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On the methodology of Sea Port Cit ies Studies : rethinking from acomparat ive research method (発表要旨 : 国際シンポジウム報告 第8回WMCMI会議 「"海港都市の文化的相互交流研究"10年の回顧と展望」)(Abstracts (Retrospect and Prospect of 10 Years’ "CulturalInteract ion Studies of Sea Port Cit ies"))

著者Author(s) Sasaki, Mamoru

掲載誌・巻号・ページCitat ion 海港都市研究,14:72-83

刊行日Issue date 2019-03

資源タイプResource Type Departmental Bullet in Paper / 紀要論文

版区分Resource Version publisher

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DOI

JaLCDOI 10.24546/81011269

URL http://www.lib.kobe-u.ac.jp/handle_kernel/81011269

PDF issue: 2021-07-30

72 海港都市研究

発表要旨 Abstracts

On the methodology of Sea Port Cities Studies

―― rethinking from a comparative research method1

SASAKI, Mamoru

In this paper I propose to rethink the methodology of Sea Port Cities Studies. For this subject, I

will examine various issues. The first issue is the conception of Sea Port Cities. The second is a

discussion of the sociological theory on socio-cultural dynamisms in the globalizing era. The third is

about the methodology of Sea Port Cities Studies. In conclusion, I point out the importance of the

comparative studies method, through which we can review our findings from plural aspects of

academic research and accumulate the varied information from individual field studies to analyze the

subject more deeply. Besides, we can stress that our forum has served an important role in bringing up

researchers from the young generation.

Introduction

Korea Maritime and Ocean University launched the HK project ("Cultural Interaction Studies of

Sea Port Cities") and organized an international conference every year. In this conference, more than

20 findings were presented every time, and I suppose the overall number of papers will exceed 200.

Most of these research papers have presented plentiful empirical findings about the domain of

individual local cultures, including literature, history, sociology and religion. I believe we have steadily

increased our knowledge of Sea Port Cities through our accumulated findings. Therefore, the purpose

of my speech is to examine some issues of Sea Port Cities Studies from the aspect of a comparative

research method.

We can imagine that such areas can involve the mingling of various different cultures and form a

new fascinating community relatively easily. To examine such issues, in Section 1, I will review the

conceptions of the sea port city which were proposed by Suzuki Eitaro and Saskia Sassen, and discuss

1 This paper was originally presented at the 8th International Conference of the World Committee of Maritime Culture Institutes on March 31, 2018, and was published in “Cultural Interaction studies of Sea Port Cities” No.19.

国際シンポジウム 海港都市の文化的相互交流研究 73

the research method of Sea Port Cities Studies.

In Section 2, I will review Fei Xiao-tong’s sociological theory. In this review, I will discuss what

Fei Xiao-ton had inherited from Malinowski’s sociological theory, and what he had not inherited.

Through this discussion, I will examine the comparative research method from a sociological aspect.

Additionally, I will introduce Suzuki Eitaro and Fei Xiao-tong briefly here. Suzuki Eitaro is the

Japanese sociologist who published “Theory of Japanese Rural Sociology” (『日本農村社会学原

理』) in 1940 and “Theory of Urban Sociology ” (『都市社会学原理』) in 1957. Fei Xiao-tong is

the Chinese scholar who studied abroad under Malinowski in the 1930s and published “Peasant China

in China” in 1939.

In Section 3, I will examine ‘the typological comparison approach’ that is suggested by Fei Xiao-

tong and reconsider the research method of Sea Port Cities Studies.

Finally, I will make some practical suggestions for further development of Sea Port Cities Studies.

The issues that I am going to discuss here are very big, but the conclusions are very simple. In

addition, I am afraid the sociological theory of Fei Xiao-tong and that of Malinowski will not be

familiar to the majority of participants in this conference. Therefore, my discussion here might be too

specialized and I will apologize beforehand.

1. Sociological issues discussed in Sea Port Cities Studies

First of all, I will review the definition of Sea Port Cities Studies, and reconsider the subjects we

have researched in Sea Port Cities Studies.

From my viewpoint, the starting point of Sea Port Cities Studies was to examine the socio-cultural

characteristics of areas including Kobe, Pusan and Shanghai as Sea Port Cities. The important point

here is that the Sea Port Cities are presumed to have some unique social-cultural characteristics.

