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생명과학으로의 입문 : 세포의 생명 활동 Dep. of Biology Development & Physiology Laboratory, Cheons Lab.

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Page 1: 생명과학으로의 입문elearning.kocw.net/contents4/document/lec/2012/Sungsin/... · 2013-07-31 · The principles that govern energy resources in chemistry, physics, an d engineering

생명과학으로의 입문 : 세포의 생명 활동

Dep. of Biology Development &

Physiology Laboratory, Cheon’s Lab.

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Cool “Fires” Attract Mates and

Meals

어떻게 이런일이 가능한가?

How ?

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생태계

광합성: 염록체

세포호흡

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The totality of an organism’s chemical reactions is called metabolism (물질대사). (물질대사: 생명체내 모든 화학 반응)

Metabolic pathways alter molecules in a series of steps. (물질대사결로를 통해 분자들이 순차적으로 변형됨)

A cell’s metabolism is an elaborate road map of

the chemical reactions in that cell.

(세포의 물질대사는 잘만들어진 세포내 화학반응의 도로망 지

도)

Metabolism (물질대사)

Enzymes (효소) selectively accelerate each step.

– This energy is stored in organic molecules until need to do

work in the cell.

– Catabolic pathways (이화작용 과정): release energy by

breaking down complex molecules to simpler compounds.

– 효소활성은 공급량과 소비량의 균형 유지

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이화과정에서 형성된 에너지는 동화과정에서 사용됨

Anabolic pathways (동화작용과정) consume energy to

build complicated molecules from simpler compounds.

Energy is fundamental to all metabolic processes (물질대사 과정), and

therefore to understanding how the living cell works (모든 물질대

사에 에너지 관여).

c.f.

The principles that govern energy resources in chemistry, physics, an

d engineering also apply to bioenergetics (생물에너지학), the study

of how organisms manage their energy resources. (생물에너지학을 응용하려는 시도들)

Page 7: 생명과학으로의 입문elearning.kocw.net/contents4/document/lec/2012/Sungsin/... · 2013-07-31 · The principles that govern energy resources in chemistry, physics, an d engineering

• Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins

can all be catabolized through the

same pathways.

Page 8: 생명과학으로의 입문elearning.kocw.net/contents4/document/lec/2012/Sungsin/... · 2013-07-31 · The principles that govern energy resources in chemistry, physics, an d engineering

• Living cells are compartmentalized by

membranes (막으로 구획됨)

• Membranes are sites where chemical reactions

can occur in an orderly manner (아주 체계적인 순서

로 화학반응이 이루어짐)

• Living cells process energy by means of enzyme-

controlled chemical reactions (효소가 화학반응 조절

함)

ENERGY AND THE CELL(에너지와 세포)

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• Fermentation (발효), leads to the partial degrada

tion of sugars in the absence of oxygen.

• Cellular respiration (세포호흡)

- A more efficient and widespread catabolic

process

- Uses oxygen as a reactant to complete the

breakdown of a variety of organic molecules.

- Most of the processes in cellular respiration occur in

mitochondria.

Catabolic Process (이화과정)

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Energy is the capacity to perform work 에너지는 일을 수행하게하는 능력

Energy makes change possible (에너지는 형태를 변형할 수 있음)

All organisms require energy to stay alive

(생존하기 위해서 에너지 필요)

Energy is defined as the capacity to do work- to move

matter against opposing forces. (에너지란 일할 수 있는 능력)

- Energy is also used to rearrange matter

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• Kinetic energy (운동에너지)

is energy that is actually

doing work (일에 쓰이는 에너

지)

• Potential energy (위치에너지)

is stored energy (저장된 에너

지) because of its location

or structure (위치 또는 구조)

Figure 5.1A

Figure 5.1B

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• Kinetic energy (운동에너지)

e.g. Objects in motion, photons, and heat are examples

Energy can be converted from one form to another

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• Potential (위치에너지) and kinetic (운동에너지) energy

Potentential Energy e.g. Chemical energy (화학 에너지): 원자배열

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• Potential (위치에너지) and kinetic (운동에너지) energy

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• 열역학 제1법칙

Energy can be changed from one form to another

– However, energy cannot be created or destroyed

(에너지 불변의 법칙: 에너지는 만들어지거나 파괴되지 않음)

Two laws govern energy conversion 에너지 전화에 있어서의 두 법칙

Figure 5.2A

• Plants transform light to

chemical energy; they do

not produce energy

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• 열역학 (Thermodynamics) 제 2 법칙

Energy changes are not 100% efficient

– Energy conversions increase disorder, or entropy

(에너지 변환은 엔트로피 (무질서 정도) 를 증가시킴)

– Some energy is always lost as heat

(에너지가 변환할 때 열로 에너지가 손실된다)

Figure 5.2B

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* 열역학 제2법칙: every energy transformation

must make the universe more disordered (모든 에너

지 변환은 우주의 무질서를 증가시킨다).

