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8/2/2019 ISS 310 Notes
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/iss-310-notes 1/29
ISS 310 Notes 1/10/2012 8:13:00 PM
Geographic perspective
Everything takes place somewhere
Resources are limited
Location has benefits and burdens
Everything and everyone is connected Cultural differences are important
Spatial viewpoint
Describe patterns
o Why do they exist
Analyze patterns
o Why should we care
Historical viewpoint
When did it occur
Why did it occur
Presenting data and information
Tables
Graphs
MAPS
o Thematic maps Describes ONE phenomena (weather, population)
Choropleth
Choro = place
Pleth = multiply
Use shading (per square mile)
o Percent
o Ratio
o Mean or median
Normalize raw data
o Eliminate bias
Maps
Map essentials
o Title
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o Author
o Source
o Legend or key
Interstates Between states
East/West roads = even number
o North/South roads = odd number
Smaller numbers in the west
o Larger numbers in the east
Smaller numbers in the south
o Larger numbers in the north
Spurs = 196, 135
o Dead ends
Loops = 696, 496
Mile markers
Map Scales
Verbal
o “one inch equals 15 miles”
o cannot enlarge or reduce map via photocopy
Graphico Can enlarge or reduce map via photocopy
Representative Fraction (RF)
o Can enlarge or reduce map via photocopy
o ex) 1:24000
1 unit on map = 24000 units in reality
o Same units on map and in reality
o 1:1000 = more detail, less map
o 1:1000000000 = less detail, more map
Directions
North arrow = true north
True north vs magnetic north
o True north = north pole
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o Magnetic north = magnetic pole
o Magnetic has deviation
0° deviation (none) = agonic line
Azimuth
o Pilots and ship captainso Runways take away the last 0 of the degree
Ex) 27 for 270°
Bearings
o Surveyors and realtors
o 1) heading = north or south
o 2) angle = 0° - 90°
o 3) direction of angle = east or west
o ex) N 45° E, S 30° W
Latitude and Longitude
o Using both gives absolute location
o Latitude
Angular distance north or south of equator
0° - 90° north or south of equator
dictates climate: north has less Sun
1° = 69 miles
1’ (minute) = 1.2 miles
1” (second) = 101 feet o Longitude
Measures time: time zones
Angular distance east or west of the Prime Meridian
Greenwich, London, England
0° - 180° east or west of the Prime Meridian
Globes and Maps
Globe
o gives the best representation
o 1) shows true area (equal area)
o 2) shows true direction (conformal)
o 3) shows true scale
o 4) shows true shape
Maps cannot have all 4 of those properties
Maps
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o Maps are distorted
o Projections reduce distortion (improve accuracy)
Conic projection
True area/shape
Cylindrical projection True direction
Planar projection
Good for time and perspective
Used by pilots and USPS
Topographic Maps
Outdoor activities
michigan.gov/dnr (1287)
7.5 minute quadrangle
o angular distance
o rectangular map
o scale = 1:24000
o 1 square inch = 91.8 acres
o 1 inch = 2000 feet
o convergence: 72 feet shorter on top border of map
Produced by USGS: United States Geologic Survey
Show physical and cultural features Elevations (topography)
Cultural Features/Legend of Topographic Maps
Buildings (black, human made)
Orchards (green dots in rows)
Fences
Roads
Mines
Quarries
Railroads
Political boundaries
Black = building/humans
Red = fence/road/property
Pink = urbanization
Purple = updates
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Green = orchard/vineyard/forest
White = farms
Physical Features of Topographic Maps
Rivers
Topography Forest (green)
Lake (blue, water)
Swamp (green/blue)
White = grass/open land
Brown = contour lines
Contour Lines
Brown
Measure elevation of Earth’s surface
o Above or below sea level
Lines never cross
Lines never join
Form complete polygons
MSU is 850 feet above sea level
Hills, depressions, and saddles
Contour Interval
o Vertical distance between contour lines
o Flatlands use smaller interval, and vice-versao Closer lines = steeper slope, and vice-versa
Benchmarks
o Measured and marked elevation point
o BM#
o Just a # is a spot elevation
o Rivers: contour lines bend upstream
Air Photos
Air photo interpretation
Black and white
o Shapes
o Tones
o Scale
o Relative sizes
GIS
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Geographic Information System
Computer based
Stores data
Manipulates and analyzes data
Display data in map format Similar to stacked overhead transparencies
Paper map: what you see is what you get
GIS: visualize, analyze, and query data
o Spatial data: where is it
o Attribute data: age, owner, elevation, value, use, etc.
