit

values laid down in a number of recent EC Directives and begin to take effect from

2005. Monitoring data of pollutant concentrations is necessary to determine

compliance with the standards and to formulate strategies to reduce concentrations.

Monitoring programmes are also used to assess the impact of measures implemented.

The monitoring of daily average smoke and sulphurdioxide (SO2) concentrations

was conducted at approximately 30 stations in 2003. The smoke and SO2 results in the

2003/2004 monitoring period were again very low at all stations. The levels were

compliant with the Irish air quality standards at those stations having the required

level of data capture for compliance assessment. This has been the situation in respectof these two parameters for many years following the successful implementation of

emission control measures. A statistical analysis of continuous SO2 data obtained

from fixed sites and from EPA managed mobile monitoring stations in 2003 indicates

that concentrations overall are very low relative to the hourly and daily limit values

defined in 1999/30/EC (CEC, 1999).

PM10 particulate matter was measured at a total of 13 monitoring stations in 2003.

All sites used for the purpose of assessing compliance with EU Directive 199/30/EC

(CEC, 1999) were within the 2003 daily limit value, which permitted no more than 35

exceedances above 60 g/m3. The 50 g/m

3daily limit value applicable from January

1st 2005 was exceeded at Coleraine Street in Dublin on more than the permitted 35

days. Annual mean PM10 levels greater than 25 g/m3

were recorded at stations in

Dublin, Cork and Galway. The concentrations, although significant, were below the

annual mean limit value of 40 g/m3

that applies from 2005. Furthermore, second-

stage PM10 limits, that will take effect from 2010, will permit only seven daily average

concentrations in excess of 50 g/m3

while the annual mean limit will be reduced to

20 g/m3. The College Street site in Dublin showed elevated levels but the site does

not comply with siting specifications in 1999/30/EC. Nonetheless, its data is valuable

as it provides the longest time-series of ambient air quality data in Dublin, predating

the introduction of the recent EU Directive.

The levels of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in Ireland were compliant with current EU

standards in 2003. The annual mean values recorded at a number of city centre

locations in Dublin were close to the annual limit value of 40 g/m3

specified in the

Air Quality Standards Regulations 2002, which enters into force in 2010. NO2

concentrations measured at other sites were significantly lower indicating that

compliance with the new limits will not be problematic in areas that are not subject to

heavy traffic. The rural NOX concentrations were well below the levels above which

there may be effects on vegetation.


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Ozone levels recorded at seven monitoring sites during 2003 were higher than in

previous years. The warm weather conditions experienced in 2003 were the likely

main contributory factor for the higher than average number of recorded exceedances

of the ozone thresholds specified in the 1992 ozone Directive (CEC, 1992). The

hourly population information threshold of 180 g/m3

was marginally exceeded for

one hour at Valentia in County Kerry. The maximum level recorded was 181.2 g/m3

,however, concentrations returned below the threshold within an hour. Transboundary

transport of ozone due to anticyclonic conditions is the most likely cause of the

elevated concentrations. The levels recorded at all other stations during the same time

period were well below 180 g/m3

showing this to be an isolated event.

The new 8-hour ozone target value for the protection of human health set down by the

new Directive 2002/3/EC on ozone (EP and CEU, 2002) to apply from 2004, is that

maximum daily 8-hour mean concentrations should not exceed 120 g/m3

on more

than 25 days from 2010. Unlike most of mainland Europe Ireland does not experience

notable ozone pollution, however, maximum 8-hour averages greater than 120 g/m3

were recorded on 20 days in 2003, which is significant in the context of this target.

There were no concentrations of lead recorded above the limit value of 0.5 g/m3

which takes effect from 1 January 2005. Carbon monoxide (CO) was monitored at

fixed stations located in Dublin City and in Cork City and at a number of additional

EPA mobile units. The levels measured at all stations in 2003 were well within the

daily eight-hour mean limit of 10 mg/m, which came into force on the 1 January 2005.

The key challenge in relation to air quality is to ensure compliance with the new

daily and annual limit values for PM10 from 2005 and, to a lesser degree, with the

limit values and thresholds for NO2 and ozone. It is clear that substantial

concentrations of PM10 occur in urban areas and that both daily and annual limit

values to apply from 2005 may be in danger of been approached at some sites. This

pollutant needs to be closely monitored and it may present a challenge to ensure that

there is compliance with the limit values in all areas from 2005, especially if the

meteorological conditions (calm severe frosty weather) that result in reduced

dispersion of pollutants become more common than has been the case in recent Irish

winters. Compliance with the more stringent second-stage limits that are to apply

from 2010 may represent an even more serious challenge. Road traffic continues to

sustain NO2 levels in some urban areas, particularly in Dublin, and progress to bring

about real changes in emissions from this source is slow. The achievement of NO 2

standards in such areas will therefore depend largely on the effectiveness of trafficmanagement measures and on the degree to which further growth in road traffic can

be curtailed in cities.

Ozone levels, which in Ireland are highly influenced by transboundary sources,

generally remain below the thresholds for effects on human health and vegetation set

down in the 1992 Directive on ozone. Nevertheless, the stringent target level for the

protection of human health specified on the basis of maximum daily mean 8-hour

concentrations in the new 2002 Directive may still be approached in some years. The

ability of countries to reduce emissions of ozone precursors such as Nitrogen Oxides

(NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) required under the National

Emissions Ceilings Directive (EP and CEU, 2001) should have a significant impact onfuture ozone levels across Europe.


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Total emissions of greenhouse gases increased steadily from 53.9 million tonnes

CO2 equivalent in 1990 to 70.5 million tonnes CO2 equivalent in 2001 and then

decreased slightly to 67.5 million tonnes CO2 equivalent in 2003. The emissions in

2003 were 25 percent higher than in the base year and 4 percent lower than their

peak level in 2001. The reductions in 2003 largely reflect fuel switching in electricitygeneration, reductions in cattle populations and in fertilizer use and the closure of

Irelands ammonia and nitric acid plants in 2002. Emission control measures set down

in the Governments National Climate Change Strategy of 2000, including carbon

taxation and the use of flexible mechanisms such as emissions trading, were forecast

to allow Ireland to meet its Kyoto obligations. The Governments recent decision not

to introduce a carbon tax means that alternative measures will have to be implemented

by way of amendment to the 2000 strategy.

Of the four gases covered by the National Emissions Ceilings Directive (EP and

CEU, 2001), the 2010 ceiling for NH3 was achieved in 2003, based on current

estimates for that year, while significant reductions have occurred in the emissions ofSO2 and progress has also been made on VOC decreases. However, the reduction of

NOX emissions will remain a key challenge for the years ahead and the attainment of

the NOX ceiling under the Directive in 2010 requires further action. Potential SO2emissions reductions through the use of natural gas and low-sulphur fuel oil are now

limited, which means that more advanced technology-based controls must be

considered. Extensive technological controls need to be examined for the major

stationary combustion sources of NOX. Road traffic also continues to be the major

contributor of NOx emissions and decreases from this sector are only slowly

becoming evident. A national emissions strategy to comply with the national

emissions ceilings, focussing in particular on NOX and VOC, needs to integrate fully

with the revised National Climate Change Strategy, transport policy and the various

provisions of integrated pollution prevention and control that impact on emissions to

air.


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4irAir Quality

Part I Ambient Air Quality

Introduction:

The first section of the report reviews the state of air quality in Ireland in 2003. This is

demonstrated by comparing air quality monitoring results with current and future air

quality standards for a variety of air pollutants. The most important pollutants in thiscontext are sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOX), particulate matter (PM),

lead, ozone, benzene and carbon monoxide (CO).

Fossil fuel combustion is the principal source of classic primary air pollutants such as

PM, SO2, NOX and CO, although in the case of PM there are also many other sources.

Petrol use continues to be a major source of benzene and, until the progressive phase-

out of leaded petrol, it was the most important contributor to lead in the air. Ozone is a

secondary pollutant formed from the interaction of NOX, CO and various volatile

organic compounds (VOCs) in the presence of sunlight. It is present in air masses

across the World and is transported from Atlantic and European regions.