– Entropy : a quantity used as a measure of disorder, or

randomness.

– 우주의 entropy 증가는 대부분의 경우 열 (the energy of

random molecular motion) 증가 형태로 됨

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• 물질이 조직적으로 조직화된 생명체도 열역학 제2법칙을 벗어나지 않음 (Living organisms, ordered structures of matter, do not violate the second law of thermodynamics)

• 한 생명체가 보다 복잡한 생명체로 진화하여 복잡성이 증가하는 것은 우주내 전체 entropy가 증가한다는 열역학 제2법칙과 일치.

– Organisms are islands of low entropy in an increasingly random universe.

• 생명체 (organisms)는 open systems (열린계).

Organisms take in organized energy like light or

organic molecules and replace them with less ordered

forms, especially heat.

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• There are two types of chemical reactions:

– Endergonic reactions (흡열반응) absorb energy and yield products rich

in potential energy

Reactants

Po

ten

tia

l e

ne

rgy o

f m

ole

cu

les

Products

Amount of energy INPUT 반응물

생성물

– store energy (에너지 저장)

– delta G is positive (자유에너지 +)

– reaction are nonspontaneous (비자발

적 반응).

Chemical reactions either store or release

energy (화학반응은 에너지의 저장 또는 발산)

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– Exergonic reactions (발열반응) release energy (에너지 방출) and yield

products that contain less potential energy than their reactants

Reactants

Po

ten

tia

l e

ne

rgy o

f m

ole

cu

les

Products

Amount of energy

OUTPUT

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• Forest fire (산불)

Glucose (포도당: C6H12O6) + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O

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ATP shuttles chemical energy within the cell (세포내

화학에너지 운반체 ATP)

• 세포에서 진행되는 3가지 주된 생명활동 (A cell does three main

kinds of work)

– Mechanical work (기계적인 일): beating of cilia (섬모 운동),

contraction of muscle cells (근육세포수축), and movement of chromosomes (염색체 이동)

– Transport work (물질수송): pumping substances across membranes against the direction of spontaneous movement (확산에 반한 막을 통한 물질수송)

– Chemical work (화학작용): driving endergonic reactions such as the synthesis of polymers from monomers (흡열반응: 중합체 형성

등)

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• When the bond joining a phosphate group to the

rest of an ATP molecule is broken by hydrolysis

(가수분해), the reaction supplies energy for cellular

work (세포작용, 세포활동)

Figure 5.4A

Phosphate

groups

Adenine

Ribose

Adenosine triphosphate

Hydrolysis

Adenosine diphosphate

(ADP)

Energy

가수분해

7.3 kcal

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• How ATP powers cellular work (세포대사에서 ATP의 작용기작)

Figure 5.4B

Reactants

Po

ten

tial en

erg

y o

f m

ole

cu

les

Products

Protein Work

Energy coupling (에너지 짝물림)

Phosphorylation (인산화) --- more reactive (활성화)

Conformational change (구조변형)

Working (일)

세포가 일을 하기 위하여 화학에너지를 사용할 때 발열반응과 흡열반응이 동시에 일어난다

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Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The energy released by

the hydrolysis of ATP is

harnessed to the

endergonic reaction that

synthesizes glutamine

from glutamic acid

through the transfer of a

phosphate group from

ATP.

G: change in free

energy or

chemical potential

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• Cellular respiration(세포호흡)의 개관

해당과정 전자전달계

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• 화학반응을 시작하기 위해서, 반응물들은 에너지를 흡수해야만 한다.

– This energy is called the energy of activation (EA, 활성화 에너지)

– 에너지 장벽 (energy barrier) 의 존재: Prevents molecules

from breaking down spontaneously.

Enzymes (효소) speed up the cell’s chemical

reactions by lowering energy barriers

HOW ENZYMES WORK(효소의 작용기작)

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• 화학반응이 일어나기 위해서는 두 분자내 확학결합이 깨지고 다시 형성되는 반응이 진행됨 – To hydrolyze sucrose, the bond between glucose and fructose

must be broken and then new bonds formed with a

hydrogen ion and hydroxyl group from water.

Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Fig. 6.11 당 포도당 과당

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• Activation energy (활성화 에너지) is the amount of energy

necessary to push the reactants over an energy barrier (에너지장벽).

– At the summit the

molecules are at

an unstable point,

the transition state (전이상태).

– The difference between

free energy of the

products and the free

energy of the reactants

is the delta G.

