Latin Roots #7

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Cristo Redentor,Rio de Janeiro,

Brasil

COLOMBIA

COLOMBIAColombia, oficialmente la República de Colombia, es un país situado alnoroeste de Sudamérica. Colombia esta bordeado al este con Venezuela yBrasil, al sur con Ecuador y Perú y al norte con el Mar Caribe, al noroestecon Panamá, y al este con el Océano Pacífico. Colombia tiene costasmarítimas que limitan con Jamaica, Haití, República Dominicana, Nicaraguay Costa Rica. Colombia es la 26ava nación más grande del mundo y la cuartamás grande en Sudamérica. Tiene la 29ava población más grande en elmundo, y es el tercer país hispanohablante del mundo después de México yEspaña.

EtimologíaLa palabra «Colombia» viene del nombre de Cristóbal Colón (o seaChristopher Columbus). Fue creada por el revolucionario Francisco deMiranda en referencia al Nuevo Mundo, especialmente los territorios y coloniasportuguesas y españolas. EL nombre luego fue adoptado en 1819, de losterritorios que conformaron el Virreinato de Nueva Granada.Era Precolombina

Aproximadamente 10,000 AC, sociedades cazadoras existían en lo que hoyes Bogotá, sociedades que se relacionaban con otras culturas como las delvalle de Río Magdalena. Empezando en el primer milenio, los grupos deamerindios desarrollaron un sistema político de «Cacicazgos» con unapirámide estructural de poder encabezada por los caciques. Dentro deColombia, las dos culturas con el sistema de cacicazgo eran los Tayronas dela región caribeña, y los Muiscas en las alturas alrededor de Bogotá, ambosprovenientes de la familia Chibcha. La gente muisca era consideradosposeedores de un sistema política bien desarrollada, después de los Incas.

Descubrimiento español, conquista y colonizaciónExploradores españoles hicieron la primera exploración al litoral caribeño en1949 liderados por Rodrigo de Bastidas. Colón navegó cerca del Caribe en1502. En 1508, Vasco Núñez de Balboa empezó la conquista del territorio a

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través de la región de Urabá. En 1513, fue el primer europeo endescubrir el Océano Pacifico al que el llamo Mar del Sur, el que enefecto los conduciría hasta Perú y Chile. La mayoría de la poblaciónera Chibcha y Carib, actualmente conocidos como caribeños, aquienes los españoles conquistaron a través de trueques y alianzas.En el siglo XVI, los europeos empezaron a traer esclavos de Africa.

Independence DayDesde principios del periodo de la conquista y colonización, existieronmuchos movimientos de rebelión contra la corona española. Siguiendoa la independencia de Haití en 1810, siguió la independenciacolombiana donde Simón Bolívar se convirtió en el primer Presidentede Colombia, y Francisco de Paula Santander el vicepresidente.

TurismoPor muchos años, conflictos internos armados detuvieron a los turistasde visitar Colombia. No obstante, en los últimos años, los turistas sehan incrementado, gracias a las medidas de seguridad del presidenteÁlvaro Uribe, que ha incrementado el refuerzo militar y policial a travésde todo el país y obligado a grupos rebeldes a dejar las ciudadesgrandes, carreteras y sitios turísticos. Visitas extranjeras se registraronen 0.5 millones en 2003 a 1.3 millones de turistas en 2007. Ellosesperan recibir 2,650,000 turistas para este año.Atracciones turísticas populares incluyen el distrito histórico deCandelaria en central Bogotá, las ciudades coloniales de Santa Fe deAntioquia, Popayán, Villa de Leyva y Santa Cruz de Mompox, Catedralde las Lajas y la Catedral de Zipaquirá. Los turistas están embelesadoscon el Festival de las Flores de Medellín, el carnaval de Barranquilla,el Carnaval de Negros y Blancos en Pasto y el Festival Iberoamericanode Teatro en Bogotá. Cruceros de ensueño hacen paradas enCartagena y Santa Marta.La gran variedad en geografía, flora y fauna en Colombia les permitedesarrollar una industria ecoturística, concentrada en parquesnacionales. Destinos ecoturísticos incluyen toda la costa caribeña.

