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Kevin BlanchetUniversity of Minnesota Extension Service
Howard MoechnigNatural Resources Conservation Service
Minnesota Board of Water & Soil Resources
Jodi DeJong-HughesUniversity of Minnesota Extension Service
Grazing SystemsPlanningGuidePublication made possible by
the following organizations:
¤ University of Minnesota Extension Service¤ Natural Resources Conservation Service¤ University of Minnesota Water Resource Center
BU - 07606 - SRevised 2003Find more University of Minnesota Extension Service educational information at www.extension.umn.eduAdditional copies of this item can be ordered from the University of Minnesota Extension Service Distribution Center,405 Coffey Hall, 1420 Eckles Avenue, St. Paul, MN 55108-6068, e-mail: [email protected] or credit cardorders at (800) 876-8636. Copyright © 2003, Regents of the University of Minnesota. All rights reserved.
Appendix G. Calculated Method for Reserve Herd Days (RHD)
44
The information in this publication is for educational purposes only and any reference to commercial products or trade names intends nodiscrimination and implies no endorsement by the University of Minnesota Extension Service.For Americans with Disabilities Act accommodations, please call (800) 876-8636.The University of Minnesota Extension Service is an equal opportunity educator and employer.
Grazing SystemsPlanningGuide
Kevin BlanchetUniversity of Minnesota Extension Service
Howard MoechnigNatural Resources Conservation ServiceMinnesota Board of Water & Soil Resources
Jodi DeJong-HughesUniversity of Minnesota Extension Service
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................... 4Grazing Management Systems
2. GRAZING RESOURCE INVENTORY ...................................................................................................... 6Goals
What are my goals for the grazing system?Land and Soils
What land resources are available for the grazing operation?What is the productivity of the soils?Are there sensitive land areas or soil limitations for grazing in the pasture?
LivestockWhat are the forage requirements for each livestock herd?What are the plans for potential expansion of the livestock operation?How many herds will be grazed?
ForagesWhat are the existing forage species in the pasture?How healthy or in what condition is the pasture?What are the estimated yields and seasonal distribution of the existing forages?
Water SourcesWhat are the existing water sources and where are the drinking facilities?What are the other potential water sources?
FenceWhat are the types and condition of the existing fences?
3. GRAZING PLAN DEVELOPMENT ........................................................................................................ 13Paddock Design and Layout
How many paddocks are needed for a rotational grazing system?How do I decide paddock size?What are some considerations for paddock layout?
Fence Design and LayoutWhat kind of fence should I install?
Water System Design and LayoutHow can I supply adequate water to the livestock?Where should drinking facilities be located?
Heavy Use Area PlanningWhat do I consider when planning livestock lanes?How do I stabilize the livestock lanes?How do I keep the area around water facilities from becoming mudholes?
4. PASTURE MANAGEMENT ...................................................................................................................... 19Pasture Forage and Livestock Management
What is proper grazing management for the desired forage species?How do pasture and livestock management affect plant growth and forage quality?When do I start grazing in the spring?When do I move livestock from paddock to paddock?
Pasture Soil Fertility ManagementCan nutrients from livestock manure be utilized more efficiently in pastures?When is increasing soil pH with lime important for forage production?How much nitrogen fertilizer do I need to put on my pasture?Does phosphorus and potassium fertilizer improve pasture productivity?
Appendix F. Visual Method for Calculating Reserve Herd Days (RHD)
2 43
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Pasture Brush and Weed ControlCan unwanted weeds be controlled through grazing?What are the cultural and mechanical brush and weed control alternatives for pastures?When is control of brush and problem weeds with herbicides the best option?
Sacrificial Paddock ManagementHow will the livestock be managed during times of drought or wet conditions?Will sacrificial paddocks be rejuvenated after removal of livestock?
5. GRAZING SYSTEM MONITORING ...................................................................................................... 27Pasture Record Keeping
How do I know I have enough forage available?Is the productivity of the pasture increasing?Are the natural resources improving?
6. GRAZING PLAN EXAMPLE ................................................................................................................... 29
7. REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................ 33
8. APPENDICES .............................................................................................................................................. 34A Livestock Forage Monthly Balance SheetB1 Identification Key for Common Forage Species – GrassB2 Identification Key for Common Forage Species – LegumeC1 Determining Grassland Condition/TrendC2 Inventory Category ItemsD1 Average Forage Yields for Northern Minnesota and Northern WisconsinD2 Average Forage Yields for Southern Minnesota and Southern WisconsinE Water System Design ConsiderationsF Visual Method for Calculating Reserve Herd DaysG Calculated Method for Reserve Herd DaysH Grazing Plan Checklist
D. Sling Pumps:
Sling pumps operate by the action of flowing water. The entire body of the sling pump rotates due to a propeller. Insidethe pump body is a coiled, open-ended tube. This tube alternately picks up water and air, and forces the water out throughan outlet hose. The water is normally stored in a tank and later distributed to the livestock. A wind-powered version isavailable for use on ponds.
Advantages:• Can operate in remote locations without an outside power source.• Low maintenance.• Can pump for distances, just over 1 mile.• Can lift water up to 80 feet.• Low cost ($550-850).• Portable; easily moved from one water source to another.
Disadvantages:• Requires wind or water movement to operate.
E. Hydraulic Ram Pumps:
Ram pumps require flowing water, or water under pressure through a drive pipe, to operate. A minimum of 3 feet of fall isrequired to operate a ram pump. Normally, water is pumped to a storage tank for further distribution to drinking facilitiesin paddocks.
Advantages:• Economical to operate.• No outside energy required, can operate in remote locations.• Reliable, with few moving parts.• Can lift water to a maximum of 250 feet.• Can pump water for a relatively long distance.
Disadvantages:• Adequate water flow required to operate the pump.• Must be anchored to a solid base.• Not portable.• Must be protected from frost, or drained for the winter.• Overflow water must be drained from the area in which the pump is installed.• Cost range from $350 for a small pump to $7000 for a large pump.
42 3
This guide discusses thecomponents of a grazing systemby taking you through the grazingmanagement planning process.Information on grazing resourceinventory, plan development,pasture management, and systemmonitoring is provided. Eachsection has a series of questionsthat will lead you through thedecision-making process ofdeveloping your plan. Yourgrazing plan will becomecustomized to fit your operationdepending upon how you answerthe questions and integrate thecomponents. Pasture-basedlivestock systems can beprofitable enterprises if theavailable resources are managedeffectively.
With approximately 16 percent ofMinnesota’s land in forageproduction, our pasture land is animportant economic resource.Grazing management, such asrotational grazing that extends theamount of time that livestock canmeet their needs through grazingand reduces the need forharvested feedstuffs, will lowerfeed costs and add to profitability.
Introduction
Reducing costs and/or increasingproduction are the two avenuesthat livestock producers have forimproving profitability. Focusingon management and control ofproduction and pasture resourcescan be a cost reducing strategy. Awell-managed rotational grazingsystem can reduce or eliminatethe need for labor-intensive orpurchased inputs such assupplemental feed, nitrogenfertilizer, and weed and brushkillers. Improved pasturecondition and higher forageyields can also lead to moreanimal production per pastureacre. Since feed costs are themajor cost in almost all livestockoperations, getting control ofthem is critical.
Designing a grazing plan is thefirst step in your pasturemanagement system. As youfollow the planning process, thestrengths and weaknesses of yourcurrent system will becomeapparent. The grazing planshould include all thecomponents of the grazing andpasture system and serve as amap for making managementimprovements.
Components of a typical grazingplan:
• Goals of the farmingoperation
• Summary of sensitive areas• Livestock summary and
forage requirements• Fencing system• Livestock watering system• Heavy use area protection• Forages• Grazing system
management
For a complete grazing planchecklist see appendix H.
Grazing systems range fromcontinuous grazing of one areaover a long period of time tointense rotational grazing onsmall areas for short periods oftime. Livestock systems that usecontinuous grazing of a pastureexperience both overgrazing andundergrazing of forages. Arotational system provides a restopportunity for forage plants sothat they may regrow morequickly. The rotational systemprovides an opportunity to movelivestock based on forage growth,promote better pasture forageutilization, and extend thegrazing season. The advantagesand disadvantages of threegrazing management systems arelisted on the following page.
Appendix E. Water Systems Design Considerations
A. Ramps to Surface Water:
Restricted access points consist of ramps which direct livestock to drink from limited areas of a lake, pond, or stream.During fence construction, a hard surface is installed to keep the livestock confined to the access point.
Advantages:• Livestock will not have free access to open water sources except at controlled points, helping to reduce water
quality problems.• Capacity is not an issue, unless the water source is unreliable.• No power required.
Disadvantages:• High cost of construction and maintenance.• Livestock still have access to open sources of water.• Lack of portability; livestock need to travel to the source of water to get a drink.
B. Livestock Powered Pumps:
Livestock powered pumps (nose pumps) utilize a diaphragm pump which is lever-activated by the nose of the animal asthey drink water from a cup cast into the unit.
Advantages:• Simple and economical, costing half as much as a typical restricted access point.• Easily moved from one water source to another and from paddock to paddock.• No water storage required.• No power required.
Disadvantages:• Animals must be trained to use pumps.• Smaller animals, such as calves may not have the strength to use them.• Sheep will not use a nose pump.• Generally can pump for distances less than 300 feet.• Generally cannot lift water more than 30 feet.• Must be anchored to something solid or a heavy base.
C. Solar Powered Pumps:
Solar panels are used to power direct current electric motors, usually 12 or 24 volt. The pumps can run continuously orthe energy can be stored in a battery for use upon demand.
Advantages:• Can operate in remote locations, no outside power required.• Low maintenance.• Can pump water for long distances.• Variety of pumps and panels allows customization for your site.
Disadvantages:• Expensive ($1500-6000).• Must store water. A three-day reserve is recommended.• Not easily portable.
4 41
Grazing Management Systems
Continuous grazingis a one-pasture system wherelivestock have unrestricted accessthroughout the grazing season.
Simple rotational grazingis a system with more than onepasture in which livestock are movedto allow for periods of grazing andrest for forages.
Intensive rotational grazingis a system with many pastures,sometimes referred to as paddocks.Livestock are moved frequently frompaddock to paddock based on foragegrowth and utilization.
Advantages• Requires less management• Capital costs are minimal
Disadvantages• Lower forage quality and
yields• Lower stocking rate and less
forage produced per acre• Uneven pasture use• Greater forage losses due to
trampling• Animal manure is distributed
unevenly• Weeds and other undesirable
plants may be a problem
Advantages• Can increase forage
production and improvepasture condition overcontinuous grazing
• Allows pastures to rest andallows for forage regrowth
• Can provide a longer grazingseason, reducing the need forfeeding harvested forages
• Better distribution of manurethroughout the pasture
Disadvantages• Costs for fencing and water
systems can be higher thanwith continuous grazing
• Forage production andpasture utilization is not ashigh as intensive rotationalgrazing systems
Advantages• Highest forage production
and use per acre• Stocking rates can typically
be increased• More even distribution of
manure throughout thepaddocks
• Weeds and brush are usuallycontrolled through grazing
• Provides more grazingoptions and reduces the needfor mechanically harvestedforages
Disadvantages• Requires careful monitoring
of forage supply• Initial costs may be higher
due to fencing materials andwater distribution systems
• Requires more management
Appendix D2. Average Forage Yields for Southern Minnesota and Southern Wisconsin
40 5
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Alternative forages (cool-season annual forages)
Oat
Winter rye
Winter wheat
Source: Pastures for Profit: A Guide to Rotational Grazing, University of Minnesota, AG-FO-061451Good condition = lime, P, K and split N application plus rotational grazing management;
Poor condition = no fertilizer added plus continuous grazing management
Good 3000 55 35 10 0 0 0 Poor 1600 60 40 0 0 0 0
Good 2800 55 25 0 0 5 15
Poor 1200 65 25 0 0 5 5
Good 2800 55 25 0 0 5 15
Poor 1200 60 30 0 0 5 5
Goals
What are my goals for the grazingsystem?
Establish well-thought-out goalsto direct the development of agrazing plan. The goals on whichto base future business,management, and productionstrategies will be unique to yourown operation.
Examples of goals include:• Increase livestock numbers
and/or forage availability• Improve animal
performance• Reduce feed costs or labor• Reduce soil erosion
Distinguish land that is ownedfrom land that is rented. Thereare certain management practicesthat you can apply to your ownland that you may not be able todo on rented land. Determine thenumber of acres of the differentland parcels and label these onthe map (Diagram 1).
Is there additional land availablethat could be used for grazing?Often, cropland that is adjacent topasture land may be betterutilized by growing forages.Cropland in close proximity toexisting pastures is ideal forconverting to grazing if pastureexpansion is one of the farmgoals. Identify and label on themap cropland that could be usedfor grazing.
What is the productivity of thesoils?
Map soil types and soil fertilityof your pastures. Soils varyconsiderably in their ability tosupport plant growth. Soilproductivity is partiallydetermined by its ability to holdwater and nutrients and releasethem to the plant, and by howwell plant roots can grow in thesoil. Actual crop yields achievedare a result of the interactionbetween soil productivity, thelevel of management, andclimatic factors (Diagram 2).
Grazing Resource Inventory
Annually, goals should bereviewed and updated to fit thecurrent situations and needs ofthe farm. After making a list ofwhat you want to achieve with theresources you have available, youare now ready to look at themanagement options toaccomplish your goals.
Land and Soils
What land resources are availablefor the grazing operation?
Locate or draw a map showingthe boundaries of the land thatis available for grazing.
6 39
Aerial photosfrom USDA-Farm Service
Agency providea good
base map
Appendix D1. Average Forage Yields for Northern Minnesota and Northern Wisconsin
Legend
Diagram 1. Land resources map
Diagram 2. Soils map
A County Soil Survey is a goodfirst step for determining soiltypes in your pastures. Thepublication contains generalcharacteristics of each soil type,including soil texture, drainage,water holding capacity, andorganic matter content.Estimated forage yields can becalculated from “Pastures forProfit” (see References section),Appendix A, the local NRCSForage Suitability Groups, orfarm records.
Are there sensitive land areas orsoil limitations for grazing in thepasture?
Sensitive land areas are areas thathave a high potential to generateor transport unwanted materialstowards ground or surface water.The types of materials that couldcontaminate these resources arebacteria, nutrients from livestockmanure, and sediment resultingfrom soil erosion (Diagram 3).
Examples of sensitive land areasto be identified and referenced ona map:
• Location of surface waters(wetlands, lakes orstreams)
• Quarries, mines orsinkholes
• Active or abandoned watersupply wells
• Coarse-textured and high-leaching soils
• Steep slopes• Shallow soil to a water
table or bedrock• Wooded areas• Intermittent waterways
Limiting features also need to beidentified and referenced on amap. The most important sourceof information is observed bywalking the pasture withsomebody that is knowledgeablein soils and soil management.The Soil Survey publication foryour county will also provideadditional information on pasturefeatures found below the soilsurface.
Examples of soil limitingfeatures:
• Sandy soils which have ahigh potential for drought
• Shallow soils over bedrockthat limit the depth of rootgrowth
• Flood-prone soils thateither restrict growth ofcertain forages or limitgrazing time
• Organic soils which limitaccessibility and ability towithstand traffic
• Extreme slopes orlandscapes that makepasture areas difficult toreach
Appendix C2. Inventory Category Items
1) Species Composition - Visually estimate the % composition by weight of each group of plants and assigna value. The categories desirable, intermediate, and undesirable refer to the preferred use of the plants bythe grazing animal, and intended use of the grazing land. The score ranges from “0”, with no or fewdesirable or intermediate plant species, to “4”, which represents mostly desirable or intermediate plantspecies present.
2) Plant Diversity - Evaluate the number of different species of plants that are well represented on the site.If only one species of plant occurs, diversity is narrow; if eight or more species of plants are present,diversity is broad. If 4-5 plant species are present, the score would be in the middle of this range.
3) Plant Density - Ignore plants classified as undesirable. Visually estimate the density of living desirableand intermediate plant species that would be present at a 2-inch stubble height. Ask yourself if there isroom for more desirable plants? Scores range from Dense (>95%), Medium (75-85%), Sparse (<65%).
4) Plant Vigor - Evaluate the health and productivity of the desirable and intermediate plant species. Lookfor evidence of plant color; leaf area index; plant reproduction; presence of disease or insects; rate ofgrowth and re-growth, etc. Area plants growing at their potential?
5) Legumes in Stand - Visually estimate the % composition by weight of the legumes present in the standon the area being evaluated. 0 = <10%, 1 = 10-19%, 2 = 20-29%, 3 = 30-39%, and 4 = >40%.
6) Plant Residue - Evaluate the dead and decaying plant residue on the soil surface. Excessive levels ofresidue inhibit plant growth and vigor. Appropriate levels of residue do not inhibit plant growth but helpretard runoff, reduce soil erosion, improve water intake, recycle nutrients to the soil surface, and provide afavorable microclimate for biological activity. Deficient residue levels result in bare or near bare groundbeneath the growing plants.
7) Uniformity of Use - Evaluate how well the animals are grazing all plants to a moderate uniform heightthroughout the field. Spotty grazing appears as uneven plant heights, with some plants or parts of thefield grazed heavily and other areas grazed only slightly or not at all.
8) Severity of Use - Evaluate the severity of use by grazing animals based on plant stubble height in thefield. For cool season grass species and legumes a stubble height of less than 2 inches would indicateheavy use; stubble height of 2-6 inches would indicate moderate use; and stubble height more than 6inches would indicate light use. For warm season grasses increase the height in each category by 2 inchesinches.
9) Woody Canopy - Estimate the percent canopy (area shaded at noon) of woody plant cover over six feettall. 0 = >40%, 1 = 30-39%, 2 = 20-29%, 3 = 10-19%, 4 = <10%.
10) Soil Erosion - Visually observe signs of any type of erosion and assign a severity rating for the field beingevaluated.
38 7
County soilinformation and
maps can beobtained from your
local USDAAgricultural
Service Center orExtension office.
For help identifying theseareas of your pasture,
contact your local USDAAgricultural ServiceCenter or Extension
office.
Diagram 3. Sensitive areas and soil limitation area map
Livestock
What are the forage requirements for each livestock herd?First, estimate the daily requirement for your herd:
(# of animals) x (average weight) x (daily utilization rate)= daily forage requirement
Daily utilization rate = 0.04. This figure is used because livestock need to haveaccess to approximately 4% of their live weight in forage (2.5% intake, 0.5%trampling loss, and 1% buffer).
Example:(25 cow/calf pairs) x (1,200 lb. average weight) x (0.04) = 1,200 lbs/day
The daily forage requirement is used in Section 3, Grazing Plan Development,Paddock Design and Layout.
Second, estimate the monthly and seasonal requirements for your herd:
(daily forage requirement) x (# of days per month) = monthly forage requirement
Example:(1,200 lbs/day) x (30 days) = 36,000 lbs. monthly forage requirement
(daily forage requirement) x (# of days in the grazing season)= seasonal forage requirement
Example:(1,200 lbs/day) x (150 days) = 180,000 lbs. seasonal forage requirement
The Livestock Forage Monthly Balance Sheet (Table 1 and Appendix A)provides a simple method of computing monthly forage requirements.
Remember, the primary goal of most livestock grazing systems is to produceweight gain on the livestock. An increase in animal size will result in anincrease in estimated forage needs through the grazing season as long as animalnumbers do not change. Adjust livestock weights for each month to provide amore realistic estimate of forage needs.
378
Table 1. Livestock Forage Monthly Balance Sheet – Current Livestock Summary
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What are the plans for potentialexpansion of the livestockoperation?
If an increase in herd size is agoal of the operation, estimatewhat adjustments to forage willbe needed and consider how tobest meet those needs with foragesupply. Are there enough acres inthe existing pasture to meet theneeds of the larger livestockherd? What is the potentialforage supply if improvementsare made to the pasture or grazingsystem? This issue will beaddressed in following section onforages.
How many herds will be grazed?Separating the grazing herd intogroups based on production,animal species, animal size, orclass differences should beexamined. When there is anincrease in the number of herds,you will need to increase thenumber of paddocks. Whendividing the pasture consider:
• How many groups couldpotentially be grazing atthe same time?
