HM PP Slides Ch2

8/19/2019 HM PP Slides Ch2

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W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011

Chapter 2

The Technical Core:Learning and Teaching


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Talcott Parsons: Three levels of structure in organizations

•Technical

•Managerial•Institutional

Technical Core: system of organizational activity where the

“product” of the organization is produced.

In schools, the teaching-learning process, as the technical

core, shapes many administrative decisions.

W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011

Levels of Organizational Structure


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Learning Defned

• Learning: experience produces a stable change in someone’s knowledge orbehavior.

– Change must occur because of experience, whether or not the learningis intentional or unintentional

• No one best explanation of learning, but three general theories:

– Behavioral theories: stress observable changes in behaviors, skills, andhabits

– Cognitive theories: stress internal mental activities such as thinking,remembering, creating, and problem solving

– Constructivist theories: stress how individuals make meaning of eventsand activities. Learning = construction of knowledge

W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011


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Behavioral Perspective onLearning

• Behaviorists not concerned primarily with mental or internalprocesses, but rather with changes in behavior broughtabout by experience.

• B.F. Sinner and his !ollowers emphasi"e antecedents andconse#uences as mechanisms !or changing behavior.

• $nvironmental in%uences &antecedents and conse#uences'shape all behavior, in the “()B)*” pattern+

– (ntecedent)behavior)conse#uence+ antecedent precedesbehavior, which is !ollowed by a conse#uence

– *onse#uences o! behavior become antecedents !or next(B* se#uence

– *hange behavior by changing antecedents,conse#uences, or bothW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011


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*onse#uences

• Early behavioral work focused on consequences more than antecedents.

• Kind of consequence and timing of consequence will strengthen or

weaken individual’s propensity for a certain behavior.

• Two kinds of consequences: Reinforcement and Punishment

– Reinforcement strengthens or increases frequency of behavior.

– Punishment weakens or suppresses behavior.

– Be careful not to confuse punishment with negative reinforcement:

no matter how you reinforce, if you’re reinforcing you’re

strengthening behavior.

W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011


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ein!orcement• Reinforcer: consequence that strengthens behavior that it follows.

• One individual’s reinforcer might not be a reinforcer for someone else:

responses are highly individualized

• Some psychologists say reinforcers satisfy needs; others argue theyreduce tensions or stimulate particular parts of the brain.

• Strength of reinforcement depends upon individual’s perception of the

event, and the meaning it holds.

• Two main types of reinforcement: positive and negative

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Positive and -egativeein!orcement

• Positive reinforcement: occurs when a behavior produces a new

stimulus or motivating force

– When a consequence strengthens a behavior by adding a stimulus,

the behavior has been positively reinforced

• Negative reinforcement: occurs when a behavior removes or

eliminates a stimulus

– If behavior results in elimination of a negative stimulus, it’s more

likely to be repeated: the behavior has been negatively reinforced

• Both types of reinforcement strengthen behavior: positive through

adding stimuli; negative by subtracting stimuli

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Punishment• If reinforcement strengthens behavior, punishment suppresses it:

behavior followed by punishment is less likely to be repeated – As with reinforcers, punishments are somewhat individualized: what

punishes one individual might not be perceived as punishment by another

• Two main types of punishment:

1. Direct Punishment (Type I)

Direct punishment: appearance of stimulus following behavior

suppresses or weakens behavior.

2. Removal Punishment (Type II)

Removal punishment: stimulus is removed following behavior in order to

weaken or suppress it.

• Both types suppress behavior--Direct punishment by adding

something to stop it, and removal punishment by withholding

somethingW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011


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(ntecedents

• Antecedents precede behavior

– Help individuals distinguish between behaviors that lead to positive

consequences and behaviors that lead to negative consequences:

individual learns to “read the antecedent.”

• Not always the case that people are conscious of reading the antecedent,

but cues and prompts can be deliberately used to influence behavior.

• Cueing: providing an antecedent just prior to a particular behavior.

– Furnishes information about which behaviors will be punished andwhich reinforced.