Grupos EtnicosLa mayoría de la población es mestiza (58%), o de una mezcla conespañoles y amerindios. Solo el 20% de la población es dedescendientes europeos (españoles, italianos, portugueses oalemanes), 14% de mulatos (mezcla entre europeo y africano), 4% denegros, 3% de zambos (mezcla de amerindios y africanos). Amerindiospuros solo existen en el 1%. La mayoría de la población habla español,pero hay un total de 101 lenguas etnológicas en Colombia, 80 queson todavía habladas. La mayoría de ellas pertenecen a los chichas,arawak y Cariban.

CulturaColombia tiene una variedad grande de influencias culturales. Nativosamericanos, españoles, europeos, africanos así como influenciaslatinoamericanos están presentes en Colombia. Migración urbana,globalización y otros aspectos, políticos y cambios económicos.Como una herencia de la era colonial, Colombia hereda una profundafe católica con tradiciones que unen a su sociedad multicultural. Tienemuchas celebraciones y festivales durante el año, relacionados a sufervor religioso. No obstante, si existen otras influencias espirituales.La mezcla de diferentes tradiciones étnicas se refleja en la música ydanza. Los géneros mas conocidos son cumbia y vallenato, el últimofuertemente influenciado por la cultura pop. Un poderoso elementounificador en Colombia es la televisión. Una de sus telenovelasfamosas Betty La Fea, ha ganado éxito internacional en muchasversiones para EEUU, México y otros.Colombia tiene pasión por el fútbol. La selección nacional es símbolode unidad y orgullo nacional, se han exportado muchos famososjugadores, como Freddy Rincón, Ramiro, Carlos Valderrama, IvánRamiro Córdoba y Faustino Asprilla. Otros colombianos atletas sonJuan Pablo Montoya de Fórmula 1, Edgar Rentería de Baseball.Famosos colombianos, uno ganador del Premio Nobel como GabrielGarcía Márquez, el artista Fernando Botero, los escritores Fernando

COLOMBIAColombia, oficially the Republic of Colombia, is a country in northwesternSouth America. Colombia is bordered to the east by Venezuela and Brazil;to the south by Ecuador and Peru; to the north by the Caribbean Sea; tothe northwest by Panama; and to the west by the Pacific Ocean. Colombiaalso shares maritime borders with Jamaica, Haiti, the DominicanRepublic, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica. Colombia is the 26thlargest nation in the world and the fourth largest in South America. It hasthe 29th largest population in the world and the second largest in SouthAmerica, after Brazil. Colombia has the third largest Spanish-speakingpopulation in the world after Mexico and Spain.

EtymologyThe word «Colombia» comes from the name of Christopher Columbus(Spanish: Cristóbal Colón). It was conceived by the revolutionaryFrancisco de Miranda as a reference to all the New World, but especiallyto those territories and colonies under Spanish and Portuguese rule.The name was later adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819, formedout of the territories of the old Viceroyalty of New Granada (modern dayColombia, Panama, Venezuela and Ecuador).In 1830, when Venezuela and Ecuador broke away, the Cundinamarcaregion that remained became a new country — the Republic of NewGranada. In 1858 New Granada officially changed its name to theGrenadine Confederation, then in 1863 the United States of Colombia,before finally adopting its present name — the Republic of Colombia —in 1886.

Pre-Columbian eraApproximately 10,000 BC, hunter-gatherer societies existed near present-day Bogotá (at «El Abra» and «Tequendama») which traded with oneanother and with cultures living in the Magdalena River Valley. Beginningin the first millennium BC, groups of Amerindians developed the politicalsystem of «cacicazgos» with a pyramidal structure of power headed bycaciques. Within Colombia, the two cultures with the most complexcacicazgo systems were the Tayronas in the Caribbean Region, and theMuiscas in the highlands around Bogotá, both of which were of theChibcha language family. The Muisca people are considered to havehad one of the most developed political systems in South America, afterthe Incas.