According to our presumption, we described the Sea Port City as a Contact Zone, which is a field of

interaction between various different cultures.

To examine this idea, I will refer to sociological monographs which paid attention to the pluralistic

structure of a city and the dynamics of social change. And, I will examine the urbanization theory of

Suzuki Eitaro and Saskia Sassen, who defined the concept of a city from the perspective of a ‘flow of

population, products and information’.

First, I will review “Theory of Urban Sociology” by Suzuki Eitaro. He defined the concept of a

city in terms of ‘an organization with conjunctive function’ and ‘a structure of social-life’. The concept

74 海港都市研究

of ‘an organization with conjunctive function’ shows that a city has the driving force to distribute

people, products and services, and explains that a city has the function of connecting individual regions

to each other. He suggested a hierarchical model for the network between cities. In this regard, as he

said, the city plays a pivotal role in social interchange and integration into a nation-state. In contrast,

the concept of ‘a structure of social-life’ explains how inhabitants compose a multilayer structure of

social-areas through their personal daily lives. Through this concept, he investigated how people

constituted a common interest at the space where miscellaneous people gathered. In this way, Suzuki

thought that a city structure should be studied from two different dimensions. Thus, we need to pay

close attention to the dual dimensions and two different theories that Suzuki verified through these

conceptions.

Next, I will review “Global City” published by Saskia Sassen in 1991.

Saskia Sassen placed a focus on a dual structure composed of spatial dispersion and functional

integration in a city, caused by globalization in the economy. She defined a city as the place where

management capability and the information industry were concentrated. Under this definition, she

examined the next two points. The first point was a hierarchical model of relations among cities. She

pointed out that economic-social globalization not only formed a global network of cities but also

changed the relationship between cities and nation-states. Another point she raised was the

bipolarization of the social structure in a globalized city. This refers to the expansion in both sides of

highest-earning class and low-wage industrial services, expressed in the terms gentrification and

downgrading.

As mentioned above, the first issue of Sassen’s theme was to clarify the structural dynamics of a

city in the context of economic globalization. The second issue was to analyze the duality and the

polarization of the social structure in a city. She argued that the two opposing facets of dispersion-

integration and gentrification-downgrading were joined together respectively and unified like the front

and back of a coin. I think these points are very interesting and would allow us to expand the idea of

the dynamic models of Sea Port Cities.

Also, in the Sassen’s theme, we can point out another issue. It is the conflict in the relationship

between ‘Center’ and ‘Periphery’. It is well known that the words ‘local’ and ‘localism’ are widely

contrasted with the words ‘global’ and ‘globalism’. In general, the words ‘local’ and ‘localism’ are

used to explain a regional identity and individual characteristics in contrast to the universalized

uniformity propelled by globalization. The words ‘local’ and ‘localism’ have included several diverse

国際シンポジウム 海港都市の文化的相互交流研究 75

meanings. They express the decentralization of power in the field of politics; they have been used to

refer to the growth of local industries like in the "spontaneous development theory" of economics; at

the same time, they are also used to refer to a regional distinctive culture in sociological terms. These

studies are considered to provide alternative models of social development based on individual regions.

However, in Sea Port Cities Studies here, we intend to add another meaning to the ‘local’. That

is to say, our research fields in Kobe, Pusan and Shanghai have been located in a geopolitical situation

removed from the center of politics. If a historian were to look at the same issue, this understanding

may arouse much controversy. Even if it was located in a marginal district, they could not exist separate

from the political center even before the emergence of the modern nation. However, Kobe, Pusan and

Shanghai had the same experience in premodern times. They existed as foreign settlements and treaty

ports in the 19th century. On the one hand, the foreign settlement was an advance base where Western

powers intruded into the inland, but on the other hand, they accepted lots of foreign people, products

and information from the outside directly, and they could maintain some distance in a sense from the

control of the politics of their own country’s government. Therefore, we can imagine that such areas

could facilitate the mingling of various different cultures and form a new fascinating community

relatively easily. Kobe was situated at some distance from the economic center of Osaka and from the

political center of Tokyo. Due to this geopolitical position Kobe was able to plentifully foster a unique

cultural elegance. This character is expressed as a kind of novelty, smartness and exoticism. In both

Shanghai and Pusan also, people can probably recognize similar characteristics which were

encouraged by the historical condition of the communities. I guess this attractive originality is inherited

somewhere in the present day and has allowed the unique culture of Sea Port Cities to be maintained.