o Queries: cross reference data to answer questions
Data Formats
Raster
o Continuous data
o Pixels (smaller pixel = better detail/resolution)
Vector
o Discrete data
o Points, lines, and polygons
Legal Land Descriptions
Give precise location for a parcel of land
Real estate transactions Avoid land ownership disputes
Identify land for taxation
Land is largest long-term asset
Metes and Bounds
Irregular property/boundary shapes
Use Point Of Beginning
Landmarks can change over time
o Trees, rock fence, etc.
o Therefore boundary can change
o Newer methods use lasers to be more precise
13 original colonies and Texas use this system
Long Lots
French and Spanish settlements
Long and narrow strips
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Michigan (Detroit), Mexico border, Louisiana
United States Public Land Survey System (USPLSS)
AKA Town and Range System or Rectangular System
States not using Metes and Bounds use USPLSS
Original POB was at the cross borders of Ohio, Pennsylvania,and West Virginia
Northwest Territory
NW of the Ohio River
Acquired in 1785 for money
Signed treaties with Native Americans (unfair to NA)
Used to settle private claims
Made into public domain
Provide for orderly settlement
Sold land (money for government)
o Pay military debts
Military district in MI: 1815-1816 on Haggerty Rd
Land Ordinance of 1785
For the Northwest Territory
Only USPLSS states
Base lines (x) and meridians (y)
Magnetic compass (solar in Northern areas), field notebook, and
Günter Chain (66 ft)o Done in the winter for clear visibility
Started in Michigan
o Meridian Rd and 8 Mile Rd
o Treaty of Detroit 1807: Native Americans, Fort Defiance
o September 29, 1815: MI surveyed (Bicentennial soon)
o 1840: crossed water to upper peninsular to continue meridian
o Tiff in’s letter gave MI bad reputation
Legacy on the Landscapes
o Michigan is square
o Each square: a township
o Measure against meridian and base line
(x,y) would be TyN/S, RxE/W
o Convergence for North/South roads
Need correction lines
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o Act of February 11, 1805
All corners are fixed
All boundary lines are fixed to corners (legal purposes)
o Public Act 245 in 1990
Oakland County (wealthy) Re-monumentation of the section corners
Monument cover and section corner monument
o Urban Lots
Most older lots used Günter Chain
66 ft x 132 ft or 33 ft x 132 ft
Right of way, roads: 66 ft
o Toledo Strip
Field Notebook
Distances (chains: 66 feet)
o 1 mile = 80 chains
Corners
Natural vegetation, soil ratings, water (river/lakes)
Township
36 square miles
Town = measure from base line
Range = measure from meridian 36 sections
o 1x1 mile
o North/West sections are less accurate
o Fractional
o 1 section = 640 acres
Legal land description
o Smallest land parcel listed first
Subdivisions
o Smaller than 10 acres
o Platted and named
1862 Homestead Act
o Buy 160 acres, improve it, then own it for cheap
Plat Map
o Shows land ownership
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o Public information
Acres
o 1 acre = 43560 square feet
o 1 acre = 208.7 ft x 208.7 ft
South America Property Descriptions
Similar to long lots (Spanish)
Property sold as hectares instead of acres
Based around major highway instead of river
Odd shaped patterns
Geographic Data Presentation
Gather data, graphical presentation: scatter graph
o Shows relationship between variables: positive or negative
correlation
Rank Order Correlation (r)
o Have 2 different variables, in rank per observation
o Take the difference between 2 variables per observation: d
o Square the value of the difference per observation: d2
o Take the sum of the d2
o N = number of observations
o Apply formula that will be provided
r must be -1 < r < +1 Measures strength of relationship between variables
Higher absolute #: stronger relationship
Not cause and effect, just correlation
Political Geography
Boundary lines: frontiers
Elections
Political units: township, county, state, district
Jan 26, 1837: Michigan became state
Physical features boundaries
o Median line of river
o One bank rule (Ohio, Kentucky: Kentucky was state first)
o Median line of lake
o Mountain range: crest line: river flows (ID, MT) (Chi, Arg)
Geometric boundaries
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o Streets (4 corners)
Creation of boundary (frontier)
o Define: written detailed description
o Delimit: draw lines on map