Spanish discovery, conquest, and colonizationSpanish explorers made the first exploration of the Caribbean littoral in1499 led by Rodrigo de Bastidas. Christopher Columbus navigated nearthe Caribbean in 1502. In 1508, Vasco Nuñez de Balboa started theconquest of the territory through the region of Urabá. In 1513, he wasthe first European to discover the Pacific Ocean which he called Mar delSur (or «Sea of the South») and which in fact would bring the Spaniardsto Peru and Chile. The territory’s main population was made up ofhundreds of tribes of the Chibchan and Carib, currently known as theCaribbean people, whom the Spaniards conquered through warfare and

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Vallejo, Laura Restrepo, Álvaro Mutisy James Cañón, los músicos Shakira,Juanes, Carlos Vives y Juan Garcia-Herreros, actores como CatalinaSandimo Moreno, John Leguizamo,Catherine Siachoque y Sofia Vergara.

La Cocina ColombianaDesarrollado de tradicioneseuropeas, la cocina española, italianay francesa han influenciado a lagastronomía colombiana, así comotambién la de los vecinoslatinoamericanos como México yCaribe.A pesar que no existe un platonacional, se puede decir que la arepay el sancocho son consideradosexcelentes candidatos, así como labandeja paisa, ajiaco, la lechonaTolimense, el mote de queso, y elchuchuco.La fritanga es una serie de platos quevan unidos a una parrilla. Incluyecarne y pollo asado, orejas de puerco,

alliances, while resulting diseasesuch as smallpox, and theconquest and ethnic cleansingitself caused a demographicreduction among the indigenous. Inthe sixteenth century, Europeansbegan to bring slaves from Africa.

Independence DaySince the beginning of the periodsof Conquest and Colonization,there were several rebelmovements under Spanish rule,most of them either being crushedor remaining too weak to changethe overall situation. The last onewhich sought outrightindependence from Spain sprangup around 1810, following theindependence of St. Domingue in1804 (present day Haiti), whoprovided a non-negligible degreeof support to the eventual leadersof this rebellion: Simón Bolívar andFrancisco de Paula Santander.Simón Bolívar had become the firstPresident of Colombia, andFrancisco de Paula Santander wasVice President; when SimónBolívar stepped down, Santanderbecame the second President ofColombia. The rebellion finallysucceeded in 1819 when theterritory of the Viceroyalty of NewGranada became the Republic ofColombia organized as a union ofEcuador, Colombia and Venezuela(Panama was then an integral partof Colombia).

TourismFor many years serious internalarmed conflict deterred touristsfrom visiting Colombia, with officialtravel advisories warning againsttravel to the country. However inrecent years numbers have risensharply, thanks to improvements insecurity resulting from PresidentÁlvaro Uribe’s «democraticsecurity» strategy, which hasincluded significant increases inmilitary strength and policepresence throughout the countryand pushed rebel groups furtheraway from the major cities,highways and tourist sites likely toattract international visitors.Foreign tourist visits were predictedto have risen from 0.5 million in2003 to 1.3 million in 2007, whileLonely Planet picked Colombia asone of their top ten worlddestinations for 2006. Theimprovements in the country’ssecurity were recognized inNovember 2008 with a revision ofthe travel advice on Colombiaissued by the British Foreign Office.Colombia Minister for Industry,Trade and Tourism Luis GuillermoPlata said his country had receive2,348,948 visitors in 2008. He isexpecting 2,650,000 tourists for2009.Popular tourist attractions includethe historic Candelaria district ofcentral Bogotá, the walled city andbeaches of Cartagena, the colonial

towns of Santa Fe de Antioquia,Popayan, Villa de Leyva andSanta Cruz de Mompox, and theLas Lajas Cathedral and the SaltCathedral of Zipaquirá. Touristsare also drawn to Colombia’snumerous festivals, includingMedellín’s Festival of the Flowers,the Barranquilla Carnival, theCarnival of Blacks and Whites inPasto and the Ibero-AmericanTheater Festival in Bogotá.Meanwhile, because of theimproved security, Caribbeancruise ships now stop atCartagena and Santa Marta.

The great variety in geography,flora and fauna across Colombiahas also resulted in thedevelopment of an ecotouristindustry, concentrated in thecountry’s national parks. Popularecotourist destinations include:along the Caribbean coast, theTayrona National Natural Park inthe Sierra Nevada de Santa Martamountain range and Cabo de laVela on the tip of the GuajiraPeninsula; the Nevado del Ruizvolcano, the Cocora valley andthe Tatacoa Desert in the centralAndean region; AmacayacuNational Park in the Amazon Riverbasin; and the Pacific islands ofMalpelo and Gorgona. Colombiais home to seven UNESCO WorldHeritage Sites.