In Europe, many historians have proved that the leading cities of the Hanseatic League have

maintained their distinguished tradition and customs still in the present day of the 21st century. I

assume the basic element of the independence of the “city” is different in the contexts of the West and

East, and therefore that comparative studies of Sea Port Cities is an especially interesting theme; there

is no doubt that it is one of the main issues for this forum. If this conception is true to reality, what kind

of new perspectives can we add to the concepts of the city proposed by Suzuki and Sassen? This is

the most important point of our discussion. Until now, we have accumulated plentiful findings

connected directly or indirectly to this viewpoint through our discussion.

76 海港都市研究

2. Approach of sociological-anthropological studies and Sea Port Cities Studies

My research subject concerns social change in modern China. Accordingly, based on my

sociological field studies in China, I will discuss some of the methodological issues of Sea Port Cities

Studies.

Before taking up the main subject I will discuss the methodological criteria for a sociological-

anthropological study. To examine this issue, first I will review the thesis proposed by Malinowski,

and then examine the research method of Fei Xiao-tong who introduced Malinowski’s theses into the

study of modern society in China.

Malinowski proposed the research criteria for ethnographic fieldwork as follows in “Argonauts

of the Western Pacific” (1922), which is a classical masterpiece. He said that the goal of ethnographic

fieldwork must be approached through these criteria. (1922:11-25)

1. The first and basic ideal of ethnographic fieldwork is to give a clear and firm outline of the

social constitution.

2. The method of concrete, statistical documentation is the means through which such an outline

has to be given.

3. Within this frame, the imponderabilia of action life, and the type of behavior have to be filled

in.

4. A collection of ethnographic statement, characteristic narratives, typical utterances, items of

folk-lore and magical formula has to be given as documents of native mentality.

5. This goal is, briefly, to grasp the native’s point of view, his relation to life, to realize his vision

of his world.

I believe these five criteria are adequate not only for the socio-anthropological domain, but also

for the most part for comparative studies that are interested in individual local history and literature.

By the way, Fei Xiao-tong studied abroad with Malinowski in the late 1930s, when Malinowski had

strived to compose the scientific theory of culture. Fei adopted Malinowski's research criteria for his

research on rural China and substantiated Malinowski’s cultural theses for the analysis of modern

society. Fei completed his doctoral thesis, “Peasant Life in China” (1939), under the instruction of

Malinowski. This book proves that Fei was a faithful scholar who studied Malinowski's theory

thoroughly. The following sentence, which Malinowski had written for the preface of “Peasant Life in

China”, clearly expresses how much Malinowski trusted Fei’s research.

“I have read Dr. Fei’s clear and convincing arguments as well as his vivid and well-documented

国際シンポジウム 海港都市の文化的相互交流研究 77

accounts with genuine admiration, at times not untinged with envy. His book embodies many of the

precepts and principles which I have been preaching for some time past, without, alas, having the

opportunity of practicing them myself.” (1939: xxi)

He was one student out of many. So, I am amazed that Malinowski admired this book so highly.

However I believe it shows that Fei was able to substantiate through his field research the core of

Malinowski's cultural theory. To recognize Fei’s own peculiar style of description, I will quote a short

paragraph from “Peasant Life in China”.

“Several facts already mentioned in the above chapters must be noticed once more in that a

proper estimate may be made of the relative importance of agriculture in the domestic economy. The

average holding of land is about 8 mow (Ⅳ-4). Under normal conditions each mow can produce six

bushels of rice every year. The total produce will then be 51 bushels for that average holding of land.

The amount of rice needed for direct consumption by members of the household is 42 bushels (Ⅶ-5).

Therefore there is a surplus of 9 bushels. At the time when the new rice comes to market the price of

rice is about 2 dollars per bushel. If the surplus is sold the return will be about 22 dollars. But for

current expenses alone a Chia needs at least 200 dollars (Ⅶ-8). It is thus evident that life cannot be

supported by agriculture alone. The deficiency amounts to 175 dollars a year. The situation is much

worse with the tenants, and these are the majority of villagers (Ⅺ-4). Tenant farmers with an average

holding have to pay 20 bushels of rice as rent to the landlord. This mounts to 40 per cent of the total

produce. The remaining 30 bushels are barely enough for the consumption of the household. ・・・

When the silk industry was prosperous the production of raw silk could yield an average household

about 300 dollars with a surplus (profit and wage) of 250 dollars.” (1939:201-202)

The descriptive style of this paragraph gives a strong impression that Fei told his story

statistically-logically one point after another in succession to give readers clear understanding. To

examine the characteristics of Fei’s descriptive style, I will refer to other monographs published by

socio-anthropologists who had a more or less similar background to Fei Xiao-tong.

