Linguistic Models 2

7/27/2019 Linguistic Models 2

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LINGUISTIC MODELS 2



Noam Chomsky (1928- ); MIT,

Cambridge, Mass.



Development

1957 – Syntacic Structures (generative componentof TGG)1965 – Aspects of the Theory of Syntax(transformational component of TGG : StandardTheory1966 – Cartesian Linguistics: A Chapter in the Historyof Rationalist Thought (freedom from instincts>; thecreative aspect of language; unity of body and mind,

language and thought; universality thesis)1970s through 1980s – Extended Standard Theory,Government Binding Theory1990s – P&P; Minimalism



Philosophical Background

From Decartes to Humboldt ( Enlightement toRomanticism) : from dualism to unity of mind/body

Man vs Brute: mentalism vs mehanicism:criticism of behaviourismFreedom from instinct : allows for reasoningUniversalityThe Port Royal Grammar : identity of mentalprocesses and grammarDeep vs Surface Structure



Basic tenets of Standard

TheoryThe aim of linguistics is not only to provide adescriptive grammar of language, but also toprovide an explanatory grammarIt is not possible if the focus is on form anddistribution onlyIt is necessary to take meaning into accountChomsky recognises a level of DEEPSTRUCTURE and a level of SURFACESTRUCTURE



The level of deep structure provides basis for semanticinterpretation of the sentence; it is an abstract underlyingstructure that incorporates all the syntactic informationrequired for the interpretation of a given sentence

It represents an explicit description of sentence parts,regardless of whether those parts will appear in thesurface structure or not; a structure that incorporates allthe syntactic features of a sentence required to convert thesentence into a spoken or written versionThe level of surface structure represents the form of thesentence it takes either in speech or writingThe two levels are related by sets of transformations, whichlink the deep with the surface structure of language





Phrase structure rules

The rules used to generate, or DESCRIBE thedeep structure

The sentence of a natural language is brokendown (rewritten as ->) into two constituentparts (syntactic categories) , namely phrasal categories (NP; VP, PrepP) and lexical categories (nouns, verbs, adjectives,adverbs, etc.)



Children play dangerous games.

S

NP Aux VP

N Pres V NP’

NP’’ S’

N



Aux = affix of tense, aspect or modality[+/- past], [+/- perfective], [+/- modal ]

S’ = embedded sentenceBy embedding the propositon (sentence) S’,the meaning of the sentence is explicitlydescribed , or, in Chomsky’s terms formalized Proposition = an afirmative statement whichassigns a quality to an entity (here: gamesare dangerous )



Phrase structure rules



FORMATIVES

The elements of deep structure, whose relationis explicitely described by means of PSR, arefurther assigned sets of featurs , whichsubcategorize the constituents of the deepstructure:

children+N+ plural+ count+ animate+ human



Terminal string

Apart from the PSRs and the formatives, thedeep structure consists of the lexicon too, soat the very end of the phrase structurediagram (tree) lexis that corresponds to theformatives is assigned .



The transformational

componentA set of rules that transform the deep into thesurface structure, i.e. into its phonologicalcomponent

Meaning of the deep structure is not changed inthe processThe deep structure[children play games [games are dangerous] ]Is transformed intoChildren play dangerous gamesBy means of application of the following rules



Relative Clause Formation (RCF)Relative Clause Reduction ( RCR)

Modifier Shift (MS)i.e.

Children play games (games are dangerous) =>

RCF: Children play games which are dangerous =>RCR: Children play games dangerous =>MS: Children play dangerous games



The first TR is applied to the terminal string,which represents the STRUCTURALDESCRIPTION (BASE)The effect of the rule is a STRUCTURALCHANGE, which becomes the structuraldescription for the TR applied next

Each rule makes an effect , i.e. a structurethat differs from the previous oneThese middle structures are calledTRANSFORMS



Effects of transformation

rulesAddition (something is added)Reduction (something is deleted)

Substitution ( something is replaced bysomething else)Permutation (something changes its place)



Competence vs. Performance

“We thus make a fundamental distinctionbetween competence (the speaker- hearer’sknowledge of his language) and performance (theactual use of language in concrete situations).[...] A record of natural speech will shownumerous false starts, deviations from rules,changes of plan in mid-course, and so on. Theproblem for the linguist, as well as for the child

learning the language, is to determine from thedata of performance the underlying system of rules that have been mastered by the speaker-hearer and that he puts to use in actualperformance.” (Chomsky:1965:4)



Linguistic theory is concerned primarily with anideal speaker-listener , in a completelyhomogeneous speech community , who know its

(the speech community's) language perfectlyand is unaffected by such grammaticallyirrelevant conditions as memory limitations,distractions, shifts of attention and interest, and

errors (random or characteristic) in applying hisknowledge of this language in actualperformance. (Chomsky: 1965: 3)

http://everything2.com/title/ideal+speaker-listener

http://everything2.com/title/homogeneous

http://everything2.com/title/speech+community

http://everything2.com/title/speech+community

http://everything2.com/title/homogeneous








Grammaticalnees vs.

AcceptabilityApart from the knowledge of rules, the linguisticcompetence includes the ability to recognize:Grammatical and ungrammatical sentences:

The boy stood up. /*The boy standed up.Synonymous sentences (passives): He sold hisestate. /His estate was sold.Ambiguous sentences : I found the chair on thelawn.Elided sentences: His car is newer than mine.Acceptable sentences : Colourless green ideassleep furiously



Generative grammars can only producegrammatical sentences; therefore, thespeaker need not have special skills - a nativespeaker automatically, intuitively recognizesa grammatical/ungrammatical sentenceVery mentalistic !!!Some sentences are felt as grammatical, butnonsensical (Colourless green ideas...)



Language is creative

Reaction to mechaniscistic views of behaviourism (Chomsky vs. Sinner)

Language is not a mere response to theoutside stimuli; if it were so, we could onlyproduce sentences that we had already beenexposed toCreativity = ability to produce an infinitenumber of sentences using a limited set of rules and data



Language is universal;

language is innateEvery child is born with a predisposition toacquire a language

All languages are , if not identical, then verysimilar in the deep structure



Recommended reading

Chomsky, N. (1957) Syntactic Structures.Mouton . The Hague

Chomsky, N. (1965) Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. MIT Press. Cambridge, Mass.James, C. ( 1980) Contrastive Analysis.Longman. London and New York. 27 – 60Đorđević, R. (2002) Uvod u kontratsiranje jezika . Filološki fakultet. Beograd. 21 – 39.

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Linguistic Models 2