• Can the different groupsgraze next to each other?(Don’t place male animalsin paddocks adjacent tofemales in heat.)
Forages
What are the existing forage speciesin the pasture?
Forage grass and legume specieseach have their own uniquegrowth, persistence, and qualitycharacteristics. Because theyrespond differently to soilconditions, weather patterns,fertility, and grazingmanagement, the plants that arecurrently growing in yourpastures may be different fromone area to another. Identifydominant plant species andareas in which they grow onyour pasture map. A walkthrough the pastures is necessaryto gather this information. Theplants you find during the initialinventory of your forage speciesmay or may not be the desiredspecies for meeting the long-termgoals of your grazing system.Therefore, information on foragespecies growing in the pasturemay have an impact on futuremodifications to the grazingsystem (Diagram 4).Identification keys for grass andlegume species are readilyavailable in Appendix B. Grassspecies are often difficult toidentify during early stages ofgrowth. Still, there is a need todistinguish between grass speciesbecause of potential differencesin forage yield and seasonalgrowth patterns.
936
Assistance in identifyingyour forage species can be
obtained at your localUSDA AgriculturalService Center or
Extension office. Tocollect plant samples forlater identification, dig
several plants along withroots, and place them
between sheets ofnewspaper. Remove all
soil from the roots beforeplacing on the newspaper.
To aid the plant dryingprocess, apply an even
pressure or weight to thenewspaper.
Diagram 4. Forage map
Appendix B2. Identification Key for Common Forage Species – Forage
How healthy or in what condition isthe pasture?
Good pasture condition is criticalto a successful grazing system.Pasture quality may vary greatlyfrom one pasture area to another,but the trend over time shouldshow the direction in which thepasture condition is moving.Determining GrasslandCondition/Trend (Appendix C1)is an evaluation tool to helpdetermine if pastures are in needof improvement and what areasneed the most improvement. It isalso a useful tool in evaluatingresults of management decisions.Determine the condition of yourpastures by completing theDetermining GrasslandCondition/Trend sheet (anexample of a completed form isprovided in Table 2).
What are the estimated yields andseasonal distribution of the existingforages?
Based on the plant species,pasture condition, and soil typesfound in the pastures, forageyields and overall forage supplycan be estimated for your grazingsystem. Document the forageyields in lbs./acre on theLivestock Forage MonthlyBalance Sheet (example ofcompleted form is provided inTable 3). Remember these areonly estimates to provide astarting point for future planning.Changes in climatic conditionsfrom one year to the next candrastically change forageproduction and the outcome ofseasonal forage supply.
10 35
Table 2. Determining Grassland Condition/Trend
Appendix B1. Identification Key for Common Forage Species – Grass
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Once the forage species and yieldestimates have been documented,a monthly forage supply can bedetermined using the estimatedforage production and seasonaldistribution percentages. Forspecific forage yields andseasonal distribution using chartsfrom “Pastures for Profit,”Natural Resources ConversationSevice (NRCS) Field OfficeTechnical Guide tables, orinformation in Appendix D. Theestimated monthly values followthe seasonal growth patterns ofthe common forage species. Thisexercise provides a good estimateof the total amount of forageavailable to livestock for anymonth of the grazing season.Subtract the monthly requirementfrom the monthly forageproduction to:
• Indicate forage balancefor the growing season
• Predict excess forageproduction by month
• Predict where forageshortages may occur bymonth
Using the information inAppendix D, net yield andmonthly available forage fororchardgrass in a pasture that isin poor condition can becalculated.
Example: Monthly available forage for orchardgrass in a pasture that is in poorcondition is calculated in the following procedure:
Total Yield(forage yield) x (acres) = forage production
Example:(2,500 lbs/acre) x (30 acres) = 75,000 lbs of forage (dry matter basis)
Forage Availability Per Month(total yield) x (% forage available by month from Appendix D) =
monthly available forage
11
Table 3. Livestock Forage Monthly Balance – Current Forage Summary
34
Forage yield estimates for your grazing system can befound in any of the following publications:
• The County Soil Survey• NRCS Field Office Technical Guide• Pastures for Profit; A Guide to Rotational Grazing,
U of MN Extension Service• Refer to Appendix D of this guide for yield estimates
Appendix A. Livestock Forage Monthly Balance Sheet
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What are the other potential watersources?
Changes to the grazing systemmay require makingimprovements to your livestockwatering system. Are there otherpotential water sources that couldbe made available to the pasture?Do you need to drill a new well?Where is the best site for a newwell? Is there a water sourcenearby where water can beobtained by constructing apipeline system? Theseadditional sources provide youwith options when makingdecisions on improving yourwater system.
If you are not certain of the waterquality, tests should be performedto determine whether the water issatisfactory for consumption bylivestock. Good, clean water isespecially critical to producerswho expect high animalperformance – as with milkingcows, stockers, and replacementdairy heifers – although benefitsare realized for other classes oflivestock as well.
Fencing
What are the types and condition ofthe existing fences?
Know the kind and condition ofexisting fences. Map thelocation of these fencesincluding both perimeter andinterior fences (Diagram 5).Will the condition and location ofthe existing fence meet the needsof the grazing system? Shouldyou plan to improve or change thelocation of any of the fences? Donot be locked in on the locationof existing fences. Are thereother livestock handling facilitiesavailable such as corrals, dry lots,barns, or sheds that are part of thepasture or grazing system?
Water Sources
What are the existing water sourcesand where are the drinkingfacilities?
Water is essential. Without anadequate supply of quality water,animal health, weight gain, ormilk production can be negativelyaffected. Locate on a map thewater sources and drinkingfacilities that are currentlyavailable to the grazing herd(Diagram 5). Note all possiblesources such as streams, ponds,wells, or springs. By viewingthese on a map, we can see howfar livestock have to travel toreceive water. Consider thesequestions when makingdecisions:
• Are there seasonal changesin the water supply?Shallow wells or smallstreams will often dry upduring late summer orduring times of drought.
• If water is being hauled tothe animals, how muchstorage is available?
• Is a nearby source ofelectricity available?
• Will the existing watersources be able toaccommodate a pumpingsystem that does notrequire electricity?
12
Fertility, Weed Control and Species Selection for Productive Pastures.” 1998. Greg Cuomo. In Proc. 1998 “GrazingManagement, Pasture Fertility, Weed Control and Species Selection for Productive Pastures.” 1998. Greg Cuomo. InProc. 1998 Minnesota Beef Cow/Calf Report. P. 23-28.
Minnesota Beef Cow/Calf Report. P. 23-28.
“Improve Your Pasture in Five Easy Steps.” T. Hovde, B. Stommes, L. Williams, L. Zilliox, J. Siira. University ofMinnesota Extension Service and Minnesota Department of Agriculture.
“Pastures for Profit: A Guide to Rotational Grazing.” 2002. University of Wisconsin (A3529) and University ofMinnesota Extension Service publication FO-06145.
“Pasture Management Guide for Livestock Producers.” 1998. Iowa State University Extension publication Pm-1713.
“Alfalfa Management Guide.” 2002. North Central Regional Extension Publication #NCR547.
“Fertilizer Recommendations for Agronomic Crops in Minnesota.” 2001. University of Minnesota Extension Servicepublication BU-06240-S.
“Impact of Grazing Cattle on Distribution of Soil Minerals.” 1986. James Gerrish, James Brown, and Paul Peterson. InProc. 1995 National Forage & Grassland Council.
“Pasture Weed Control.” 1997. Roger Becker and Greg Cuomo. In Proc. Minnesota Lamb and Wool Producers AnnualMeeting, St. Cloud, MN.
“Forage Legumes: Clovers, Birdsfoot Trefoil, Cicer Milkvetch, Crownvetch, Sainfoin and Alfalfa.” 1993. University ofMinnesota Extension Service, SB-5963-F.
“Identifying Pasture Grasses.” 1996. University of Wisconsin-Extension A3637.
“Using All-weather Geotextiles for Lanes and Paths.” 1999. Kevin Janni, Brian Holmes, and Ted Funk. Midwest PlanService publication AED-45.
“Stockman’s Guide to Range Livestock Watering from Surface Water Sources.” Prairie Agricultural MachineryInstitute: Manitoba, Canada.
References
33
Diagram 5. Existing water and fence location map
Grazing Plan Development
Paddock Design and Layout
The development of a grazingplan involves the following:
• Determining how manypaddocks are required andtheir size and shape
• Determining the kind offence and locations
• Determining how waterwill be provided to thelivestock
How many paddocks are needed fora rotational grazing system?
The minimum number ofpaddocks in a system isdependent upon the length of therest period that is required for theforages. The lengths of the restperiods for grasses and legumescan be found in Table 4. The restperiod allows time for the forageplants to regrow, producingforage for the next grazing cycle.The length of the rest periodvaries throughout the growingseason. When preparing yourplan, use an average length orlonger length of time (25-30days). Using less than theaverage length of time will resultin a plan with too few paddocksor paddocks that are too large.
Another component used indetermining the number ofpaddocks is the grazing period.The length of the grazing periodin each paddock is based uponthe desired level of management,availability of labor, performanceobjective for the livestock, andgrowth characteristics of forages.
Grazing periods longer than 6days will damage new regrowth.The grazing of new growthdiminishes the ability of theforage plants to regrow quickly,resulting in an overall yieldreduction for the pasture. Ashorter grazing period isassociated with livestockoperations where livestockperformance is essential, such aswith milking cows. Longergrazing periods are more typicalof beef cow/calf operations, ewe/lamb operations, and maintainingdry cows.
The minimum number of paddocks for each herd in the pasture
system is equal to:
Paddock =
Rest period (days) + 1
Number Grazing period (days)
13
Grazing SystemManagement
The key to maintaining vigorousvegetation is to avoidovergrazing. The forage plantswill recover from grazing withoutdepleting root reserves only ifthere is adequate leaf arearemaining to meet the foodrequirements of the plant.
Initiate grazing in early springwhen the orchardgrass is 3-4inches tall, reed canarygrass is4-5 inches tall, and the grass inthe Kentucky bluegrass paddocksis 2 inches high. Because thegrass growth in the spring israpid, the livestock should bemoved through the system frompaddock to paddock at a fairlyrapid pace, every 1-2 days ifpossible. As the grass growthslows later in the growing season,slow the rotation through thepaddocks to an approximateinterval of 4-6 days, basingmovement of the livestock on:
• The minimum stubbleheights of the forages:
2 inches for Kentuckybluegrass
3 inches for orchardgrass4 inches for reed
canarygrass• The minimum required
regrowth:4 inches for Kentucky
bluegrass6 inches for orchardgrass8 inches for reed
canarygrass
The number of actual grazingdays will vary with the size of thepaddock, and in practice it willvary with the condition of theforage, how much grazingpressure has been applied in thepast, weather conditions, and timeduring the grazing season.
The hay field will be used forgrazing during the summer after acrop of hay has been harvestedand regrowth is sufficient. Thiswill provide high quality foragefor mid- to late summer, and willallow an extended rest period forthe other paddocks at a time ofthe season when they need it (35-50 days). The hay field will besubdivided by temporary fenceinto 3 paddocks to allow bettermanagement of the forages.
The balance of forage availableand forage required indicates thatthere will be significant periodsof time during September andOctober when the livestock willneed to be placed into asacrificial paddock in latesummer and early fall and fed haybecause there will not beadequate forages for grazing inthe pastures. Plan on having hayon hand for this from the harvestof excess available in June andJuly.
Paddock 1 will be used as thesacrificial paddock whennecessary. This paddock is lesserodible than the others and doesnot contain sensitive areas. Thispaddock is easily accessible foremergency feeding.
During very wet weather,livestock traffic may causeexcessive damage to the soil orthe forage. If this occurs, movethe livestock from paddock topaddock more rapidly, or confinethe animals to the feedlot (or usea sacrificial paddock) and providethem with emergency feed.When conditions improve, put thelivestock back into a regularrotation.
During very dry weather, the
32
forage growth will slowconsiderably. The livestockshould be moved at a slower pacethrough the paddocks. Ifminimum stubble height cannotbe maintained, confine thelivestock to a portion of one ofthe paddocks (a sacrificialpaddock) and provide them withemergency feed until they can beput back into a regular rotation.Do not use any of the sensitiveareas as sacrificial paddocks.
Regrowth of the forage prior tofall freeze-up is important formaintaining health and vigor ofthe plants through the winter.Prior to a killing frost, the forageshould have 6 inches of regrowthon the reed canarygrass andorchardgrass, and 4 inches onKentucky bluegrass. Since theseheights are not possible to attainon all paddocks, manage onethird of the paddocks so that theyget the required regrowth eachyear, and then alternate thistreatment from one year to thenext. This regrowth can begrazed to the minimum stubbleheights as stockpiled forage afterthe forages go dormant, aboutmid-October.
Fertilization of the pastures willbe done to ensure optimumyields. Fertilizer applicationswill be based on soil tests andeconomic analysis. The pH of thesoil will be maintained between6.0 to 7.0.
Overwintering will not be doneon this pasture system. Eachpaddock will be clipped as thelivestock are rotated out if neededto control weeds.
“Grazing Management, Pasture
Guidance on paddockmanagement is provided inthe Pasture Management
section
Table 4. Optimal rest period for forage species
How do I decide paddock size?Paddock size is based uponproviding an adequate supplyof available forage to meet therequirements of the herd. Thiswould be a simple task if theforages grew at the same ratethroughout the season. Weknow this is not the case. Forexample, cool season grassgrowth is very rapid in thespring, slows considerablyduring the hot summer monthsof July and August, andincreases somewhat again inthe fall.
Clearly, for a given herd thearea required to produce thenecessary forage for theplanned grazing period will notbe the same throughout thegrazing season. The strategyfor dealing with this variabilityis this:
• Plan using averagegrowing conditions.
• Vary the length of thegrazing periodthroughout the grazingseason when paddocksize is fixed.
• Vary the size of thepaddock when the size isnot fixed, as in a stripgrazing system.
The required size of the paddock for average growth conditions is equal to:
Paddock Size = (daily herd forage requirement) x (days in grazing period)(lbs. forage available per acre)
Daily herd forage requirement Total weight of the herd times 0.04utilization rate (refer to the livestockinventory from Table 1).
Grazing period Length of time animals are inpaddock.
Pounds of forage available per acre Measured height of forage minusminimum stubble height (from Table5) x pounds of forage per acre perinch of height (from Table 6).
Forages
The existing forages in thesepastures are:
Paddocks 7, 8, 9, 10:Orchardgrass
Paddocks 5, 6:Reed Canarygrass
Paddocks 1, 2, 3, 4:Kentucky Bluegrass
The current condition of theforages is poor. To improve thepastures all paddocks, except forthe area of reed canarygrass, willbe frost seeded with clover toprovide nitrogen for increased yieldand to improve the nutritional valueof the forage mix.
31
Livestock Watering System
Water will be delivered from thewell through a high-densityplastic hose system laid on top ofthe ground (Diagram 8). Portabletanks will be used as drinkingfacilities. They will be movedwith the herd as they grazethrough the pasture system.Approximately 6,400 feet ofpipeline is required, along withtwo portable tanks. Refer toDiagram 8 for locations of thewater pipelines.
The pipelines and tanks do notrequire frost protection, sincethey will be drained every fallprior to freezing. The stream willprovide water for the livestock inthe event that the well of piplineshould fail.
Heavy use Area Protection
Where the lanes cross the stream,the stream banks and channel willbe shaped and stream crossingswill be installed using heavy usearea protection measures.Because the water tanks areportable they do not requireheavy use area protection.
14
Source: Minnesota NRCS Conservation Practice Standard #528A, Prescribed Grazing.* This applies only to the initial grazing in the spring (early May). The livestock must be moved rapidly through the
paddocks during this time to prevent overgrazing and to keep the forage from “getting ahead of the livestock.”** Minimum stubble height is critical if stand is to be maintained. This applies to that part of the grazing season after the
initial rapid growth period in early May, as well as the end of the grazing season.*** The last harvest of alfalfa for pasture or hay should generally be made 35-45 days prior to the time when the first hard
freeze typically occurs.**** Regrowth should be grazed to 2 inches after dormancy and prior to snow cover.
Table 5. Minimum height (in inches) of pasture species for initiating and terminating grazing
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Diagram 7. Fence Location Map
Diagram 8. Water Location Map
To provide better quality andquantity of forages during themidsummer slump that coolseason grasses go through, thealfalfa/bromegrass hay fieldwill be utilized after one cropof hay has been harvested.
Yields are estimated on Table11. These are only esti matesbased upon expected yieldswith the planned improvementsin place. Actual yields shouldbe determined when therotational grazing system is inplace. The grazing system willrequire monitoring tomaximize forage utilizationwithout overgrazing.
e
The paddock size times theminimum number of paddocksprovides us with the minimumrequired size of the total pastureunit. If the existing pasture islarger than this minimum area,more paddocks can be plannedfor. This will likely provide morethan enough forage in the spring,some of which could then beharvested for hay. Having morepaddocks than the requiredminimum will reduce the risk ofrunning out of forage during themidsummer slump that coolseason pastures normallyexperience.
If the acreage of the requiredminimum number of pastures ismore than the existing pastureacreage, additional acreageshould be devoted to pasture toavoid running out of usableforage during the midsummerslump.
What are some considerations forpaddock layout?
Some adjustments need to bemade to the size of each paddockso they have equal productivity.The information gathered duringthe inventory process is usefulwhen determining the paddocklayout. Each paddock shouldhave:
• Similar soils (refer toDiagram 2)
• Similar slope aspect(north facing, southfacing, etc.)
• Similar topography• Similar forages (refer to
Diagram 4)
The shape of the paddocks issignificant. Paddocks should beas square as possible to promote
more uniform grazing. Long,narrow paddocks generally areovergrazed at one end andunderutilized at the other end.Paddocks should be planned sothat livestock do not have totravel more than 800 feet to getwater. This will encourage morewater consumption by thelivestock and more uniformgrazing within the paddock.Livestock tend to utilize theforages close to water much morethan forages farther from thewater. Additional adjustmentsmay be required based uponaccess to water sources, whichmay have an impact on the shapeof the paddocks in a grazingsystem, particularly in situationswhere natural water sources, suchas ponds and streams, areutilized.
15
Fencing System
Perimeter fences are already inplace and are in adequatecondition. Interior fences will beconstructed to subdivide thepasture into paddocks using 1 or2 strands of high tensile wire.Locations of the fences are shownon the Grazing Plan Map(Diagram 7).
The installation of the interiorfences will break the pasture unitinto ten paddocks, ranging from7-10 acres each. Approximately13,000 feet of interior fence isrequired for this system. Duringperiods of average growth, eachpaddock will be capable ofapproximately 2-4 days ofgrazing. In addition tosubdividing the pasture, laneswill be constructed. The laneswill allow movement of thelivestock from a paddock to anyother without passing through arecently grazed paddock.
30
Table 6. Estimated dry matter yield per acre-inch for various forages at three stand
densities
Forage Stand Density1
Fair* Good** Excellent***
lb. Dry matter/acre-inchBluegrass/White Clover 150-250 300-400 500-600Tall Fescue+Nitrogen Fert. 150-250 250-350 350-450Tall Fescue/Legume 100-200 200-300 300-400Smooth Bromegrass/Legumes 150-250 250-350 350-450Orchardgrass/Legumes 100-200 200-300 300-400Mixed Pasture 150-250 250-350 350-450Alfalfa or Red Clover 150-250 200-250 250-300Native Tall Warm-Season Grasses 50-100 100-200 200-300
Source: USDA-NRCS (MN)1Stand condition is based on visual estimate of green plant ground cover after being grazed to a 2-4inch stubble height.* Fair Condition: Less than 75% ground cover or greater than 25% bare ground.** Good Condition: 75-90% ground cover or 10-25% bare ground.*** Excellent Condition: At least 90% ground cover or less than 10% bare ground.
October. The forage balanceindicates that some of the pasturemay be harvested for hay in thespring, and this will be donewhen weather conditions appearto be favorable to forageregrowth. This will provide feedfor the months of September andOctober. Refer to the GrazingSystem Management portion ofthis plan for information relatedto grass management andsacrificial paddocks to be usedduring this time period.