These are “The Golden Wing; A Sociological Study of Chinese Familism” (1947) by Lin, Yueh-

Hwa (林耀華) and “A Chinese Village: Taitou, Shangtung Province” (1945) by Yang, Martin C. (楊

懋春). Lin and Yang studied abroad in Europe and America after having studied in Qinghua University

where Fei studied at almost the same period. And it is well known that these two books described

village life vividly, and that they were able to clearly introduce subtle deep parts of social life of China

to European and American readers.

78 海港都市研究

The preface of the former was written by Prof. Raymond Firth of the University of London. That

of the latter was written by Prof. Ralph Linton of Columbia University.

Raymond Firth wrote as follows.

“The Golden Wing is a sociological study written in the form of a novel.” (1947: xi) “But one has

long wished that to these could be added the work of Chinese scholars, familiar from childhood as

participants in the scenes they describe as well as versed in the disciplines of modern social science.

Here we have one such story.” (1947: xiii)

Ralph Linton wrote as follows.

“Dr. Yang knows his village as only a villager could, yet looks at it with scientific detachment.

His descriptions are both accurate and sympathetic and will be of equal interest to the social scientist

and the general reader.” (1945: vii)

Lin adopted the style of a novel to tell the story directly, and readers were made to feel as if they

had stayed with the characters in the story. In contrast, Yang described his monograph with scientific

detachment. Yang's monograph explained subtle emotions of village life step by step chronologically.

They had different styles but the same viewpoint. That is, they wrote monographs from their own

experiences in boyhood. They could even pry into the depths of their minds and explain villagers'

motives and their feelings. I think their real experiences could guarantee the reliability of their

monographs.

By comparing these three monographs, we can understand that the work of Fei was based on

Malinowski's first and second criterions, and that this style gave a distinguishing feature to his

sociological monograph. The first criterion is ‘to give a clear and firm outline of the social constitution’,

and the second is ‘the method of concrete, statistical documentation’. In contrast, we can recognize

that the monographs of Lin and Yang are described abundantly on the third and the fourth criterion.

The third criterion is ‘the imponderabilia of action life and the type of behavior have to be filled in’,

and the fourth is ‘a collection of ethnographic statement, characteristic narratives, typical utterances,

items of folk-lore and magical formula’.

Therefore, I can point out one of the reasons for which Malinowski wrote with such high praise

for Fei's convincing argument. Furthermore, I want to indicate another reason. It is that Fei applied the

cultural change theory of Malinowski to analyze a modern China.

Malinowski published “Scientific theory of Culture” in the 1930s. In this book, he presented a

paradigm which could explain systematically human activity and social structure through the method

国際シンポジウム 海港都市の文化的相互交流研究 79

of functional analysis. In this theory, he emphasized the practical method to be able to analyze

collectively from a pluralistic perspective.

Malinowski carried out fieldwork in Africa in the 1930s. He had explained cultural change in

Africa as follows. Europeans entered Africa with overwhelming power and Africa was transformed

from lifestyle, economy, law, politics and the social system entirely. However, the concrete features of

social change was not limited to unilateral direction from 'traditional' Africa to ‘modern’ Europe, and

that also the product of interaction between these two cultures was not simply a mixed "crossbreed".

Furthermore, he said, although most of the old African lifestyle was squeezed into the background, a

few elements could be adapted to the new situation and acquire a new power to activate modernization.

To elucidate this dynamic mechanism generally, Malinowski elaborated an analysis framework

called ‘the threefold scheme of approach’. The first column listed issues of European interests and

intentions which had influenced African culture. The second column listed the changing processes

caused by contact between cultures. The third column listed the surviving form of traditional systems.