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• 효소 (enzyme)라 불리는 단백질 촉매제는 에너지 장벽 (energy barrier) 의 높이를 낮춤

EA

barrier

Reactants

1 Products 2

En

zym

e

Figure 5.5A

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• Enzymes are selective (효소는 기질을 선택함)

– This selectivity determines which chemical reactions

occur in a cell

A specific enzyme catalyzes each cellular reaction (물질대사 각 단계마다 특이 효소가 작용)

* 기질 (substrate): 효소가 작용하는 대상물질

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Enzyme

(sucrase)

Active

site

1

2

3

Substrate

(sucrose)

Enzyme available

with empty active

site

Substrate

binds to

enzyme with

induced fit

Substrate is

converted to

products

4

Products are

released

Glucose Fructose

• How an

enzyme

works

• The enzyme

is unchanged and can repeat the process

Figure 5.6

활성부위

기질 효소

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• Enzyme activity is influenced by

– temperature (온도)

– salt concentration (염 농도)

– pH (산도)

• Some enzymes require nonprotein cofactors (보조인자): I, Fe, Cu 등

* Some cofactors are organic molecules called coenzymes (조효소, 보조효소)

The cellular environment affects enzyme activity (세포환경은 효소 활성에 영향을 줌)

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• Inhibitors interfere with enzymes

– A competitive

inhibitor (경쟁적 억제자) takes

the place of a

substrate in the

active site

– A noncompetitive

inhibitor (비경쟁적 억제자)

alters an enzyme’s function

by changing its shape

Enzyme inhibitors (반응억제자) block enzyme action

Substrate

Enzyme

Active

site

NORMAL BINDING OF SUBSTRATE

Competitive

inhibitor

Noncompetitive

inhibitor

ENZYME INHIBITION

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• Membranes organize the chemical reactions making up metabolism (세포막은

물질대사의 순서를 결정하는 구조적 기반)

Membranes organize the chemical activities of cells (세포의 화학반응을 체계화함)

MEMBRANE (막) STRUCTURE (구조) AND

FUNCTION (기능)

Cytoplasm

세포질

적혈구 (Red Blood Cell, RBC) 200,000x (TEM)

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• Membranes are selectively permeable (막의 선택적 투과성)

– 세포 내/외로의 물질 이동을 조절

• 많은 경우 특정한 물질대사에 관련된 효소들이 팀으로 막의 일정한 곳에 모여 존재함

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• 막의 주성분은 인지질

(phospholipids) 임

• 친수성 머리(hydrophilic

head)와 두개의 소수성

꼬리 (hydrophobic tail)

를 가짐

Membrane phospholipids form a bilayer

(인지질을 2중층을 형성)

Head

Symbol

Tails Figure 5.11A

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• 물안에서 인지질 (phospholipid)은 안정한 이중층

(bilayer)을 형성 함

Figure 5.11B

Hydrophilic

heads

Hydrophobic

tails

Water

Water

– The heads face outward and the tails face inward

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• Phospholipid molecules form a flexible bilayer (인지질은 유도성있고 신축성이 있는 2중층을 형성)

– Cholesterol 이 박혀있음: 막의 유동성 및 안정성 조절

– Protein 이 박혀있음

– Carbohydrates: cell identification tags

cellular functions

glycolipid (당지질)

glycoprotein (당단백질)

막은 인지질과 단백질로 구성된 유동성 모자이크 형태로 존재

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• The plasma membrane (원형질막) of an animal

cell

Fibers of the

extracellular

matrix

Figure 5.12

Glycoprotein Carbohydrate

(of

glycoprotein)

Microfilaments

of the

cytoskeleton

Phospholipid

Cholesterol

Proteins

CYTOPLASM

Glycolipid

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Compare with the Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Prokaryote Eukaryote

Nuclear envelope No Yes

Vacuoles No Yes

ER No Yes

Mitochondria No Yes

Chloroplaste No Yes

Plasma membrane Yes Yes

Protein Yes Yes

Ribosome Yes Yes

Cell wall Yes Yes

Cytoskeletone No Yes

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Proteins make the membrane a mosaic of function (단백질은 막의 기능을 다양하게 함)

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막을 통한 물질의 이동

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• 수동수송 (passive transport):

세포의 에너지 사용하지

않고 막을 통하여 확산되

어 이동하는 것

- 고농도에서 저농도로 이동

하는 물리적 현상

수동수송 (passive transport)은 확산 (diffusion)으로 막을 투과하여 물질이 이동하는 것을 의미함

EQUILIBRIUM

평형

Molecule

of dye Membrane

EQUILIBRIUM

평형

막을 통한 물질의 이동

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삼투 (osmosis): 물이 낮은 용질

(solute) 농도의 곳에서

높은 용질농도가 있는 곳으로의 이동

삼투 (osmosis)는 물의 passive transport

Hypotonic

solution

Figure 5.15

Solute

molecule

HYPOTONIC SOLUTION

Hypertonic

solution

Selectively

permeable

membrane

HYPERTONIC SOLUTION

Selectively permeable membrane

NET FLOW OF WATER

Solute molecule with cluster of water molecules

Water molecule

저장액 고장액

선택적 투과막

삼투의 방향을 결정하는 것은 오직 전체 용질의 농도 (total solute

concentration).