The success of pollution control related to stationary combustion sources leaves the

emissions from road traffic as the main threat to air quality in Ireland. The pollutant

emissions emanating from vehicles are those to which the public may be most readily

exposed and they present a considerable risk in terms of their potential to contribute to

breaches of air quality standards in urban areas subject to heavy traffic. The pollutants

of most concern in this regard are nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and fine particulate matter,

expressed as PM10. Ozone, which is a global problem, reached the 8-hour limit value

for the protection of human health on several occasions during 2003.


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1.Air QualityLegislation, Monitoring and Assessment

1.1 Air Quality Framework Directive

An approach developed at European level is having a major bearing on air quality

monitoring, assessment and management in Ireland. Council Directive 96/62/EC

(Council of European Communities (CEC), 1996) on ambient air quality assessmentand management (the Air Quality Framework Directive) provides the framework for

this new approach. The objectives of this Directive are:

to define and establish objectives for ambient air quality in the EuropeanCommunity that will avoid, prevent and reduce harmful effects on human health

and the environment;

to assess ambient air quality in Member States on the basis of common methodsand criteria;

to obtain adequate information on ambient air quality and ensure that it is made

available to the public by means of, inter alia, alert thresholds; to maintain ambient air quality where it is good and improve it in other cases.

Member States are required to divide their territory into zones in order to apply this

approach for the assessment and management of air quality. The levels of monitoring

and reporting are also based on the defined zones. The zones adopted in Ireland are

shown in Figure 1.1

The basic principles of the European Commissions assessment and management

approach can be described with reference to Figure 1.2. The assessment and

management of air quality in zones is undertaken in relation to upper and lower

assessment thresholds, limit values and margins of tolerance, specified in a series ofdaughter Directives for the various pollutants. Alert thresholds also apply for some of

the pollutants for the purpose of taking immediate action to inform the public of

particular pollution incidences as they occur.

For each individual pollutant, the limit values will have to be met by a specified

attainment date. Margins of tolerance, which decrease in equal annual increments to

zero at the attainment date, have been set with respect to these limits. Measures

currently in place to reduce emissions of SO2, NOx, and VOCs required under the

National Emissions Ceilings Directive (EP and CEU, 2001) are designed to improve

air quality in the interim. Where concentrations in Member States exceed the limit

value by more than the margin of tolerance, air quality management plans will be

needed by the Member States to bring the concentrations below the limit value by the

attainment date. After the attainment dates, short-term action plans may be required

on a contingency basis where there is a risk of breaches of the air quality standards.

The extent of monitoring and assessment in any zone is determined mainly by

population size and the air quality status of the zone. The greatest monitoring effort

applies where concentrations are above the upper assessment threshold, i.e. where

they approach or exceed the limit value. Where concentrations are between the two

thresholds, less intensive measurement combined with other assessment methods,

such as air quality modelling, will suffice. Dispersion modelling, objective estimationand indicative measurement are sufficient for general assessment in zones with


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6irAir Quality

concentrations below the lower assessment threshold. However, the population size

may still warrant continuous measurement for zones in this category in the case of

pollutants for which alert thresholds have been set.

Figure 1.1


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Figure 1.2 Concept of Limit Values, Assessment Thresholds and Margins of Tolerance

A C T IO N P L A N S ! !

M a r g in o f

T o l e r a n c e

U p p e r A s s e s s m e n t T h r e s h o ld ( U A T )

Concentration

L o w e r A s s e s sm e n t T h r e s h o ld ( L A T )

T im e

A t t a in m e n t D a t e

f o r L im i t V a l u e

A c t io n P l a n s R e q u i re d

M e a s u r e m e n t is m a n d a t o r y

M e a s u re m e n t an d m o d e ll in is re u ir e d

M o d e l lin o r o b e c t iv e e s t im a t io n i s s u ff ic ie n t

L i m i t V a l u e

1.2 Air Quality Standards Regulations

The Air Quality Standards Regulations 2002, (DELG, 2002) transposed the

Framework Directive and the first two daughter Directives (CEC, 1999 and EP and

CEU, 2000) into Irish law and established new air quality standards for SO2, NO2 and

NOX, lead, PM10, CO and benzene coincident with those of the daughter directives.

Appendix A shows the limit value, averaging period and decreasing margin or

tolerance of each pollutant specified.

The Regulations specify the dates by which the limit values for each of the pollutants

must be achieved and also the reference methods for sampling, analysis and

measurement. Specific requirements are set out in relation to providing the public

with information on ambient air quality. Up-to-date information on air quality must bemade available on a widespread basis through appropriate media including internet

and teletext, with the more sensitive population groups provided with more specific

information.

Upper and Lower Assessment Thresholds (UAT and LAT, respectively) as prescribed

in the Regulations provide a mechanism for determining the number of monitoring

locations required, dependant on population size and whether ambient air quality

concentrations exceed the UAT, are between the UAT and LAT, or below the UAT,

as defined in Schedule 9 of the 2002 Regulations (DELG, 2002).


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1.3 Status of Air Quality Monitoring in 2003

Irelands small population and generally good air quality means that a small number

of monitoring stations are sufficient across the four zones defined for the purposes of

implementing the EU Directives. In 2003, there were a total of 52 air quality

monitoring stations operating in Ireland. Of these, 30 formed part of the Local

Authority SO2 and black smoke network, 19 were fixed continuous monitoring

stations and three were mobile monitoring units. There has been a significant

reduction in the number of black smoke and SO2 stations as it is no longer a

requirement to monitor SO2 using the total acidity method. The monitoring of black

smoke will no longer be required from 2005 and will be replaced by more specific

requirements in relation to PM10. Local Authorities who monitor for black smoke

using existing methodologies were required to continue to do so until January 2005.

Table 1.1: Parameters measured at Continuous Air Quality Stations in Ireland in 2003

Station Zone SO2 PM10 NOx Lead CO Benzene Ozone

Winetavern Street A

Coleraine Street A

Rathmines A

Phoenix Park A

Marino A

College Street A

Crumlin (mobile

Station)A

Ballyfermot A

Old Station Road B Heatherton Park B

Galway C

Sligo (mobile station) C

Athlone (mobile

station)C

Askeaton D

Kilkitt D

Glashaboy D

Mace Head D

Johnstown Castle D

Valentia D

Fixed air monitoring stations in operation in Dublin and nationally in Ireland in 2003

are illustrated in Figures 1.4 and 1.5. The stations are used to implement the national

air quality monitoring programme (McGettigan et al., 1999). The EPA operates the

ozone monitoring network and mobile monitoring stations, while measurements at

most other stations are carried out by or on behalf of local authorities.


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Mobile monitoring units carry out air quality monitoring primarily in Zones C and D

(Figure 1.1), where no continuous monitoring was previously conducted. The units

are equipped with instrumentation for the monitoring of all the pollutants covered by

the Air Quality Standards Regulations 2002. Their main function is to provide for air

quality assessment in Zone C and to extend site coverage in other zones as necessary.

They are also being used to determine whether additional fixed stations may berequired in accordance with the new assessment criteria. The units are deployed on a

rotational basis for periods of up to six months at stations conforming to the siting

criteria specified in the Daughter Directives. In 2003 the mobile stations were located

at Athlone, Sligo and Crumlin in Dublin City. The parameters measured at each

continuous station in operation in 2003 are outlined in Table 1.1.

Figure 1.3: This a picture of the interior of one of the mobile stations. On the right you can see the

air inlets and the OPSIS Sample changer for PM10filters. The rack-mounted SO2, NOx, CO and

BTX (blue instrument) automatic analysers can be seen on the left.


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Figure 1.4

See Table 1.1 for a list of parameters measured at continuous monitoring stations


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Figure 1.5

See Table 1.1 for a list of parameters measured at continuous monitoring stations


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2. Air Quality Assessment in 2003

2.1 Sulphur Dioxide and Particulate Matter

Sampling and Analysis

Measurements of Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) and black smoke are based on standard

semi-automatic methods. The smoke level is determined by the OECD black-smoke

method, i.e., by reflectance analysis of the stain produced on a paper filter through

which the sampled air has passed. The SO2 level is determined by titration of the

acidity produced by passing the air sample through a hydrogen peroxide solution. The

number of such stations in operation has declined in recent years as new methods and

instrumentation are introduced in order to comply with the measurement standards for

SO2 and particulates required under Daughter Directive 1999/30/EC (CEC, 1999).

The current air quality standards in force for smoke and SO2 are presented in Table

2.1 below.