o Demarcate: mark in ground (physical presence)o Problems: not precise
1755 Mitchell Map
o MI and OH border around Lake Michigan
o Northwest Ordinance 1787
Article V: an East and West line drawn through the
southerly bend or extreme of Lake Michigan
o Act of Congress May 20, 1812
Boundary line as runs from the southerly extreme of
Lake Michigan to Lake Erie
o Michigan boundary proposal
Line due East from the most southerly extent of Lake MI
Toledo
Legal and historical claims
o Ohio boundary proposal
Line east to the north cape of the Maumee River
Geographic and political claim
o Toledo strip: January 1837o Lost peninsulas
Counties and Parishes
o 3140 in the USA
o Parishes in Louisiana
o Michigan has 83 counties
o Small counties: eastern area: denser population
Vice versa
o In the rural south county is important cultural and
political unit. Sheriff is political officer per county
Odd boundaries
o Gerrymandering: elections
o School boundaries: population density
o “Pistols” (MSU in 1960s)
o Elongated (Chile)
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o Compact (Uruguay)
o Fragmented (Argentina)
GPS: Global Positioning System
Developed by military to locate places in 1978, top secret US government released GPS to the public in 2000
24 satellites orbit the earth
Need signal from at least 3 satellites to triangulate position
o Preferred up to 6
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ISS 310 Notes 1/10/2012 8:13:00 PM
Weather and Climate
Groundhog day: Feb 2
o Punxsutawney Phil
Maps 1-3
Seasonso Rotation (24 hours)
o Revolution (365 days)
o Tilt/inclination (23.5 degrees from the perpendicular of the
orbit)
o Parallelism
Can never see sun straight overhead in Michigan
Two Elements
o Temperature
Hot or cold
Graph
MSU means
Jan: 26 deg F
Jul: 72 deg F
800mm precipitation
o Precipitation
Wet or dry
Summer max Winter max: Pacific coast
Temperature
o How is earth’s atmosphere heated
Sun: gives off solar energy
Heat: radiated back from the earth’s surface
(mountains are cold)
Controls
o Latitude
o Analemma: where sun is directly overhead; figure 8
23.5 deg S < X < 23.5 deg N (latitude)
o Growing season
Days without frost
37 deg N parallel: 200 days
Plant hardiness map
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o Annual heat/cool degree days
o Atmospheric pressure
High or low pressure; low = tornado
Normal: 1013.2 mbs or 29.92 in Hg
Wind: difference in pressure From high to low pressure
From whence it blows (Southerly wind = coming
from the south)
Wind
o ITCZ: winds come together at equator
o Inter-tropical convergence zone
Low pressure
Clouds, rain
Moves North or South during seasons
Our summer: ITCZ moves north
Air Masses
o A body of air with uniform levels of temperature and humidity
Homogeneous
Point of origin determines temperature and humidity
o Continental polar (cP)
Dry and coldo Maritime tropical (mT)
Warm and humid
o Jet stream
Upper level of fast moving air band (30,000 ft)
Trough and ridge
cP and mT crescent: storms
Land and Water
o At the same latitude
Land heats/cools faster than water
Water moderates climate
o Lake effect snow
o Continentality
Greatest temperature range
Away from water
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North Dakota area
Relative Humidity
o The ratio of the amount of water vapor in a volume of air at a
given temperature, to the total amount that it could hold at a
given temperature Ex) 1 cubic foot of air holds 8 grams of water vapor but
cold hold a max of 10, therefor 80% relative humidity
o Warmer = more moisture
o 100% relative humidity = rain
Dew point temperature
Precipitation
o 1) Convection: hot areas, summers
Virga: evaporates before hitting ground
o 2) Fronts: leading edge of an air mass
Cold: cP hits mT; jagged
Warm: mT hits cP: round
o Orographic: mountains, Chinook wind
Normal Lapse Rate
o Drop 3.5 degrees F climbing every 1000 ft
o Temperature Inversion: warmer air band; smog
No wind
Clear skies Snow cover: UP
Vertical Climate Zone
o Soroche: altitude sickness
o Quito, Ecuador
Near equator
9350 ft: 49-67 degrees F
Sea level: 60-80 degrees F
o Tierra Caliente (low): hot lands; lowest elevation
o Tierra templada (mid): temperate; most desired; coffee
o Tierra fria (high)
Climate regions
o A = tropical; every month’s mean: above 65 degrees F
o Humid Tropical (Af)
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Wet: more than 1600mm yearly
Amazon
o Seasonal Humid Tropical (Aw)
West and dry seasons
ITCZo B = Desert; BW