Ethnic groupsThe census data in Colombiadoes not record ethnicity, otherthan that of those identifyingthemselves as members ofparticular minority ethnic groups,so overall percentages areessentially estimates from othersources and can vary from one toanother.According to the CIA WorldFactbook, the majority of thepopulation (58%) is mestizo, or ofmixed European and Amerindianancestry. 20% is of Europeanancestry only (predominantly ofSpanish, with some Italian,Portuguese and Germanancestry), 14% mulatto (of mixedEuropean and black Africanancestry), 4% of black Africanancestry only, and 3% zambo (ofmixed Amerindian and blackAfrican ancestry). Pureindigenous Amerindians compriseonly 1% of the population. Theoverwhelming majority ofColombians speak Spanish (seealso Colombian Spanish), but intotal 101 languages are listed forColombia in the Ethnologuedatabase, of which 80 are spokentoday as living languages. Mostof these belong to the Chibchan,Arawak and Cariban linguisticfamilies. The Quechua language,spoken by descendants of theInca empire, has also extendednorthwards into Colombia, mainlyin urban centers of the southern

pierna de cordero, costillas y morcilla,chorizo, longaniza, intestinos,acompañados con pequeñas papasy arepas hechos de maíz.

La Bandeja Paisa, tradicional de laregión paisa, tiene arroz blanco,frijoles rojos, carne morcilla,chicharrón, arepas, aguacate y unhuevo frito.

El Sancocho, es popular de la regióndel Valle del Cauca. Combinavegetales y pescado con yuca, maíz,y rodajas de banana.Bebidas colombianas como:Agua de Panela hecha de unaespecia de azúcar en agua caliente,con jugo de limón. Común añadirleun poco de queso para que se derrita.El Aguardiente es una bebidaalcohólica de caña de azúcar. Usadaen fiestas colombianas.El Guarapo es hecho de varias frutasque maceran alrededor de 2 meses.

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highlands. There are currently about500,000 speakers of indigenouslanguages.

CultureColombia lies at the crossroads ofLatin America and the broaderAmerican continent, and as such hasbeen marked by a wide range ofcultural influences. Native American,Spanish and other European, African,American, Caribbean, and MiddleEastern influences, as well as otherLatin American cultural influences,are all present in Colombia’s modernculture. Urban migration,industrialization, globalization, andother political, social and economicchanges have also left an impression.An inheritance from the colonial era,Colombia remains a deeply RomanCatholic country and maintains alarge base of Catholic traditions whichprovide a point of unity for itsmulticultural society. Colombia hasmany celebrations and festivalsthroughout the year, and the majorityare rooted in these Catholic religioustraditions. However, many are also

infused with a diverse range of otherinfluences.The mixing of various different ethnictraditions is reflected in Colombia’smusic and dance. The most well-known Colombian genres are cumbiaand vallenato, the latter now stronglyinfluenced by global pop culture. Apowerful and unifying cultural mediumin Colombia is television. Mostfamously, the telenovela Betty La Feahas gained international successthrough localized versions in theUnited States, Mexico, andelsewhere. Television has also playeda role in the development of the localfilm industry.As in many Latin American countries,Colombians have a passion forfootball. The Colombian nationalfootball team is seen as a symbol ofunity and national pride, though localclubs also inspire fierce loyalty andsometimes-violent rivalries. Colombiahas «exported» many famousplayers, such as Freddy Rincon,Carlos Valderrama, Iván RamiroCórdoba, and Faustino Asprilla. OtherColombian athletes have also

achieved success, including Formula1 Racing’s Juan Pablo Montoya,Major League Baseball’s EdgarRentería and Orlando Cabrera, andthe PGA Tour’s Camilo Villegas.

Other famous Colombians include theNobel Prize winning author GabrielGarcia Marquez, the artist FernandoBotero, the writers Fernando Vallejo,Laura Restrepo, Álvaro Mutis andJames Cañón, the musicians Shakira,Juanes, Carlos Vives and JuanGarcia-Herreros, and the actorsCatalina Sandino Moreno, JohnLeguizamo, Catherine Siachoque andSofia Vergara.