- 용액내 용질의 종류는 문제가 되지 않음

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• 삼투 (osmosis)는 고장액에서 세포가 쭈그러지는 원인이고 저장액에서는 팽창하게 되는 원인

- 물의 균형을 조절하는 삼투조절 (osmoregulation)은 생물체의 생존에

가장 중요한 것 중의 하나임

세포와 이를 둘러싼 환경간의 물의 균형은 생명유지에

매우 중요함

ISOTONIC

SOLUTION

HYPOTONIC

SOLUTION

HYPERTONIC

SOLUTION

(1) Normal

(4) Flaccid

(2) Lysing

(5) Turgid

(3) Shriveled

(6) Shriveled

ANIMAL

CELL

PLANT

CELL

Plasma membrane

등장액 저장액 고장액

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원생생물 (protist)의 하나인 짚신벌래(paramecium), 는 살아가고 있는 연못의 환경과 비교하면 세포내의 물질농도가 높다 (hypertonic;고장).

– 세포막이 있어 물의 투과가 일부 억제되나 삼투현상으로 물이 세포내로 이동.

– 생존을 위해 이러한 문제를 해결해야함 짚신벌래는 수축포

(contractile vacuole)라는 특수한 세포소기관 (organelle)을 통해 물을 세포 밖으로 퍼낸다.

식물, 원핵생물, 균류, 그리고 몇 몇

원생생물 (protists)의 세포는

세포벽을 갖고 있어 삼투 조절에

도움을 줌

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• 작은 비극성분자 (nonpolar molecule) 는 확산으로 인지질 이중층

(phospholipid bilaryer) 을 자유롭게 이동할 수 있음

• 대부분의 다른 분자들 (polar molecules)과 이온 (ions) 막에 존재하는 수송단백질 (transport protein)에 의해 만들어진 통로를 통해 이동: 수송의 원동력은 농도 차

특정 수송단백질 (transport protein)은 막을 통한

물질의 확산을 촉진함

Figure 5.17

Solute

molecule

Transport

protein

Transport protein은 수송되어질 물질들을 선택한다.

• facilitated diffusion

촉진확산

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Passive Transport (수동수송)

Diffusion (확산)

General diffusion (일반적 확산: 매개물 없음)

Osmosis (삼투)

Facilitated diffusion (촉진확산: 매개물)

Active Transport (능동수송)

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• 특정 수송단백질 (transport protein)은 세포의 의지에 따라 농도구배에 역행하여 막을 경계로 물질을 이동시킴

– ATP를 필요로함

– 능동수송 (active transport) 이라 정의함

능동적으로 물질을 수송하기 위한 능동수송

(active transport)은 에저지를 필요로함

• Active transport는 세포내 작은 분자들의 농도를 유지하는데 절대적으로 필요

• Active transport은 막에 존재하는 특정 단백질에 의해 진행

• ATP는 대부분의 active transport 과정에서 에너지를 공급함 - 단백질의 구조 변화를 유도함

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Sodium-potassium pump

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큰 분자 또는 입자를 막을 통하여 이동하고자 할때 세포가 이용하는 방법

Exocytosis(세포외방출)와 endocytosis(세포내도입)를 통하여

일시에 많은 분자 또는 큰 분자 수송

FLUID OUTSIDE CELL

CYTOPLASM

* Golgi apparatus

- 소포 (vesicle)가 막과 융합하고 내용물을 방출 (exocytosis, 세포외

배출

Exocytosis

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• Three kinds of endocytosis

Pseudopod of

amoeba

Food being

ingested

Plasma

membrane

Material bound to

receptor proteins

식세포작용 음세포작용 수용체-매개 세포내섭취작용

(헛다리, 위족, 가족)

Pseudopod of

amoeba

Food being

ingested

Plasma

membrane

Material bound to

receptor proteins

Cytoplasm

PIT

Phagocytosis(식세포작용): “cellular eating”

Pinocytosis(음세포작용): “cellular drinking” (non-specific process

비특이적)

Receptor-mediated endocytosis: 외부환경에 낮은 농도로 존재

하는 특정 물질을 한꺼번에 많이 세포내로 이동 e.g. Cholesterole

흡수