Less than 250mm rain yearly
Arica: no rain in last 50 years
Northern Chile: Atacama Desert
Cloudy, but no rain
Garva = mist
El niño: little bade boy
Warm ocean current
Every decade
Not normal
La niña: normal; cold current in opposite direction
o C = Humid Subtropical (Cfa)
Southeast USA; hot and humid
Mediterranean (Cs)
Hot, dry summer
Mild, wet winter
Central America and Caribbeano Hurricanes: June-October
Aruba, Curacao, Bonaire, and Trinidad have none
o Population Settlement
Leeward side: protected from wind
Aw climate: wet and dry seasons
Humid areas: over 1600mm yearly
United States
o 100 degree West Longitude: 500mm rain
West: dry
East: humid
Wettest: Louisiana
Driest: Nevada
o Mid Latitude Cold (D)
Northeast USA
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Hot humid summer
Cold winter
o Summer rainfall maximum: triangle
o Mediterranean climate: Cs
o Marine West Coast: Cfbo Winter Max: west coast
o Dry/desert (B)
Less than 250mm yearly
More evaporation that precipitation: virga
o “Best climate”
65 degrees F
LA/SF, California
Hawaii
o Volcanoes
o 21 degrees North Latitude
o Tropical location
o No temperature extremes (69-85)
o Few hurricanes
o Warmest: August/September
o Coolest: February/March
o Prevailing winds
80% from northeast Southeast wind: Kona = less rain
Windward: opposite of kona
o Ocean (moana) temperature
73-80 degrees
o Topography and rain
Alaska
o Barrow: most northern city; 71 deg North latitude
o Anchorage: largest city; 2nd most north
o Juneau: Capitol; panhandle; isolated
o Ketchikan: most southern; boat or water
o Arctic circle: 66 deg North latitude
Alaska climate
o Lowest temperature: -80 deg F
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o Latitude: house of sunlight per day
Barrow: June - Aug: 24 hours; Nov 18 - Jan 22: 0 hours
Juneau: June: 17.5 hours; July: 18.1 hours
o Ketchikan: very wet, 3900mmo Barrow: 400mm per year
o Compare western coastlines of North America and South
America
Mirrored climate over equator
Growing Season
o Number of days between last frost in spring and first frost in
fall
May through October: Michigan
Need at least 90 days
High elevation: shorter season
Lake effect: extends season
Landforms and Geomorphology
Shape of Earth surface
CUP model
o Characterize landform
Elevation Local relief: range of elevation in given area
Cross section profile
Type of rock (3)
o Understand landfomrs
Constructional (uplands)
Tectonic
Glaciations (MI landforms)
Wind
Erosional (lowlands)
Water
Glaciations
Wind
o Prediction of landform future
Land use
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Mineral wealth
Uplands
o Mountains, hills, plateaus, mesas, buttes
Glacial Uplands
o Moraines, interlobates, eskers, kames, drumlins, sand dunes Lowlands
o Plains, floodplains, deltas
Glacial Lowlands
o Till plains, lacustrine plains, outwash plains
Rock Types (3)
o Igneous
Hard: resisting erosion
Create uplands
Metals and gemstones
Granite
o Sedimentary
Softer: erodes more easily
Layered, ancient seas
Creates mostly lowlands
Fossil fuels (oil, coal, natural gas)
Sandstone, limestone, shale, coal
o Metamorphic Change of form (heat and pressure)
Hard: resist erosion
Create uplands
Contains metals and gemstones
Shale slate
Limestone marble
Coal diamonds
Sandstone quartzite
South America landforms
o Altiplano cross-section, added 2 locations on Map
USA Landforms: Map 4
o Coastal plain: east coast
Everglades, rivers, flat
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o Piedmont
Hilly area before mountains
Fall line: piedmont/coastal plain boundary
Waterfalls
Population increasing End of navigation (water)
o Appalachian Ridge and Valley
New York through Georgia
o Rock Mountains: not on Pacific coast
Continental divide: highest points flowing rivers
o Cascade Mountains
Volcanic
o Sierra Nevada
Block faulted
Mt. Whitney: tallest in 48 states
Mother lode: gold, 1849
James Beckwourth: found passage
Donner Pass
Orographic precipitation
o Intermontane
Area between Rocky Mts. and cascade/sierra Nevada
Basin and range Great Salt Lake
Death Valley: -282 ft below sea level
o Central Valley
Food
o Interior plains
Mt. Rushmore: black hills
o Sandhils
Nebraska
Sand dunes, stable
Ranch
o Llano Estacado
Texas (100 degrees West)
Very flat
o Driftless Area
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Not glaciated
o Finger Lake
Upstate New York
Glaciated: long, thin lakes
o Glacial boundary Cape cod through ?