The cuisine of ColombiaDeveloped mainly from the foodtraditions of European countries.Spanish, Italian and French culinaryinfluences can all be seen inColombian cooking. The cuisine ofneighboring Latin American countries,Mexico, the United States and theCaribbean, as well as the cookingtraditions of the country’s indigenousinhabitants, have all influencedColombian food.Many national symbols, both objectsand themes, have arisen fromColombia’s diverse cultural traditionsand aim to represent what Colombia,and the Colombian people, have incommon. Cultural expressions inColombia are promoted by thegovernment through the Ministry ofCulture.Colombian food is characterized byits blending of European cuisine withaspects of African and indigenouscuisine.Even though there is no consensusas to which one dish can beconsidered the true «national dish,»the arepa and sancocho can beconsidered excellent candidates.Other well-known regional dishesinclude the bandeja paisa, ajiaco, thelechona Tolimense, the mote dequeso, and cuchuco.Fritanga is a set of dishes that can belikened to barbecue. It is enjoyedthroughout the entire country.

Fritanga usually includes grilled beefand chicken, pigs feet, leg of lamb,ribs, and sausage such as morcilla,chorizo, longaniza, and chunchullo(fried cow intestines) accompanied bymini potatoes and arepas made ofchoclo (sweet corn).Staples of the Colombian diet includetubers such as potatoes and cassava,along with meat such as beef,chicken, pork, or fish. Grains such ascorn and rice are widely consumed.The plantain is an important elementof the Colombian diet, as arevegetables such as onion, garlic,pepper, and tomato. Legumes suchas beans, peas, and lentils are eatenvery frequently.A myriad of fruit species grow inColombia, and many fruits considered«exotic» commonly grow inColombian forests and in thecountryside. The climate andgeography favor a great variety ofcrops, as well as a great variety ofboth freshwater and saltwater fish.·Bandeja Paisa, a traditional dish fromthe Paisa region, consists of whiterice, red beans, ground beef, plantain,dirty rice chorizo (or morcilla),chicharron, arepa, avocado and afried egg. Along with Ajiaco, thebandeja paisa is considered to be oneof the national dishes.·Sancocho, is a popular souporiginating from the Valle del Caucaregion. It combines vegetables andpoultry or fish with recipes differingfrom one region to the other, butusually contains yuca, maize, and isfrequently eaten with banana slices.·Ajiaco·Tamales·Cuchuco is a thick soup made ofwheat, fava beans, potatoes, ribs,peas, from Boyacá.·MondongoColombian beverages like:·Agua de Panela is made bydissolving panela (a kind of sugarloaf)in hot water.·Aguardiente is alcoholic drinkderived from sugarcane. Aguardienteis a variation of the Spanish alcoholicdrink.

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PANAMAPanamá, oficialmente la República de Panamá, es el país de Centroaméricaubicado mas al sur. Bordeado por Costa Rica al noroeste, Colombia al sudeste,Mar Caribe al norte y Oceano Pacifico al sur. La capital es ciudad de Panamá.Panamá es un centro de negocios internacional, es la cuarta economía másgrande en Centroamérica, el país de mayor crecimiento de consumo per capitaen Centroamérica.

EtimologíaExisten muchas teorías acerca del origen del nombre «Panamá». Algunoscreen que el nombre es debido a ciertas especies de árboles encontrados enla región. Otros dicen que los primeros expedicionarios que llegaron a lastierras, divisaron muchas mariposas que los indígenas mencionaban en suslenguas nativas. La mejor de las versiones es la de unos Pescadoresmencionando que existía «mucho pescado», palabras que sonaban en suidioma nativo como «panama». Reuniendo todas estas creencias, lospanameños creen que la palabra panama significa» abundancia de pescados,árboles y mariposas».

Período PrecolombinoLos primeros pobladores en Panama eran artesanos, alfareros, asi como lacultura Monagrillo que data del 2500-1700 AC. Las monumentales esculturasmonolíticas de Chiriqui es una importante pista de culturas antiguas. Antesde la llegada de los españoles, Panamá estaba habitada por Chibchas,Chocoan y gente de Cueva.