Table 2.1. National Air Quality Standards for SO2 and Smoke (g/m3

)________________________________________________________________________________

Limit Value Associated Limit Value

for SO2 Smoke for Smoke

Annual Median of1 80 > 40 80

Daily Mean Values 120 = or < 40

Winter Median of 130 > 60 130


98-percentile of 250 > 150 250


Not more than three 250 > 150 250consecutive days 350 = or < 150

____________________________________________________________________Footnote: The SO2 limit value is dependent on the associated smoke concentration. For example, if the associated smoke median

concentration is >40g/m3 the corresponding median SO2 limit value is 80 g/m3. If the smoke value is =or


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Table 2.2 Smoke and SO2 summary statistics from Local Authority Monitoring Networks

Suburban/Urban

Networks (g/m3)

Mean

Median

95

percentile

98

Percentile

M

aximum

DailyMeans>75

DailyMeans>50

Wintermean

Win

termedian

Num

berofSites

Smoke

Dublin City (5) 3 3 21 29 53 0 1 8 6 5

Dublin County (3) 5 3 13 16 50 0 0 6 5 3

Cork City (5) 13 10 32 30 130 5 28 13 12 5

Cork County (1) 3 2 10 25 63 0 2 5 2 1

Kildare (5) 6 3 19 26 66 0 9 9 6 6

Galway (2) 3 3 12 19 33 0 0 6 5 2

Louth (3) 12 6 35 60 81 3 23 13 8 3

Limerick (3) 13 11 37 36 83 0 0 18 15 3

Waterford (2) 2 1 7 9 39 0 0 2 2 2

Wicklow (3) 7 5 19 23 51 0 1 7 6 3

Sulphur Dioxide

Dublin City 7 0 39 69 80 1 8 7 0 5

Dublin County 18 17 28 35 57 0 0 16 16 3

Cork City 10 10 17 18 33 0 0 10 10 5

Cork County 2 1 9 12 23 0 0 2 1 1

Kildare 10 9 18 22 37 0 0 12 12 6

Galway 13 12 26 32 33 0 5 11 10 2

Limerick 12 12 16 17 28 0 0 12 12 3

Louth 10 9 30 35 37 0 0 10 9 3Waterford 6 3 17 50 59 0 7 2 0 1

Wicklow 13 12 23 29 50 0 0 13 12 3

* Average values for the network based on daily mean concentrations (g/m3)

Dublin County refers to data collected at Fingal, South Dublin and Dun Laoghaire/Rathdown CountyCouncil sites.* Number of stations in brackets

2.2 Continuous Sulphur Dioxide Monitoring


Continuous SO2 concentrations are measured using fluorescence-based methods. The

analysers measure the fluorescence of SO2 molecules after excitation by ultraviolet

radiation. The SO2 monitors measure concentrations in parts per billion (ppb), which

are converted to g/m3

by multiplying the results by 2.66. All data are recorded as

hourly-average values to enable comparison of ambient levels with the standards

defined in Daughter Directive 1999/30/EC (CEC, 1999).


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Monitoring Results

A statistical analysis of the data obtained from all fixed sites and from EPA mobile

monitoring stations is presented in Table 2.3a and Table 2.3b. The 2003 SO 2 results

indicate that concentrations overall are very low relative to the 2005 hourly and daily

limits of 350 g/m3

and 125 g/m3, respectively defined in 1999/30/EC (CEC, 1999).

The highest hourly concentration of 181 g/m3 recorded at Ballyfermot in Dublin was

well below the hourly limit of 420 g/m3, the applicable hourly limit value plusmargin of tolerance in 2003.

Table 2.3a: Summary Statistics from continuous SO2 monitoring in 2003: Zone A (Dublin Region)

Hourly

average

Winetavern St. Coleraine St. Rathmines Crumlin Ballyfermot

Mean 7 3 10 6 11

Median 5 2 9 3 5

95%ile 17 10 22 16 37

98%ile 26 17 29 26 81

99.9%ile 72 59 57 69 165

Maximum 95 86 81 131 181

% values 96 97 87 97 13

Values >350 0 0 0 0 0

Daily average

Mean 7 3 10 6 11

Maximum 37 33 29 37 65

Num. >125a 0 0 0 0 0

Num. >75b 0 0 0 0 0

Num. >50c 0 0 0 0 1

Table 2.3b: Summary Statistics from continuous SO2 monitoring in 2003 : Other Zones.

Zone B Zone C Zone D

Hourly

average

Old Station

Road (Cork)

Sligo Athlone Askeaton

(Limerick)

Kilkitt

(Monaghan)

Mean 3 11 7 7 7

Median 3 8 5 5 7

95%ile 11 32 17 13 13

98%ile 16 38 23 27 15

99.9%ile 37 38 32 93 25

Maximum 57 52 51 165 51

% values 81 68 57 73 89Values >350 0 0 0 0 0

Daily average

Mean 3 11 7 7 7

Maximum 22 37 23 37 18

Num. >125a 0 0 0 0 0

Num. >75b 0 0 0 0 0

Num. >50c 0 0 0 0 0

a daily limit; b upper assessment threshold: c lower assessment threshold threshold;

concentrations in g/m3


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2.3 Particulate Matter (PM10)


PM10 refers to particulate matter that is less than 10 microns in diameter. Standard

PM10 concentrations in Ireland are measured using a gravimetric sampling method.

Air is drawn through a size-selective inlet, which removes particles larger than 10m,while particles less than 10m in aerodynamic diameter pass through the instrument

and are collected on a pre-weighed filter. The air sampler is programmed to take a

sample of air over a 24-hour period after which the filter is automatically changed.

The filter is collected and weighed to determine the concentration of PM10 particles in

the air.

Monitoring Results

The PM10 monitoring network in 2003 consisted of 10 fixed monitoring stations and 3

mobile units. The highest PM10 levels were recorded at College Street in Dublin where

the 60 g/m3

daily limit value relevant in 2003 was exceeded on 41 days (see Figure

2.1). This site however is not compliant with the site selection criteria set out in

Directive 1999/30/EC (CEC, 1999) and is therefore not used for Directive compliance

purposes. The 50 g/m3

daily limit value applicable from January 1st

2005 was

exceeded at Coleraine Street in Dublin on more than the permitted 35 days. However,

the number of days that exceeded 60 g/m3, (the limit value plus the margin of

tolerance applicable in 2003), was less than 35 at this site. As such, the 2003 data

indicate that air quality management plans to reduce PM10 were not required.

Table 2.4 Summary Statistics for PM10 concentrations in 2003

PM10

CollegeSt

WinetavernSt.

ColeraineSt.

Marino

Rathmines

Crumlin

PhoenixPark

Ballyfermot

OldStationRd.

HeathertonPark

Galway

Sligo

Athlone

(g /m3)

Zone A

(Dublin)

Zone B

(Cork)

Zone C

(Other Urban

Centres)

Annual Mean 30 26 28 23 23 22 13 19 26 21 27 18 21

Annual Median 37 20 21 17 17 17 9 16 21 19 22 13 15

98-percentile 107 79 101 76 79 65 56 62 69 39 70 53 76

Maximum 195 132 130 115 112 108 156 88 101 50 107 63 95

% of annual values 82 93 87 73 90 53 83 28 93 89 92 50 33

Values >50 g/m3 63 28 38 20 27 9 9 3 28 0 25 7 13

Values >60 g/m3 41 16 26 13 19 6 6 3 15 0 18 1 7

* Based on daily mean concentrations50 g/m3 in the daily limit value from 200560 g/m3 in the daily limit value plus margin of tolerance applicable in 2003


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16irAir Quality

A significant number of exceedances of the daily limit were recorded at other city

centre locations in Dublin and at Old Station Road in Cork in 2003, however with the

exception of College Street and Coleraine Street, the number of such daily

exceedances was less than the maximum 35 to be permitted from 2005. Under the

PM10 Stage-2 limit, a maximum of seven exceedances of 50 g/m3

will apply from

2010. It is worth noting that there were more than seven occurrences of dailyconcentrations in excess of 50 g/m

3at most measurement stations in 2003, including

those with as few as one-third of possible daily values.

Figure 2.1: Number of Days with PM10 concentrations >60g/m3 at each station in 2003

0

5

10

15

2025

30

35

40

45

Colle

geSt

Wine

tavern

St.