Table 12. Livestock Forage Monthly Balance Sheet – Current Livestock Summary
Table 11. Livestock Forage Monthly Balance Sheet – Current Forage Summary
Paddock layout will also beinfluenced by the location of lanesfor the movement of livestock.These lanes should connect allpaddocks so that livestock can bemoved to any paddock from theone they currently occupy,allowing for maximum flexibilityin forage management.
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Fence Design and Layout
What kind of fence should I install?The kind of fence that should be installed dependsupon:
• Purpose of the fence• Kind and class of livestock to be contained• Operator preference• Predator control• Cost
Permanent or temporary fences may definepaddocks within the grazing unit. During initialstages of paddock layout many producers prefer touse temporary fences to create paddocks and lanes.This allows for easy adjustment of the layout asproducers learn what size paddock they need, how toeasily accomplish livestock movement, and howforages react to managed grazing. After gainingexperience, the producers usually install some typeof permanent fence to define paddocks and lanes.
A. Permanent Fences:Permanent fences are used for the perimeters ofpasture systems, livestock corrals, and handlingfacilities. Sometimes they are used to subdividepastures into paddocks. This is especially truefor certain kinds and classes of livestock, such asbison.
1. High Tensile Wire FencesThis is a relatively new type of fence, which hasbecome increasingly popular in recent years.Typically perimeter fences are 4-6 strands ofwire and interior fences are 1-2 strands of wire.
Advantages:• Relatively easy to install and maintain.• Can be powered to provide a psychological as
well as physical barrier.• Several contractors available to do installation.Disadvantages:• Requires some special equipment, such as a post
driver for installing wooden posts.• Fences with several strands of wire are not easily
moved.• Wire is difficult to handle if fence is to be
moved.
2. Woven Wire FencesWoven wire is a traditional type of fence. It isused primarily for hogs and sheep. Woven wirefences normally have one or two strands ofbarbed wire installed above the woven wire.
Advantages:• Not dependent on electrical power. Is useful in
remote locations.• Provides barrier for smaller kinds of livestock
(sheep, hogs).Disadvantages:• Cannot be powered, provides only a physical
barrier.• Requires much labor to install.• Not easily moved.• Weed and vegetative growth promotes snow
piling.
3. Barbed Wire FencesBarbed wire is a traditional type of fence, whichis still quite popular. Barbed wire fences shouldbe at least 4 strands for perimeter fences. Whenused for interior fences, they are typically 3 or 4strands. Barbed wire should never be electrifiedbecause of greater potential for animal injury.
Advantages:• Not dependent upon electrical power, thus is
useful in remote areas.• Most producers are experienced with
construction of barbed wire fences.Disadvantages:• Not easily moved.• Provides only a physical barrier.• Susceptible to damage from snow accumulation.
B. Temporary Fences:The primary uses of temporary fence are todefine paddocks within a pasture system, directthe grazing within a paddock to areas that arebeing underutilized, and to fence in areas thatare grazed only occasionally or not part of aregularly-rotated pasture system.
Temporary fences are usually constructed withstep-in posts and polywire, polytape, light gaugesteel or aluminum wire, and require an electricalsource. Easy and quick to move, these fences donot require tools for setup. In addition, thesefences are very light and do not require bracing.
16
cause streambank erosionas well as degrade waterquality. Manage theseresources by breaking thepasture into smallerpaddocks and reducing theamount of time thelivestock have access toany segment of the stream.
Currently the streambanksare in poor condition insome locations. This isdue to the livestocktraveling to the stream toget water. Reduce theimpact of the herd on thestream by subdividing thepasture, rotating thegrazing, and providingalternative drinkingfacilities for the livestock.With the plannedsubdivision of the pasture,the livestock will haveaccess to the stream fromonly three paddocks.
This section presents an exampleof a grazing plan. It represents astarting point for a rotationalgrazing system. Seven elementsof the plan are illustrated: • Sensitive Areas • Livestock Summary • Fencing System • Livestock Watering System • Heavy Use Area Protection • Forages • Grazing System Management
This plan is based upon theinformation gathered in theinventory phase of plandevelopment.
Sensitive Areas
The following sensitive areas areidentified in this grazing unit(Diagram 6):
a.) The stream flowingthrough the pasture is asensitive area becauseuncontrolled access to thisarea by the livestock will
Grazing Plan Example
29
b.) The flood-prone area caneasily be damaged bylivestock traffic duringperiods of wet weather orshortly after floodedconditions. Propermonitoring of the grazingsystem will avoid damageto this area.
c.) The steep slope (Diagram6), which is also droughtprone, is a sensitive areabecause it is easilydamaged by over-utilization and livestocktraffic. This area can bemanaged closely bysubdividing the pastureinto paddocks, rotating thegrazing, and monitoringthe condition of the forageand soil to preventdamage.
Livestock Summary
Currently there are 25 cow/calfpairs using the pasture. This planconsiders increasing the size ofthe herd to 35 cow/calf pairs.The average weight of the cows is1200 pounds. These animals arecurrently managed as one herd.In addition, a herd bull with anaverage weight of 2000 pounds,will be used.
Monthly and season-long foragerequirements are estimated on theLivestock Forage MonthlyBalance Sheet (Table 11). Thisindicates that there will be asurplus of forage on a season-long basis. The monthly balanceindicates that there will beadequate to surplus quantities offorage through July, and a verysmall shortage of forage inAugust. A rather largedeficiency occurs during themonths of September and
Diagram 6. Pasture Inventory Map
Advantages:• Easy to install and to move.• Relatively inexpensive.• Provides considerable flexibility.• Can be used within permanently established
systems to direct grazing pressure.Disadvantages:• Components have relatively short lifespan.• Not suitable for perimeter fences.• Provides a psychological barrier only, not a
good physical barrier.• Requires an electrical source and
maintenance of the fence line from electricalgrounding.
Water System Design and Layout
How can I supply adequate water to the livestock?Water is essential for livestock to effectively processforages. A well-planned and installed water systemwill provide an adequate quantity of water withminimal disturbance to the soil resource and to thewater source itself.
Common sources of water for livestock are streams,ponds, lakes, and wells. Of these sources, well wateris preferred because it is cleaner. Research showsthat there can be a significant increase in animalperformance and improved herd health if thedrinking water is clean and free from sediments,nutrients, pesticides, algae, bacteria, and othercontaminants.
Alternative methods of delivering the water to thelivestock include:
• Ramps to surface water (ponds, etc.)• Livestock powered pumps• Solar pumping systems• Sling pumps• Hydraulic ram pumps• Gasoline powered pumps• Water hauling
These methods can be used to discharge directly intoa trough or tank, but normally a pipeline is installedto distribute the water to drinking facilities available
in all paddocks. When using a pipeline to deliverwater you may need to have a system that isengineered to meet the specific needs of your site.See Appendix E for description of pumping systems.
Considerations in designing a pipeline systeminclude:
• Quantity of water to be delivered• Pressure differences due to elevation changes• Length of pipeline• Protection from freezing
Where should drinking facilities be located?Drinking facilities should be available in eachpaddock. If possible, locate drinking facilities sothat livestock do not have to travel excessivedistances to drink. In systems where livestock musttravel long distances to water, forages tend to beoverutilized near the water, and underutilized inareas of the paddock that are farthest from the water.Other problems associated with this situation includeuneven manure distribution in the paddock anddiminished animal performance.
Most livestock watering systems consist of a pump,a delivery system (usually a pipeline), and a troughor tank for the livestock to drink from. Once thepaddock layout is established, and the water sourcesidentified, the delivery system must beaccommodated. If water is to be hauled, access bythe tanker needs to extend to each storage tank. Ifthe water is to be delivered through a pipeline, theroute must be determined so that each paddock inthe system has access to the water. The pipelinelayout should follow the shortest route to minimizecost and maintenance problems. This will ultimatelydetermine the general area in which the wateringtanks will be placed.
Water tanks should be placed on soils that cansupport heavy traffic and provide easy access bylivestock without crowding. Permanently installedtanks should have some type of heavy use treatmentaround them to prevent the formation of a mudhole.Refer to the following section on Heavy Use AreaPlanning. Portable tanks offer the most flexibility.Their location can be changed frequently by adding alength of pipeline between the coupler and the tankand placing the tank in a different location. Thetanks can be moved as often as necessary to managegrazing and avoid creation of barren areas andmudholes.
17
Is the productivity of the pastureincreasing?
Forages that are in goodcondition will produce more feedthan forages that are in poorcondition. The worksheetDetermining GrasslandCondition/Trend (Appendix C)is a useful tool for assessingchanges in the condition of theoverall pasture. Condition of theforages is a significant factorconsidered in the completion ofthe form. An initialdetermination followed by annualmonitoring will provide insightinto the overall productivitychanges. This evaluation shouldbe done in the same area of thepasture and at the same time ofthe year each time to make theresults meaningful.
Clipping and weighing pastureareas each year at the samelocation and same time of theyear will provide usefulinformation to determine thetrend of productivity for apasture. Instructions for thisprocedure are found in “Pasturesfor Profit” (see Referencessection).
Another method of determining ifthe productivity is increasing is toweigh livestock at the beginningand end of each grazing season.This assumes that livestock willproduce more if offered moreforage to consume. This systemof monitoring should be usedwith caution, since manyvariables can affect the end ofseason weights, such as parasiteinfection in the livestock, geneticchanges in the herd, calvingdates, or even the weatherconditions.
Records should be kept todocument the number of animalgrazing days on each paddock.This provides informationregarding how many head oflivestock can be supported by apasture system. The records arebasically a record of: a.) day theanimals were turned into apaddock, b.) day they wereremoved, c.) number of animalsand their weight, d.) kind andclass of livestock, e.) height ofthe forage when grazing wasinitiated and f.) height of theforage when the grazing wasterminated.
Are the natural resourcesimproving?
The condition of the soil, forages,watercourses, and birdpopulations within a pasturesystem provides insight into theeffectiveness of the grazingmanagement. Actions thatbenefit these resources will likelyhave a positive effect on theproduction of forages.
It is important to record theresults of tests or observationsmade so that meaningfulcomparisons can be made overtime.
A. Soils:Soils are in good conditionwhen they allow easyinfiltration of rainfall, alloweasy exchange of air with theatmosphere, and support awide range of life-forms(bacteria, fungi, earthworms,etc.). In addition, organicmatter content is a goodindicator of the health of thesoil.
B. Watercourses:Well-managed grazing willlead to improvements towatercourses within thepasture system. Featuressuch as erosion in thebottoms and sides of channelsshould be noted, as well asthe condition of the existingvegetation. Monitoring thecondition of the watercoursesin future years will indicatechanges needed in themanagement of the grazingsystem.
C. Forages:Refer to the formDetermining GrasslandCondition/Trend, discussedearlier (Appendix C). Thisform is very good formonitoring forage condition.This considers such aspectsas the species composition ofthe pasture (desirable vs.undesirable), plant density,and plant vigor.
D. Bird Populations:Birds are excellent“barometers” of theenvironmental condition ofyour pastures and your farm.Their populations reactquickly to changes inconditions that affect theirfood sources and nestinghabitat. In general, the morediverse the species and thehigher the counts within eachspecies, the healthier theenvironment on your farm.Select points within thepasture to use to do periodicbird counts, and then plan todo bird counts three times peryear at each site.
28
For technical assistance indesigning your watering
system, contact your localNRCS Field Office.
Fine-textured materials arepreferred over course-texturedmaterials because the course-textured material can injure thefeet of livestock. If animals musttraverse lanes that are in unstableareas, such as wet draws, then thetreatment described below forprotecting watering facilitiesshould be installed to avoiddifficulty with livestockmovement.
How do I keep the area aroundwater facilities from becomingmudholes?
Watering stations that arepermanently placed will besubject to heavy use since theyare often used to provide waterfor more than one paddock.Water spillage and leakage,which is inevitable, adds to themud problem. As a consequence,protective materials will need tobe used around watering sites.Portable watering tanks will notgenerally have the same problemsbecause they can be movedaround to spread the use over alarger area.
The recommended method ofbuilding pads for water stationsis to:
• Prepare a good subgradeby removing debris andvegetation along with atleast 8” of topsoil
• Compact the subgrade• Lay down a geotextile
fabric (Class I)• Place a six-inch layer of
course aggregate on thegeotextile fabric and topwith a three-inch layer offine aggregate
• Lanes generally need to be12-15 feet wide and padsaround tanks need toextend out 20-25 feet
Heavy Use Area Planning
Some areas of the pasture systemwill be used so much that the bestoption is to place some type ofprotective material to prevent theformation of mudholes. Twosuch areas are those that surroundwatering facilities and thealleyways used for livestockmovement.
What do I consider when planninglivestock lanes?
Livestock movement must becontrolled for a successfulgrazing system. Lanes that areproperly planned will allow forlivestock movement from onepaddock to any other paddockwithout moving back through arecently grazed paddock.Livestock will tend to stopmoving when they go into apaddock with some fresh foragegrowth, even though you maywant them in a different paddock.Lanes prevent this fromhappening. The areas within thelanes can normally be grazedalong with an adjacent paddock,unless the lane is covered withsome type of protective material.The locations of livestock lanesshould avoid potential erosion,concentrated water flow, andflooding. Avoid placing lanes upand down hills, in wetlands, or onorganic soils.
How do I stabilize the livestocklanes?
Livestock lanes should beprotected with lime screenings orsome other fine textured materialto prevent mudhole developmentand erosion when:
• There is considerable animaltraffic, as in the case of milkcows using the lane for tworound trips each day
• Areas of the lane are subjectto erosion
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Grazing System Monitoring
A. Visual Method:This method requires aproducer to go into thepasture and make an estimateof the number of days theherd will be able to grazeeach paddock. This estimateis based upon a visualdetermination of the quantityof forage available and howmany days it will take theherd to graze the forage tothe allowable stubble height.
The information is recordedso that comparisons can bemade from week to week andfrom year to year. A blankform is available in AppendixF.
B. Calculated Method:This method is a little moreinvolved than the visualmethod, but it provides amore accurate estimate. Thesmall amount of extra timerequired is worth the benefitof having more informationon hand with which to makecomparisons.
The following information isrequired to determine RHDwith this method:
• The acres within eachpaddock.
• The estimated pounds ofdry matter per inch ofheight per acre for theforages within eachpaddock. This
information is availablefrom Table 6.
• The estimated pounds ofdry matter the herd willutilize per day. This issimply the total weightof the herd multiplied bythe utilization rate(0.04).
A blank form is available inAppendix G. Completion of thisform requires going into eachpaddock, measuring the height ofthe forage, and placing theinformation in the correct spot onthe form. The inches of forageavailable is the amount of theforage above the minimumstubble height.
The total pounds of availableforage divided by the pounds offorage required each day by theherd (Daily Allocation) equals theReserve Herd Days. If thisnumber is small you may run outof forage soon. If the RHD islarge there may be adequateforage available to harvest someas hay. Other options exist, butconsideration must be made forthe period of the grazing seasonwhen the determination is made,the current weather conditions,and possible changes in the sizeor makeup of the herd, as well asyour management objectives.Having this information recordedis important for makingcomparisons throughout thegrazing season, as well as fromseason to season.
Pasture Record Keeping
How do I know I have enoughforage available?
There are various ways todetermine available forage. Oneof the most useful is the ReserveHerd Days (RHD) concept. Thismethod is a powerful tool becauseit is quick, easy, sufficientlyaccurate, and providesmeaningful information toproducers. The term ReserveHerd Days expresses the numberof days of grazing remainingwhen considering the amount offorage currently on hand in thepasture system. Using thisconcept will provide thefollowing:
• A determination of howmuch forage is on hand atthe present time, expressedas a number of days ofgrazing currently availablefor your herd.
• A determination of wherethe forage is (whichpaddocks).
• A measurement of the ebband flow of forageavailable over time.
• An indication of pasturecondition and the trend inthe condition.
• A guide to decisionmaking when excesses andshortages of forages areapparent.
There are two commonly usedmethods of making RHDdeterminations, visual andcalculated.
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When using portabletanks, allow for 2 tanks
per herd so that onewater tank can be set
up ahead of time in thenext paddock.
See your local NRCSoffice for design
assistance for streamcrossings, unstable sites,
and drinking facilitypads.
Lanes for livestock do notwork well for bison. Theydo not like to be confinedto narrow areas. If lanesare used for bison, makethem much wider thanthey would be for other
kinds and classes oflivestock.
For more information onGeotextiles read “UsingAll-weather Geotextilesfor Lanes and Paths.”Midwest Plan Servicepublication AED-45.
worksheet from the Foragesection of Chapter 2, evaluateyour pasture. Generally, if thepasture plant population and plantdiversity are at a high level butplant vigor is weak, a change ingrazing system management toprovide a rest period may be allthat is needed to increase forageproduction. In contrast, if plantpopulation is undesirable andplant diversity is low, thenestablishment of new seedings ofdesirable plants could addadditional forage for the pasture.
The decision to renovate a pastureand establish new forage speciesor add to the existing forageplants should be well-planned.Should you establish a legumecomponent, grass-legumemixture, or a more productivegrass in the pasture? Beforepurchasing seed, considereconomics of the intendedmanagement practice, animalpreference for forages, soilconditions, and landscape of thesite.
How do pasture and livestockmanagement affect plant growthand forage quality?
The basis of forage production isto harvest sunlight and rain toproduce healthy forage plants foranimals to graze. To be healthyand vigorous, plants need anextensive, healthy root system.There is a direct relationshipbetween root growth and theamount of leaf area developed. Iftoo much of the leaf area isremoved, roots will die back.When management limits theremoval of forage to no morethan 50 - 60%, root growth willnot be significantly reduced.Plants will remain healthy andleaf regrowth will be fairly rapid.This growth rate response isillustrated in Figure 1.
Pasture Forage andLivestock Management
What is proper grazingmanagement for the desired foragespecies?
To maintain desirable plants forgrazing, pasture managementmust provide adequate rest fromgrazing in order to give desiredspecies the competitive edgeover less desirable plants. Agood mix of desired plantswithin the pasture also benefitsthe grazing system by providingmore ground surface coverageby plants for as many days of theyear as possible. Mixtures ofgrass and legume species thathave different growth curves inthe same pasture provide greaterforage productivity than a singlespecies pasture.
Are the pasture forages adequateto meet the needs of thelivestock or are there areas thatneed improvement? Using thecompleted DeterminingGrassland Condition/Trend
Pasture Management
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A variety of herbicide optionsexist for broadleaf weed controlin grass pastures. No herbicidesare labeled to selectively removebroadleaf weeds from legume-grass pastures without severelegume injury. Likewise, noherbicides are labeled toselectively remove unwantedgrasses from cool-season grasspastures.
To control biennials such as muskthistle in pastures, applyherbicides in the spring or fall tothe rosettes. This results in bettercontrol than herbicides appliedafter the flower stalk elongates.Perennial weeds are typically bestcontrolled with herbicides afterthe early bud to flowering stageof growth. Fall herbicideapplications usually provide thebest control of biennial orperennial weeds. Fallapplications of herbicide alsocontrol any seedlings that mayhave emerged. In established hay,most herbicides are applied todormant forages or betweencuttings to avoid excessive injury.
Sacrificial PaddockManagement
How will the livestock be managedduring times of drought or wetconditions?
At some point in time, very wetweather or very dry weather willdominate a significant part of thegrowing season. Long periods ofwet weather can be detrimental ifthe soil is so wet that livestocktraffic causes damage to the rootsand growth buds of the forages.Livestock traffic on wet soils canalso destroy soil structure, causecompaction, reduce the ability of
the soil to absorb rainfall, andreduce the exchange of airbetween the soil and theatmosphere. Livestock travel inwet lanes can cause the lanes tobecome muddy, rutted, and easilyeroded.
Extended dry weather will reducethe ability of the forage toproduce new growth, reducingpasture yield. Paddocks may nothave an adequate rest period toreplenish the forage to a pointwhere livestock can be allowed tograze them. The tendency ofproducers is to allow the livestockto continue the rotations, leadingto an overgrazed situation. Thiswill have a detrimental effect onforage production in the future.
