Lecture 9Lecture 9

Meaning and use

A sentence should be A sentence should be grammatical as well as grammatical as well as meaningful, but linguists have meaningful, but linguists have found more grammatical found more grammatical sentences than meaningful sentences than meaningful ones.ones.

Little green frogs Little green frogs sleep quietly.sleep quietly.

Colorless green ideas sleep Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.furiously.

We can understand the senteWe can understand the sentence in this way (according to nce in this way (according to Chao [Chao [ 赵元任赵元任 ])])

green = freshgreen = fresh sleep sleep sleep on (= not decid sleep on (= not decid

e about (sth) until the next dae about (sth) until the next day )y )

Chao:Chao:

I have got some ideas recently. So I have got some ideas recently. So they are green ideas. Some of them they are green ideas. Some of them are colorful; some are colorless.I are colorful; some are colorless.I don’t want to publish my colorless don’t want to publish my colorless green ideas immediately. I would green ideas immediately. I would rather sleep on them, or, to put it in rather sleep on them, or, to put it in my favorite way, let them sleep. my favorite way, let them sleep. Unfortunately, these colorless green Unfortunately, these colorless green ideas contradict each other, and fight ideas contradict each other, and fight each other furiously. So I would like each other furiously. So I would like to complain to my friends that to complain to my friends that colorless green ideas sleep furiouslycolorless green ideas sleep furiously. .

Secret behind Chao’s “magic”: Secret behind Chao’s “magic”:

Adding an appropriate context to Adding an appropriate context to create plausible propositions.create plausible propositions.

Change in the reader’s mind:Change in the reader’s mind: from semantic analysisfrom semantic analysis to pragmatic inferenceto pragmatic inference

Language:Language: its logic and its use –its logic and its use –

Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889- 1951) Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889- 1951)

Our daily speech can play coOur daily speech can play countless roles if it is woven into untless roles if it is woven into actions. actions.

The speaking of language is The speaking of language is part of an activity, or a form of part of an activity, or a form of life. life.

Such activities Such activities are language are language games, played by all human bgames, played by all human beings every day eings every day

To figure out a language To figure out a language game,game,

one resorts to two resources:one resorts to two resources:

first – contextual inferencefirst – contextual inference

then – predicate calculusthen – predicate calculus

Ideas green furiously colorless sleep

Impossible sentenceWhy? No hope to figure out any propositions.

Another game:

Contextualize the short sentence below.

Time flies!

Time flies!

Suppose insects also hold their Olympic Games, and one game is for flies to “run” a race (with their wings, not legs, of course). Once before a race starts, the Chairman of the Games reminds an absent-minded timer loudly, “Time flies!”

Time flies! Time is the name of a baby angel

in my dream. She has two wings but she is too fragile to fly… I hope I’ll encounter my angel again tonight, and this time I’ll see her fluttering her wings in the sky. Then I’ll quickly awake and tell my mother: ‘Time flies! ‘

Wittgenstein’s aphorism

"The meaning of a word is its use in a language".

Speech actsSpeech acts

Austin

How to do things with words?How to do things with words? -- Austin’s speech act theory -- Austin’s speech act theory

(1) locutionary act(1) locutionary act 以言指事以言指事 This is the basic literal meaning of the utteraThis is the basic literal meaning of the uttera

nce which is conveyed by particular words and nce which is conveyed by particular words and structures which the utterance contains. “The astructures which the utterance contains. “The act of saying something in the full sense of 'say'.”ct of saying something in the full sense of 'say'.”

A familiar example:A familiar example: A: A: I need something to write with.I need something to write with.

B: B: There is a pen on the table.There is a pen on the table. / A pen is on the table./ A pen is on the table.

(2) illocutionary act (2) illocutionary act 以言行事以言行事

Using a sentence to perform a function. Using a sentence to perform a function.

““The act performed in saying something.”The act performed in saying something.”

e.g.e.g.

In sayingIn saying There is a pen on the table There is a pen on the table B B is to provide some new information is to provide some new information needed by A.needed by A.

In saying In saying A pen is on the table A pen is on the table B B emphasizes the shared information.emphasizes the shared information.

(3) perlocutionary act (3) perlocutionary act 以言成事以言成事

The results or effects that are produced by The results or effects that are produced by

means of saying something. “The act means of saying something. “The act performed by or as a result of saying.”performed by or as a result of saying.”

e.g.e.g.