Coler

aineS

t.

Marin

o

Rathm

ines

Crum

lin

Phoe

nixPark

Ballyfer

mot

OldS

tation

Roa

d

Heath

erton

Park

Galw

aySligo

Athlo

ne

Numbero

fDays

Permitted number of exceedances under stage-1 limit from 2005

Permitted number of exceedances under stage-2 limit from 2010

The Stage 1 annual limit of 40 g/m3 that applies from 2005 was not exceeded at anylocation, although the lower indicative Stage 2 limit of 20 g/m

3to apply from 2010

was exceeded at the majority of sites. Annual mean PM10 levels greater than 25 g/m3

were recorded at College Street, Winetavern Street and Coleraine Street in Dublin

City and at the Old Station Road in Cork City. This is to be expected, as these

locations are impacted most severely by various PM10 sources. Significant annual

mean concentrations were also recorded at Galway in Zone C (see Table 2.4). It is

clear that substantial concentrations of PM10 occur in urban areas and that both daily

and annual limit values, which apply from 2005, are in danger of being approached at

some sites. This pollutant needs to be closely monitored and it may present a

challenge to ensure that there is compliance with the limit values from 2005.


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17irAir Quality

2.4 Nitrogen Oxides


Nitrogen dioxide is sampled using a continuous chemiluminescent method. In the

instrument, NO2 is converted to nitric oxide (NO) in a molybdenum converter. The

nitric oxide and a stream of ozone are allowed to combine in a reaction chamber and alight is given off in the process. The intensity of the light is proportional to the amount

of NOin the sample. The background NO level is measured separately and subtracted

to give the level of NO2 in the air.

Monitoring Results

The NOX monitoring network in 2003 consisted of 7 fixed monitoring stations and 3

mobile units. A statistical analysis of the data indicates that the current 98-percentile

limit value of 200 g/m3

for NO2 set out in Directive 85/203/EEC (CEC, 1985) was

not exceeded at any of the stations in 2003 (see Table 2.5). All 10 stations were also

compliant with the more stringent hourly limit value set out in Directive 1999/30/EC

(CEC, 1999), which comes into force in 2010. This limit value will permit no morethan 18 values in excess of 200 g/m

3per calendar year. In 2003, the limit value plus

margin of tolerance applicable to hourly concentrations was 270 g/m3.

All stations were compliant with the 2003 hourly limit of 270 g/m3.This limit valuecomprises of the future 2010 limit plus the applicable margin of tolerance of 70

g/m3. The number of hourly exceedances recorded were also low in the context of

the 2010 limit value of 200 g/m3. While the 2003 results indicate that there were few

hourly values greater than 200 g/m3, the annual mean NO2 concentrations at both

Winetavern Street and Coleraine Street in Dublin were very close to the annual mean

limit of 40 g/m3

that will apply from 2010 (See Table 2.5). However, the annual

mean concentrations recorded were significantly less than 54 g/m3, the limit valueplus the applicable margin of tolerance in 2003.

The limit value of 30 g/m3 in respect of annual mean NOX for the protection of

vegetation came into force in 2001. NOx levels recorded at both Zone D stations in

Kilkitt, Co. Monaghan and Glashaboy Co. Cork were well below 30 g/m3with the

highest annual mean value recorded at the sites approximately one-third of the limit

value.


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18irAir Quality

Table 2.5 Summary Statistics for hourly NO2 and NOXValues in 2003

NOx

WinetavernSt

ColeraineSt

B

allyfermot

Crumlin

R

athmines

Old

StationRd.

Sligo

Athlone

Kilkitt

Co.Monaghan

G

lashaboy

Co.Cork

g/m3

Zone A

(Dublin)

Zone B

(Cork)

Zone C Zone D

NO2 NO2 NO2 NO2 NO2 NOX NO2 NOX

Mean 38 37 26 23 25 23 11 9 3 3 8 10

Median 33 33 19 16 19 21 9 6 1 1 5 6

95%ile 86 77 72 65 65 55 29 29 16 15 26 33

98%ile 103 87 86 80 77 65 39 39 22 23 33 58

99.9%ile 162 126 135 130 113 112 71 71 51 58 56 183

Maximum 215 167 312 216 133 172 235 273 71 87 63 233

% data capture 97 96 95 100 93 93 51 65 82 82 95 95

Hours >200 g/m3 1 0 5 1 0 0 2 3 0 na 0 na

Hours >270 g/m3 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 0 na 0 na

na: not applicable

200 g/m3 in the hourly limit value from 2005270 g/m3 in the hourly limit value plus margin of tolerance applicable in 2003

Figure 2.2: Calibration of NOXmonitor at Glashaboy, Co. Cork


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19irAir Quality

2.5 Ozone


Ozone is measured using a UV (ultra-violet) absorption O3 analyser. This is a

continuous analyser in which the detection of ozone molecules is based on absorption

of UV light. The level in air is measured directly and also after passing the samplethrough a scrubber to selectively remove ozone. The ratio of the intensity of light

passing through the scrubbed air to that of ambient air forms the basis for the

calculation of the ozone concentration.

Ozone concentrations are measured in parts per billion (ppb). These are converted to

microgrammes per cubic metre (g/m3) to facilitate assessment in the context of the

thresholds presented in Table 2.7. (1 ppb ozone is equivalent to 2 g/m3). Ozone

concentrations typically display a seasonal cycle in which the highest concentrations

occur during late spring and early summer. A high level of data capture was achieved

at most stations in 2003, averaging 85 percent across the network.

Monitoring Results

In 2003 the national ozone monitoring network consisted of 8 stations, 5 of which

were operated by the EPA. The station at Valentia is operated by Met Eireann while

Cork City Council operates the station at Old Station Road in Cork City. The station

located at Mace Head is operated by the National University of Ireland, Galway

(NUIG).

The highest average ozone levels were measured on the west coast in 2003 (Table

2.6). The one-hour population information threshold of 180 g/m3

was marginally

exceeded on one occasion at Valentia, Co. Kerry while significant levels were also

recorded at Mace Head in Co. Galway. Lower concentration levels were measured atsites located at Rathmines in Dublin and Old Station Road in Cork and at Ridge of

Capard. The lower levels recorded in Dublin and Cork can in part be attributed to the

effects of NOX, which normally suppresses ozone levels in the urban environment,

while the station at Ridge of Capard in Offaly ceased operating in May 2003. The

station was vandalised and has now been moved to a more secure site.

Table 2.6: Summary Statistics of Hourly Ozone Concentrations in 2003

Kilkitt

(Monaghan)

Glashaboy

(Cork)

Mace Head

(Galway)

Old Station

Road

(Cork)

Johnstown

Castle

(Wexford)

Rathmines

(Dublin)

Ridge of

Capard

(Offaly)

Valentia

(Kerry)

Average 63 52 76 37 65 37 39 78

Median 63 53 77 37 66 50 50 80

95 percentile 92 87 103 90 98 83 77 110

98-percentile 103 97 113 101 108 92 83 121

99.9-percentile 133 135 131 136 132 120 101 172

Maximum 136 153 155 155 161 133 108 181

% Values 95 89 98 76 92 99 36 97

No. of Values 8355 7837 8587 6662 8080 8705 3118 8525

Values>180 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1


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20irAir Quality

Figure 2.3: Time series of daily ozone concentrations in 2003

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

01/01/2003 01/03/2003 01/05/2003 01/07/2003 01/09/2003 01/11/2003

DailyConcs.

(g/m

3)

Glashaboy Johnstown Castle Kilkitt Mace Head

Old Station Road Rathmines Ridge of Capard Valentia

31/12/03

Table 2.7: Thresholds set out in Ozone Directive 92/72/EEC

Threshold for: Concentration

g/m3

Averaging period

(hours)

Health protection 110 8

Vegetation protection 200 1

Vegetation protection 65 24

Population information 180 1

Population warning 360 1

Exceedance of the 1992 Ozone Directive Thresholds

There was one marginal exceedance of the 180 g/m3

population information

threshold recorded during one hour at Valentia, Co. Kerry in 2003 (Table 2.8). The

level recorded was 181.2 g/m3 and concentrations returned below the threshold

within an hour. Ozone concentrations must reach 360 g/m3

before the requirement to

warn the public about high concentrations applies. Transboundary transport of ozone

due to anticyclonic conditions is the most likely cause of the elevated concentrations

at Valentia. The levels recorded at all other stations during the same time period were

well below 180 g/m3.