Quaternary Glaciations of Michigan
o Came from Hudson Bay, Canada
o Wind, running water, glaciations
Make landforms
o Glacial Processes
Erosion of materials
Glacial lobes: not single chunk, like finger
Ice does not retreat: melts instead
Area natural lakes
Moraine: hilly area
o Glacial sediments
Glacial till: deposited by ice (non-sorted)
Interlobate: between the lobes; multi-morraine
Glacial Landforms
Interlobateso Between lobes
o Hilly: moraine
o Many lakes
o Oakland County and surrounding area
Till Plain
o Made from glacial till (non-sorted)
o Flat
o Drumlins
Tear drop shape hill
Show glacial ice movement
Glacial Fluvial Sediment
o Deposited by running (melted) water
o Sorted (sandy)
Layers
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o Landforms
Deadman’s Hill: scenic in the fall
Outwash plain
Flat
Not desirable (poor farming) – unless irrigated Esker
Long ridge of sand and gravel
Kame
Isolated hill of sand and gravel (Pine Knob)
Glacial Lacustrine Sediment
o Former glacial lake
o Ponded water (former lake bottom)
o Sorted: mostly clay
Layered
o Flat
o Good for farming if water drained
o Relic beach ridges
Strip of sand/gravel (former beach)
o Loess
Deposited by wind
Good for agriculture
Michigan Geology and Resources What is underneath us
Rock types (3)
Associated resources
Geological time scale
o Surface is younger, deeper is older
Bedrock
o Pre-Cambrian: oldest rocks
o Western uplands: old hard rocks
Copper, Iron: MI is 2nd
Hematite: 70% iron
Taconite: 30% iron
Yellow dog: controversy
o Southern Peninsula and Eastern UP Bedrock
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Water supply
Sandstone: horizontal layers
Limestone: largest quarry in world
Rogers City
Oil trap Glacial – surface
Cap rock – hard
Porous rock: oil here (trapped)
Cap rock again (deepest)
Northern mitten area
Rock: antrim shale - $
Gas storage
MI leader in nation
Stored in porous rock
Salt
Midland, MI: DOW Chemical Company
Detroit salt mine: always 59 deg F
Marshall Sandstone
Drinking water
Coal deposits
Center of mitten Gypsum
Soil
Good soil: per use (build or grow on)
Land value: price per acre
o Soil type
o Slope
o Scenic view
o Location
Soil formation (not dirt)
o Soils are formed
Climate
Organisms
Relief
Parent material
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Clay: best CEC
Sand: worst CEC
pH
o Negative logarithm of H+ activity
o pH of 0 is acidic, 7 is neutral, 14 is basico Most plants: 6.5-7.2
Soil Color (in MI)
o Red: iron, well-drained
o Black: organic matter, poorly drained
Soil Drainage
o Gradient
o Better in steeper areas
Wetlands
o Hydric soil: poorly drained
o High water table (water close to surface)
o Hydrophilic plants: will trees, cattails, purple loosestrife
o Can’t destroy them (legally)
A parcel is a wetland if water can be found for 14
straight days within 1 foot of the surface during the
growing season
Percolation Test
o Perko Housing development, septic tanks
o County Health Department
USA Soil
o Histosols
O and C horizon only
Acidic
Low fertility
Poorly drained
o Spodosol
Northern MI and New England
Pine trees
Acidic
Low fertility
o Alfisol
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Southern MI, WI, OH
Deciduous trees
Slightly acidic
Moderate fertility
Responds well to good management o Ultisol
Leaching, wet, and thick A horizon
SE of USA
Mixed trees
Red soil
Old soil
Acidic
Low fertility
o Mollisols
Thick, organic, black A horizon
Summer rainfall max triangle location (500mL)
Great plains, grassy
Neutral/slightly basic pH