Era de la ConquistaRodrigo de Bastidas, fue el primer explorador del istmo de Panama. VascoNunez de Balboa explore la tierra desde el Atlántico al Pacífico confirmandoque Panamá era la ruta de acceso a los dos océanos, convirtiéndose asi enun imperio español de comercio y cruce de rutas en el Nuevo Mundo. Plata yoro fueron traídos de Sudamérica, y embarcados en Panamá para la ruta aEspaña. La ruta se conoció como Camino Real.Cuando Panama fue colonizada, los indígenas sobrevivieron muchasenfermedades, masacres y esclavitud , pronto los amerindios fueronreemplazados por esclavos africanos.La ruta de Panamá siempre fue vulnerable a ataques piratas (holandeses eingleses) y de africanos llamados cimarros que vivían en comunas o palenquesalrededor del Camino Real en el interior de Panama.En 1713, el virreynato de Nueva Granada fue creado en respuesta a lasamenzas europeas por tomar el territorio. Panamá fue puesta bajo jurisdicción.

Independencia de EspañaPanama alcanzó su independencia como otros países centroamericanos en1821. Mientras Panamá era de gran importancia histórica para el imperio

Grafitti en Ciudad de Panamá


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español, las diferencias sociales yeconómicas eran grandes. Fueentonces que el Grito de la Villa deLos Santos ocurrió. Fue una decisiónunilateral de los residentes de Azueropara declarar la separación delgobierno español.

CulturaLa cultura de Panamá se deriva demúsica española junto con el arte ylas tradiciones. Se han creado formashíbridas entre la mezcla Africana ynativos americanos con la culturaeuropea. Por ej, el tamborito es unadanza española que fue fusionadacon ritmos nativos americanos, temasy movimientos. El folklore local se hatransmitido de generación engeneración. Ciudades locales tienenreggae en español, música cubana,colombiana, jazz, blues, salsa, y rock.Fuera de ciudad de Panamá,festivales regionales toman lugarpresentando músicos y bailarineslocales. Sus productos tradicionalescomprenden desde tallados enmadera, máscaras ceremoniales yalfarería.Turismo

El turismo panameño ha crecido enlos últimos cinco años. Los turistasque llegaron entre enero y septiembrede 2008 fueron 1.100.000 visitantes.El índice creció en un 23.1% .Lamayoría de los europeos turistas son

españoles, italianos, franceses ybritánicos.La ley 8 de Panamá es la masmoderna y comprensiva ley depromoción a la inversión de turismo.Esta ley incentiva el 100% deexenciones en impuestos paraconstrucción de materiales y equiposturísticos.ComidasPanama tiene una rica y única cocina.AL ser un puente entre doscontinentes, es bendecido con unainusual variedad de frutas tropicales,vegetales y hierbas usadas encomida típica. Cocina influenciadapor España, Africa y nativosamericanos. Cilantro es un comúnsazonador, tenemos platos como elsancocho y comunes ingredientescomo maíz, arroz, harina de trigo,plátanos, yuca, carne, pollo y comidade mar como corvina, camarones ylangosta.

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Playas Panameñas

Transporte Público en ciudad de Panamá

Panama, officially the Republic of Panama, is the southernmost countryof both Central America and, in turn, North America. Situated on theisthmus connecting North and South America, it is bordered by CostaRica to the northwest, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Seato the north and the Pacific Ocean to the south. The capital is PanamaCity.Panama is an international business center, and although it is only thefourth largest economy in Central America, after Guatemala, Costa Ricaand El Salvador, it is the fastest growing economy and the largest percapita consumer in Central America.

EtimologyThere are several theories about the origin of the name «Panama».Some believe that the country was named after a commonly foundspecies of tree. Others believe that the first settlers arrived in Panamain August, when butterflies abound, and that the name means «manybutterflies» in indigenous tongue. The best known of these versions isthat a village populated by fishermen originally bore the name«Panamá», after a beach nearby, and that this name meant «manyfish». Blending all of the above together, Panamanians believe in generalthat the word Panama means «abundance of fish, trees and butterflies».This is the official definition given in Social Studies textbooks approvedby the Ministry of Education in Panama. Some believe the word Panamacomes from the Kuna word «Bannaba» which means «distant» or «faraway». Kunas are one of the native tribes of the Latin American nation.Ultimately, the etymology of the word Panamá is not very clear, but the«abundance of fish, trees and butterflies» theory is the most extendedamong Panamanians.