There were 110 exceedance events1

on 36 days related to the 8-hour threshold of 110

g/m3

for effects on human health over the eight sites in 2003. There were 61 events

in respect of the three consecutive 8-hour periods over the day and 49 events for the

afternoon period from 12:00 to 20:00 hours for which the highest concentrations are

expected. Average 8-hour concentrations during all events were 122 g/m3

and the

highest 8-hour concentrations reached 165 g/m3. The highest number of 8-hour mean

concentrations above 110 g/m3

were recorded on the west-coast at monitoring

stations located in Valentia and at Mace Head. The number of occurrences of 8-hour

1 An exceedance event for the 8-hour threshold of 110 g/m3 is the occurrence of concentrations

greater than 110 g/m3

for one or more of the consecutive 8-hour periods 00:00-07:00, 08:00-15:00,16:00-23:00 or for the afternoon period 12:00-20:00. One event may extend over one, two or three 8-

hour periods.


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21irAir Quality

concentrations greater than 110 g/m3

represents a significant increase in the number

of exceedances for this averaging period recorded in 2002. The warm weather

conditions experienced in 2003 were probably the main contributory factor for the

higher number of such exceedances. A detailed listing of individual hourly and 8

hourly exceedances in accordance with the reporting requirements of Directive

92/62/EEC (CEC, 1992), is presented in Appendix B.

Table 2.8: Exceedances of 1-hour, 8-hour and 24-hour Ozone Thresholds in 2003

Protection of

Human Health

Protection of

Vegetation

1-hour (180

g/m3)

8-hour (110 g/m3) 24-hour

(65g/m3)

Days Events* 8-hours Days** Days

Kilkitt 0 9 11 6 125

Glashaboy 0 7 8 4 73

Mace Head 0 25 31 16 239Old Station Road 0 8 9 5 50

Rathmines 0 2 2 1 57

Valentia 1 45 58 28 256

Johnstown Castle 0 14 15 11 133

Network 1 110 134 36 290

* an event is one or more exceedances for the given period which occur on the same day

** number of days when one or more exceedances of the threshold has occurred

Note: the number of days where exceedances of the thresholds have occurred for the entire network is not equal to the total

number of individual exceedances at each station because exceedances may occur on the same day at more than one station

The number of exceedances of the vegetation protection threshold of 65 g/m3

for

daily values at rural sites with adequate data capture in 2003 ranged from 125 days atKillkitt in Co. Monaghan to 256 days at Valentia in Co. Kerry (see Table 2.8 and

Figure 2.3). There was a total of 290 days over all sites when this threshold was

exceeded. The high number reflects the fact that this limit is close to background

North Atlantic levels, which peak in the spring and early summer months.

Ozone Levels related to the 2002 Ozone Directive

The assessment of ozone in the context of effects on human health under the 2002

Ozone Directive (EP and CEU, 2002) is on the basis of maximum daily 8-hour mean

values for which the 2010 target is that this level of ozone should not be exceeded on

more than 25 days per calendar year. AOT40 (accumulation over threshold of 40ppb)is used as the measurement of vegetation exposure to ozone in the 2002 ozone

Directive. The Directive was transposed into Irish law by the Ozone in Ambient Air

Regulations, 2004 (DEHLG, 2004). AOT40 is expressed in units of g/m3hours and

refers to the sum of the differences between hourly concentrations greater than 80

g/m3

(40 ppb) over a specified period, such as growing season. The AOT40 target

value in 2010 is 18,000 g/m3hours, calculated from hourly values between 08:00 and

20:00 Central European Time (CET) each day from May to July and averaged over

five years.


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22irAir Quality

The new Directive, which, will be used for reporting purposes from 2004, also

specifies long-term objectives, to be reviewed in time, using 2020 as the benchmark

for attainment. The long-term objectives are that the maximum ozone daily 8-hour

mean concentration should not exceed 120 g/m3

and that the AOT40 should not

exceed 6,000 g/m3hours. The hourly information threshold of 180 g/m

3has been

retained in the 2002 Ozone Directive however the hourly warning threshold of 360g/m

3has been replaced by a lower Alert threshold of 240 g/m

3.

Table 2.9: AOT40 values from rural stations in Ireland in 2002 and 2003 (g/m3hours.)

Station Name 2002 2003 Average

Glashaboy 531 1637 1089

Mace Head 5276 7235 6256

Kilkitt 3233 2258 2736

Valentia 2508 9532 6025

Johnstown Castle 4022 5350 4686

Even though ozone levels are regarded as low in Ireland, the maximum 8-hour mean

of 120 g/m3 was exceeded on 20 days in 2003, which is significant in the context of

the 2010 target of no more than 25 exceedance days. Table 2.9 displays AOT40 values

calculated for the five rural stations in 2002 and 2003. The results for these stations

show that there is unlikely to be a problem complying with the 2010 target value of

18,000 g/m3hours averaged over 5 years. However, the AOT40 values at both Mace

Head, Co. Galway and Valentia, Co. Kerry in 2003 were marginally greater than the

long-term objective of 6,000 g/m3hours specified in Directive 2002/3/EC.

2.6 Lead, Carbon Monoxide and Benzene2.6.1 Lead


Ambient levels of lead are obtained by continuous active filtration followed by acid

dissolution and analysis by atomic absorption spectrometry or inductively coupled

plasma/mass spectrometry. Data collected from the monitoring sites are assessed in

relation to Directive 82/883/EEC (CEC, 1982), which sets out an air quality standard

of 2 g/m3

in respect of the annual mean concentration. The Directive also sets a

guide level of 0.5 g/m3, which incidentally is also the new limit value for lead

defined in 1999/30/EC (CEC, 1999) and which is to be achieved by 2005.

Monitoring Results

The lead monitoring network consisted of 8 fixed monitoring stations and 3 mobile

units. Lead levels measured at all stations (Table 2.10) were well below the limit and

guide values set out in 82/883/EEC (CEC, 1982) with annual mean concentrations

apart from Branch Road in Dublin and Old Station Rd. in Cork typically less than

0.05 g/m3, which is one-tenth of the future limit value. The levels are similar to those

recorded in recent years and this stabilisation of lead concentrations in urban areas

suggests that the reductions due to the use of unleaded petrol have been fully realised.


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23irAir Quality

Table 2.10. Summary lead concentration statistics in 2003 (g/m3)

Lead g/m3

CollegeSt.

Killbarrack

BranchRd.

Crumlin

W

inetavernSt.

C

oleraineSt.

Rathmines

OldStationRd.

Sligo

Athlone

Kilkitt

Zone A(Dublin)

Zone B(Cork)

Zone C Zone D(Monaghan)

Mean 0.01 0.01 0.05 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.06 0.01 0.01 0.02

Max 0.05 0.06 0.20 0.05 0.02 0.07 0.02 0.21 0.05 0.03 0.02

Min 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01

% Data Capture 85 100 92 87 81 88 88 66 69 65 38

2.6.2 Carbon Monoxide


Carbon monoxide is monitored using a gas filter correlation method based on theabsorption of infrared radiation by CO molecules. Directive 2000/69/EC (EP and

CEU, 2000) specifies a limit value of 10 mg/m3

for carbon monoxide (CO), which is

applied to the maximum daily eight-hour mean concentration. It is the first standard to

be adopted for CO in Ireland and is used as the reference for CO assessment here.

Monitoring Results

CO results are available from fixed sites located in Dublin, Cork and at Kilkitt,

County Monaghan in Zone D. The EPA Mobile Units located in Crumlin, Sligo and

Athlone in 2003 provided CO data from three additional sites. Summary statistics for

eight-hour average values for various urban sites are presented in Table 2.11. Thevalues recorded at all sites were low indicating that future compliance with the limit

of 10 mg/m3, applicable for January 1

st2005, should not be a problem.

Table 2.11: Statistics for 8-hour running average CO concentrations in 2003

CO

Winetavern St. Coleraine

St.

Crumlin Old Station

Rd.