In both situations (very wet orvery dry) it is best to removelivestock from the pasture into afeedlot. Grazing can resumewhen forage and soil conditionspermit.
Another method is to retain thelivestock in one paddock or aportion of one paddock andprovide some type of emergencyfeed, such as hay, until weatherconditions improve. This isreferred to as a sacrificialpaddock. It is better to have aserious negative impact on asmall area of the pasture systemthan to continue moving livestockthrough the paddocks, grazing theforages below the minimumstubble heights which will causelong-term yield reduction.
The area used as a sacrificialpaddock should be one where thesoils have good resistance totraffic, erosion potential is slight,
there is easy access to providefeed, and rejuvenation isrelatively easy.
Will sacrificial paddocks berejuvenated after removal oflivestock?
When livestock are placed backinto a regular rotation, thesacrificial paddock will likely bein poor condition. The vegetationwill most likely be gone or invery poor condition and the areamay be in a rough and ruttedcondition. There are two optionsto consider:
1. The sacrificial paddock canbe left to regenerate on itsown. This may besuccessful if the livestockdid not cause significantdamage to the soil. Theforages that were on the siteprior to its use as asacrificial paddock mayresume growth after anextended rest period. Theprimary risk involved is thatundesirable vegetation, suchas weeds, will become thepredominant vegetation onthe site.
2. Another option is to preparethe site with tillageequipment and reseed it todesirable forage species.This may be the best optionif the sacrificial paddockhas been in use for arelatively long period oftime.
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Figure 1. The growth rate curve and three phases of pasture growth
See University ofMinnesota bulletin AG-BU-3157, Cultural andChemical Weed Control
in Field Crops
The growth curve is divided intothree phases. Plant growth isslowest during Phase 1 whenplants are small and there isinsufficient leaf area to interceptlight for growing leaves and tomaintain roots. Root growthstops during Phase 1. Grazingduring this time will provide highquality but low yielding forage.However, continued grazingduring this phase will cause plantvigor to weaken because ofreduced root growth. The loss ofan extensive root systemultimately results in lower forageyields because the plant’s abilityto take up water and nutrients arereduced.
Growth rate increases whenenough leaves are present tomaintain existing leaves and rootsand also promote growth of newleaves as occurs in Phase 2.Leaves during this growth phaseintercept more sunlight than isneeded for maintaining the plantand as a result the rest of theenergy is used to rapidly developnew leaves and roots. Grazingduring Phase 2 provides theoptimum balance of forage yieldand quality. The goal is to begingrazing a particular paddockwhen forage growth is high onthe Phase 2 curve and thenremove the livestock near thetransition from Phase 1 to Phase2. Nutritional needs of thelivestock will determine where onthe growth curve to start grazinga paddock. Livestock with a highnutritional requirement, such asmilking cows or stockers, shouldbe moved to high quality foragemore frequently and will requireforage growth that is lower on thePhase 2 curve. Livestock withlower nutritional requirements,such as beef cows, can be kept ona paddock for a longer time and
can graze starting high on thePhase 2 curve and end whengrowth is low in that same phase.
During Phase 3, growth rateslows down as plants mature.Most of the plant’s energy isgoing into seed production ormaintenance. Grazing duringPhase 3 will provide high yields,but low quality forage will limitperformance of most livestock.Only livestock with lownutritional needs such as drycows or dry ewes will have mostof their nutritional requirementsmet during this growth phase.
When do I start grazing in thespring?
When to allow livestock to startgrazing in the spring depends onwhat you are trying toaccomplish. For most grazingoperations, managing the earlyspring growth of forages is theprimary consideration in decidingthe appropriate time to start thegrazing season. Because foragegrowth of cool-season speciescan be very rapid in the spring,forage production can easily out-pace what livestock are able toconsume. As a result, foragequality will decline rapidly in thepasture.
The decision on when to startgrazing in the spring is acompromise between maintainingenough growing plant material inthe pasture to promote rapidregrowth from healthy plants andkeeping forage growth from out-pacing the livestock. Because ofrapid forage growth, recom-mended plant heights forinitiating grazing in the spring areless than the heights recom-mended for the rest of the grazingseason. Table 5 provides therecommended plant heights for
when to initiate grazing in thespring. Grazing forages startingat these heights and for short timeperiods (no more than 2 days) ina paddock system will providehigher quality feed for later in theseason.
Livestock movement during thespring is another importantconsideration that will affect thebalance between maintaining arapidly growing, healthy pastureand maintaining quality foragefor later in the season. Livestockwill need to be rotated throughthe paddocks at a faster pace thantypically averaged for the rest ofthe grazing season. Wheninitiating grazing the forageproduction is low but dry matteris accumulating rapidly. Forlivestock to be rotated through allthe paddocks before foragegrowth outpaces consumption,the time spent on an individualpaddock will need to be keptshort. Clipping or harvesting hayin some paddocks can maintainforage quality if grazing does notkeep ahead of the spring growthforage quality.
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competitiveness of desirablespecies and regular grazing ofweeds in their more palatable,immature growth stage.
Grazing management alone,however, will not normallycorrect serious preexisting weedproblems without great losses inanimal performance. Thistles,brush, and poisonous plants maycontinue to be a problem evenafter you have intensified yourgrazing system. This is becauseeven at high stocking rates cattleseldom eat these weeds.
Sheep or goats can offer analternative weed control method.They often will consume plantsthat other animals avoid. As aresult, there are opportunities forsheep and goats to be used as anenvironmentally friendly and costeffective way to control weeds.This method of control isespecially practical when theweeds are located in areas whereother control means areimpractical.
What are the cultural andmechanical brush and weed controlalternatives for pastures?
A. Cultural Control:Several cultural practices helpmaintain a weed-free pasture.Weeds are generally more of aproblem in overgrazed pasturesthan in fertile, well-managedpastures. Good grazingmanagement (which includespasture rest periods) and goodfertility will go a long way inkeeping the desirable foragespecies healthy and able tocompete with pasture weeds.To prevent the spread of weeds,avoid spreading manurecontaminated with weed seeds,clean equipment after workingin weed-infested pastures, and
keep fence rows free ofproblem weeds.
B. Mechanical Control:Mechanical weed managementinvolves the physical removalof all or part of the weeds andbrush. Repeated mowing,clipping and hand weeding candiminish weed infestations.When in the bud to early bloomstage, cut weeds 3 to 4 inchesabove the soil. Mechanicalweed control is more successfulwhen coupled with goodfertilization and grazingmanagement.
Biennial and perennial weedstend to be the most troublesomein established pastures.Biennials, such as musk andplumeless thistle, reproduceonly by seed. They require atwo-year period to produceseed. Clip annual and biennialweeds to prevent seedproduction.
Perennial weeds, such asCanada thistle and absinthwormwood, reproduce by seed,but also spread by vegetativeparts such as underground rootsor rhizomes. Clip perennialbroadleaf weeds at the bud toflowering stages to maximizedepletion of root carbohydrates.Repeated clipping of perennialbroadleaf weeds with uprightgrowth habits at 4-weekintervals will eventually kill aninfestation over a 2 to 3 yearperiod, but may not bepractical. Many perennials thatpersist in hay fields are adaptedto the cutting schedules andgrowth habit of forages such asalfalfa. Other than hemp,annual weeds should not persistbeyond the establishment year,unless soil disturbance such asovergrazing exposes soil.
Other options include tillageand burning. Tillage can beused to suppress weeds as partof a pasture renovationprogram, but is seldom used tomanage weeds in a goodpasture. Periodic burning maybe a beneficial weedsuppression tool and can beused in combination withmowing on woody plantspecies. Burning should beused as the first treatment andmowing used for thesubsequent years.
When is control of brush andproblem weeds with herbicides thebest option?
Even with the best cultural andmechanical methods of control,serious weed problems may needto be controlled with herbicides.The use of herbicides is justifiedwhen used with proper grazingmanagement and where herbicideuse results in desirable economicreturns. Frequently, weeds arepatchy, making spot spraying thepreferred method of control.Spot spraying is less costly thanbroadcast applications. Correctidentification of problem weedsis critical for successful controlwith herbicides. Considerationshould be given to impacts onsurface and groundwater, plantcommunities and wildlife habitatbefore herbicides are used.Always read and follow labelswhen selecting and usingherbicides.
25
When do I move livestock frompaddock to paddock?
Movement of livestock throughpaddocks in the early spring isdiscussed in the previous section.Once forage growth begins toslow (normally in late May) themovement of livestock is basedupon the amount of forageavailable and the minimumstubble heights shown in Table 5.
Grazing should be terminated in apaddock when the livestock havegrazed the forage down to theminimum stubble height.
A paddock is not ready to grazeuntil the forage has reached theminimum height shown in Table5, in the column labeled“Minimum and Optimum Heightof Vegetative Growth.”
Not every paddock will yield thesame quantity of forage due todifferences in soil conditions andlandscape. Knowing how muchforage is produced or available ineach paddock is important. Thefollowing equations and tablesdetermine how many animals willbe needed to utilize the forage ina given period of time, and howmuch time a given number ofanimals will be able to graze apaddock.
A. How many animals will aparticular paddocksupport?
The following equationcalculates the number ofanimals a particularpaddock will support:
Days = (pounds of forage/acre) x (# of acres)
(daily herd forage requirement)
B. How many days can myherd stay on a paddock?
For paddock management it isimportant to be able to estimatethe quantity of forage on apaddock at a given time. This isespecially important just prior to
21
(1200 lbs/acre yield) (8 acres) = 5.7 days
(42,000 lbs) (0.04 utilization rate)
Example:
Applications can be made eachyear or you can double the ratesand apply every other year.Tables 9 and 10 list the P and Krecommendations based on soiltest results.
Pasture Brush and WeedControl
Weeds compete with desirableplants for water, nutrients andlight. They can reduce yields ofdesirable species and can causeproblems with animal health,animal weight, and/or milkproduction. Effective weedmanagement begins with properestablishment of forage speciesthat are adapted to soil, climate,and intended uses. Under theseconditions, weeds can often bemanaged through appropriategrazing management and propermaintenance of soil fertility.
Broadleaf weeds tend to be themost troubling in perennial grasspastures. Many broadleaf weedsare on the noxious weed list andseveral are poisonous tolivestock. These broadleaf weedsare generally less palatable, lessnutritious, lower yielding and areless dependable as a foragesupply for livestock. Weeds withknown palatability problemsinclude: musk, plumeless andbull thistle, nettles, absinthwormwood, perennial sowthistle,swamp smartweed, and commonmullein.
Can unwanted weeds be controlledthrough grazing?
Many weeds are unpalatablewhen mature but readily grazedwhen immature. Therefore,grazing practices can greatlyinfluence whether weeds areroutinely grazed or selectivelypassed over. Continuously
grazing a pasture with lowstocking density frequently leadsto selective grazing. This canlead to increased weed and brushproblems. Continuous grazing athigh stocking rates will oftenweaken desirable species. Thiscan lead to rapid weed invasion.
Producers who have successfullyimplemented rotational grazingmanagement often find that theirpasture weed problems begin todiminish within the first fewyears of grazing. This isprimarily because of theimproved vigor and24
Table 10. Potash fertilizer recommendations for grasses andgrass-legumes grown for hay and pasture
Table 9. Phosphate fertilizer reecommendations for grassesand grass-legumes grown for hay and pasture
Noxious weeds must be controlled according to Minnesota State law(primary noxious weeds) and county law (secondary noxious weeds).Listed are the primary noxious weeds in Minnesota; other states may
have different lists.
Perennials Biennials AnnualsPoison ivy Bull thistle HempLeafy spurge Musk thistleField bindweed Plumeless thistlePerennial sowthistleCanada thistlePurple loosestrife
Number = (pounds of forage/acre) x (# of acres) (individual animal weight) x (utilization rate) x (days)
moving livestock into a paddock.Table 6 indicates forage quantitybased on forage species, height ofgrowth, and pasture condition.
(1200 pounds/acre yield) x (8 acres) = 50 head
(1200 pounds/animal) x (.04) x (4 day grazing period)
The following equationcalculates the numberof days a paddock willsupport a herd:
Example:
Pounds of forage/acre Table 6 x inches of usable forageNumber of acres Acres in a specific paddockDaily herd forage requirement Total herd weight x 0.04 utilization
Pounds of forage/acre Table 6 x inches of usable forageNumber of acres Acres in a specific paddockIndividual animal weight From Livestock InventoryUtilization Rate 0.04 represents forage intake,
trampling and bufferDays The planned length of grazing period
for the paddock
Expected Phosphorus (P) Soil Test (ppm)Yield
Bray: 0 — 5 6 — 10 11 — 15 16 — 20 21 + Olsen: 0 - 3 4 — 7 8 - 11 12 — 15 16 +
t o n / a c r e P2O5 t o a p p l y ( l b s . / a c r e ) Grasses 2 40 30 20 10 0 3 50 40 30 20 0 4 60 50 40 30 0 4+ 70 60 50 40 0 Grass-legumes 2 35 25 15 0 0 3 55 40 25 10 0 4 70 50 30 10 0 5 90 65 40 15 0
Source:Fertilizer Recommendations for Agronomic Crops in Minnesota,University of Minnesota Extension Service, BU-06240-S, 2001
Expected Potassium (K) Soil Test (ppm)Yield 0 — 40 41 — 80 81 — 120 121 — 160 161 +
t o n / a c r e K2O t o a p p l y ( l b s . / a c r e )
Grasses 2 90 60 30 0 0 3 100 70 40 10 0 4 110 80 50 20 0 4+ 120 90 60 30 0 Grass-legumes 2 95 65 40 15 0 3 140 100 60 20 0 4 185 135 80 25 0 5 230 165 100 35 0
Source:Fertilizer Recommendations for Agronomic Crops in Minnesota,University of Minnesota Extension Service, BU-06240-S, 2001
ton/acre
ton/acre
There should be some residualstubble left in the paddock. Theheight of the stubblerecommended for common grassspecies is given in Table 5.Subtract the required stubbleheight from the total forageheight when computing poundsof forage available.
Growing conditions can changedramatically through the season,which will affect plant growth.For this reason, managementmust be flexible and not follow aset rotation pattern when movinganimals. Movement of livestockfrom one paddock to anothershould be based on the height andthe availability of forage. Grassand legume mixtures should begrazed in a manner that favors thedominant or desired species. Theequations and tables referred to inthis section provide estimates ofavailable forage and how longlivestock can graze an area.These are only estimates forplanning. Actual decisionsshould be based on routinepasture observations. Asuccessful rotational grazingsystem requires continuousmonitoring and adjustment tobalance the needs of both theplants and livestock.
Pasture Soil FertilityManagement
Proper fertilization of pasturesallows for good standestablishment, promotes earlygrowth, increases yield andquality, and improves winterhardiness and persistence.Adequate fertility also improvesthe ability of grass and legume tocompete with weeds, and
increases resistance to insects anddiseases. Fields differ in theirfertilizer needs. Take soilsamples from representative areasto determine fertilization andliming requirements whenconverting to a rotational grazingsystem. Soil testing is the easiestand least expensive way toevaluate soil fertility andaccurately assess if fertilizer isneeded.
Can nutrients from livestockmanure be utilized more efficientlyin pastures?
Nutrients are primarily removedfrom pasture ecosystems bymaking hay. Animals alsoremove nutrients through grazing.When pastures are grazed, manyof the nutrients are returned topastures via urine and feces.About 60-80% of the nitrogen,60-85% of the phosphorus, and80-90% of the potassium areexcreted in urine and feces.Manure also contains manymicronutrients needed by pastureplants. If manure is evenlydistributed throughout thepaddocks, fertility can almost bemaintained through naturalnutrient recycling.
Often, a majority of the urine andfeces is concentrated aroundwater, shade, and other areaswhere livestock congregate. Thisconcentration of manure can leadto nutrient deficiencies in otherparts of the pasture. Not onlydoes concentration of manurearound water and shade sites leadto lower pasture productivity, italso leads to greater opportunityfor nitrate contamination ofsurface and ground water.
To evenly distribute manure andincrease soil fertility throughoutthe paddock, shorten the rotation,increase stocking rates, and placewater, shade, salt, andsupplemental feeders in nutrient-poor areas. Minimize the amountof time animals spend aroundwater by assuring the cattle donot have to travel more than 600to 800 feet in each paddock.
22
How much nitrogen fertilizer do Ineed to put on my pasture?
Nitrogen (N) is often the mostlimiting nutrient in the productionof grass for pasture or hay.Grazing animals normally return60-80% of available nitrogenback to the pasture. Additional Nfertilization may be neededdepending on your yield goals(Table 8). Nitrogen will not onlyimprove dry matter yield, it willlead to increased plant crudeprotein content and dry matterdigestibility if plants are grazedbefore they get too mature.
Since legumes can fix their ownnitrogen from the atmosphere,pastures with more than 30%legumes rarely need additional Nfertilizer. It is often reported that80-100 lb. N/acre produced bythe legumes is gradually availableto the associated grass plants.
Does phosphorus and potassiumfertilizer improve pastureproductivity?
Grasses may respond tophosphorus (P) and potassium(K) when nutrients limit plantgrowth. Phosphorus andpotassium levels can increaseseedling success by encouragingroot growth. However, responseto applied P and K is not usuallyprofitable unless nitrogensupplies are adequate.
Legume-grass pastures have ahigher requirement for P and Kthan do grass pastures. These twonutrients not only increaselegume yields but also enhancedisease resistance, winterhardiness, and stand life. Timingof application of P and K onlegume-grass pastures is notcritical; however, early spring orAugust applications are favored.
When is increasing soil pH withlime important for forageproduction?
Overall, soil microorganismactivity and plant nutrientavailability are nearly optimum ata soil pH of 6.5 to 7.0. Limeapplications should be made toincrease soil pH to a levelappropriate for the crop beinggrown. It is often best to growspecies that are adapted to yoursoil pH (Table 7). Grass speciesare more tolerant of lower pH,whereas legumes need a moreneutral pH. If the pastureplanning strategy is to increase orintroduce legumes into thepasture, correcting to therecommended soil pH is a must.Apply lime to the pasturefollowing soil testrecommendations. Surfaceapplied lime will react slowly, soit should be applied 12 monthsbefore seeding.
23
If additional fertilizer isneeded, the applicator should
avoid spreading materialswithin 100 feet of permanent
watering or shade sitesbecause manure is often
concentrated in these areas.
Table 7. pH recommendations for different forage cropsSpecies Optimum pH
Alfalfa 6.5 - 7.0
Smooth Bromegrass 6.0 - 7.0
Red Clover 6.0 - 7.0
Tall Fescue 5.6 - 7.0
Timothy 5.6 - 7.0
Switchgrass 5.6 - 6.5
Orchardgrass 5.6 - 6.5
Birdsfoot Trefoil 5.6 - 7.0
Table 8. Nitrogen recommendations for various pasture managementsituations
Expected Yield Nitrogen Rate
tons dry matter/acre lbs./acre
2 60
3 90
4 120
4+ 150
,atosenniMnisporCcimonorgArofsnoitadnemmoceRrezilitreF:ecruoS06240-S, 2001-UB,ecivreSnoisnetxEatosenniUniversity of M
For more detailedinformation on soil
test recommendations,contact your localExtension office orUSDA Agricultural
Service Center.
There should be some residualstubble left in the paddock. Theheight of the stubblerecommended for common grassspecies is given in Table 5.Subtract the required stubbleheight from the total forageheight when computing poundsof forage available.
Growing conditions can changedramatically through the season,which will affect plant growth.For this reason, managementmust be flexible and not follow aset rotation pattern when movinganimals. Movement of livestockfrom one paddock to anothershould be based on the height andthe availability of forage. Grassand legume mixtures should begrazed in a manner that favors thedominant or desired species. Theequations and tables referred to inthis section provide estimates ofavailable forage and how longlivestock can graze an area.These are only estimates forplanning. Actual decisionsshould be based on routinepasture observations. Asuccessful rotational grazingsystem requires continuousmonitoring and adjustment tobalance the needs of both theplants and livestock.
