Learning Principles and Approaches

Chapter 2 presentation by Erika Liebel

Principles and Approaches

• Behavioral Psychology Approaches

• Cognitive Psychology Principles

• Constructivist Psychology Principles

• Objectivist – Instructivist Approach

Behavioral Psychology Principles

BasicBehavioral

Rules

• Positive Reinforcement – Increases Frequency

• Remove Negative Reinforcement – Increases Frequency

• Negative Reinforcement – Decreases Frequency

• Remove Positive Reinforcement – Decreases Frequency (extinction)

Behavioral Psychologists

• Edward Thorndike• Ivan Pavlov• B.F. Skinner

Instructional Systems Design (ISD)• Primarily for adult

learners• Teaching to specific

levels of learner performance

• Measurement of observable target behaviors

• Emphasis on:• Specifying behavior

objectives• Analyzing learning

tasks• Introduction to ISD

Cognitive Psychology Principles

• Places emphasis on the observable constructs of:

• Mind • Memory• Attitudes• Motivation• Thinking• Reflection

Cognitive Psychology2 Early Theories

• Semantic Networks

• Schema Theory

Developed by Sir Frederic Bartlett

Cognitive PsychologyConsiderations for Multimedia Design and Evaluation• Perception and Attention• Encoding• Memory• Comprehension• Active Learning• Motivation• Locus of Control• Mental Models• Metacognition• Transfer of Learning• Individual Differences

Cognitive PsychologyPerception & Attention• Information must be easy to receive.

• Position of information affects our attention to it and perception of it.

• Differences and changes attract and maintain our attention

Cognitive PsychologyEncoding• Format of information

in environment • Medium of information• Interrelationship of

different informational elements

• Mayer’s Multimedia Effect

• Example: Verbal - English or Spanish

• Visual or Aural• Dual coding theory -

leaning is enhanced when complimentary information codes are received simultaneously

Cognitive PsychologyMemory• Principle of

Organization• Information is

remembered better and longer when:

• information is organized, • when organization is

imposed on it, • when learner is made

aware of it.• More powerful than the

repetition principle

• Principle of Repetition• The more information is

practiced and used, the better and longer it is remembered.

• Use when organization principle is impossible

Cognitive PsychologyComprehension• More than definition • Learner has ability to:• Apply knowledge• Classify information• Evaluate• Discuss it• Manipulate it• Teach it to others

• Verbal Comprehension – restate in your own words

• Comprehension of Concepts – distinguish between examples and non-examples

• Comprehension of Rules and Principles – when to apply, demonstrate correct application

Cognitive PsychologyActive Learning• Learn by doing – not

observing• Actions to facilitate learner

goals:• Human to computer• Human to human• Human to computer to

human• Human to paper• Human to equipment

• Design interaction strategies

• Are actions mental or physical

• How much mental or physical effort action requires

• Mental or physical action is automatic or intentional

• Extent to which actions support tasks

Cognitive PsychologyMotivation• Malone’s Motivation Theory

• Keller’s ARCS Motivation Theory

Attention

Relevance

Confidence

Satisfaction

Cognitive PsychologyLocus of Control• Whether control of

sequence, content, methodology, an other instructional factors are determined by the learner, the program or a combination of the two.

• High achieving learners = greater control

• Low achieving learners = less control

Cognitive PsychologyMental Models• Representations in working memory that can be

run by the learner to understand a system, solve a problem or predict events.

• Conceptual models develop good mental models.

Cognitive PsychologyMetacognition• Awareness of one’s cognition• Metamemory – awareness of how well one remembers• Metacomprehension – awareness of how well one

understands

Good Learners Poor Learners

Cognition High Low

Metacognition High or Low High or Low

Cognitive PsychologyTransfer of Learning• Extent to which

performance in one situation is reflected in another

• Near transfer – applying info in similar situations

• Far transfer - use info in very different situations

Cognitive PsychologyIndividual Differences• Capability to individualize learning style and

cognitive style.

Cognitive Influence on Interactive Multimedia Design

• Designers must address:

• Screen design and presentation strategies

• Theories of attention and perception

• Incorporate motivational principles

Constructivist Psychology Principles• Knowledge is constructed in

our heads.• Emphasizes:

Learning not teachingActions & thinking of learners, not teachersActive learningLearner choiceNegotiation of goals, strategies & evaluation

• Discovery or guided discovery methods

• Learner construction of info• Personal autonomy• Accept & reflect on complexity

of the world• Situated cognition & anchored

instruction• Cooperative & collaborative

activities• Purposeful authentic activities• Learner reflection• Ownership of learning and

activities• Authentic – relevant activities

Constructivist PsychologyLearning vs. Teaching

• Downplay teacher presentation• Stress learner activity

Constructivist PsychologyDiscovery Learning• Learner explores,

experiments, researches, questions & seeks answers

• Guided or structured discovery environments

• Teachers & learners as partners in the research experience

Constructivist PsychologySituated Learning & Anchored Instruction• Situated Learning• Learning always

occurs in some context

• Context significantly affects learning

• Anchored Instruction• Learning environment

should be embedded in real world context with real imagery, goals, problems and activities

Constructivist PsychologyCooperative & Collaborative Learning• Cooperative Learning• Learners help each

other• Different projects• Different goals

• Collaborative Learning• Learners work on a

shared project• Same goals

Constructivist PsychologyAutonomy, Choice & Negotiation

• Learners given choices in their activities

• Learners are autonomous in their actions

• Learners & instructors negotiate goals and activities

Constructivist PsychologyReflection & Strategic Thinking

• Environment should foster learning and learning how to learn

Constructivist PsychologyReflecting on the Complexity of the World• Knowledge and skills taught should be:

– Transferable to other environments– Relevant to the learner– Real world situations

Constructivist Influence on Interactive Multimedia Design• Traditional methods –

Tutorial, drills• Hypermedia,

simulations, virtual reality, open-ended learning environments

• Explore, apply their own learning style & use software as a resource

• Poor for developing life long learners

• More benefit to learner• Learner not the

teacher

Criticisms of Behaviorism

• Not appropriate for multimedia design

• ISD• Learner responses• Does not include

– Learner Satisfaction– Self worth– Creativity– Social Values

• Attention only to observable learner behavior

• Non-motivating & non-transferable

• Reactive not proactive

Criticisms of Cognitivism

• Strayed too far from active learning

• Educational software has too much reading, watching & listening

• Undervalue the principles of reinforcement

Criticisms of Objectivism or Instructivism• Does not promote collaboration, self

autonomy, active learning or transfer of information

• Does support the “Banking Method” (Freire, 1970).

Criticisms of Constructivism

• They feel that tutorial & drill activities are never appropriate

• Constructivist methods work better for learners with well developed metacognitive skills

• Good for individual activities – not whole school

• Advocates replacing current system through revolution not evolution

People to Know

• Constructivists– Hannafin– Bransford– Reeves– Bereiter

• Behaviorists– Dick– Rieber– Reigeluth– Jacobson & Spiro

Questions for Discussion

1. What are the implications for the use of computers/multimedia in each theory, Behaviorism, Cognitivism & Constructivism?

2. Which psychological principles (behaviorist, cognitivist or constructivist) do you use in your classrooms and why?

References

• Alessi, S.M. & Trollip, S.R. (2001). Learning

principles and approaches. In

Multimedia for learning; methods and

development (pp. 16-47). Boston: Allyn

& Bacon.• Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the

Oppressed (p. 53). New York: Continuum.