In this analysis framework, he explained the interaction between 'traditional' Africa and ‘modern’

Europe. (1945:94-150)

Fei Xiao-tong mostly accepted Malinowski's argument mentioned above and wrote the following

sentence in “Peasant Life in China”:

“To stress the equal importance of the traditional and the new forces is necessary because the real

process of change of Chinese economic life is neither a direct transference of social institutions from

the West nor a mere disturbance of a traditional equilibrium. The problems arising from the present

situation are results of the interaction of these two forces.・・・・・Moreover, the product of the

interaction of these two forces ・・cannot be a reproduction of the West or a restoration of the past.”

(1939:1-2)

Following ‘the threefold scheme of approach' of Malinowski, Fei proposed the following analysis

framework to analyze the problems of decline and reform of a traditional sericulture industry:

“The present analysis will take into view the different forces effecting the situation. They are

classified into the outside forces working for the change and the traditional forces bearing on the

change. The interplay of these forces results in a changing situation. Thus the processes can be

schematically represented by three columns.” (1939:198)

In those days, a cooperative association had been advancing reform of sericulture industry in the

village of Fei’s fieldwork. But they failed without seeing its reforms completed and villagers chose the

80 海港都市研究

way of the traditional household-based industry. Fei would adopt ‘the three fold scheme of approach'

to analyze the failure of the reform from the viewpoint of villagers’ daily life.

However, Fei was not satisfied with this analysis framework. He thought that the fundamental

problems of impoverishment in a rural community were caused by inequality in the distribution of

farmland, unbalanced relations between cities and villages, and the huge outflow of wealth from a

village. However, these issues were not incorporated in his analysis framework. Why could he not

refer to these fundamental problems in his analysis framework? And why did he not adopt ‘the

threefold scheme of approach’ to later analysis?

The culture theory of Malinowski has the intention to understand a culture comprehensively. In

a sense, he designed a grand theory of culture. However, “Peasant Life in China” also showed the

following suggestion indirectly. If we schematize related factors into one table comprehensively,

because factors are limited inevitably by the analysis framework, we might lose sight of important

factors which can truly result in cultural change. That was the criticism made by Fei Xiao-tong

regarding the culture theory of Malinowski.

3. “The typological comparison approach” by Fei Xiao-tong and the method of Sea Port

Cities Studies

Now, this is the last but also the core part of this paper. I will discuss a few issues of the

method of Sea Port Cities Studies.

After Fei returned from the U.K. in 1938, he immediately started to conduct comparative studies

of the rural community in Yunnan province. He thought he could not easily identify individual

characteristics of a rural community at a stretch. Therefore he adopted a comparative method, and

through this method he analyzed a feature of a village respectively and comparatively identified

individual characteristics of specific villages. Fei and his colleagues selected three villages. The first

was a village specialized in agriculture mainly. The second was a village with a family-run manual

industry, and the third was a village of prosperous commerce.

They compared individual social characteristics of the three villages from aspects of form of

family, lifestyle of household, structure of social class and relationship with towns and cities. (『雲南

三村』 1990) Fei Xiao-tong called this way of research ‘the typological comparison method’. And,

Fei set the question: “What kind of value can a small-scale research, which dissects one sparrow to

study about the sparrow, give to the general scientific method?” He answered as follows, "I would

国際シンポジウム 海港都市の文化的相互交流研究 81

research individual types in varied villages, and gather examples of each district in China, and hope to

realize the whole picture of the Chinese social structure gradually". (｢社会调查自白｣1985,1996:33-

34)

As the most important point, I will emphasize that Fei proposed the outline of "the typological

comparison approach" mentioned above and that he conducted intensively a lot of investigations at

rural communities throughout the whole country. But, sociology in China was criticized as a bourgeois

study, and research organizations were closed in the 1950s. When sociology study was reinitiated in

the early 1980s, Fei was in his 70s already. After the 1980s he restarted his research energetically. He

published 68 monographs over approximately 15 years until 1996. In rural community researches, he

attached a regional name, such as the ‘Wenzhou-model’ or ‘Sunan-model’, to depict an individual

form of local development. Then, if his research could cover the whole country, had Fei been confident

that he could get the whole picture of Chinese society? He said nothing about this question. However,

from his research approach, I can infer that Fei's concept of the model had scarce intention to

systematize his findings on the basis of socio-cultural theory. I rather think that his main purpose was

to expand their investigations to the whole country and accumulate abundant findings of rural

communities to analyze regional characteristics comparatively. As a consequence, through his

practical way he could develop the method of ‘the typological comparison approach’.