Pasture Soil FertilityManagement
Proper fertilization of pasturesallows for good standestablishment, promotes earlygrowth, increases yield andquality, and improves winterhardiness and persistence.Adequate fertility also improvesthe ability of grass and legume tocompete with weeds, and
increases resistance to insects anddiseases. Fields differ in theirfertilizer needs. Take soilsamples from representative areasto determine fertilization andliming requirements whenconverting to a rotational grazingsystem. Soil testing is the easiestand least expensive way toevaluate soil fertility andaccurately assess if fertilizer isneeded.
Can nutrients from livestockmanure be utilized more efficientlyin pastures?
Nutrients are primarily removedfrom pasture ecosystems bymaking hay. Animals alsoremove nutrients through grazing.When pastures are grazed, manyof the nutrients are returned topastures via urine and feces.About 60-80% of the nitrogen,60-85% of the phosphorus, and80-90% of the potassium areexcreted in urine and feces.Manure also contains manymicronutrients needed by pastureplants. If manure is evenlydistributed throughout thepaddocks, fertility can almost bemaintained through naturalnutrient recycling.
Often, a majority of the urine andfeces is concentrated aroundwater, shade, and other areaswhere livestock congregate. Thisconcentration of manure can leadto nutrient deficiencies in otherparts of the pasture. Not onlydoes concentration of manurearound water and shade sites leadto lower pasture productivity, italso leads to greater opportunityfor nitrate contamination ofsurface and ground water.
To evenly distribute manure andincrease soil fertility throughoutthe paddock, shorten the rotation,increase stocking rates, and placewater, shade, salt, andsupplemental feeders in nutrient-poor areas. Minimize the amountof time animals spend aroundwater by assuring the cattle donot have to travel more than 600to 800 feet in each paddock.
22
How much nitrogen fertilizer do Ineed to put on my pasture?
Nitrogen (N) is often the mostlimiting nutrient in the productionof grass for pasture or hay.Grazing animals normally return60-80% of available nitrogenback to the pasture. Additional Nfertilization may be neededdepending on your yield goals(Table 8). Nitrogen will not onlyimprove dry matter yield, it willlead to increased plant crudeprotein content and dry matterdigestibility if plants are grazedbefore they get too mature.
Since legumes can fix their ownnitrogen from the atmosphere,pastures with more than 30%legumes rarely need additional Nfertilizer. It is often reported that80-100 lb. N/acre produced bythe legumes is gradually availableto the associated grass plants.
Does phosphorus and potassiumfertilizer improve pastureproductivity?
Grasses may respond tophosphorus (P) and potassium(K) when nutrients limit plantgrowth. Phosphorus andpotassium levels can increaseseedling success by encouragingroot growth. However, responseto applied P and K is not usuallyprofitable unless nitrogensupplies are adequate.
Legume-grass pastures have ahigher requirement for P and Kthan do grass pastures. These twonutrients not only increaselegume yields but also enhancedisease resistance, winterhardiness, and stand life. Timingof application of P and K onlegume-grass pastures is notcritical; however, early spring orAugust applications are favored.
When is increasing soil pH withlime important for forageproduction?
Overall, soil microorganismactivity and plant nutrientavailability are nearly optimum ata soil pH of 6.5 to 7.0. Limeapplications should be made toincrease soil pH to a levelappropriate for the crop beinggrown. It is often best to growspecies that are adapted to yoursoil pH (Table 7). Grass speciesare more tolerant of lower pH,whereas legumes need a moreneutral pH. If the pastureplanning strategy is to increase orintroduce legumes into thepasture, correcting to therecommended soil pH is a must.Apply lime to the pasturefollowing soil testrecommendations. Surfaceapplied lime will react slowly, soit should be applied 12 monthsbefore seeding.
23
If additional fertilizer isneeded, the applicator should
avoid spreading materialswithin 100 feet of permanent
watering or shade sitesbecause manure is often
concentrated in these areas.
Table 7. pH recommendations for different forage cropsSpecies Optimum pH
Alfalfa 6.5 - 7.0
Smooth Bromegrass 6.0 - 7.0
Red Clover 6.0 - 7.0
Tall Fescue 5.6 - 7.0
Timothy 5.6 - 7.0
Switchgrass 5.6 - 6.5
Orchardgrass 5.6 - 6.5
Birdsfoot Trefoil 5.6 - 7.0
Table 8. Nitrogen recommendations for various pasture managementsituations
Expected Yield Nitrogen Rate
tons dry matter/acre lbs./acre
2 60
3 90
4 120
4+ 150
,atosenniMnisporCcimonorgArofsnoitadnemmoceRrezilitreF:ecruoS06240-S, 2001-UB,ecivreSnoisnetxEatosenniUniversity of M
For more detailedinformation on soil
test recommendations,contact your localExtension office orUSDA Agricultural
Service Center.
When do I move livestock frompaddock to paddock?
Movement of livestock throughpaddocks in the early spring isdiscussed in the previous section.Once forage growth begins toslow (normally in late May) themovement of livestock is basedupon the amount of forageavailable and the minimumstubble heights shown in Table 5.
Grazing should be terminated in apaddock when the livestock havegrazed the forage down to theminimum stubble height.
A paddock is not ready to grazeuntil the forage has reached theminimum height shown in Table5, in the column labeled“Minimum and Optimum Heightof Vegetative Growth.”
Not every paddock will yield thesame quantity of forage due todifferences in soil conditions andlandscape. Knowing how muchforage is produced or available ineach paddock is important. Thefollowing equations and tablesdetermine how many animals willbe needed to utilize the forage ina given period of time, and howmuch time a given number ofanimals will be able to graze apaddock.
A. How many animals will aparticular paddocksupport?
The following equationcalculates the number ofanimals a particularpaddock will support:
Days = (pounds of forage/acre) x (# of acres)
(daily herd forage requirement)
B. How many days can myherd stay on a paddock?
For paddock management it isimportant to be able to estimatethe quantity of forage on apaddock at a given time. This isespecially important just prior to
21
(1200 lbs/acre yield) (8 acres) = 5.7 days
(42,000 lbs) (0.04 utilization rate)
Example:
Applications can be made eachyear or you can double the ratesand apply every other year.Tables 9 and 10 list the P and Krecommendations based on soiltest results.
Pasture Brush and WeedControl
Weeds compete with desirableplants for water, nutrients andlight. They can reduce yields ofdesirable species and can causeproblems with animal health,animal weight, and/or milkproduction. Effective weedmanagement begins with properestablishment of forage speciesthat are adapted to soil, climate,and intended uses. Under theseconditions, weeds can often bemanaged through appropriategrazing management and propermaintenance of soil fertility.
Broadleaf weeds tend to be themost troubling in perennial grasspastures. Many broadleaf weedsare on the noxious weed list andseveral are poisonous tolivestock. These broadleaf weedsare generally less palatable, lessnutritious, lower yielding and areless dependable as a foragesupply for livestock. Weeds withknown palatability problemsinclude: musk, plumeless andbull thistle, nettles, absinthwormwood, perennial sowthistle,swamp smartweed, and commonmullein.
Can unwanted weeds be controlledthrough grazing?
Many weeds are unpalatablewhen mature but readily grazedwhen immature. Therefore,grazing practices can greatlyinfluence whether weeds areroutinely grazed or selectivelypassed over. Continuously
grazing a pasture with lowstocking density frequently leadsto selective grazing. This canlead to increased weed and brushproblems. Continuous grazing athigh stocking rates will oftenweaken desirable species. Thiscan lead to rapid weed invasion.
Producers who have successfullyimplemented rotational grazingmanagement often find that theirpasture weed problems begin todiminish within the first fewyears of grazing. This isprimarily because of theimproved vigor and24
Table 10. Potash fertilizer recommendations for grasses andgrass-legumes grown for hay and pasture
Table 9. Phosphate fertilizer reecommendations for grassesand grass-legumes grown for hay and pasture
Noxious weeds must be controlled according to Minnesota State law(primary noxious weeds) and county law (secondary noxious weeds).Listed are the primary noxious weeds in Minnesota; other states may
have different lists.
Perennials Biennials AnnualsPoison ivy Bull thistle HempLeafy spurge Musk thistleField bindweed Plumeless thistlePerennial sowthistleCanada thistlePurple loosestrife
Number = (pounds of forage/acre) x (# of acres) (individual animal weight) x (utilization rate) x (days)
moving livestock into a paddock.Table 6 indicates forage quantitybased on forage species, height ofgrowth, and pasture condition.
(1200 pounds/acre yield) x (8 acres) = 50 head
(1200 pounds/animal) x (.04) x (4 day grazing period)
The following equationcalculates the numberof days a paddock willsupport a herd:
Example:
Pounds of forage/acre Table 6 x inches of usable forageNumber of acres Acres in a specific paddockDaily herd forage requirement Total herd weight x 0.04 utilization
Pounds of forage/acre Table 6 x inches of usable forageNumber of acres Acres in a specific paddockIndividual animal weight From Livestock InventoryUtilization Rate 0.04 represents forage intake,
trampling and bufferDays The planned length of grazing period
for the paddock
Expected Phosphorus (P) Soil Test (ppm)Yield
Bray: 0 — 5 6 — 10 11 — 15 16 — 20 21 + Olsen: 0 - 3 4 — 7 8 - 11 12 — 15 16 +
t o n / a c r e P2O5 t o a p p l y ( l b s . / a c r e ) Grasses 2 40 30 20 10 0 3 50 40 30 20 0 4 60 50 40 30 0 4+ 70 60 50 40 0 Grass-legumes 2 35 25 15 0 0 3 55 40 25 10 0 4 70 50 30 10 0 5 90 65 40 15 0
Source:Fertilizer Recommendations for Agronomic Crops in Minnesota,University of Minnesota Extension Service, BU-06240-S, 2001
Expected Potassium (K) Soil Test (ppm)Yield 0 — 40 41 — 80 81 — 120 121 — 160 161 +
t o n / a c r e K2O t o a p p l y ( l b s . / a c r e )
Grasses 2 90 60 30 0 0 3 100 70 40 10 0 4 110 80 50 20 0 4+ 120 90 60 30 0 Grass-legumes 2 95 65 40 15 0 3 140 100 60 20 0 4 185 135 80 25 0 5 230 165 100 35 0
Source:Fertilizer Recommendations for Agronomic Crops in Minnesota,University of Minnesota Extension Service, BU-06240-S, 2001
ton/acre
ton/acre
The growth curve is divided intothree phases. Plant growth isslowest during Phase 1 whenplants are small and there isinsufficient leaf area to interceptlight for growing leaves and tomaintain roots. Root growthstops during Phase 1. Grazingduring this time will provide highquality but low yielding forage.However, continued grazingduring this phase will cause plantvigor to weaken because ofreduced root growth. The loss ofan extensive root systemultimately results in lower forageyields because the plant’s abilityto take up water and nutrients arereduced.
Growth rate increases whenenough leaves are present tomaintain existing leaves and rootsand also promote growth of newleaves as occurs in Phase 2.Leaves during this growth phaseintercept more sunlight than isneeded for maintaining the plantand as a result the rest of theenergy is used to rapidly developnew leaves and roots. Grazingduring Phase 2 provides theoptimum balance of forage yieldand quality. The goal is to begingrazing a particular paddockwhen forage growth is high onthe Phase 2 curve and thenremove the livestock near thetransition from Phase 1 to Phase2. Nutritional needs of thelivestock will determine where onthe growth curve to start grazinga paddock. Livestock with a highnutritional requirement, such asmilking cows or stockers, shouldbe moved to high quality foragemore frequently and will requireforage growth that is lower on thePhase 2 curve. Livestock withlower nutritional requirements,such as beef cows, can be kept ona paddock for a longer time and
can graze starting high on thePhase 2 curve and end whengrowth is low in that same phase.
During Phase 3, growth rateslows down as plants mature.Most of the plant’s energy isgoing into seed production ormaintenance. Grazing duringPhase 3 will provide high yields,but low quality forage will limitperformance of most livestock.Only livestock with lownutritional needs such as drycows or dry ewes will have mostof their nutritional requirementsmet during this growth phase.
When do I start grazing in thespring?
When to allow livestock to startgrazing in the spring depends onwhat you are trying toaccomplish. For most grazingoperations, managing the earlyspring growth of forages is theprimary consideration in decidingthe appropriate time to start thegrazing season. Because foragegrowth of cool-season speciescan be very rapid in the spring,forage production can easily out-pace what livestock are able toconsume. As a result, foragequality will decline rapidly in thepasture.
The decision on when to startgrazing in the spring is acompromise between maintainingenough growing plant material inthe pasture to promote rapidregrowth from healthy plants andkeeping forage growth from out-pacing the livestock. Because ofrapid forage growth, recom-mended plant heights forinitiating grazing in the spring areless than the heights recom-mended for the rest of the grazingseason. Table 5 provides therecommended plant heights for
when to initiate grazing in thespring. Grazing forages startingat these heights and for short timeperiods (no more than 2 days) ina paddock system will providehigher quality feed for later in theseason.
Livestock movement during thespring is another importantconsideration that will affect thebalance between maintaining arapidly growing, healthy pastureand maintaining quality foragefor later in the season. Livestockwill need to be rotated throughthe paddocks at a faster pace thantypically averaged for the rest ofthe grazing season. Wheninitiating grazing the forageproduction is low but dry matteris accumulating rapidly. Forlivestock to be rotated through allthe paddocks before foragegrowth outpaces consumption,the time spent on an individualpaddock will need to be keptshort. Clipping or harvesting hayin some paddocks can maintainforage quality if grazing does notkeep ahead of the spring growthforage quality.
20
competitiveness of desirablespecies and regular grazing ofweeds in their more palatable,immature growth stage.
Grazing management alone,however, will not normallycorrect serious preexisting weedproblems without great losses inanimal performance. Thistles,brush, and poisonous plants maycontinue to be a problem evenafter you have intensified yourgrazing system. This is becauseeven at high stocking rates cattleseldom eat these weeds.
Sheep or goats can offer analternative weed control method.They often will consume plantsthat other animals avoid. As aresult, there are opportunities forsheep and goats to be used as anenvironmentally friendly and costeffective way to control weeds.This method of control isespecially practical when theweeds are located in areas whereother control means areimpractical.
What are the cultural andmechanical brush and weed controlalternatives for pastures?
A. Cultural Control:Several cultural practices helpmaintain a weed-free pasture.Weeds are generally more of aproblem in overgrazed pasturesthan in fertile, well-managedpastures. Good grazingmanagement (which includespasture rest periods) and goodfertility will go a long way inkeeping the desirable foragespecies healthy and able tocompete with pasture weeds.To prevent the spread of weeds,avoid spreading manurecontaminated with weed seeds,clean equipment after workingin weed-infested pastures, and
keep fence rows free ofproblem weeds.
B. Mechanical Control:Mechanical weed managementinvolves the physical removalof all or part of the weeds andbrush. Repeated mowing,clipping and hand weeding candiminish weed infestations.When in the bud to early bloomstage, cut weeds 3 to 4 inchesabove the soil. Mechanicalweed control is more successfulwhen coupled with goodfertilization and grazingmanagement.
Biennial and perennial weedstend to be the most troublesomein established pastures.Biennials, such as musk andplumeless thistle, reproduceonly by seed. They require atwo-year period to produceseed. Clip annual and biennialweeds to prevent seedproduction.
Perennial weeds, such asCanada thistle and absinthwormwood, reproduce by seed,but also spread by vegetativeparts such as underground rootsor rhizomes. Clip perennialbroadleaf weeds at the bud toflowering stages to maximizedepletion of root carbohydrates.Repeated clipping of perennialbroadleaf weeds with uprightgrowth habits at 4-weekintervals will eventually kill aninfestation over a 2 to 3 yearperiod, but may not bepractical. Many perennials thatpersist in hay fields are adaptedto the cutting schedules andgrowth habit of forages such asalfalfa. Other than hemp,annual weeds should not persistbeyond the establishment year,unless soil disturbance such asovergrazing exposes soil.
Other options include tillageand burning. Tillage can beused to suppress weeds as partof a pasture renovationprogram, but is seldom used tomanage weeds in a goodpasture. Periodic burning maybe a beneficial weedsuppression tool and can beused in combination withmowing on woody plantspecies. Burning should beused as the first treatment andmowing used for thesubsequent years.
When is control of brush andproblem weeds with herbicides thebest option?
Even with the best cultural andmechanical methods of control,serious weed problems may needto be controlled with herbicides.The use of herbicides is justifiedwhen used with proper grazingmanagement and where herbicideuse results in desirable economicreturns. Frequently, weeds arepatchy, making spot spraying thepreferred method of control.Spot spraying is less costly thanbroadcast applications. Correctidentification of problem weedsis critical for successful controlwith herbicides. Considerationshould be given to impacts onsurface and groundwater, plantcommunities and wildlife habitatbefore herbicides are used.Always read and follow labelswhen selecting and usingherbicides.
25
worksheet from the Foragesection of Chapter 2, evaluateyour pasture. Generally, if thepasture plant population and plantdiversity are at a high level butplant vigor is weak, a change ingrazing system management toprovide a rest period may be allthat is needed to increase forageproduction. In contrast, if plantpopulation is undesirable andplant diversity is low, thenestablishment of new seedings ofdesirable plants could addadditional forage for the pasture.
The decision to renovate a pastureand establish new forage speciesor add to the existing forageplants should be well-planned.Should you establish a legumecomponent, grass-legumemixture, or a more productivegrass in the pasture? Beforepurchasing seed, considereconomics of the intendedmanagement practice, animalpreference for forages, soilconditions, and landscape of thesite.
How do pasture and livestockmanagement affect plant growthand forage quality?
The basis of forage production isto harvest sunlight and rain toproduce healthy forage plants foranimals to graze. To be healthyand vigorous, plants need anextensive, healthy root system.There is a direct relationshipbetween root growth and theamount of leaf area developed. Iftoo much of the leaf area isremoved, roots will die back.When management limits theremoval of forage to no morethan 50 - 60%, root growth willnot be significantly reduced.Plants will remain healthy andleaf regrowth will be fairly rapid.This growth rate response isillustrated in Figure 1.
Pasture Forage andLivestock Management
What is proper grazingmanagement for the desired foragespecies?
To maintain desirable plants forgrazing, pasture managementmust provide adequate rest fromgrazing in order to give desiredspecies the competitive edgeover less desirable plants. Agood mix of desired plantswithin the pasture also benefitsthe grazing system by providingmore ground surface coverageby plants for as many days of theyear as possible. Mixtures ofgrass and legume species thathave different growth curves inthe same pasture provide greaterforage productivity than a singlespecies pasture.
Are the pasture forages adequateto meet the needs of thelivestock or are there areas thatneed improvement? Using thecompleted DeterminingGrassland Condition/Trend
Pasture Management
19
A variety of herbicide optionsexist for broadleaf weed controlin grass pastures. No herbicidesare labeled to selectively removebroadleaf weeds from legume-grass pastures without severelegume injury. Likewise, noherbicides are labeled toselectively remove unwantedgrasses from cool-season grasspastures.
To control biennials such as muskthistle in pastures, applyherbicides in the spring or fall tothe rosettes. This results in bettercontrol than herbicides appliedafter the flower stalk elongates.Perennial weeds are typically bestcontrolled with herbicides afterthe early bud to flowering stageof growth. Fall herbicideapplications usually provide thebest control of biennial orperennial weeds. Fallapplications of herbicide alsocontrol any seedlings that mayhave emerged. In established hay,most herbicides are applied todormant forages or betweencuttings to avoid excessive injury.
Sacrificial PaddockManagement
How will the livestock be managedduring times of drought or wetconditions?
At some point in time, very wetweather or very dry weather willdominate a significant part of thegrowing season. Long periods ofwet weather can be detrimental ifthe soil is so wet that livestocktraffic causes damage to the rootsand growth buds of the forages.Livestock traffic on wet soils canalso destroy soil structure, causecompaction, reduce the ability of
the soil to absorb rainfall, andreduce the exchange of airbetween the soil and theatmosphere. Livestock travel inwet lanes can cause the lanes tobecome muddy, rutted, and easilyeroded.