– Allows teachers, parents to reinforce behavior without resorting to

punishment.

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Prompting

• Prompting: providing an additional cue after the first cue

• Two principles for using cues and prompts effectively:

– Make sure environmental stimulus you want as a cue occurs right

before your prompt – Fade the prompt as soon as possible

• Example: checklist when students work in pairs on peer tutoring

– Gradually remove the support of the checklist, which serves as aprompt, when students internalize procedures

– Monitor progress, reinforce good work, correct mistakes

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eaching (pplications

• Guiding principles for teaching contexts:

– Clear, systematic praise for genuine accomplishments – Link success to effort and ability—in order to build confidence – Make sure reinforcers are things students value – Give plenty of reinforcement when introducing new material – Set clear and specific goals so you know what to reinforce – Offer a variety of reinforcers and allow students to choose

– Structure situation around negative reinforcement rather than punishment – Use cues to help establish new behavior

• Specific approaches that utilize behavioral principles: the Good BehaviorGame, Positive Behavior Support (PBS) based on a Functional BehavioralAssessment (FBA), learning objectives, and direct instruction

• Most useful when learning new behaviors or explicit information, andwhen learning is sequential or factual

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Positive Behavior Support based on a

Functional Behavioral Assessment

• FBA What are students getting out of the negative

behavior?

1. Receive attention from others—teachers, parent, or peers.

2. Escape from some unpleasant situation—an academic or social

demand.3. Get a desired item or activity.

4. Meet sensory needs, such as stimulation from rocking or flapping

arms for some children with autism.

• PBS What positive behaviors could lead to the same results

and what will support the student in learning the new positive

behaviors?

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Learning /b0ectives

• Instructional objective: clear and unambiguous description of teacher’s

educational aims for students

• Robert Mager: objectives should describe what students will be doing todemonstrate their achievement, how teacher will know when students havesucceeded

• Three parts to good objectives:1. Intended student behavior: what must student do?2. Conditions under which behavior occurs: how will behavior be recognizedor tested?3. Criteria for acceptable performance: how well has student done?

• Objectives useful under certain specific conditions: –

More successful in promoting learning with loosely structured activities – Useful when significance of information is unclear from learning materials andactivities themselves, i.e., objectives help focus students’ attention on learninggoals

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Direct 1nstruction

• A.K.A., “explicit teaching” or “active teaching”• Best applied to teaching of basic skills: science facts, mathematical

computations, vocabulary and grammar rules

• Taught step-by-step, assessed with standardized tests

• Barak Rosenshine: Six Teaching Functions of effective directinstruction1. Review and check previous day’s work

2. Present new material

3. Provide guided practice

4. Give feedback and correctives based on student answers

5. Provide independent practice6. Review weekly and monthly

• Other direct instruction approaches—Hunter; Good, Grouws, andEbmeier—draw on similar elements of effective instruction

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*ognitive Perspectives onLearning

• Cognitive theorists focus on thinking, learning, conceptualization, and

problem solving

• Learning is an active mental process: we plan our responses, use systems

to help us remember, and organize materials

• Puts the individual back in the learning process: what we bring to the

learning situation has a huge influence on how and what we learn

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*ategori"ing 2nowledge

• Knowledge as both means and end: existing knowledge guides new

learning—the “scaffold that supports the construction of all future learning”

• General knowledge vs. Domain-specific knowledge:

– General: applies to a variety of situations

– Domain-specific: relates to particular task or subject• Also categorize knowledge by how it’s manifested

– Declarative knowledge: can be declared, usually in words

– Procedural knowledge: “knowing how” to do something—knowledge

that is demonstrated

– Self-regulatory: “knowing when and why” to apply declarative and

procedural knowledge

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1n!ormation)Processing 3odel

• Early views had the analogy between mind and computer: information

stored in three storage systems

– Sensory memory: holding system that maintains stimuli so that

perceptual analysis can occur

– Working memory: (short-term memory) holds 5-9 bits of info at a timefor up to 20 seconds

– Long-term memory: stores huge amounts of info for long periods of

time; may be coded verbally or visually or both

• Memory = reconstruction: leads to accurate, partly accurate, or inaccurate

recall; accurate retrieval depends partly on how info was learned.• A more recent view of memory and cognition is called cognitive science,

which emphasizes the role of working memory, attention, sensory

memory, and interactions of the elements of the system.