By sayingBy saying There is a pen on the table There is a pen on the table B B offers help to A.offers help to A.

By saying By saying A pen is on the table A pen is on the table B B shows his impatience and irritated A.shows his impatience and irritated A.

““Shoot the snake!”Shoot the snake!”

a locutionary act if the hearer una locutionary act if the hearer understands all the words and the derstands all the words and the sentence structure;sentence structure;

an illocutionary act if the sentenan illocutionary act if the sentence is understood as an order or ce is understood as an order or a piece of advice;a piece of advice;

a perlocutionary act if the snake a perlocutionary act if the snake is shot. is shot.

Wittgenstein’s viewpointsWittgenstein’s viewpoints

To know the meaning of a word, To know the meaning of a word, you have to take the situation you have to take the situation (context) and intention of its use.(context) and intention of its use.

Language should not be viewed as Language should not be viewed as an abstract calculus but as a tool, an abstract calculus but as a tool, and just like a hammer or an and just like a hammer or an opener, the proper characterization opener, the proper characterization of a linguistic expression must of a linguistic expression must include an account of how it is include an account of how it is used, what it is used for.used, what it is used for.

A child does not acquire the A child does not acquire the meanings of words or meanings of words or expressions from the formal expressions from the formal definition, but instead from the definition, but instead from the way they are used by the people way they are used by the people around him, and through other around him, and through other people’s response to his own use people’s response to his own use of themof them

““On this evidence, there seems On this evidence, there seems little doubt that meaning of a word little doubt that meaning of a word is governed by its use.”is governed by its use.”

-- Allan (1986)-- Allan (1986)

Searle:Focusing on the illocutionary act. -- people use sentences (utterances) to do things. e.g. 'The earth is round.' a proposition + a statement

'I'll return the book to you tomorrow.' a proposition + a promise

The responses to these speech The responses to these speech acts are different: acts are different:

Response to a Statement Response to a Statement

“ “Yes, it is.” or Yes, it is.” or “No, it isn't” “No, it isn't”

Response to a Promise Response to a Promise “Thank you.” or “I wonder if I “Thank you.” or “I wonder if I could have it today.”could have it today.”

felicitious & infelicitiousfelicitious & infelicitiousExamples of felicityExamples of felicity (1) I promise to come to dinner.(1) I promise to come to dinner. (2) I name the ship SS Elizabeth.(2) I name the ship SS Elizabeth. (3) I hereby appoint you chairman of (3) I hereby appoint you chairman of

the committee.the committee.

Examples of infelicityExamples of infelicity *(4) I promise to forget my name.*(4) I promise to forget my name. *(5) I request you to be born in *(5) I request you to be born in

Shanghai.Shanghai. *(6) I order that the earth be round.*(6) I order that the earth be round.

Explicit vs implicit performativesExplicit vs implicit performatives

Most illocutionary utterances seem to begin with Most illocutionary utterances seem to begin with the pronoun 'I', they can be called explicit performativethe pronoun 'I', they can be called explicit performatives, but there are also implicit performatives which can ps, but there are also implicit performatives which can play the same function. lay the same function.

Explicit ImplicitExplicit Implicit I order you to shut it. Shut it.I order you to shut it. Shut it. I promise I'll be there. I'll be there without I promise I'll be there. I'll be there without

fail.fail. I conclude that X. Therefore, X I conclude that X. Therefore, X I warn you the bull will charge. There is a bull I warn you the bull will charge. There is a bull behind.behind.

Conversational implicature Conversational implicature

Grice

A: What’s with your boss?B: Let’s go upstairs. particularized conversational implicature

A: Did you manage to fix the leak? B: I tried to.

generalized conversational implicature

Principles for language in usePrinciples for language in use

Grice

F. The reality principle and the F. The reality principle and the cooperative principlecooperative principle

The reality principle refers to the The reality principle refers to the substance of a sentence, the idea substance of a sentence, the idea being talked about (What?). According being talked about (What?). According to this principle, listeners interpret to this principle, listeners interpret sentences in the belief that the sentences in the belief that the speaker is referring to a situation or speaker is referring to a situation or sets of ideas they can make sense of. sets of ideas they can make sense of. People rely on this principle to solve People rely on this principle to solve ambiguities in the processing of ambiguities in the processing of sentences. sentences.