Extended dry weather will reducethe ability of the forage toproduce new growth, reducingpasture yield. Paddocks may nothave an adequate rest period toreplenish the forage to a pointwhere livestock can be allowed tograze them. The tendency ofproducers is to allow the livestockto continue the rotations, leadingto an overgrazed situation. Thiswill have a detrimental effect onforage production in the future.
In both situations (very wet orvery dry) it is best to removelivestock from the pasture into afeedlot. Grazing can resumewhen forage and soil conditionspermit.
Another method is to retain thelivestock in one paddock or aportion of one paddock andprovide some type of emergencyfeed, such as hay, until weatherconditions improve. This isreferred to as a sacrificialpaddock. It is better to have aserious negative impact on asmall area of the pasture systemthan to continue moving livestockthrough the paddocks, grazing theforages below the minimumstubble heights which will causelong-term yield reduction.
The area used as a sacrificialpaddock should be one where thesoils have good resistance totraffic, erosion potential is slight,
there is easy access to providefeed, and rejuvenation isrelatively easy.
Will sacrificial paddocks berejuvenated after removal oflivestock?
When livestock are placed backinto a regular rotation, thesacrificial paddock will likely bein poor condition. The vegetationwill most likely be gone or invery poor condition and the areamay be in a rough and ruttedcondition. There are two optionsto consider:
1. The sacrificial paddock canbe left to regenerate on itsown. This may besuccessful if the livestockdid not cause significantdamage to the soil. Theforages that were on the siteprior to its use as asacrificial paddock mayresume growth after anextended rest period. Theprimary risk involved is thatundesirable vegetation, suchas weeds, will become thepredominant vegetation onthe site.
2. Another option is to preparethe site with tillageequipment and reseed it todesirable forage species.This may be the best optionif the sacrificial paddockhas been in use for arelatively long period oftime.
26
Figure 1. The growth rate curve and three phases of pasture growth
See University ofMinnesota bulletin AG-BU-3157, Cultural andChemical Weed Control
in Field Crops
Fine-textured materials arepreferred over course-texturedmaterials because the course-textured material can injure thefeet of livestock. If animals musttraverse lanes that are in unstableareas, such as wet draws, then thetreatment described below forprotecting watering facilitiesshould be installed to avoiddifficulty with livestockmovement.
How do I keep the area aroundwater facilities from becomingmudholes?
Watering stations that arepermanently placed will besubject to heavy use since theyare often used to provide waterfor more than one paddock.Water spillage and leakage,which is inevitable, adds to themud problem. As a consequence,protective materials will need tobe used around watering sites.Portable watering tanks will notgenerally have the same problemsbecause they can be movedaround to spread the use over alarger area.
The recommended method ofbuilding pads for water stationsis to:
• Prepare a good subgradeby removing debris andvegetation along with atleast 8” of topsoil
• Compact the subgrade• Lay down a geotextile
fabric (Class I)• Place a six-inch layer of
course aggregate on thegeotextile fabric and topwith a three-inch layer offine aggregate
• Lanes generally need to be12-15 feet wide and padsaround tanks need toextend out 20-25 feet
Heavy Use Area Planning
Some areas of the pasture systemwill be used so much that the bestoption is to place some type ofprotective material to prevent theformation of mudholes. Twosuch areas are those that surroundwatering facilities and thealleyways used for livestockmovement.
What do I consider when planninglivestock lanes?
Livestock movement must becontrolled for a successfulgrazing system. Lanes that areproperly planned will allow forlivestock movement from onepaddock to any other paddockwithout moving back through arecently grazed paddock.Livestock will tend to stopmoving when they go into apaddock with some fresh foragegrowth, even though you maywant them in a different paddock.Lanes prevent this fromhappening. The areas within thelanes can normally be grazedalong with an adjacent paddock,unless the lane is covered withsome type of protective material.The locations of livestock lanesshould avoid potential erosion,concentrated water flow, andflooding. Avoid placing lanes upand down hills, in wetlands, or onorganic soils.
How do I stabilize the livestocklanes?
Livestock lanes should beprotected with lime screenings orsome other fine textured materialto prevent mudhole developmentand erosion when:
• There is considerable animaltraffic, as in the case of milkcows using the lane for tworound trips each day
• Areas of the lane are subjectto erosion
18
Grazing System Monitoring
A. Visual Method:This method requires aproducer to go into thepasture and make an estimateof the number of days theherd will be able to grazeeach paddock. This estimateis based upon a visualdetermination of the quantityof forage available and howmany days it will take theherd to graze the forage tothe allowable stubble height.
The information is recordedso that comparisons can bemade from week to week andfrom year to year. A blankform is available in AppendixF.
B. Calculated Method:This method is a little moreinvolved than the visualmethod, but it provides amore accurate estimate. Thesmall amount of extra timerequired is worth the benefitof having more informationon hand with which to makecomparisons.
The following information isrequired to determine RHDwith this method:
• The acres within eachpaddock.
• The estimated pounds ofdry matter per inch ofheight per acre for theforages within eachpaddock. This
information is availablefrom Table 6.
• The estimated pounds ofdry matter the herd willutilize per day. This issimply the total weightof the herd multiplied bythe utilization rate(0.04).
A blank form is available inAppendix G. Completion of thisform requires going into eachpaddock, measuring the height ofthe forage, and placing theinformation in the correct spot onthe form. The inches of forageavailable is the amount of theforage above the minimumstubble height.
The total pounds of availableforage divided by the pounds offorage required each day by theherd (Daily Allocation) equals theReserve Herd Days. If thisnumber is small you may run outof forage soon. If the RHD islarge there may be adequateforage available to harvest someas hay. Other options exist, butconsideration must be made forthe period of the grazing seasonwhen the determination is made,the current weather conditions,and possible changes in the sizeor makeup of the herd, as well asyour management objectives.Having this information recordedis important for makingcomparisons throughout thegrazing season, as well as fromseason to season.
Pasture Record Keeping
How do I know I have enoughforage available?
There are various ways todetermine available forage. Oneof the most useful is the ReserveHerd Days (RHD) concept. Thismethod is a powerful tool becauseit is quick, easy, sufficientlyaccurate, and providesmeaningful information toproducers. The term ReserveHerd Days expresses the numberof days of grazing remainingwhen considering the amount offorage currently on hand in thepasture system. Using thisconcept will provide thefollowing:
• A determination of howmuch forage is on hand atthe present time, expressedas a number of days ofgrazing currently availablefor your herd.
• A determination of wherethe forage is (whichpaddocks).
• A measurement of the ebband flow of forageavailable over time.
• An indication of pasturecondition and the trend inthe condition.
• A guide to decisionmaking when excesses andshortages of forages areapparent.
There are two commonly usedmethods of making RHDdeterminations, visual andcalculated.
27
When using portabletanks, allow for 2 tanks
per herd so that onewater tank can be set
up ahead of time in thenext paddock.
See your local NRCSoffice for design
assistance for streamcrossings, unstable sites,
and drinking facilitypads.
Lanes for livestock do notwork well for bison. Theydo not like to be confinedto narrow areas. If lanesare used for bison, makethem much wider thanthey would be for other
kinds and classes oflivestock.
For more information onGeotextiles read “UsingAll-weather Geotextilesfor Lanes and Paths.”Midwest Plan Servicepublication AED-45.
Advantages:• Easy to install and to move.• Relatively inexpensive.• Provides considerable flexibility.• Can be used within permanently established
systems to direct grazing pressure.Disadvantages:• Components have relatively short lifespan.• Not suitable for perimeter fences.• Provides a psychological barrier only, not a
good physical barrier.• Requires an electrical source and
maintenance of the fence line from electricalgrounding.
Water System Design and Layout
How can I supply adequate water to the livestock?Water is essential for livestock to effectively processforages. A well-planned and installed water systemwill provide an adequate quantity of water withminimal disturbance to the soil resource and to thewater source itself.
Common sources of water for livestock are streams,ponds, lakes, and wells. Of these sources, well wateris preferred because it is cleaner. Research showsthat there can be a significant increase in animalperformance and improved herd health if thedrinking water is clean and free from sediments,nutrients, pesticides, algae, bacteria, and othercontaminants.
Alternative methods of delivering the water to thelivestock include:
• Ramps to surface water (ponds, etc.)• Livestock powered pumps• Solar pumping systems• Sling pumps• Hydraulic ram pumps• Gasoline powered pumps• Water hauling
These methods can be used to discharge directly intoa trough or tank, but normally a pipeline is installedto distribute the water to drinking facilities available
in all paddocks. When using a pipeline to deliverwater you may need to have a system that isengineered to meet the specific needs of your site.See Appendix E for description of pumping systems.
Considerations in designing a pipeline systeminclude:
• Quantity of water to be delivered• Pressure differences due to elevation changes• Length of pipeline• Protection from freezing
Where should drinking facilities be located?Drinking facilities should be available in eachpaddock. If possible, locate drinking facilities sothat livestock do not have to travel excessivedistances to drink. In systems where livestock musttravel long distances to water, forages tend to beoverutilized near the water, and underutilized inareas of the paddock that are farthest from the water.Other problems associated with this situation includeuneven manure distribution in the paddock anddiminished animal performance.
Most livestock watering systems consist of a pump,a delivery system (usually a pipeline), and a troughor tank for the livestock to drink from. Once thepaddock layout is established, and the water sourcesidentified, the delivery system must beaccommodated. If water is to be hauled, access bythe tanker needs to extend to each storage tank. Ifthe water is to be delivered through a pipeline, theroute must be determined so that each paddock inthe system has access to the water. The pipelinelayout should follow the shortest route to minimizecost and maintenance problems. This will ultimatelydetermine the general area in which the wateringtanks will be placed.
Water tanks should be placed on soils that cansupport heavy traffic and provide easy access bylivestock without crowding. Permanently installedtanks should have some type of heavy use treatmentaround them to prevent the formation of a mudhole.Refer to the following section on Heavy Use AreaPlanning. Portable tanks offer the most flexibility.Their location can be changed frequently by adding alength of pipeline between the coupler and the tankand placing the tank in a different location. Thetanks can be moved as often as necessary to managegrazing and avoid creation of barren areas andmudholes.
17
Is the productivity of the pastureincreasing?
Forages that are in goodcondition will produce more feedthan forages that are in poorcondition. The worksheetDetermining GrasslandCondition/Trend (Appendix C)is a useful tool for assessingchanges in the condition of theoverall pasture. Condition of theforages is a significant factorconsidered in the completion ofthe form. An initialdetermination followed by annualmonitoring will provide insightinto the overall productivitychanges. This evaluation shouldbe done in the same area of thepasture and at the same time ofthe year each time to make theresults meaningful.
Clipping and weighing pastureareas each year at the samelocation and same time of theyear will provide usefulinformation to determine thetrend of productivity for apasture. Instructions for thisprocedure are found in “Pasturesfor Profit” (see Referencessection).
Another method of determining ifthe productivity is increasing is toweigh livestock at the beginningand end of each grazing season.This assumes that livestock willproduce more if offered moreforage to consume. This systemof monitoring should be usedwith caution, since manyvariables can affect the end ofseason weights, such as parasiteinfection in the livestock, geneticchanges in the herd, calvingdates, or even the weatherconditions.
Records should be kept todocument the number of animalgrazing days on each paddock.This provides informationregarding how many head oflivestock can be supported by apasture system. The records arebasically a record of: a.) day theanimals were turned into apaddock, b.) day they wereremoved, c.) number of animalsand their weight, d.) kind andclass of livestock, e.) height ofthe forage when grazing wasinitiated and f.) height of theforage when the grazing wasterminated.
Are the natural resourcesimproving?
The condition of the soil, forages,watercourses, and birdpopulations within a pasturesystem provides insight into theeffectiveness of the grazingmanagement. Actions thatbenefit these resources will likelyhave a positive effect on theproduction of forages.
It is important to record theresults of tests or observationsmade so that meaningfulcomparisons can be made overtime.
A. Soils:Soils are in good conditionwhen they allow easyinfiltration of rainfall, alloweasy exchange of air with theatmosphere, and support awide range of life-forms(bacteria, fungi, earthworms,etc.). In addition, organicmatter content is a goodindicator of the health of thesoil.
B. Watercourses:Well-managed grazing willlead to improvements towatercourses within thepasture system. Featuressuch as erosion in thebottoms and sides of channelsshould be noted, as well asthe condition of the existingvegetation. Monitoring thecondition of the watercoursesin future years will indicatechanges needed in themanagement of the grazingsystem.
C. Forages:Refer to the formDetermining GrasslandCondition/Trend, discussedearlier (Appendix C). Thisform is very good formonitoring forage condition.This considers such aspectsas the species composition ofthe pasture (desirable vs.undesirable), plant density,and plant vigor.
D. Bird Populations:Birds are excellent“barometers” of theenvironmental condition ofyour pastures and your farm.Their populations reactquickly to changes inconditions that affect theirfood sources and nestinghabitat. In general, the morediverse the species and thehigher the counts within eachspecies, the healthier theenvironment on your farm.Select points within thepasture to use to do periodicbird counts, and then plan todo bird counts three times peryear at each site.
28
For technical assistance indesigning your watering
system, contact your localNRCS Field Office.
Fence Design and Layout
What kind of fence should I install?The kind of fence that should be installed dependsupon:
• Purpose of the fence• Kind and class of livestock to be contained• Operator preference• Predator control• Cost
Permanent or temporary fences may definepaddocks within the grazing unit. During initialstages of paddock layout many producers prefer touse temporary fences to create paddocks and lanes.This allows for easy adjustment of the layout asproducers learn what size paddock they need, how toeasily accomplish livestock movement, and howforages react to managed grazing. After gainingexperience, the producers usually install some typeof permanent fence to define paddocks and lanes.
A. Permanent Fences:Permanent fences are used for the perimeters ofpasture systems, livestock corrals, and handlingfacilities. Sometimes they are used to subdividepastures into paddocks. This is especially truefor certain kinds and classes of livestock, such asbison.
1. High Tensile Wire FencesThis is a relatively new type of fence, which hasbecome increasingly popular in recent years.Typically perimeter fences are 4-6 strands ofwire and interior fences are 1-2 strands of wire.
Advantages:• Relatively easy to install and maintain.• Can be powered to provide a psychological as
well as physical barrier.• Several contractors available to do installation.Disadvantages:• Requires some special equipment, such as a post
driver for installing wooden posts.• Fences with several strands of wire are not easily
moved.• Wire is difficult to handle if fence is to be
moved.
2. Woven Wire FencesWoven wire is a traditional type of fence. It isused primarily for hogs and sheep. Woven wirefences normally have one or two strands ofbarbed wire installed above the woven wire.
Advantages:• Not dependent on electrical power. Is useful in
remote locations.• Provides barrier for smaller kinds of livestock
(sheep, hogs).Disadvantages:• Cannot be powered, provides only a physical
barrier.• Requires much labor to install.• Not easily moved.• Weed and vegetative growth promotes snow
piling.
3. Barbed Wire FencesBarbed wire is a traditional type of fence, whichis still quite popular. Barbed wire fences shouldbe at least 4 strands for perimeter fences. Whenused for interior fences, they are typically 3 or 4strands. Barbed wire should never be electrifiedbecause of greater potential for animal injury.
Advantages:• Not dependent upon electrical power, thus is
useful in remote areas.• Most producers are experienced with
construction of barbed wire fences.Disadvantages:• Not easily moved.• Provides only a physical barrier.• Susceptible to damage from snow accumulation.
B. Temporary Fences:The primary uses of temporary fence are todefine paddocks within a pasture system, directthe grazing within a paddock to areas that arebeing underutilized, and to fence in areas thatare grazed only occasionally or not part of aregularly-rotated pasture system.
Temporary fences are usually constructed withstep-in posts and polywire, polytape, light gaugesteel or aluminum wire, and require an electricalsource. Easy and quick to move, these fences donot require tools for setup. In addition, thesefences are very light and do not require bracing.
16
cause streambank erosionas well as degrade waterquality. Manage theseresources by breaking thepasture into smallerpaddocks and reducing theamount of time thelivestock have access toany segment of the stream.
Currently the streambanksare in poor condition insome locations. This isdue to the livestocktraveling to the stream toget water. Reduce theimpact of the herd on thestream by subdividing thepasture, rotating thegrazing, and providingalternative drinkingfacilities for the livestock.With the plannedsubdivision of the pasture,the livestock will haveaccess to the stream fromonly three paddocks.
This section presents an exampleof a grazing plan. It represents astarting point for a rotationalgrazing system. Seven elementsof the plan are illustrated: • Sensitive Areas • Livestock Summary • Fencing System • Livestock Watering System • Heavy Use Area Protection • Forages • Grazing System Management
This plan is based upon theinformation gathered in theinventory phase of plandevelopment.
Sensitive Areas
The following sensitive areas areidentified in this grazing unit(Diagram 6):
a.) The stream flowingthrough the pasture is asensitive area becauseuncontrolled access to thisarea by the livestock will
Grazing Plan Example
29
b.) The flood-prone area caneasily be damaged bylivestock traffic duringperiods of wet weather orshortly after floodedconditions. Propermonitoring of the grazingsystem will avoid damageto this area.
c.) The steep slope (Diagram6), which is also droughtprone, is a sensitive areabecause it is easilydamaged by over-utilization and livestocktraffic. This area can bemanaged closely bysubdividing the pastureinto paddocks, rotating thegrazing, and monitoringthe condition of the forageand soil to preventdamage.
Livestock Summary
Currently there are 25 cow/calfpairs using the pasture. This planconsiders increasing the size ofthe herd to 35 cow/calf pairs.The average weight of the cows is1200 pounds. These animals arecurrently managed as one herd.In addition, a herd bull with anaverage weight of 2000 pounds,will be used.
Monthly and season-long foragerequirements are estimated on theLivestock Forage MonthlyBalance Sheet (Table 11). Thisindicates that there will be asurplus of forage on a season-long basis. The monthly balanceindicates that there will beadequate to surplus quantities offorage through July, and a verysmall shortage of forage inAugust. A rather largedeficiency occurs during themonths of September and
Diagram 6. Pasture Inventory Map
The paddock size times theminimum number of paddocksprovides us with the minimumrequired size of the total pastureunit. If the existing pasture islarger than this minimum area,more paddocks can be plannedfor. This will likely provide morethan enough forage in the spring,some of which could then beharvested for hay. Having morepaddocks than the requiredminimum will reduce the risk ofrunning out of forage during themidsummer slump that coolseason pastures normallyexperience.
If the acreage of the requiredminimum number of pastures ismore than the existing pastureacreage, additional acreageshould be devoted to pasture toavoid running out of usableforage during the midsummerslump.
What are some considerations forpaddock layout?
Some adjustments need to bemade to the size of each paddockso they have equal productivity.The information gathered duringthe inventory process is usefulwhen determining the paddocklayout. Each paddock shouldhave:
• Similar soils (refer toDiagram 2)
• Similar slope aspect(north facing, southfacing, etc.)
• Similar topography• Similar forages (refer to
Diagram 4)
The shape of the paddocks issignificant. Paddocks should beas square as possible to promote
more uniform grazing. Long,narrow paddocks generally areovergrazed at one end andunderutilized at the other end.Paddocks should be planned sothat livestock do not have totravel more than 800 feet to getwater. This will encourage morewater consumption by thelivestock and more uniformgrazing within the paddock.Livestock tend to utilize theforages close to water much morethan forages farther from thewater. Additional adjustmentsmay be required based uponaccess to water sources, whichmay have an impact on the shapeof the paddocks in a grazingsystem, particularly in situationswhere natural water sources, suchas ponds and streams, areutilized.
15
Fencing System
Perimeter fences are already inplace and are in adequatecondition. Interior fences will beconstructed to subdivide thepasture into paddocks using 1 or2 strands of high tensile wire.Locations of the fences are shownon the Grazing Plan Map(Diagram 7).
The installation of the interiorfences will break the pasture unitinto ten paddocks, ranging from7-10 acres each. Approximately13,000 feet of interior fence isrequired for this system. Duringperiods of average growth, eachpaddock will be capable ofapproximately 2-4 days ofgrazing. In addition tosubdividing the pasture, laneswill be constructed. The laneswill allow movement of thelivestock from a paddock to anyother without passing through arecently grazed paddock.