Pre-Columbian periodThe earliest coloms traces of these indigenous peoples include flutedprojectile points. Central Panama was home to some of the first pottery-making villages in the Americas, such as the Monagrillo culture datingto about 2500-1700 BC. These evolved into significant populations thatare best known through the spectacular burials of the Conte site (datingto c. AD 500-900) and the beautiful polychrome pottery of the Cocléstyle. The monumental monolithic sculptures at the Barriles (Chiriqui)site were another important clue of the ancient isthmian cultures. Priorto the arrival of Europeans, Panama was widely settled by Chibchan,Chocoan, and Cueva peoples, among whom the largest group werethe Cueva (whose specific language affiliation is poorly documented).There is no accurate knowledge of size of the indigenous population ofthe isthmus at the time of the European conquest. Estimates range ashigh as two million people, but more recent studies place that numbercloser to 200,000. Archeological finds as well as testimonials by earlyEuropean explorers describe diverse native isthmian groups exhibitingcultural variety and suggesting people already conditioned by regularregional routes of commerce.

Conquest eraRodrigo de Bastidas, sailing westward from Venezuela in 1501 in searchof gold, was the first European to explore the isthmus of Panama. Ayear later, Christopher Columbus visited the isthmus and established ashort-lived settlement in the Darien. Vasco Nunez de Balboa’s tortuoustrek from the Atlantic to the Pacific in 1513 demonstrated that the Isthmuswas, indeed, the path between the seas, and Panama quickly becamethe crossroads and marketplace of Spain’s empire in the New World.Gold and silver were brought by ship from South America, hauled across


the isthmus, and loaded aboard shipsfor Spain. The route became knownas the Camino Real, or Royal Road,although it was more commonlyknown as Camino de Cruces (Roadof the Crosses) because of theabundance of gravesites along theway.Panama was part of the Spanishempire for 300 years (1538–1821).From the outset, Panamanian identitywas based on a sense of «geographicdestiny,» and Panamanian fortunesfluctuated with the geopoliticalimportance of the isthmus. Thecolonial experience also spawnedPanamanian nationalism as well asa racially complex and highly stratifiedsociety, the source of internal conflictsthat ran counter to the unifying forceof nationalism.

In 1538 the Real Audiencia dePanama was established, initially withjurisdiction from Nicaragua to CapeHorn. A Real Audiencia (royalaudiency) was a judicial district thatfunctioned as an appeals court. Eachaudiencia had oidores (Spanish:hearer, a judge).Panama was the site of the ill-fatedDarien scheme, which set up aScottish colony in the region in 1698.This failed for a number of reasons,and the ensuing debt contributed tothe union of England and Scotland in1707.When Panama was colonized, theindigenous peoples who survivedmany diseases, massacres andenslavement of the conquestultimately fled into the forest andnearby islands. Indian slaves werereplaced by Africans.The prosperity enjoyed during the firsttwo centuries (1540-1740) whilecontributing to colonial growth; theplacing of extensive regional judicialauthority (Real Audiencia) as part ofits jurisdiction; and the pivotal role itplayed at the height of the SpanishEmpire -the first modern globalempire- helped define a distinctivesense of autonomy and of regionalor national identity within Panamawell before the rest of the colonies.

In 1744 Bishop Francisco Javier deLuna Victoria y Castro established theCollege of San Ignacio de Loyola andon June 3, 1749 founded La Real yPontificia Universidad de San Javier.By this time, however, Panama’simportance and influence hadbecome insignificant as Spain’spower dwindled in Europe andadvances in navigation techniqueincreasingly permitted to round CapeHorn in order to reach the Pacific.While the Panama route was short itwas also labor intensive andexpensive because of the loading andunloading and laden-down trekrequired to get from the one coast tothe other. The Panama route was alsovulnerable to attack from pirates(mostly Dutch and English) and from‘new world’ Africans called cimarronswho had freed themselves fromenslavement and lived in communesor palenques around the Camino Realin Panama’s Interior, and on some ofthe islands off Panama’s Pacificcoast. During the last half of the XVIIIcentury and the first half of the XIXmigrations to the countrysidedecreased Panama City’s populationand the isthmus’ economy shiftedfrom the tertiary to the primary sector.In 1713, the viceroyalty of NewGranada (northern South America)was created in response to otherEuropeans trying to take Spanishterritory in the Caribbean region. TheIsthmus of Panama was placed underits jurisdiction. But the remoteness ofSanta Fe de Bogota proved a greaterobstacle than the Spanish crownanticipated as the authority of NewGranada was contested by theseniority, closer proximity, previousties to the viceroyalty of Lima andeven Panama’s own initiative. Thisuneasy relationship between Panamaand Bogota would persist for acentury.Modern Panamanian history hasbeen shaped by its transisthmiancanal, which had been a dream sincethe beginning of Spanish colonization.From 1880 to 1890, a Frenchcompany under Ferdinand deLesseps attempted unsuccessfully to