Sligo Athlone Kilkitt

(mg/m3)

Zone A

(Dublin)

Zone B

(Cork)

Zone C Zone D

(Monaghan)

Average 0.2 0.6 0.3 0.6 0.3 0.3 0.3

Median 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.2

Maximum 2.5 3.7 3.2 2.6 1.6 1.2 0.7

% Data Capture 98.3 97.5 90.9 89.2 53.1 38.5 15.3


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24irAir Quality

2.6.3 Benzene


Benzene (C6H6) is measured using a gas chromatograph which can also measure

toluene and xylene. The gas chromatograph samples automatically over a fifteen

minute cycle and is equipped with a photoionisation detector.

Monitoring Results

Benzene was measured at three fixed sites in Dublin, one fixed site in Cork and at the

mobile stations in Athlone and Sligo in zone C. Benzene is a constituent of crude oil

and is present in petrol. In Europe, the proportion of benzene in petrol is

approximately two percent while the EC maximum limit is five percent. Benzene is

recognised as a carcinogen and historically, was used as a solvent but this use has

largely been phased out. Population exposure mainly arises from vehicle exhaust

emissions and from evaporative losses and refuelling emissions. Daughter Directive

2000/69/EC (EP and CEU, 2000) specifies a benzene limit value of 5 g/m3, which is

based on the annual mean concentration. This limit value, which comes into force in2010, is the first standard to be adopted for benzene in Ireland and is used as the

reference for benzene assessment here. Annual benzene levels measured at all stations

in 2003 were below the Lower Assessment Threshold of 2 g/m3 indicating that

benzene levels will be within the 2010 limit.

Table 2.12: Summary Benzene Concentrations during 2003

Benzene Winetavern St. Rathmines Old Station Rd. Athlone Sligo

(g/m3 )Zone A

(Dublin)

Zone B

(Cork)

Zone C

Average 1.6 1.1 0.7 0.3 0.3

Median 1.2 0.78 0.3 0.2 0.3

Maximum 22.8 11.9 37.2 8.1 13.5

% Values 95.5 17.8 - 65.0 52.6


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Emissions to Air

Part II Emissions to Air

Introduction:

The emissions of a variety of substances into the atmosphere are subject to legally

binding limits under relevant international agreements entered into by the State.

These substances include greenhouse gases, key acidifying gases and ozoneprecursors. This section of the report deals with emissions levels in the context of

their relevant national emissions ceilings. The trends in emissions are examined and

distance to target indicators are presented as a measure of progress towards the

specified limits.

The emissions limit for greenhouse gases, established following the adoption of

Kyoto Protocol (IUCC, 1998) to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change

(UNFCCC) (IUCC, 1993), is most widely known. The Protocol came into effect on

February 15th

2005, 19 days after 55 countries which accounted for more than 55 per

cent of the total carbon dioxide emissions in 1990 had ratified the agreement. As of 6th

April 2005, 148 states and regional economic integration organisations accounting for61.6% of total CO2 emissions have deposited instruments of ratifications, accessions,

approvals or acceptances. Irelands limit for the basket of six greenhouse gases was

determined by the European Unions burden-sharing agreement (CEC, 2002) and it is

to limit the increase in their combined emissions during the five-year period 2008-

2012 to 13 percent above 1990 levels.

The emission limits for the key acidifying gases and ozone precursors are prescribed

by the National Emissions Ceilings Directive (EP and CEU, 2001) and the

Gothenburg Protocol to the UN Convention on Long Range Transboundary Air

Pollution (UNECE, 1999). These limits are 42, 65, 55 and 116 kilotonnes for sulphur

dioxide, nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds and ammonia, respectively andare to be achieved by 2010. The limits on national emissions of these four substances

are part of wide-ranging strategies to combat the problems of acidification,

eutrophication and ground-level ozone in Europe. Compliance with the ceilings for

greenhouse gases and for some of the gases covered by the National Emissions

Ceilings (NEC) Directive (EP and CEU, 2001) represents a major challenge for

Ireland and will feature strongly in environmental policy in the coming years.


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Emissions to Air

3.1 Trends in Greenhouse Gas Emissions

The trends in total greenhouse gas emissions in Ireland over the period 1990-2003 by

IPCC source category and by gas are shown on Figure 3.1(a) and Figure 3.1(b),

respectively. Figure 3.2 shows CO2 emissions from fuel combustion, the major

source of greenhouse gases in Ireland and the total primary energy requirement that

drives CO2 emissions. Emissions from agriculture, the other principal source

category, are shown on Figure 3.3(b) along with the principal emission drivers in

agriculture Figure 3.3 (a). Total emissions (excluding net CO2 fromLand Use Change

and Forestry) increased steadily from 53.9 million tonnes CO2 equivalent in the base

year2

to 70.5 million tonnes CO2 equivalent in 2001 and then decreased slightly to

67.5 million tonnes CO2 equivalent in 2003. Total emissions in 2003 were 25 percent

higher than in the base year and 4 percent lower than the peak level of 2001.

The overall increase in greenhouse gas emissions of 31 percent in the period 1990-

2001 was driven by the growth in CO2 emissions from energy use, which is well

shown by the similarities between emissions from energy on Figure 3.2(b) and theCO2 trend on Figure 3.1(b). The increase in CO2 amounted to 44 percent over these

12 years. The bulk of this increase occurred in the years between 1995 and 2000,

during which Ireland experienced a period of unprecedented economic growth and

emissions grew by 3 percent annually. The rate of economic growth slowed down

considerably from 2000 to 2003, which together with the closure of some major

industrial plants and continued decline in cattle populations and fertilizer use, resulted

in the change in emission trends presented in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1(a) Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Source Category

0

10000

20000

30000

40000

50000

60000

70000

80000

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

kilotonnesCO2

eq

Energy Industrial Processes Solvent and Other Product Use Agriculture Waste

2ThebaseyearemissionsarethesumofCO 2,CH4andN2Oemissionsin1990alongwiththecombinedemissionsofHFC,PFCandSF 6in1995,expressedinCO 2equivalents.


34/57

Emissions to Air

Figure 3.1(b) Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Gas

0

10000

20000

30000

40000

50000

60000

70000

80000

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

kilotonnesCO2eq

CO2 CH4 N2O HFC, PFC and SF6

Figure 3.2(a) Total Primary Energy Requirement

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

14000

16000

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

ThousandTOE

Coal Peat Oil Gas Renewables


35/57

Emissions to Air

Figure 3.2 (b) Component Emissions from Energy Use

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

3000035000

40000

45000

50000

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

kilotonnesCO2

eq

Peat-CO2 Coal-CO2 Gas-CO2 Oil-CO2 Stationary

Oil-CO2 Road All Fuels-CH4 All Fuels-N2O

3.2 Trends by Sector and Gas

In 2003, theEnergy sector accounted for 64.6 percent of total emissions,Agriculturecontributed 27.8 percent while a further 4.4 percent emanated from Industrial

Processes and 3 percent was due to Waste. Emissions of CO2 accounted for 65.8percent of the total of 67.5 million tonnes CO2 equivalent in 2003, with CH4 and N2O

contributing 18.9 percent and 14.4 percent, respectively. The emissions of HFC, PFC

and SF6 accounted for less than 1 percent of total emissions in 2003.

Fuel combustion in electricity generation and in transport accounted for 26.9 million

tonnes CO2 in 2003 or approximately 40 percent of total greenhouse gas emissions.

The largest increases in CO2 emissions have taken place in these sectors. There

continues to be heavy reliance on carbon intensive fuels for electricity generation in

Ireland and, as electricity demand increased steadily during the 1990s, the associated

CO2 emissions from energy industries increased by 55 percent from 11 million tonnes

in 1990 to 17 million tonnes in 2001. There were some gains from energy efficiency

and fuel switching as some new electricity suppliers entered the market in 2002 and

2003 with the result that CO2 emissions from electricity generation reduced to 15

million tonnes in 2003, which is 36 percent higher than in 1990.