30
Table 6. Estimated dry matter yield per acre-inch for various forages at three stand
densities
Forage Stand Density1
Fair* Good** Excellent***
lb. Dry matter/acre-inchBluegrass/White Clover 150-250 300-400 500-600Tall Fescue+Nitrogen Fert. 150-250 250-350 350-450Tall Fescue/Legume 100-200 200-300 300-400Smooth Bromegrass/Legumes 150-250 250-350 350-450Orchardgrass/Legumes 100-200 200-300 300-400Mixed Pasture 150-250 250-350 350-450Alfalfa or Red Clover 150-250 200-250 250-300Native Tall Warm-Season Grasses 50-100 100-200 200-300
Source: USDA-NRCS (MN)1Stand condition is based on visual estimate of green plant ground cover after being grazed to a 2-4inch stubble height.* Fair Condition: Less than 75% ground cover or greater than 25% bare ground.** Good Condition: 75-90% ground cover or 10-25% bare ground.*** Excellent Condition: At least 90% ground cover or less than 10% bare ground.
October. The forage balanceindicates that some of the pasturemay be harvested for hay in thespring, and this will be donewhen weather conditions appearto be favorable to forageregrowth. This will provide feedfor the months of September andOctober. Refer to the GrazingSystem Management portion ofthis plan for information relatedto grass management andsacrificial paddocks to be usedduring this time period.
Table 12. Livestock Forage Monthly Balance Sheet – Current Livestock Summary
Table 11. Livestock Forage Monthly Balance Sheet – Current Forage Summary
Paddock layout will also beinfluenced by the location of lanesfor the movement of livestock.These lanes should connect allpaddocks so that livestock can bemoved to any paddock from theone they currently occupy,allowing for maximum flexibilityin forage management.
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How do I decide paddock size?Paddock size is based uponproviding an adequate supplyof available forage to meet therequirements of the herd. Thiswould be a simple task if theforages grew at the same ratethroughout the season. Weknow this is not the case. Forexample, cool season grassgrowth is very rapid in thespring, slows considerablyduring the hot summer monthsof July and August, andincreases somewhat again inthe fall.
Clearly, for a given herd thearea required to produce thenecessary forage for theplanned grazing period will notbe the same throughout thegrazing season. The strategyfor dealing with this variabilityis this:
• Plan using averagegrowing conditions.
• Vary the length of thegrazing periodthroughout the grazingseason when paddocksize is fixed.
• Vary the size of thepaddock when the size isnot fixed, as in a stripgrazing system.
The required size of the paddock for average growth conditions is equal to:
Paddock Size = (daily herd forage requirement) x (days in grazing period)(lbs. forage available per acre)
Daily herd forage requirement Total weight of the herd times 0.04utilization rate (refer to the livestockinventory from Table 1).
Grazing period Length of time animals are inpaddock.
Pounds of forage available per acre Measured height of forage minusminimum stubble height (from Table5) x pounds of forage per acre perinch of height (from Table 6).
Forages
The existing forages in thesepastures are:
Paddocks 7, 8, 9, 10:Orchardgrass
Paddocks 5, 6:Reed Canarygrass
Paddocks 1, 2, 3, 4:Kentucky Bluegrass
The current condition of theforages is poor. To improve thepastures all paddocks, except forthe area of reed canarygrass, willbe frost seeded with clover toprovide nitrogen for increased yieldand to improve the nutritional valueof the forage mix.
31
Livestock Watering System
Water will be delivered from thewell through a high-densityplastic hose system laid on top ofthe ground (Diagram 8). Portabletanks will be used as drinkingfacilities. They will be movedwith the herd as they grazethrough the pasture system.Approximately 6,400 feet ofpipeline is required, along withtwo portable tanks. Refer toDiagram 8 for locations of thewater pipelines.
The pipelines and tanks do notrequire frost protection, sincethey will be drained every fallprior to freezing. The stream willprovide water for the livestock inthe event that the well of piplineshould fail.
Heavy use Area Protection
Where the lanes cross the stream,the stream banks and channel willbe shaped and stream crossingswill be installed using heavy usearea protection measures.Because the water tanks areportable they do not requireheavy use area protection.
14
Source: Minnesota NRCS Conservation Practice Standard #528A, Prescribed Grazing.* This applies only to the initial grazing in the spring (early May). The livestock must be moved rapidly through the
paddocks during this time to prevent overgrazing and to keep the forage from “getting ahead of the livestock.”** Minimum stubble height is critical if stand is to be maintained. This applies to that part of the grazing season after the
initial rapid growth period in early May, as well as the end of the grazing season.*** The last harvest of alfalfa for pasture or hay should generally be made 35-45 days prior to the time when the first hard
freeze typically occurs.**** Regrowth should be grazed to 2 inches after dormancy and prior to snow cover.
Table 5. Minimum height (in inches) of pasture species for initiating and terminating grazing
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10
6
4-5
4-5
2
3-4
3-4
4-5
4-5
4
4-5
4
4
4-5
4
4
8-10
6-8
8-14
4-6
6-10
5-7
8-14
8-8
5-7
6-12
8-14
6-10
8-14
6-10
6-10
10-14
10-14
5-7
8-14
5-7
12-20
-
3
3
4
2
3
3
4
4
3
3
4
3
4
4
4
6
6
3
6
3
8
Diagram 7. Fence Location Map
Diagram 8. Water Location Map
To provide better quality andquantity of forages during themidsummer slump that coolseason grasses go through, thealfalfa/bromegrass hay fieldwill be utilized after one cropof hay has been harvested.
Yields are estimated on Table11. These are only esti matesbased upon expected yieldswith the planned improvementsin place. Actual yields shouldbe determined when therotational grazing system is inplace. The grazing system willrequire monitoring tomaximize forage utilizationwithout overgrazing.
e
Grazing Plan Development
Paddock Design and Layout
The development of a grazingplan involves the following:
• Determining how manypaddocks are required andtheir size and shape
• Determining the kind offence and locations
• Determining how waterwill be provided to thelivestock
How many paddocks are needed fora rotational grazing system?
The minimum number ofpaddocks in a system isdependent upon the length of therest period that is required for theforages. The lengths of the restperiods for grasses and legumescan be found in Table 4. The restperiod allows time for the forageplants to regrow, producingforage for the next grazing cycle.The length of the rest periodvaries throughout the growingseason. When preparing yourplan, use an average length orlonger length of time (25-30days). Using less than theaverage length of time will resultin a plan with too few paddocksor paddocks that are too large.
Another component used indetermining the number ofpaddocks is the grazing period.The length of the grazing periodin each paddock is based uponthe desired level of management,availability of labor, performanceobjective for the livestock, andgrowth characteristics of forages.
Grazing periods longer than 6days will damage new regrowth.The grazing of new growthdiminishes the ability of theforage plants to regrow quickly,resulting in an overall yieldreduction for the pasture. Ashorter grazing period isassociated with livestockoperations where livestockperformance is essential, such aswith milking cows. Longergrazing periods are more typicalof beef cow/calf operations, ewe/lamb operations, and maintainingdry cows.
The minimum number of paddocks for each herd in the pasture
system is equal to:
Paddock =
Rest period (days) + 1
Number Grazing period (days)
13
Grazing SystemManagement
The key to maintaining vigorousvegetation is to avoidovergrazing. The forage plantswill recover from grazing withoutdepleting root reserves only ifthere is adequate leaf arearemaining to meet the foodrequirements of the plant.
Initiate grazing in early springwhen the orchardgrass is 3-4inches tall, reed canarygrass is4-5 inches tall, and the grass inthe Kentucky bluegrass paddocksis 2 inches high. Because thegrass growth in the spring israpid, the livestock should bemoved through the system frompaddock to paddock at a fairlyrapid pace, every 1-2 days ifpossible. As the grass growthslows later in the growing season,slow the rotation through thepaddocks to an approximateinterval of 4-6 days, basingmovement of the livestock on:
• The minimum stubbleheights of the forages:
2 inches for Kentuckybluegrass
3 inches for orchardgrass4 inches for reed
canarygrass• The minimum required
regrowth:4 inches for Kentucky
bluegrass6 inches for orchardgrass8 inches for reed
canarygrass
The number of actual grazingdays will vary with the size of thepaddock, and in practice it willvary with the condition of theforage, how much grazingpressure has been applied in thepast, weather conditions, and timeduring the grazing season.
The hay field will be used forgrazing during the summer after acrop of hay has been harvestedand regrowth is sufficient. Thiswill provide high quality foragefor mid- to late summer, and willallow an extended rest period forthe other paddocks at a time ofthe season when they need it (35-50 days). The hay field will besubdivided by temporary fenceinto 3 paddocks to allow bettermanagement of the forages.
The balance of forage availableand forage required indicates thatthere will be significant periodsof time during September andOctober when the livestock willneed to be placed into asacrificial paddock in latesummer and early fall and fed haybecause there will not beadequate forages for grazing inthe pastures. Plan on having hayon hand for this from the harvestof excess available in June andJuly.
Paddock 1 will be used as thesacrificial paddock whennecessary. This paddock is lesserodible than the others and doesnot contain sensitive areas. Thispaddock is easily accessible foremergency feeding.
During very wet weather,livestock traffic may causeexcessive damage to the soil orthe forage. If this occurs, movethe livestock from paddock topaddock more rapidly, or confinethe animals to the feedlot (or usea sacrificial paddock) and providethem with emergency feed.When conditions improve, put thelivestock back into a regularrotation.
During very dry weather, the
32
forage growth will slowconsiderably. The livestockshould be moved at a slower pacethrough the paddocks. Ifminimum stubble height cannotbe maintained, confine thelivestock to a portion of one ofthe paddocks (a sacrificialpaddock) and provide them withemergency feed until they can beput back into a regular rotation.Do not use any of the sensitiveareas as sacrificial paddocks.
Regrowth of the forage prior tofall freeze-up is important formaintaining health and vigor ofthe plants through the winter.Prior to a killing frost, the forageshould have 6 inches of regrowthon the reed canarygrass andorchardgrass, and 4 inches onKentucky bluegrass. Since theseheights are not possible to attainon all paddocks, manage onethird of the paddocks so that theyget the required regrowth eachyear, and then alternate thistreatment from one year to thenext. This regrowth can begrazed to the minimum stubbleheights as stockpiled forage afterthe forages go dormant, aboutmid-October.
Fertilization of the pastures willbe done to ensure optimumyields. Fertilizer applicationswill be based on soil tests andeconomic analysis. The pH of thesoil will be maintained between6.0 to 7.0.
Overwintering will not be doneon this pasture system. Eachpaddock will be clipped as thelivestock are rotated out if neededto control weeds.
“Grazing Management, Pasture
Guidance on paddockmanagement is provided inthe Pasture Management
section
Table 4. Optimal rest period for forage species
What are the other potential watersources?
Changes to the grazing systemmay require makingimprovements to your livestockwatering system. Are there otherpotential water sources that couldbe made available to the pasture?Do you need to drill a new well?Where is the best site for a newwell? Is there a water sourcenearby where water can beobtained by constructing apipeline system? Theseadditional sources provide youwith options when makingdecisions on improving yourwater system.
If you are not certain of the waterquality, tests should be performedto determine whether the water issatisfactory for consumption bylivestock. Good, clean water isespecially critical to producerswho expect high animalperformance – as with milkingcows, stockers, and replacementdairy heifers – although benefitsare realized for other classes oflivestock as well.
Fencing
What are the types and condition ofthe existing fences?
Know the kind and condition ofexisting fences. Map thelocation of these fencesincluding both perimeter andinterior fences (Diagram 5).Will the condition and location ofthe existing fence meet the needsof the grazing system? Shouldyou plan to improve or change thelocation of any of the fences? Donot be locked in on the locationof existing fences. Are thereother livestock handling facilitiesavailable such as corrals, dry lots,barns, or sheds that are part of thepasture or grazing system?
Water Sources
What are the existing water sourcesand where are the drinkingfacilities?
Water is essential. Without anadequate supply of quality water,animal health, weight gain, ormilk production can be negativelyaffected. Locate on a map thewater sources and drinkingfacilities that are currentlyavailable to the grazing herd(Diagram 5). Note all possiblesources such as streams, ponds,wells, or springs. By viewingthese on a map, we can see howfar livestock have to travel toreceive water. Consider thesequestions when makingdecisions:
• Are there seasonal changesin the water supply?Shallow wells or smallstreams will often dry upduring late summer orduring times of drought.
• If water is being hauled tothe animals, how muchstorage is available?
• Is a nearby source ofelectricity available?
• Will the existing watersources be able toaccommodate a pumpingsystem that does notrequire electricity?
12
Fertility, Weed Control and Species Selection for Productive Pastures.” 1998. Greg Cuomo. In Proc. 1998 “GrazingManagement, Pasture Fertility, Weed Control and Species Selection for Productive Pastures.” 1998. Greg Cuomo. InProc. 1998 Minnesota Beef Cow/Calf Report. P. 23-28.
Minnesota Beef Cow/Calf Report. P. 23-28.
“Improve Your Pasture in Five Easy Steps.” T. Hovde, B. Stommes, L. Williams, L. Zilliox, J. Siira. University ofMinnesota Extension Service and Minnesota Department of Agriculture.
“Pastures for Profit: A Guide to Rotational Grazing.” 2002. University of Wisconsin (A3529) and University ofMinnesota Extension Service publication FO-06145.
“Pasture Management Guide for Livestock Producers.” 1998. Iowa State University Extension publication Pm-1713.
“Alfalfa Management Guide.” 2002. North Central Regional Extension Publication #NCR547.
“Fertilizer Recommendations for Agronomic Crops in Minnesota.” 2001. University of Minnesota Extension Servicepublication BU-06240-S.
“Impact of Grazing Cattle on Distribution of Soil Minerals.” 1986. James Gerrish, James Brown, and Paul Peterson. InProc. 1995 National Forage & Grassland Council.
“Pasture Weed Control.” 1997. Roger Becker and Greg Cuomo. In Proc. Minnesota Lamb and Wool Producers AnnualMeeting, St. Cloud, MN.
“Forage Legumes: Clovers, Birdsfoot Trefoil, Cicer Milkvetch, Crownvetch, Sainfoin and Alfalfa.” 1993. University ofMinnesota Extension Service, SB-5963-F.
“Identifying Pasture Grasses.” 1996. University of Wisconsin-Extension A3637.
“Using All-weather Geotextiles for Lanes and Paths.” 1999. Kevin Janni, Brian Holmes, and Ted Funk. Midwest PlanService publication AED-45.
“Stockman’s Guide to Range Livestock Watering from Surface Water Sources.” Prairie Agricultural MachineryInstitute: Manitoba, Canada.
References
33
Diagram 5. Existing water and fence location map
Once the forage species and yieldestimates have been documented,a monthly forage supply can bedetermined using the estimatedforage production and seasonaldistribution percentages. Forspecific forage yields andseasonal distribution using chartsfrom “Pastures for Profit,”Natural Resources ConversationSevice (NRCS) Field OfficeTechnical Guide tables, orinformation in Appendix D. Theestimated monthly values followthe seasonal growth patterns ofthe common forage species. Thisexercise provides a good estimateof the total amount of forageavailable to livestock for anymonth of the grazing season.Subtract the monthly requirementfrom the monthly forageproduction to:
• Indicate forage balancefor the growing season
• Predict excess forageproduction by month
• Predict where forageshortages may occur bymonth
Using the information inAppendix D, net yield andmonthly available forage fororchardgrass in a pasture that isin poor condition can becalculated.
Example: Monthly available forage for orchardgrass in a pasture that is in poorcondition is calculated in the following procedure:
Total Yield(forage yield) x (acres) = forage production
Example:(2,500 lbs/acre) x (30 acres) = 75,000 lbs of forage (dry matter basis)
Forage Availability Per Month(total yield) x (% forage available by month from Appendix D) =
monthly available forage
11
Table 3. Livestock Forage Monthly Balance – Current Forage Summary
34
Forage yield estimates for your grazing system can befound in any of the following publications:
• The County Soil Survey• NRCS Field Office Technical Guide• Pastures for Profit; A Guide to Rotational Grazing,
U of MN Extension Service• Refer to Appendix D of this guide for yield estimates
Appendix A. Livestock Forage Monthly Balance Sheet
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How healthy or in what condition isthe pasture?
Good pasture condition is criticalto a successful grazing system.Pasture quality may vary greatlyfrom one pasture area to another,but the trend over time shouldshow the direction in which thepasture condition is moving.Determining GrasslandCondition/Trend (Appendix C1)is an evaluation tool to helpdetermine if pastures are in needof improvement and what areasneed the most improvement. It isalso a useful tool in evaluatingresults of management decisions.Determine the condition of yourpastures by completing theDetermining GrasslandCondition/Trend sheet (anexample of a completed form isprovided in Table 2).
What are the estimated yields andseasonal distribution of the existingforages?
Based on the plant species,pasture condition, and soil typesfound in the pastures, forageyields and overall forage supplycan be estimated for your grazingsystem. Document the forageyields in lbs./acre on theLivestock Forage MonthlyBalance Sheet (example ofcompleted form is provided inTable 3). Remember these areonly estimates to provide astarting point for future planning.Changes in climatic conditionsfrom one year to the next candrastically change forageproduction and the outcome ofseasonal forage supply.
10 35
Table 2. Determining Grassland Condition/Trend
Appendix B1. Identification Key for Common Forage Species – Grass
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What are the plans for potentialexpansion of the livestockoperation?
If an increase in herd size is agoal of the operation, estimatewhat adjustments to forage willbe needed and consider how tobest meet those needs with foragesupply. Are there enough acres inthe existing pasture to meet theneeds of the larger livestockherd? What is the potentialforage supply if improvementsare made to the pasture or grazingsystem? This issue will beaddressed in following section onforages.
How many herds will be grazed?Separating the grazing herd intogroups based on production,animal species, animal size, orclass differences should beexamined. When there is anincrease in the number of herds,you will need to increase thenumber of paddocks. Whendividing the pasture consider:
• How many groups couldpotentially be grazing atthe same time?
• Can the different groupsgraze next to each other?(Don’t place male animalsin paddocks adjacent tofemales in heat.)
Forages
What are the existing forage speciesin the pasture?
Forage grass and legume specieseach have their own uniquegrowth, persistence, and qualitycharacteristics. Because theyrespond differently to soilconditions, weather patterns,fertility, and grazingmanagement, the plants that arecurrently growing in yourpastures may be different fromone area to another. Identifydominant plant species andareas in which they grow onyour pasture map. A walkthrough the pastures is necessaryto gather this information. Theplants you find during the initialinventory of your forage speciesmay or may not be the desiredspecies for meeting the long-termgoals of your grazing system.Therefore, information on foragespecies growing in the pasturemay have an impact on futuremodifications to the grazingsystem (Diagram 4).Identification keys for grass andlegume species are readilyavailable in Appendix B. Grassspecies are often difficult toidentify during early stages ofgrowth. Still, there is a need todistinguish between grass speciesbecause of potential differencesin forage yield and seasonalgrowth patterns.
936
Assistance in identifyingyour forage species can be
obtained at your localUSDA AgriculturalService Center or
Extension office. Tocollect plant samples forlater identification, dig
several plants along withroots, and place them
between sheets ofnewspaper. Remove all
soil from the roots beforeplacing on the newspaper.
To aid the plant dryingprocess, apply an even
pressure or weight to thenewspaper.
Diagram 4. Forage map
Appendix B2. Identification Key for Common Forage Species – Forage
Livestock
What are the forage requirements for each livestock herd?First, estimate the daily requirement for your herd:
(# of animals) x (average weight) x (daily utilization rate)= daily forage requirement
Daily utilization rate = 0.04. This figure is used because livestock need to haveaccess to approximately 4% of their live weight in forage (2.5% intake, 0.5%trampling loss, and 1% buffer).
Example:(25 cow/calf pairs) x (1,200 lb. average weight) x (0.04) = 1,200 lbs/day
The daily forage requirement is used in Section 3, Grazing Plan Development,Paddock Design and Layout.