Fei’s community studies were taken over to the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences and

developed to "100 Prefecture-City economic social investigations" (1989-1998) and "100 Village

economic social investigations" (from 1998). Many researchers of the young generation were

dispatched to the whole country and they collected abundant examples for the social development

model. These young researchers were trained in those investigations and shouldered the future of

China’s sociology.

In conclusion, I found a close relationship here between the method of Fei's investigation and the

style of our discussion in Sea Port Cities Studies.

The first issue is the dynamics of social change. Suzuki Eitaro and Saskia Sassen investigated the

conjunctional function of a city and clarified the social structure of a city, which has opposite vectors

between dispersion and integration, and polarized phases of gentrification and downgrading at the

same time. Fei Xiao-tong demonstrated that each local community had individual characteristics

respectively, and that the real process of social change is not a unilateral direction from the ‘tradition’

to the ‘modern’. I want to pay attention to their dynamic frameworks in the analysis of a community.

82 海港都市研究

In addition, the subject of Sea Port Cities Studies is involved with the idea of the Contact Zone.

The scholars mentioned above had not discussed this theme. Unfortunately we have not yet reached a

clear consensus on this issue. Therefore, I hope to accelerate our discussion to add a new viewpoint to

this issue. And I think that the process of interchanging our findings is very important if we are to

reexamine our study deeply.

The second issue is about the five research criteria proposed by Malinowski. I am sure the fifth

criterion will be shared by all of our studies, that is ‘This goal is, briefly, to grasp the native's point of

view, his relation to life, to realize his vision of his world’. And I have showed that Fei's research

method had emphasized the first criterion and the second criterion.

Of course it goes without saying that we could not neglect other research criteria. It is appropriate

for us to adopt the third and the fourth criterion according to various research's domains and subjects.

We can depict real life, action, faith and feeling of people vividly by using the criteria as seen in the

books of Lin and Yang.

The third issue is about the comparative method in our forum especially. The comparative method

can expand shared interest and common knowledge through the mutual interchange of findings. In

this way, we can accumulate plentiful findings about the Contact Zone gradually. On this subject, I

admire the achievements of this forum which has already accumulated 200 or more findings over a

period of ten years. And I hope this forum will publish a book based on our plentiful works before

long.

Finally, I would say this forum has functioned an important role in the bringing up of young

researchers. We have given them opportunities to publish papers and given them many comments. I

believe that these comments can bring out great stimulation for their later research. In today's

symposium, there are many young researchers who have matured through this forum. I think this

educational viewpoint should be recognized as an important aspect of our research's discipline.

Reference

Fei, Hsiao Tung（費孝通）,1939, Peasant China in China, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner &

Co. Ltd.

1985 ｢社会调查自白｣（『学術自述与反思』生活・読書・新知三聯書店 1996 年）

1995 ｢从马林诺斯老师学习文化论体会｣（『学術自述与反思』生活・読書・新知三聯書店

1996 年、所収）

国際シンポジウム 海港都市の文化的相互交流研究 83

費孝通・張之毅（Fei, Xiao-tong/ Zhang, Zhi-yi）1990 『旧著重刊 雲南三村』天津人民出版

社（Earthbound China: A Study of Rural Economy in Yunnan, University of Chicago Press,

1945）

Lin, Yueh-Hwa (林耀華), 1947, The Golden wing; A sociological Study of Chinese Familism, London:

Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Ltd.

Malinowski, Bronislaw, 1922, Argonauts of the Western Pacific, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul

Ltd.

1945, The Dynamics of Cultural Change, An Inquiry into Race Relations in Africa, ed. by Phyllis

M. Kaberry, New Haven and London

佐々木衞 (Sasaki, Mamoru) 2003『費孝通――民族自省の社会学』東京：東信堂

2016, 「再読 費孝通著“Peasant Life in China(1939)――マリノフスキー

野外調査からの考察――」（『社会学雑誌』33 号, pp,3-21）

Sassen, Saskia, 1991, The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo, Princeton University Press.

鈴木榮太郞（Suzuki, Eitaro）1957,『都市社会学原理』』東京：有斐閣

Yang, Martin C.（楊懋春）1945, A Chinese Village; Taitou, Shangtung Province, New York: Columbia

University Press.

(Dr SASAKI Mamoru, Professor Emeritus, Kobe University)