The cooperative principle The cooperative principle refers to the way these ideas refers to the way these ideas are expressed (How?). are expressed (How?). According to this principle, the According to this principle, the listener interpret sentences in listener interpret sentences in the belief that the speaker is the belief that the speaker is trying to tell the truth, tell them trying to tell the truth, tell them all they need to know and no all they need to know and no more, and use sentences more, and use sentences clearly and unambiguously.clearly and unambiguously.

(i) Maxim of Quality: (i) Maxim of Quality: Do not say what you believe to be Do not say what you believe to be

false. Do not say that for which you lfalse. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. ack adequate evidence.

e.g. I had my breakfast at 7 o’clock.e.g. I had my breakfast at 7 o’clock.

violation:violation: I had my breakfast at 7 o’clock, anI had my breakfast at 7 o’clock, an

d I were hungry the whole morning.d I were hungry the whole morning.

(ii) Maxim of quantity:(ii) Maxim of quantity:

Make sure your contribution is as Make sure your contribution is as informative as is required for the informative as is required for the current purposes of the exchange current purposes of the exchange (i.e. not more or less informative). (i.e. not more or less informative).

e.g. A: Where is John?e.g. A: Where is John?

B: He is in the classroom.B: He is in the classroom.

violation:violation:

Where is John?Where is John?

John is a very fat boy and has John is a very fat boy and has two brothers. He is in the two brothers. He is in the classroom.classroom.

(iii) Maxim of Relevance: Make your (iii) Maxim of Relevance: Make your contribution relevant to the aims of the contribution relevant to the aims of the

ongoing conversation.ongoing conversation.

e.g. e.g. A: A: Can I borrow $5?Can I borrow $5?

B: B: My purse is over thereMy purse is over there..

violation:violation:

A: A: Can I borrow $5?Can I borrow $5?

B: B: My pipe is over there.My pipe is over there.

(iv) Maxim of Manner: Be clear. Try to (iv) Maxim of Manner: Be clear. Try to avoid obscurity, ambiguity, wordiness, avoid obscurity, ambiguity, wordiness, and disorderliness in your use of and disorderliness in your use of languagelanguage..

e.g. e.g. He got on the bus, carrying a He got on the bus, carrying a briefcase under his arm.briefcase under his arm.

violation:violation:

He carried a briefcase under his He carried a briefcase under his arm, getting on the bus.arm, getting on the bus.

All these maxims can be flouted in All these maxims can be flouted in order to achieve rhetoric effects.order to achieve rhetoric effects.

e.g. You are the cream in my coffee.e.g. You are the cream in my coffee.

Where’ve you been?Where’ve you been?

Out.Out.

What do you intend to do today?What do you intend to do today?

I have a terrible headache.I have a terrible headache.

Shall we get something for the kids?Shall we get something for the kids?

Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M. Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.

Flouting maxims enjoyablyFlouting maxims enjoyably

Please read Section 9.4 for Please read Section 9.4 for more interesting examplesmore interesting examples

Review: Grice (1975, 1981)Review: Grice (1975, 1981)

Intentional communicationIntentional communication

Cooperative principleCooperative principle

Conversational implicatureConversational implicature

Sperber & Wilson (1986,1995) Sperber & Wilson (1986,1995) RelevaRelevance theorynce theory

Code modelCode model

Inferential modelInferential model

Sperber & Wilson (1986,1995) Sperber & Wilson (1986,1995) RelevRelevance theoryance theory

mutual manifestnemutual manifestnessss

Relevance Relevance

ExampleExample

A: Do you A: Do you want want some some coffee?coffee?

B: Coffee B: Coffee would would keep me keep me awake.awake.

Contextual Contextual assumptions:assumptions:

a. B does not want to a. B does not want to stay awake.stay awake.

b. B does not want any b. B does not want any coffee.coffee.

c. B wants to stay c. B wants to stay awake./ B wants awake./ B wants anything that will keep anything that will keep her awake.her awake.

d. B wants some coffee. d. B wants some coffee.

Relevance of a phenomenon to an individual

Extent condition 1: A phenomenon is relevant to an individual to the extent that the contextual effects achieved in processing it are large.

Extent condition 2: A phenomenon is relevant to an individual to the extent that the effort required to process it is small.

Contextual assumptionsContextual assumptions

Logic informationLogic information

Encyclopedic informationEncyclopedic information

Lexical informationLexical information

The EndThe End