Second, estimate the monthly and seasonal requirements for your herd:
(daily forage requirement) x (# of days per month) = monthly forage requirement
Example:(1,200 lbs/day) x (30 days) = 36,000 lbs. monthly forage requirement
(daily forage requirement) x (# of days in the grazing season)= seasonal forage requirement
Example:(1,200 lbs/day) x (150 days) = 180,000 lbs. seasonal forage requirement
The Livestock Forage Monthly Balance Sheet (Table 1 and Appendix A)provides a simple method of computing monthly forage requirements.
Remember, the primary goal of most livestock grazing systems is to produceweight gain on the livestock. An increase in animal size will result in anincrease in estimated forage needs through the grazing season as long as animalnumbers do not change. Adjust livestock weights for each month to provide amore realistic estimate of forage needs.
378
Table 1. Livestock Forage Monthly Balance Sheet – Current Livestock Summary
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A County Soil Survey is a goodfirst step for determining soiltypes in your pastures. Thepublication contains generalcharacteristics of each soil type,including soil texture, drainage,water holding capacity, andorganic matter content.Estimated forage yields can becalculated from “Pastures forProfit” (see References section),Appendix A, the local NRCSForage Suitability Groups, orfarm records.
Are there sensitive land areas orsoil limitations for grazing in thepasture?
Sensitive land areas are areas thathave a high potential to generateor transport unwanted materialstowards ground or surface water.The types of materials that couldcontaminate these resources arebacteria, nutrients from livestockmanure, and sediment resultingfrom soil erosion (Diagram 3).
Examples of sensitive land areasto be identified and referenced ona map:
• Location of surface waters(wetlands, lakes orstreams)
• Quarries, mines orsinkholes
• Active or abandoned watersupply wells
• Coarse-textured and high-leaching soils
• Steep slopes• Shallow soil to a water
table or bedrock• Wooded areas• Intermittent waterways
Limiting features also need to beidentified and referenced on amap. The most important sourceof information is observed bywalking the pasture withsomebody that is knowledgeablein soils and soil management.The Soil Survey publication foryour county will also provideadditional information on pasturefeatures found below the soilsurface.
Examples of soil limitingfeatures:
• Sandy soils which have ahigh potential for drought
• Shallow soils over bedrockthat limit the depth of rootgrowth
• Flood-prone soils thateither restrict growth ofcertain forages or limitgrazing time
• Organic soils which limitaccessibility and ability towithstand traffic
• Extreme slopes orlandscapes that makepasture areas difficult toreach
Appendix C2. Inventory Category Items
1) Species Composition - Visually estimate the % composition by weight of each group of plants and assigna value. The categories desirable, intermediate, and undesirable refer to the preferred use of the plants bythe grazing animal, and intended use of the grazing land. The score ranges from “0”, with no or fewdesirable or intermediate plant species, to “4”, which represents mostly desirable or intermediate plantspecies present.
2) Plant Diversity - Evaluate the number of different species of plants that are well represented on the site.If only one species of plant occurs, diversity is narrow; if eight or more species of plants are present,diversity is broad. If 4-5 plant species are present, the score would be in the middle of this range.
3) Plant Density - Ignore plants classified as undesirable. Visually estimate the density of living desirableand intermediate plant species that would be present at a 2-inch stubble height. Ask yourself if there isroom for more desirable plants? Scores range from Dense (>95%), Medium (75-85%), Sparse (<65%).
4) Plant Vigor - Evaluate the health and productivity of the desirable and intermediate plant species. Lookfor evidence of plant color; leaf area index; plant reproduction; presence of disease or insects; rate ofgrowth and re-growth, etc. Area plants growing at their potential?
5) Legumes in Stand - Visually estimate the % composition by weight of the legumes present in the standon the area being evaluated. 0 = <10%, 1 = 10-19%, 2 = 20-29%, 3 = 30-39%, and 4 = >40%.
6) Plant Residue - Evaluate the dead and decaying plant residue on the soil surface. Excessive levels ofresidue inhibit plant growth and vigor. Appropriate levels of residue do not inhibit plant growth but helpretard runoff, reduce soil erosion, improve water intake, recycle nutrients to the soil surface, and provide afavorable microclimate for biological activity. Deficient residue levels result in bare or near bare groundbeneath the growing plants.
7) Uniformity of Use - Evaluate how well the animals are grazing all plants to a moderate uniform heightthroughout the field. Spotty grazing appears as uneven plant heights, with some plants or parts of thefield grazed heavily and other areas grazed only slightly or not at all.
8) Severity of Use - Evaluate the severity of use by grazing animals based on plant stubble height in thefield. For cool season grass species and legumes a stubble height of less than 2 inches would indicateheavy use; stubble height of 2-6 inches would indicate moderate use; and stubble height more than 6inches would indicate light use. For warm season grasses increase the height in each category by 2 inchesinches.
9) Woody Canopy - Estimate the percent canopy (area shaded at noon) of woody plant cover over six feettall. 0 = >40%, 1 = 30-39%, 2 = 20-29%, 3 = 10-19%, 4 = <10%.
10) Soil Erosion - Visually observe signs of any type of erosion and assign a severity rating for the field beingevaluated.
38 7
County soilinformation and
maps can beobtained from your
local USDAAgricultural
Service Center orExtension office.
For help identifying theseareas of your pasture,
contact your local USDAAgricultural ServiceCenter or Extension
office.
Diagram 3. Sensitive areas and soil limitation area map
Goals
What are my goals for the grazingsystem?
Establish well-thought-out goalsto direct the development of agrazing plan. The goals on whichto base future business,management, and productionstrategies will be unique to yourown operation.
Examples of goals include:• Increase livestock numbers
and/or forage availability• Improve animal
performance• Reduce feed costs or labor• Reduce soil erosion
Distinguish land that is ownedfrom land that is rented. Thereare certain management practicesthat you can apply to your ownland that you may not be able todo on rented land. Determine thenumber of acres of the differentland parcels and label these onthe map (Diagram 1).
Is there additional land availablethat could be used for grazing?Often, cropland that is adjacent topasture land may be betterutilized by growing forages.Cropland in close proximity toexisting pastures is ideal forconverting to grazing if pastureexpansion is one of the farmgoals. Identify and label on themap cropland that could be usedfor grazing.
What is the productivity of thesoils?
Map soil types and soil fertilityof your pastures. Soils varyconsiderably in their ability tosupport plant growth. Soilproductivity is partiallydetermined by its ability to holdwater and nutrients and releasethem to the plant, and by howwell plant roots can grow in thesoil. Actual crop yields achievedare a result of the interactionbetween soil productivity, thelevel of management, andclimatic factors (Diagram 2).
Grazing Resource Inventory
Annually, goals should bereviewed and updated to fit thecurrent situations and needs ofthe farm. After making a list ofwhat you want to achieve with theresources you have available, youare now ready to look at themanagement options toaccomplish your goals.
Land and Soils
What land resources are availablefor the grazing operation?
Locate or draw a map showingthe boundaries of the land thatis available for grazing.
6 39
Aerial photosfrom USDA-Farm Service
Agency providea good
base map
Appendix D1. Average Forage Yields for Northern Minnesota and Northern Wisconsin
Legend
Diagram 1. Land resources map
Diagram 2. Soils map
Grazing Management Systems
Continuous grazingis a one-pasture system wherelivestock have unrestricted accessthroughout the grazing season.
Simple rotational grazingis a system with more than onepasture in which livestock are movedto allow for periods of grazing andrest for forages.
Intensive rotational grazingis a system with many pastures,sometimes referred to as paddocks.Livestock are moved frequently frompaddock to paddock based on foragegrowth and utilization.
Advantages• Requires less management• Capital costs are minimal
Disadvantages• Lower forage quality and
yields• Lower stocking rate and less
forage produced per acre• Uneven pasture use• Greater forage losses due to
trampling• Animal manure is distributed
unevenly• Weeds and other undesirable
plants may be a problem
Advantages• Can increase forage
production and improvepasture condition overcontinuous grazing
• Allows pastures to rest andallows for forage regrowth
• Can provide a longer grazingseason, reducing the need forfeeding harvested forages
• Better distribution of manurethroughout the pasture
Disadvantages• Costs for fencing and water
systems can be higher thanwith continuous grazing
• Forage production andpasture utilization is not ashigh as intensive rotationalgrazing systems
Advantages• Highest forage production
and use per acre• Stocking rates can typically
be increased• More even distribution of
manure throughout thepaddocks
• Weeds and brush are usuallycontrolled through grazing
• Provides more grazingoptions and reduces the needfor mechanically harvestedforages
Disadvantages• Requires careful monitoring
of forage supply• Initial costs may be higher
due to fencing materials andwater distribution systems
• Requires more management
Appendix D2. Average Forage Yields for Southern Minnesota and Southern Wisconsin
40 5
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Alternative forages (cool-season annual forages)
Oat
Winter rye
Winter wheat
Source: Pastures for Profit: A Guide to Rotational Grazing, University of Minnesota, AG-FO-061451Good condition = lime, P, K and split N application plus rotational grazing management;
Poor condition = no fertilizer added plus continuous grazing management
Good 3000 55 35 10 0 0 0 Poor 1600 60 40 0 0 0 0
Good 2800 55 25 0 0 5 15
Poor 1200 65 25 0 0 5 5
Good 2800 55 25 0 0 5 15
Poor 1200 60 30 0 0 5 5
This guide discusses thecomponents of a grazing systemby taking you through the grazingmanagement planning process.Information on grazing resourceinventory, plan development,pasture management, and systemmonitoring is provided. Eachsection has a series of questionsthat will lead you through thedecision-making process ofdeveloping your plan. Yourgrazing plan will becomecustomized to fit your operationdepending upon how you answerthe questions and integrate thecomponents. Pasture-basedlivestock systems can beprofitable enterprises if theavailable resources are managedeffectively.
With approximately 16 percent ofMinnesota’s land in forageproduction, our pasture land is animportant economic resource.Grazing management, such asrotational grazing that extends theamount of time that livestock canmeet their needs through grazingand reduces the need forharvested feedstuffs, will lowerfeed costs and add to profitability.
Introduction
Reducing costs and/or increasingproduction are the two avenuesthat livestock producers have forimproving profitability. Focusingon management and control ofproduction and pasture resourcescan be a cost reducing strategy. Awell-managed rotational grazingsystem can reduce or eliminatethe need for labor-intensive orpurchased inputs such assupplemental feed, nitrogenfertilizer, and weed and brushkillers. Improved pasturecondition and higher forageyields can also lead to moreanimal production per pastureacre. Since feed costs are themajor cost in almost all livestockoperations, getting control ofthem is critical.
Designing a grazing plan is thefirst step in your pasturemanagement system. As youfollow the planning process, thestrengths and weaknesses of yourcurrent system will becomeapparent. The grazing planshould include all thecomponents of the grazing andpasture system and serve as amap for making managementimprovements.
Components of a typical grazingplan:
• Goals of the farmingoperation
• Summary of sensitive areas• Livestock summary and
forage requirements• Fencing system• Livestock watering system• Heavy use area protection• Forages• Grazing system
management
For a complete grazing planchecklist see appendix H.
Grazing systems range fromcontinuous grazing of one areaover a long period of time tointense rotational grazing onsmall areas for short periods oftime. Livestock systems that usecontinuous grazing of a pastureexperience both overgrazing andundergrazing of forages. Arotational system provides a restopportunity for forage plants sothat they may regrow morequickly. The rotational systemprovides an opportunity to movelivestock based on forage growth,promote better pasture forageutilization, and extend thegrazing season. The advantagesand disadvantages of threegrazing management systems arelisted on the following page.
Appendix E. Water Systems Design Considerations
A. Ramps to Surface Water:
Restricted access points consist of ramps which direct livestock to drink from limited areas of a lake, pond, or stream.During fence construction, a hard surface is installed to keep the livestock confined to the access point.
Advantages:• Livestock will not have free access to open water sources except at controlled points, helping to reduce water
quality problems.• Capacity is not an issue, unless the water source is unreliable.• No power required.
Disadvantages:• High cost of construction and maintenance.• Livestock still have access to open sources of water.• Lack of portability; livestock need to travel to the source of water to get a drink.
B. Livestock Powered Pumps:
Livestock powered pumps (nose pumps) utilize a diaphragm pump which is lever-activated by the nose of the animal asthey drink water from a cup cast into the unit.
Advantages:• Simple and economical, costing half as much as a typical restricted access point.• Easily moved from one water source to another and from paddock to paddock.• No water storage required.• No power required.
Disadvantages:• Animals must be trained to use pumps.• Smaller animals, such as calves may not have the strength to use them.• Sheep will not use a nose pump.• Generally can pump for distances less than 300 feet.• Generally cannot lift water more than 30 feet.• Must be anchored to something solid or a heavy base.
C. Solar Powered Pumps:
Solar panels are used to power direct current electric motors, usually 12 or 24 volt. The pumps can run continuously orthe energy can be stored in a battery for use upon demand.
Advantages:• Can operate in remote locations, no outside power required.• Low maintenance.• Can pump water for long distances.• Variety of pumps and panels allows customization for your site.
Disadvantages:• Expensive ($1500-6000).• Must store water. A three-day reserve is recommended.• Not easily portable.
4 41
Pasture Brush and Weed ControlCan unwanted weeds be controlled through grazing?What are the cultural and mechanical brush and weed control alternatives for pastures?When is control of brush and problem weeds with herbicides the best option?
Sacrificial Paddock ManagementHow will the livestock be managed during times of drought or wet conditions?Will sacrificial paddocks be rejuvenated after removal of livestock?
5. GRAZING SYSTEM MONITORING ...................................................................................................... 27Pasture Record Keeping
How do I know I have enough forage available?Is the productivity of the pasture increasing?Are the natural resources improving?
6. GRAZING PLAN EXAMPLE ................................................................................................................... 29
7. REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................ 33
8. APPENDICES .............................................................................................................................................. 34A Livestock Forage Monthly Balance SheetB1 Identification Key for Common Forage Species – GrassB2 Identification Key for Common Forage Species – LegumeC1 Determining Grassland Condition/TrendC2 Inventory Category ItemsD1 Average Forage Yields for Northern Minnesota and Northern WisconsinD2 Average Forage Yields for Southern Minnesota and Southern WisconsinE Water System Design ConsiderationsF Visual Method for Calculating Reserve Herd DaysG Calculated Method for Reserve Herd DaysH Grazing Plan Checklist
D. Sling Pumps:
Sling pumps operate by the action of flowing water. The entire body of the sling pump rotates due to a propeller. Insidethe pump body is a coiled, open-ended tube. This tube alternately picks up water and air, and forces the water out throughan outlet hose. The water is normally stored in a tank and later distributed to the livestock. A wind-powered version isavailable for use on ponds.
Advantages:• Can operate in remote locations without an outside power source.• Low maintenance.• Can pump for distances, just over 1 mile.• Can lift water up to 80 feet.• Low cost ($550-850).• Portable; easily moved from one water source to another.
Disadvantages:• Requires wind or water movement to operate.
E. Hydraulic Ram Pumps:
Ram pumps require flowing water, or water under pressure through a drive pipe, to operate. A minimum of 3 feet of fall isrequired to operate a ram pump. Normally, water is pumped to a storage tank for further distribution to drinking facilitiesin paddocks.
Advantages:• Economical to operate.• No outside energy required, can operate in remote locations.• Reliable, with few moving parts.• Can lift water to a maximum of 250 feet.• Can pump water for a relatively long distance.
Disadvantages:• Adequate water flow required to operate the pump.• Must be anchored to a solid base.• Not portable.• Must be protected from frost, or drained for the winter.• Overflow water must be drained from the area in which the pump is installed.• Cost range from $350 for a small pump to $7000 for a large pump.
42 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................... 4Grazing Management Systems
2. GRAZING RESOURCE INVENTORY ...................................................................................................... 6Goals
What are my goals for the grazing system?Land and Soils
What land resources are available for the grazing operation?What is the productivity of the soils?Are there sensitive land areas or soil limitations for grazing in the pasture?
LivestockWhat are the forage requirements for each livestock herd?What are the plans for potential expansion of the livestock operation?How many herds will be grazed?
ForagesWhat are the existing forage species in the pasture?How healthy or in what condition is the pasture?What are the estimated yields and seasonal distribution of the existing forages?
Water SourcesWhat are the existing water sources and where are the drinking facilities?What are the other potential water sources?
FenceWhat are the types and condition of the existing fences?
3. GRAZING PLAN DEVELOPMENT ........................................................................................................ 13Paddock Design and Layout
How many paddocks are needed for a rotational grazing system?How do I decide paddock size?What are some considerations for paddock layout?
Fence Design and LayoutWhat kind of fence should I install?
Water System Design and LayoutHow can I supply adequate water to the livestock?Where should drinking facilities be located?
Heavy Use Area PlanningWhat do I consider when planning livestock lanes?How do I stabilize the livestock lanes?How do I keep the area around water facilities from becoming mudholes?
4. PASTURE MANAGEMENT ...................................................................................................................... 19Pasture Forage and Livestock Management
What is proper grazing management for the desired forage species?How do pasture and livestock management affect plant growth and forage quality?When do I start grazing in the spring?When do I move livestock from paddock to paddock?
Pasture Soil Fertility ManagementCan nutrients from livestock manure be utilized more efficiently in pastures?When is increasing soil pH with lime important for forage production?How much nitrogen fertilizer do I need to put on my pasture?Does phosphorus and potassium fertilizer improve pasture productivity?
Appendix F. Visual Method for Calculating Reserve Herd Days (RHD)
2 43
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Appendix G. Calculated Method for Reserve Herd Days (RHD)
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The information in this publication is for educational purposes only and any reference to commercial products or trade names intends nodiscrimination and implies no endorsement by the University of Minnesota Extension Service.For Americans with Disabilities Act accommodations, please call (800) 876-8636.The University of Minnesota Extension Service is an equal opportunity educator and employer.
Grazing SystemsPlanningGuide
Kevin BlanchetUniversity of Minnesota Extension Service
Howard MoechnigNatural Resources Conservation ServiceMinnesota Board of Water & Soil Resources
Jodi DeJong-HughesUniversity of Minnesota Extension Service
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Grazing Plan Checklist
This list identifies the primary components of a grazing plan. Addressing each of these will result in a detailed plan forproper management of a forage-based livestock operation.
r Sensitive Areasr Sensitive Areas Identified and Describedr Management Strategy for Protecting Sensitive Areas
r Livestock Summaryr Livestock Kind and Classr Livestock Number and Average Weight by Herdr Forage Balance Sheet
r Fencing Systemr Kind of Fence Definedr Fence Locations Shown on Mapr Length of Fence to be Constructed
r Livestock Watering Systemr Water Source Identifiedr Location of Pipelines Shown on Mapr Locations of Permanently Placed Tanks Shown on Mapr Length of Pipeline and Number of Tanksr Emergency Watering Plans Outlined
r Heavy Use Area Protectionr Locations Shown on Map
r Foragesr Forage Species Identifiedr Condition of Pastures Documentedr Forage Production Estimates Mader Detailed Seeding Plans Prepared
r Grazing System Managementr Guidance for Initiating and Terminating Grazingr Contingencies for Wet Weather and Drought Definedr Grazing Management Prior to Fall Freeze Addressedr Forage Deficiencies and Surpluses Addressedr Sacrificial Paddocks Identifiedr Rejuvenation of Sacrificial Paddocks Addressedr Livestock Over-wintering Areas Identifiedr Brush and Weed Control Addressedr Pasture Fertilization Addressed
Kevin BlanchetUniversity of Minnesota Extension Service
Howard MoechnigNatural Resources Conservation Service
Minnesota Board of Water & Soil Resources
Jodi DeJong-HughesUniversity of Minnesota Extension Service
Grazing SystemsPlanningGuidePublication made possible by
the following organizations:
¤ University of Minnesota Extension Service¤ Natural Resources Conservation Service¤ University of Minnesota Water Resource Center
BU - 07606 - SRevised 2003Find more University of Minnesota Extension Service educational information at www.extension.umn.eduAdditional copies of this item can be ordered from the University of Minnesota Extension Service Distribution Center,405 Coffey Hall, 1420 Eckles Avenue, St. Paul, MN 55108-6068, e-mail: [email protected] or credit cardorders at (800) 876-8636. Copyright © 2003, Regents of the University of Minnesota. All rights reserved.