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Emissions to Air

Figure 3.3(a) Main Drivers in Agriculture

0

1,000,000

2,000,000

3,000,000

4,000,000

5,000,000

6,000,000

7,000,000

8,000,000

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

AnimalPopulation

0

50,000

100,000

150,000

200,000

250,000

300,000

350,000

400,000

450,000

TonnesN

Dairy Cattle Other Cattle Sheep Fertilizer N Pigs

Figure3.3(b) Component CH4 and N2O Emissions in Agriculture

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

kilotonnesCO2eq

CH4 Cattle CH4 Other Livestock Manure Mgnt-CH4 & N2O

N2O Soils N2O Animal Prod Indirect N2O

The CO2 emissions from transport sources, which are largely accounted for by road

traffic in Ireland, increased by 126 percent between 1990 and 2003, due to sustained

growth in vehicle fleets and road travel. This trend is exaggerated somewhat in latter

years by so-called fuel-tourism, whereby a significant proportion of the automotive

fuels sold in Ireland is used by vehicles in the UK and other countries. The proportion

was estimated to be approximately 6 percent for petrol in 2003 but it may have been

as high as 19 percent in the case of diesel. It is worth noting that in 1990 there was

significant cross-border movement of automotive fuels into Ireland. Ireland has only

a small number of energy intensive industries and CO2 emissions from combustion in

the industrial sector account for only 7 percent of total emissions but, nevertheless,

these emissions increased by approximately 25 percent between 1990 and 2003. The


37/57

Emissions to Air

contribution from industrial process decreased significantly in 2003 following the

closure of Irelands ammonia and nitric acid plants in June 2002.

Residential fuel combustion accounts for the bulk of emissions from other energy-use

sectors and this source category is a larger contributor to CO2 emissions in Ireland

than combustion in industry. Although residential energy consumption increased byabout 22 percent from 1990 to 2003, CO2 emissions in this sector show a decrease of

4 percent due to the decline in the use of carbon-intensive fuels, such as peat and coal,

and greater use of oil and natural gas. Emissions of CO2 from coal and peat use in the

residential sector decreased by 72 percent between 1990 and 2003 while emissions

from oil and natural gas trebled over this period.

The main drivers of emissions in Agriculture are shown in Figure 3.3(a) and the

component CH4 and N2O emission trends are shown on Figure 3.3(b). Large

livestock populations produce about 0.52 million tonnes of CH4 annually through

enteric fermentation and manure management while the sustained application of large

amounts of chemical and organic nitrogen to soils results in the emission of

approximately 24,000 tonnes N2O. These emissions from Agriculture, equal to

approximately 18.5 million tonnes CO2 equivalent annually, account for a

comparatively larger share of total national emissions than in most other developed

countries. However, this share decreased from 34 percent in 1990 to approximately

28 percent in 2003 due to the sustained CO2 increase and a slight downturn in both

CH4 and N2O emissions from agriculture after 1998, reflecting the decline in the cattle

population and fertilizer use.

3.3 Emissions of Sulphur Dioxide

The trend in SO2 emissions over the period 1990 to 2003 is shown in Figure 3.4.

Total emissions decreased by almost 60 percent from 185,780 tonnes in 1990 to

76,370 tonnes in 2003. Power stations remain the principal source of SO2 emissions,

contributing approximately 58 percent of the total in 2003, even though emissions in

this sector decreased by 57 percent from 1990. Combustion sources in the industrial

and residential/commercial sectors account for the remainder of emissions, with

contributions of 24 percent and 18 percent, respectively in 2003. The emissions from

industrial sources decreased by 72 percent from 1990 while the emissions in the

residential and commercial sectors decreased by approximately 50 percent. The

reductions in SO2 emissions reflect a substantial decrease in the sulphur content of

fuel oil and gasoil, the use of low-sulphur coal at Moneypoint power station andincreased use of natural gas in electricity generation generally and a shift from solid

fuels to natural gas and kerosene in the residential sector

3.4 Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides

Figure 3.5 shows the trend in NOX emissions over the period 1990 to 2003. Unlike

SO2, total emissions have not decreased and instead these latest estimates indicate a

marginal increase from 118,000 tonnes in 1990 to 119,750 tonnes in 2003. Road

transport, which accounts for the bulk of the emissions in transport in Figure 3.5, is

the principal source of NOX emissions, contributing approximately 42 percent of the

total in 2003. The power generation sector is the other main source of NOX emissions,accounting for 28 percent of emissions in 2003. The application of low-NOX burner


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Emissions to Air

technology in several major power stations and the increased use of natural gas have

reduced NOX emissions from electricity generation by 27 percent from 1990 even

though electricity demand has increased considerably. The remainder of NOX

emissions emanate from the industry, agriculture and the residential/commercial

sectors, which together produced 30 percent of the total in 2003.

The benefits given by catalyst controls in cars and heavy duty vehicles, which were

expected to bring about substantial reductions in NOX emissions from road transport

from the mid 1990s, have been offset in Ireland by the large increases in traffic and in

the use of petrol and diesel that began around the same time. As in the case of CO2,

this trend is exaggerated by fuel-tourism, whereby a significant proportion of the

automotive fuels sold in Ireland is used by vehicles outside the State but the

corresponding emissions, which may have been up to 10,000 tonnes in 2003, are

included in the total for Ireland. The reductions due to technological controls are

apparent in Figure 3.5 after 2000 and they will become larger in the coming years.

3.5 Emissions of Volatile Organic CompoundsWhile the available estimates of VOC emissions are generally much more uncertain

than those of SO2 or NOX, it may be said that the emissions are determined mainly by

road traffic and solvent use. These sources typically produce almost 90 percent of the

annual total in Ireland as can be seen from Figure 3.6, where solvents account for the

bulk of the emissions in the category other. Coal burning in the residential sector is

another important source but its contribution is declining as coal consumption

continues to decrease. Technological controls for VOC in motor vehicles have been

more successful than in the case of NOX and they have given a substantial reduction

in emissions from road transport in recent years since 1998. Paint application and the

domestic use of various solvent-based products account for most of the emissions in

the other category in Figure 3.6. The increases for this category therefore largely

reflect corresponding growth in population and in the consumption of paint and other

solvent-based products.

3.6 Emissions of Ammonia

Grasslands ultimately receive the bulk of the 60 million tonnes of animal wastes

produced annually in Ireland along with some 300,000 tonnes of nitrogenous

fertilizers. A high proportion of the nitrogen in these inputs is volatilised as ammonia.

As a result, the agriculture sector accounts for virtually all ammonia emissions in

Ireland.Animal manures produce about 85 percent of ammonia emissions in agriculture and

chemical fertilizers account for the remainder. It is estimated that approximately 17

percent of the nitrogen in animal wastes and 4 percent of nitrogen contained in

chemical fertilizers is lost to the atmosphere as NH3. The NH3 emissions trend (Figure

3.7) is largely determined by the cattle population and shows a steady increase up to

almost 127,000 tonnes in 1999. There has been some decline in the populations of

non-dairy cattle and sheep since 1999, as well as a decrease in fertilizer use, which

contributed to a downturn in NH3 emissions in the period 2000 to 2003. The

emissions in 2003 were 116,260 tonnes, some 9,000 tonnes or just over 8 per cent

higher than in 1990.


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Emissions to Air

Figure 3.4: Trends in SO2 Emissions 1990-2003

0

20000

40000

60000

80000

100000

120000140000

160000

180000

200000

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

TonnesSO

2

Power Stations Residential & Commercial

Industrial Agriculture & Forestry

Transport Other

Figure 3.5: Trends in NOXEmissions 1990-2003

0

20000

40000

60000

80000

100000

120000

140000

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

TonnesNO2

Power Stations Residential & Commercial

Industrial Agriculture & Forestry

Transport Other


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Emissions to Air

Figure 3.6: Trends in VOC Emissions 1990-2003

0

20000

40000

60000

80000

100000

120000

140000

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

TonnesVOC

Power Stations Residential & Commercial Industrial

Agriculture & Forestry Transport Other

Figure 3.7: Trends in NH3 Emissions 1990-2003

0

20,000

40,000

60,000

80,000

100,000

120,000

140,000

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

TonnesAmmonia

Cattle Other Livestock Urea Other Fertiliser Transport

3.7 Progress Towards National Emission Limits

Although greenhouse gas emission levels in 2003 were 4 per cent lower than their

peak level in 2001, the total exceeded 1990 levels by 25 percent. This leaves Ireland

as one of the EU countries that is furthest from its national Kyoto Protocol target path

(Figure 3.8). The downward trend from 2001 is significant but total emissions may

increase again in the coming years if emissions from agriculture stabilise and

emissions from energy consumption, particularly in the case of transport, continue to

rise.