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Sensory 3emory

• Sensory memory = the initial system that briefly holds stimuli we perceive

through our senses; other names for sensory memory are sensory buffer,

iconic buffer (for images), and echoic memory for sounds.

• We attend to some stimuli and not to others—this attention is first step inlearning.

• A challenge to teachers is to structure classroom environment to get and

keep student attention at outset of lesson and keep them focused

throughout the class.

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4oring 3emory

• Working memory defined: where new information is held briefly andcombined with knowledge from long-term memory.

• Resembles screen of computer—content is activated information, in-the-moment consciousness.

• Capacity = 5-9 separate new items at once or the amount of info we canrehearse in about 1.5 seconds

• Recent theories: two working memory systems—one for language-basedinformation, one for nonverbal, spatial, visual information

• Duration of info in working memory is short: 5-20 seconds.

• Easily overwhelmed if cognitive load (especially extraneous load) is toogreat.

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etaining 1n!o in 4oring3emory

• Use it or lose it: if info in working memory is not activated, it fades

• Most people engage in specific strategies to keep it

• Rehearsal: 2 types

– Maintenance rehearsal — repeating information in your mind – Elaborative rehearsal — associating the info with something you

already know (info in long-term memory)

• Not only improves working memory, but also helps channel info from

short- to long-term memory

• Chunking: group or “chunk ” individual bits of information into meaningful

units (size doesn’t matter, # of bits does)

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Long)erm 3emory

• Long-term memory holds information that we move from workingmemory for indefinite storage

• Virtually unlimited, but not always easy to access specific informationif much is stored over a long time

• 3 main kinds of long-term memory:

1. Episodic: associated with particular times and places—personalmemories of events of your own life

2. Procedural: how to do things—may take a while, but once learned, suchknowledge is remembered for a long time

3. Semantic: memory for meaning: general concepts, principles, and their

associations• 2 important ways of storing semantic memory

Images: visual representations—”mind’s eye”

Schemas: abstract structures, patterns, systems, scripts

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Storage and etrieval

• How info is processed initially has impact on recall.• More likely to remember new material if you integrate it with information

already stored in long-term memory.

• 3 ways to facilitate this kind of integration:1. Elaboration: add meaning to new info by connecting it to existing

knowledge (apply schemas, for instance, or make analogies).• Easier to recall because elaboration acts like rehearsal—keeps memory

activated longer in working memory, which deepens its imprint in long-term memory.

– 2. Organization: structuring information helps you remember both generalideas and specific examples; structure helps map your way back to info whenyou need it.

– 3. Context: we learn physical and emotional aspects of context along with theinformation we process within that context; replicating context helps recall theinformation.

• Bottom line: the more completely information is processed when we firstlearn it, the better our chances of remembering it.

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3etacognition

• Metacognition: individuals awareness of his/her own cognitive processesand how they work.

• Can intentionally use metacognitive understanding to regulate learning

– Planning: deciding how much time to give to a task, what strategies to

use, how to begin, etc. – Monitoring: awareness of how much, how well I’m learning

– Evaluation: judgments about outcomes of thinking and learning—effectiveness of strategies, time allocation, etc.

•Metacognitive skills begin to develop at ages 5 to 7, and generally improvethroughout school.

• Superior metacognitive skills can compensate for lower levels of ability,and can be taught.