construct a sea-level canal on the siteof the present Panama Canal.Independence from Spain

Panama joined the independencebandwagon like most of the otherCentral American countries, in 1821.While Panama was of great historicalimportance to the Spanish Empire, thedifferences in social and economicstatus between the more liberal areaof Azuero, and the much more royalistand conservative area of Veraguasdisplayed contrasting perspectives. Itis, in fact, known that when the Gritode la Villa de Los Santos occurred,Veraguas firmly opposed the motionfor independence.On the other hand, the Panamanianmovement for independence can beindirectly attributed to the abolishmentof the encomienda system in Azuero,set forth by the Spanish Crown, in1558 due to repeated protests by

locals against the mistreatment of thenative population. In its stead, asystem of medium and smaller-sizedlandownership was promoted, thustaking away the power from the largelandowners and into the hands ofmedium and small sized proprietors.The end of the encomienda systemin Azuero, however, sparked theconquest of Veraguas in that sameyear. Under the leadership ofFrancisco Vázquez, the region ofVeraguas passed into Castillan rulein 1558. In the newly conqueredregion, the old system of encomiendawas imposed.On November 10, 1821, the Grito deLa Villa de Los Santos occurred. Itwas a unilateral decision by theresidents of Azuero (without backingfrom Panama City) to declare theirseparation from the Spanish Empire.In both Veraguas and the capital thisact was met with disdain, although ondiffering levels of said emotion. ToVeraguas, it was the ultimate act oftreason, while to the capital, it wasseen as inefficient and irregular, andfurthermore forced them to acceleratetheir plans.The Grito was an event that shook theisthmus to the core. It was a sign, onthe part of the residents of Azuero, oftheir antagonism towards theindependence movement in thecapital, who in turn regarded theAzueran movement with contempt,since they (the capital movement)

believed that their counterparts werefighting their right to rule, once thepeninsulares (peninsular-born) werelong gone.It was, as well, an incredibly bravemove on the part of Azuero, whichlived in fear of Colonel José deFábrega, and with good reason: theColonel was a staunch loyalist, andhad the entirety of the isthmus’ militarysupplies in his hands. They fearedquick retaliation and swift retributionagainst the separatists.What they had not counted on,however, was the influence of theseparatists in the capital. Ever sinceOctober 1821, when the formerGovernor General, Juan de la CruzMurgeón, left the isthmus on acampaign in Quito and left theVeraguan colonel in charge, theseparatists had been slowlyconverting Fábrega to the separatistside. As such, by November 10,

Fábrega was now a supporter of theindependence movement. Soon afterthe separatist declaration of LosSantos, Fábrega convened everyorganization in the capital withseparatist interests and formallydeclared the city’s support forindependence. No militaryrepercussions occurred due to theskillful bribing of royalist troops.CultureThe culture of Panama derived fromEuropean music, art and traditionsthat were brought over by the Spanishto Panama. Hegemonic forces havecreated hybrid forms of this byblending African and Native Americanculture with European culture. Forexample, the tamborito is a Spanishdance that was blended with NativeAmerican rhythms, themes anddance moves. Dance is a symbol ofthe diverse cultures that have coupledin Panama. The local folklore can beexperienced through a multitude offestivals, dances and traditions thathave been handed down fromgeneration to generation. Local citieshost live Reggae en Español, Cuban,Reggaeton, Kompa, Colombian, jazz,blues, salsa, reggae and rockperformances. Outside of PanamaCity, regional festivals take placethroughout the year featuring localmusicians and dancers. Anotherexample of Panama’s blended cultureis reflected in the traditional products.

Construcción colonial en Panamá

Canal de Panamá

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