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Emissions to Air

3.8: Distance from Kyoto Protocol Target Path for Ireland

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

Index(1990=100)

National Total

KP Target path

Index(1990=100)

Table 3.1 sets out the Irish emissions ceilings for SO2, NOX, VOC and NH3 under the

NEC Directive, along with the levels of reduction that they represent relative to

emissions in 1990 (the baseline for the background analysis that established the

NECs), the progress achieved towards the respective NECs by 2003 and the

remaining distance to the targets. Reductions corresponding to 75 percent, 58 percent

and 100 percent of those needed have been achieved in the case of SO2, VOC and

NH3, respectively. However, the emissions of NOX have only begun to show a

decrease since 2000, with the result that the total in 2003 remained marginally higher

than the 1990 baseline value of 115 kt, which in turn means that the required decrease

remains to be achieved in the period 2004-2010.

Table 3.1 Progress Towards National Emissions Ceilings

Pollutant 1990

Emissions

Baseline (kt)a

2003

Emissions (kt)

2010

Emissions

Ceiling (kt)

% Reduction

from 1990

Baseline to 2010

% Reduction

required from

2003 to 2010

SO2 178 76 42 76 44

NOX 115 120 65 43 45

VOC

b

110 78 55 50 29

NH3 126 116 116 8 0

a the baseline emissions shown here are those available to international bodies at the time that the

ceilings were determined and have since been revised as part of normal inventory improvementsb natural emissions from forests have been excluded in revised totals for VOC


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Key Challenges

Part IIIKey Challenges

4.1 Meeting the new air quality standards

Directive 96/62/EC (CEC, 1996) provides the framework for implementing a new

regime in relation to air quality monitoring, assessment and management. This

includes establishing limit values for some pollutants for the first time and settingmore stringent limit values for other pollutants than those that applied previously. For

example, in adopting PM10 as the primary parameter for the assessment of particulate

matter, the limit for daily concentrations is effectively reduced by four-fifths of the

original limit for black smoke particulates while at the same time the contributing

particle-size range is extended. The new NO2 limit for hourly values is also more

stringent than the existing 98-percentile hourly limit of 200 g/m3

set out in Directive

85/203/EEC (CEC, 1985). The new limit, which comes into force in 2010, permits no

more than 18 exceedances of 200 g/m3

per year, compared to 175 hours under

Directive 85/203/EEC (CEC, 1985).

The pollutants that warrant the most intensive monitoring in the context of the new airquality standards set out under the new Air Framework Directive are particulate

matter (PM10), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and ozone. Significant concentrations of PM10

were observed at city centre monitoring stations in Dublin and Cork in 2003 and this

pollutant may present a problem in terms of complying with the 2005 limit values in

some urban areas. The levels could rise considerably if meteorological conditions

favouring poor dispersion of emissions were to persist for any appreciable length of

time. At city centre sites in particular, PM10 concentrations approach daily and annual

limit values that come into effect in 2005.

Hourly Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) concentrations measured at all stations in 2003 were

generally well within the standard that permits 18 exceedances of 200 g/m3 for

hourly values in the year. However, annual mean levels at a number of Dublin city

centre sites were close to the annual limit value of 40 g/m3, which enters into force

in 2010. Annual NO2 concentrations measured at other sites were significantly lower

indicating that compliance with the new limits should not be problematic in areas that

are not subject to heavy traffic.The achievement of standards set for both PM10 andNO2 in the future represents a major challenge under the new air quality management

regime.

Ozone pollution is a transboundary problem that continues to affect large parts of

Europe in summer months. When compared with mainland Europe, ozone levels inIreland are usually low. However, the 8-hour threshold of 110 g/m3 for the

protection of human health under Directive 92/72/EC (CEC, 1992) was exceeded on

several occasions in 2003 and there exists some potential for exceedance of the 2010

ozone target value of no more than 25 days with maximum daily 8-hour

concentrations of 120 g/m3

under Directive 2002/3/EC (EP and CEU, 2002). The

ability of countries to reach their respective National Emissions Ceilings for ozone

precursors such as Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

set out by the National Emissions Ceilings Directive (EP and CEU, 2001) and the

Gothenburg Protocol to the UN Convention on Long Range Transboundary Air

Pollution (UNECE, 1999) will have a significant impact of future ozone levels across

Europe.


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Key Challenges

The Air Framework Directive stipulates that modelling or objective estimation

techniques can be used to assess ambient air quality if levels of the pollutant in

question in that zone are below the lower assessment threshold. Continuous

monitoring is required if levels exceed the upper assessment threshold. In larger

agglomerations, (population >250,000) at least one fixed station measuring SO2 and

NO2 concentrations is required regardless of pollutant levels. Mobile monitoring at anumber of towns in zone C is recording PM10 levels above the upper assessment

threshold. As a result, PM10 may need to be monitored continuously at two fixed

locations in this zone. Concentrations of other pollutants measured at zone C sites are

generally below the lower assessment threshold, which means they can be assessed

using modelling or objective estimation techniques.

The new Air Quality Standards Regulations contain a number of provisions to

maintain satisfactory air quality in urban areas. Until the entry into force of the new

standards, air quality will be assessed by the EPA to determine whether measures are

necessary to ensure compliance with the standards from the operative dates. The

assessment is made in relation to the limit value plus the applicable margin oftolerance for that particular year. If such measures are needed in a particular area, the

relevant local authority will be notified, whereupon it will be responsible for drawing

up an air quality management plan to ensure compliance with the new air quality

standards within the time limit specified for the relevant pollutant.

After the new standards come into force, the potential for short-term breaches of

prescribed concentration limit values may still arise under certain conditions. They are

likely to be required only when a combination of factors (increase in emissions and

adverse dispersion conditions) create an air pollution incident that is a serious and

widespread risk to human health. On being informed by the EPA that there is a risk of

breaches of the air quality standards, a Local Authority is required to implement a

short-term action plan to ensure that pollutant levels remain within the limits.

Under the 2002 Regulations, the EPA has the responsibility for providing the public

with up-to-date information on air quality. In an effort to meet this requirement, the

Agency has made real time air quality data available to the public on its website

www.epa.ie/OurEnvironment/Air/AccessMaps. The website allows members of the

public direct access to real-time air monitoring data from relevant fixed monitoring

stations across Ireland. Information can be accessed on current levels of nitrogen

dioxide, sulphur dioxide, ozone and carbon monoxide. One continuous particulate

monitor is also on-line. Other particulate levels, which are measured manually, aremade available on the site as soon as they become available.

The EPA has recently established an air quality index the purpose of which is to

express complex air quality information in simple terms. Five bands are used in the

Irish index; very good, good, fair, poor and very poor. The index is based on a

maximum of four parameters; the 1 hour average of SO2, NO2 and ozone, combined

with the rolling 24 hour average of PM10.The index for each of the four parameters is

derived each hour and the overall index for the hour is equivalent to the lowest quality

rating assigned to a parameter.


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Key Challenges

4.2 Ambient Air Quality and Transport

Ireland has made considerable progress in controlling the emissions of air pollutants

from stationary sources over the past 15 years through the application of source-

specific and pollutant-specific regulations and the successful implementation of

Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC). The achievement of similar

success in relation to emissions from traffic is a much greater challenge.

The transport sector, and in particular road traffic, makes a large contribution to the

emissions of key pollutants on a national, regional and urban scale. Road traffic,

primarily diesel-engine vehicles is one of the primary sources of anthropogenic

particulate matter and NOX. The pollutant emissions emanating from vehicular

sources are also those to which the public may be most readily exposed, and they

present a considerable risk in terms of their potential to contribute to breaches of air

quality standards in areas subject to heavy traffic.

The threat is greatest in the larger urban areas, such as Dublin, Cork and Galway,

which experience traffic congestion on a regular basis. The monitoring results

presented in this report for 2003 show the parts of these cities impacted most by

traffic experience the highest levels of measured PM10 and NO2 in Ireland. Air quality

management in such areas will therefore depend largely on the effectiveness of traffic

management measures and on the degree to which further growth in road traffic can

be curtailed in cities.

Although the emissions from individual vehicles will continue to fall as a result of

technological advancements and cleaner fuel, improvements in the case of NOX have

to date been largely offset by the significant increase in the number of vehicles on the

road. The Dublin Port Tunnel

Documents

EPA Air Quality Report 2003