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• Some guiding principles for teaching:

– Use previous knowledge, connections to focus attention and aid

encoding

– Help students organize material in meaningful chunks

– Provide review, repetition, and contextualization – Exercise metacognitive skills

• Common techniques consistent with cognitive approaches:

– Underlining or highlighting

– Note-taking

– Visual aids

– Mnemonics

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*onstructivist Perspectives onLearning

• Ancestors: Dewey, Piaget, Vygotsky, Gestalt psychology

• Key assumption: people create and construct knowledge rather than

internalize it from the external environment

• Several different approaches to constructivism:

– Psychological/Individual Piaget

– Radical Postmodern

– Social Vygotsky

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Psychological *onstructivism

• Emphasizes the individual’s reconstruction of external reality

• Build accurate representations of the outside world, often using processes

consistent with cognitive perspectives (schemas, for example)

• Knowledge is acquired by transforming, organizing, and reorganizingprevious knowledge

• Piaget typical of psychological constructivists

• Construction is a rational process generating increasingly complex

reasoning—as in Piaget’s sequence of developmental stages

W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011


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adical *onstructivism

• The extreme of psychological constructivism: no basis for evaluating or

interpreting any belief is any better or worse than any other

• Knowledge constructed largely by interpersonal interactions and

constraints of culture and ideology

• NOT a mirror of external world, because of these interactions and

limitations

• Consistent with post-modernism, post-modernist critiques of American

education

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Social *onstructivism

• Draws on Vygotsky’s notion that learning is inherently social, embedded in

cultural setting

• Social interaction, cultural tools, and activity shape individual development

and learning

• All higher-order mental processes, such as reasoning and problem solving,

are mediated by psychological tools, such as language, signs, and symbols.

• Knowledge, ideas, attitudes, and values develop through “appropriating”

the ways of acting and thinking provided by the culture

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How is Knowlede !onstructed"

1. The realities and truths of the external world direct

knowledge construction Information Processing

2. Internal processes such as organization,

assimilation, and accommodation direct knowledgeconstruction Piaget

3. Both external and internal factors direct knowledge

construction Vygotsky

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Situated Learning

• Draws on the Vygotskys notion that learning is inherently

social, embedded in cultural setting

• Described as “enculturation,” or a norming process: individuals

adopt the norms, behaviors, skills, beliefs, language, and

attitudes of a community

• Learning prepares for participation in that community,

whatever it may be

• Emphasizes that much of learning is situation-specific;

therefore, students learn skills and knowledge in meaningful

contexts with clear connections to “real-life” applications

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• Some guiding principles for teaching: – Employ multiple strategies, diverse contexts for learning

– Embed problems in “authentic tasks” that require students to apply whatthey are learning

– Create environment of thinking, problem-solving, dialogue, openness, andtolerance

– Keep students’ ideas and responses at the center of instruction

• Common techniques consistent with constructivism: – Inquiry learning: teacher presents puzzling problem or question and

students organize hypotheses, data collection and analysis

– Cognitive apprenticeships: students observe experts, receive coaching,practice to gain proficiency, reflect on progress, and explore newapproaches to cognitive tasks

– Cooperative learning: working with others enhances learning byrequiring students to elaborate, interpret, explain, argue, and coordinateinformation and procedures with others (jigsaw and scripted cooperationare two examples of such techniques

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Practical #mperatives• Ensure that positive actions are recognized and rewarded: Reinforcement strengthens behavior.

• Accompany all punishment with rewards for correct behavior: Emphasize the positive.

• Understand the function of negative behavior: Help students reach their goals through positiveactions instead.

• Match instruction to learning goals: Direct teaching is useful when students have limited

knowledge,

• Help students focus attention on the big ideas: Learning is difficult when you don’t know what is

important.

• Avoid overwhelming working memory: Extraneous cognitive load limits learning.• Build knowledge in long-term memory by making many connections: Deeply processed and

elaborated information is easier to remember.

• Teach memory and learning strategies directly: Without guidance some students will never

master powerful strategies.

• Create situations in which students actively construct meaning: To invent is to understand.

• Position students at the center of learning: Build on the their knowledge and interests.

• Provide authentic problems as a launching pad for learning: Useful knowledge grows from

solving real-life challenges.

• Build collaborative skills among students and faculty: Cooperation leads to respect and critical

thinking.

W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011

Documents

HM PP Slides Ch2