High fertility
o Vertisols
Clay rich A horizon
Eastern Texas Grass
Fertile
South America Soil Profile
o Oxisols
Thick, red A horizon
Amazon basin: Brazil
Leached
Heavy rain carries NPK to lower levels
Low fertility
High acidity (rain)
Tall trees
o Mollisols
Pampa lowland
Same features as USA soil
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Michigan Lowlands
o Kalkaska: state soil
Not fertile (from northern MI)
o Spodosols
Low fertility North of line from Bay City o Muskegon
o Alfisols
South of line from Bay City to Muskegon
o Mollisols
Scattered areas in SouthWest MI
o Histosols
Mainly in upper peninsula
13% of soils
Not desirable
o Spartan stadium soil
90% sand
5% clay
5% silt
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ISS 310 Notes 1/10/2012 8:13:00 PM
3/1/12: Terrestrial Biomes
Natural vegetation; possible land use
Forest
Deserts
Grasslands Limiting factors of growth
o Soil drainage and topography
Xeric: dry; low fertility; “high” elevations
Hydric: wet; poor drainage; “low” elevations; poor
fertility; Willow trees
Mesic: moist; moderate fertility
o Typical soil (minerals=SSC, air, water)
o Time succession (change); forest evolution
o Climate: temperature and rain
o Shade tolerance
Can grow in shade (Michigan)
Jack Pine
Aspen (popple tree)
Sugar Maple
White Pine
o Precipitation
500mL line in USAMap 7
Zone 8: mixed mesophytic
o Species rich: >240 trees; Smokey Mts
o Appalachian Mts
o Trees need moisture
Zone 2: Hardwood Forest/Broadleaf Deciduous Biome
o Moving N/W/S of Zone 8
Zone 7: tall grass biome; prairies
Zone 1: short grass biome; steppe
Desert biome (xerophytes)
o Zone 4: sagebrush
o Zone 5:
o Zone 6: saguaro cactus
Western forests
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o Mountains: moisture
o Sierra Nevada
o Olympic Rain forest: Washington state
Siskiyou Mts
o Species rich in Western USAo Oregon and California
Mountain
o Top layer is snow, top of tree line
o Below that is scattered trees
o Below that is the forest zone: pine and sequoias
o Below that is the chaparral: forest fires occur here
o Below that is the desert
o Elevation and precipitation are factors
Invasive species
o Kudzu: vine in South Eastern USA (climate)
Came from Japan
Michigan Forests
75 tree species
Sugar maple: most common, in all 83 counties
5 main forest types cover 85% of all MI forests
o Maple/Beech: most common; mesic sitegood soil
o Aspen/Birch: mesic site; ash borero Oak/Hickoory: xeric site
o Elm/Ash: hydric site; flood plain
o Pines: well-drained; sandy uplands; Hartwick Pine
White Pine is MI state tree
o Forests in northern Michigan
3/13/12: Hydrological Cycle
How/why water moves geographically
Hydrosphere
Water part of earth
o Most in oceans (97%); Pacific is largest
Water stored in lakes
2.8% water found on ground
o Most in glaciers: 2%
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.25% water stored in liquid fashion: lakes
Groundwater
Caves and caverns
Causes shape changes due to flow
Aquiclude: layer that prevents water from passing througho Clay and shale
Aquifer: sandy layer contains water
Irrigation
High plains aquifer: Ogallala
o CO/TX/KS/NE
o Little precipitation and dry
o Rocky Mts block moisture from West/Pacific
o Used to be ocean: inter___ seaway
Contains shale
Determined through fossils
o Sand/gravel came from Rocky Mts
o “Great Lake (Huron) Undergroun”
o Mollisols soil: fertile
o Advent of Circle Pivot Technology
Allowed access to groundwater/make it rain at will
Gives cheap food
Exceeds water replacement rate
3/15/12: