-
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, (GUI), Macintosh, , (command-line interface, CLI) . OS X, - .
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(CLI), , Linux . ,
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. -X ( ) . - ( ) . - V , Linux, , Mac OS X .
Perl ( 11) .
rsync ( 14) .
V , -, Mac OS X .
A Practical Guide to Red Hat Linux: Fedora and Red Hat
Enterprise Linux A Practical Guide to Ubuntu Linux,
. , ( 3 , V), , Bourne Again Shell (bash) Perl . , , , , vim
emacs, TC Shell (tcsh), AWK sed, rsync, V, 97 Linux Mac OS X .
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12
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. , , . , , Linux/OS X, - .
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Linux UNIX- .
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, GNUs, gcc, GNU, make, gzip, .
, - , .
, Apple Mac OS X, diskutil, ditto, dscl, GetFileInfo, launchctl,
otool, plutil SetFile .
, , , Linux . .
1, Linux Mac OS X . Linux OS X .
Linux, OS X Mach, -Linux, OS X Mach, -, OS X Mach, -OS X Mach, -
X Mach, -X Mach, - Mach, -Mach, -, -, GNU Linux , Linux, .
I . Linux Mac OS X
, I UNIX/Linux , , . , . 42, , . 52, , Linux, .
14
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y grep, ; y unix2dos, Linux
Windows; y tar, , ; y bzip2 gzip, , ,
; y diff, .
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II . Linux-, -Linux-, --, - . vim, vi, GNU- emacs Linux . , , ,
. Linux -Linux - - , , Linux- .
6, vim . vim, ,
, , , , . - .
7, emacs . , -
emacs, , META, ALT ESCAPE . , , , - , . , , . , , emacs .
, , emacs C, C- . 7 emacs .
III . III bash TC Shell (tcsh) .
8, Bourne Again Shell . ,
5, . Bourne Again Shell bash, , . 8 :
y , ;
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16
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y , ;
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; y ; y , ,
.
9, TC Shell . tcsh, bash tcsh
, , . :
y tcsh , tcsh; y , ,
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; y tcsh; y .
IV . IV , Linux Mac OS, .
10, Bourne Again Shell . ,
8, - 8, -8, - bash, . :
y , ifthenelse case;
y , ;
y () ;
y , , exec, trap getopts .
Linux , .
10 , -, .
IV. 17
-
. - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - - quiz, , , , .
( V , -V , - , - .)
11, Perl . Perl, -Perl, -, -
. :
y Perl, perldoc;
y Perl ;
y ;
y ;
y CPAN- .
Perl Linux- . 11 , . - Perl .
12, AWK . , ,
AWK, , . , - , , , .
13, sed . sed, ,
. sed , - .
14, rsync . rsync, ,
, . , - .
V . Linux . 1214, V , - , C . , UNIX/Linux, . .
18
-
, 1214, V, , , Linux- (man-), . , - (, ls cp), , (sort, paste
test), Linux (ps, kill fsck) (ssh, scp ftp) . - , Mac OS X, , Linux
. , , . -, , , . , - , AWK ( 20 12), ftp ( V) sort ( V) .
(www.sobell.com) , , , Linux OS X, , , , , - .
, . - -, ([email protected]), - . (www.sobell.com) , . -, Linux
.
(Mark G. Sobell)-,
19
-
1 . Linux Mac OS X
, - , - , - , , , , , . : . , - , , , . - , , (), ( ), , , . , -
- . , GNU, .
Linux - (Linus Torvalds), ,
. Linux 0 .01 1991 .
. - , - , BSD UNIX System V UNIX (SVR4) . Linux , Linus UNIX
.
Linux, , - ( ) . , . , . - , , , , ( , -) . GNU
(www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-sw.html) :
, . ,
, ( ) .
OS X Mach, - (Carnegie Mellon University, CMU),
. CMU 1994 , . Much
Linux
Mach
-
Mac OS X : Mac OS X Mach FreeBSD, BSD GNU, BSD, Apple .
LINUX, OS X UNIXLinux OS X UNIX. Linux OS X. , Linux, OS X
Linux, , OS X Linux, . Linux Linux , Linux, OS X.
UNIX GNULinux , UNIX Linux, GNU Linux . www.levenez.com/unix - ,
UNIX .
UNIX Linux UNIX , -UNIX , - , - , . , , - , .
UNIX . 1975 UNIX , Bell Labs . , , , . UNIX , . , . , UNIX -UNIX
- - .
UNIX, - (Computer Sys-tems Research Group, CSRG)
. , - UNIX, Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD) UNIX system (
Berkeley UNIX) . UNIX System V (SVR4), -, AT&T UNIX
BSD (Berkeley) UNIX
UNIX GNULinux 21
-
System Laboratories . Mac OS X BSD .
1983 (Richard Stallman, www.stallman.org) 1 GNU, -GNU, -, - , ,
, GNU Manifesto2, :
GNU, Gnu UNIX (Gnus Not UNIX), UNIX- , , , .
, , , :
. , GNU. , , GNU - . , . , free , . , free, -free, -, -. , - , ,
. , - , .
:
GNU. , ,
, , . , , . . . -, , : , .
1 www.gnu.org/gnu/initial-announcement.html2
www.gnu.org/gnu/manifesto.html
22 1. Linux Mac OS X
-
, , - , -. , MIT ( ) - GNU.
, 1991 GNU . GNU, . :
90- ( GNU Hurd1, Mach2). , , 3.
, , , UNIX- .
, , GNU. 4 , , GNU 1984 . UNIX- GNU GNU. GNU GNU. Linux [GNU]
5.
GNU FreeBSD (www.freebsd.org) NetBSD (www.netbsd.org), Linux,
-Linux, -, - Hurd Darwin (developer.apple.com/opensource), - .
, UNIX , . , UNIX -UNIX - - , , . , -
1 www.gnu.org/software/hurd/hurd.html2
www.gnu.org/software/hurd/gnumach.html3
www.gnu.org/software/hurd/hurd-and-linux.html4
www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-sw.html5
www.gnu.org/gnu/linux-and-gnu.html
UNIX GNULinux 23
-
UNIX, . UNIX , , .
, UNIX- : (Doug Comer) XINU, (Andrew Tanenbaum) MINIX . Linux,
MINIX . , ( MINIX), , . Linux .
Linux . GNU, . - Free Software Foundation (www.fsf.org), (GNU),
, , Linux ( , Ubuntu, Red Hat, openSUSE), , .
Linux GNU GNU General Public License (GPL,
www.gnu.org/licenses/licenses.html) . GPL , , - . , . - , , GPL, ,
GPL- . - copyright ( , ), copyleft . ( GPL, , . GPL, .)
! Linux ! (Have Fun!) . . UNIX, Linux , . , (less) (more): GNU ,
UNIX more, less . PostScript ghostscript ( ), vi elvis . -
MINIX
GPL
24 1. Linux Mac OS X
-
, , Intel, - Intel Inside ( ), Linux- Linux Inside . Linus
Inside .
Linux? Linux UNIX- . UNIX- . UNIX, Linux UNIX : Linux BSD System
V, Linux , Linux UNIX , . , - , GNU Linux .
1985 - POSIX (Portable Operating System Interface for Computer
Environments) , - UNIX System V Interface Definition (SVID) . , - ,
. 1988 , POSIX IEEE-, API (application program interface), - .
UNIX- , - . , , - , - , UNIX, Linux .
Linux , , , - , , , - , - . Linux -, Linux, GNU, KDE , Linux . ,
, Linux, IBM (www.ibm.com/linux) . Linux POSIX, - . , Linux -
Linux? 25
-
- .
Linux
, . Linux . , , , , - .
- (-
), , - . . Netscape, , Linux Java , - . , , ,
Mozilla-Thunderbird-Firefox .
Linux Intel ( Apple): - Power PC, Apple (ppclinux), Compaq (
Digital Equipment Corpora-tion) Alpha, MIPS-, Motorola 68K, 64- IBM
S/390 . Linux : 2 .0, (SMP) . O(1), SMP- .
Linux , , . - , Linux , - DOS, Windows Macintosh . , Wine
(www.winehq.com) - Windows API, X Window System UNIX/Linux .
(VM, ) -
. - VM, (, ) . , , (VMM) . , , . , -
26 1. Linux Mac OS X
-
, Windows, Ubuntu 7 .10, Ubuntu 9 .04 Fedora 10 . . ( ) .
-, :
, : - .
, , . , - , .
, - .
, () , , . . , , , .
. - .
- , () .
, .
(), , - .
- , , .
Linux? 27
-
Xen, - , (VMM), . Xen .
Xen . - Xen -Xen - - - www.cl.cam.ac.uk/research/srg/netos/xen,
- wiki.xensource.com/xenwiki .
VMware, Inc . (www.vmware.com) VMware Server, , , Linux . VMware
Server , , Windows Linux . VMware - VMware player, VMware Server
.
, (Kernel-based Virtual Machine, KVM; kvm.qumranet.com
libvirt.org), , Linux . Intel VT (VMX) AMD SVM .
Qemu (bellard.org/qemu), (Fabrice Bellard), VMM , - , - - . , ,
, - .
VirtualBox (www.virtualbox.org) - , Sun Microsystems .
Linux , , UNIX Linux -UNIX Linux - Linux -Linux - - . -, , . -
70- - , - . 64- , , - , - .
Xen
VMware
KVM
Qemu
VirtualBox
28 1. Linux Mac OS X
-
-, -, - , , -
(, DEC/Compaq VMS) . , .
- (UNIX, OS X, Windows) (Linux) . Linux -
- , . , ( , Microsoft Windows) . , . . - , - .
UNIX , -UNIX , - , - - , , . Linux , : .
Linux , . 95 % Linux C, , - . ( - C C .)
Linux , () - . , Linux , - , , , . . , Linux - .
-
Linux? 29
-
.
Linux -Linux - - , . Linux , -; . Linux -Linux - - , .
: , , -, , .
- . , .
C (Ken Thompson) UNIX 1969 PDP-7 . -: -PDP-7 . -: --7 . -: -, ,
, , . UNIX ( ) .
UNIX , - B, - , BCPL . (Dennis Ritchie) C, - B, 1973 UNIX C . C
. - .
C . , . C - . , C . -C . - . - .
C ( -, , ) .
C . . ,
30 1. Linux Mac OS X
-
, . C , - . , - .
80- (American National Standards Institute, ANSI) C, ANSI C C89
( ) . C99, - GNU ( gcc) . Kernighan & Ritchie ( K&R) C, (
), C .
Linux
. 1 .1 . Linux
, Bell Labs, (Bjarne Strou-strup), - C++, C . - -C . - - . - - ,
C++ , C . Objective-C, - . -, GNU, C, C++ Objective-C .
Linux Linux . , . UNIX, ( . . 1 .1) , .
Linux 31
-
Linux , Linux , - , -, , , , DVD -, . , - . - . , write() , .
write() - . , . - ( ) .
Linux - Linux , . , , , . , - , . , , , - . - . , , , , - .
Linux Linux , . , - , , - . ,
32 1. Linux Mac OS X
-
, , . X Window System - . .
Linux , , , , - . , . Linux - , , . . , . ., . , . , - ( . 1 .2)
.
,
, Linux Filesystem Standard (FSSTND), Linux Filesystem Hierarchy
Standard (FHS) . Linux . , Linux, . Overview of Linux 13
Links A link allows a given file to be accessed by means of two
or more names. The alter-native names can be located in the same
directory as the original file or in anotherdirectory. Links can
make the same file appear in several users directories,
enablingthose users to share the file easily. Windows uses the term
shortcut in place of linkto describe this capability. Macintosh
users will be more familiar with the termalias. Under Linux, an
alias is different from a link; it is a command macro
featureprovided by the shell (page 324).
Security Like most multiuser operating systems, Linux allows
users to protect their datafrom access by other users. It also
allows users to share selected data and programswith certain other
users by means of a simple but effective protection scheme.
Thislevel of security is provided by file access permissions, which
limit the users who canread from, write to, or execute a file. More
recently, Linux has implemented AccessControl Lists (ACLs), which
give users and administrators finer-grained controlover file access
permissions.
The Shell: Command Interpreter and Programming Language
In a textual environment, the shellthe command interpreteracts
as an interfacebetween you and the operating system. When you enter
a command on the screen,the shell interprets the command and calls
the program you want. A number ofshells are available for Linux.
The four most popular shells are
The Bourne Again Shell (bash), an enhanced version of the
original Bourne Shell (the original UNIX shell).
The Debian Almquist Shell (dash), a smaller version of bash,
with fewer features. Most startup shell scripts call dash in place
of bash to speed the boot process.
Figure 1-2 The Linux filesystem structure
/
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report log
000.book.fm Page 13 Wednesday, September 30, 2009 10:13 AM
. 1 .2 . Linux
Linux 33
-
- . -
. , - . Windows (shortcut) . Macintosh (alias) . Linux ; , -
.
, Linux -
. , . , , , . Linux - Access Control Lists (ACL), - .
: . , . Linux . :
Bourne Again Shell (bash), - Bourne Shell ( UNIX) .
Debian Almquist Shell (dash), bash, . - dash bash .
TC Shell (tcsh), C Shell, , - BSD UNIX .
Z Shell (zsh), , Korn Shell .
, . - Linux: , .
, - , ,
. , ( Linux ; Windows
34 1. Linux Mac OS X
-
) . , , , , , - .
, , - , , . - . , , :
, . . , - mak* make-3.80.tar.gz . , .
Readline, -Readline, -, - , , : ESCAPE, , , , .
(, ) Linux- .
Linux . - .
, , , - , . ,
. , cat . -
cat , .
- . -, , . .
-
-
Linux 35
-
, Bourne Again Shell, , -Bourne Again Shell, , - Again Shell, ,
-Again Shell, , - Shell, , -Shell, , -, , - , - . , .
, . . , , - . , , , , . ( BSD UNIX, C Shell .)
Linux , -, . , , , . sort, , ( ) , , , , , , , . . sort , Linux-
. , , , , , , , , . man ( manual ) info Linux .
Linux . -
. , , . , - . - .
. , sort head (, ); lpr, .
36 1. Linux Mac OS X
-
, .
Linux . . , . ( ), - , , , , . , , .
Linux Linux BSD, System V Solaris ( Sun Microsystems), . , UNIX,
Linux, . , Linux .
GUI X Window System ( X X11) - -
(Massachusetts Institute of Technology, MIT) Linux . , X, , , ,
- , . X - , , , .
Mac OS X , - . -
Macintosh Aqua, - Mac OS X . Aqua -
X11
Aqua
Linux 37
-
Quartz . Mac OS X X11, Quartz .
X : (desktop manager) - (window manager) . -
, - , . Linux - GNOME (www.gnome.org), - KDE (www.kde.org) - .
Mac OS X Aqua, X11, X11 .
,
, - , . - . Microsoft Windows , X - : ( , ), , .
X Linux . - Linux Metacity ( - GNOME) kwin ( KDE) . , Sawfish
WindowMaker .
Mac OS X Quartz, Apple Aqua . X11 quartz-wm, Apple Aqua, X11 Mac
, Mac OS X .
Linux , . , , , , -, . , , - , (local area network, LAN) (wide
area network, WAN), .
38 1. Linux Mac OS X
-
, , . , - , .
Linux . Linux . C C++, , Linux, Ada, Fortran, Java, Lisp,
Pascal, Perl Python . bison (), , ( , , ) . flex (, ) . make, , GNU
(GNU Configure and Build System), - . (Source code management
systems), CVS, - . , ups gdb, . GNU C- (gcc) - gprof, . C C-, ,
.
Apple Xcode, OS X, -, .
Linux UNIX - ( Windows), ( ) . UNIX Linux . Linux UNIX-, - , , -
GNU . Linux . , , Linux . , Linux, , -
39
-
Linux , , , , , , .
1 . (free software)? -
.
2 . Linux? ?
3 . ? ?
4 . (Free Software Foundation) GNU? Linux? Linux - ? ?
5 . Linux? Linux?
6 . ()?
7 . ? ? ?
8 . - ?
9 . Linux ?
10 . ?
11 . .
12 . , Linux? ?
13 . GNU General Public License .
40 1. Linux Mac OS X
-
I
Linux OS X
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
-
2 . !
, , , , , Linux . , -Linux . , - . , - (GUI) . , (command-line
interface, CLI) . GUI, -command-line interface, CLI) . GUI, --line
interface, CLI) . GUI, -line interface, CLI) . GUI, - interface,
CLI) . GUI, -interface, CLI) . GUI, -, CLI) . GUI, -CLI) . GUI, -)
. GUI, -GUI, -, -, , , xterm, Konsole, GNOME Terminal, Terminal (
Mac OS X), ( . . 61) .
, , , . , - . , (root privileges), , , , . Linux . , .
, (root-) . , : , , , , .
, , - . .
Mac OS X Mac OS X, Mac OS X Server . -
.
Mac OS X 10 .5 (Leopard) . -
, OS X , - . - (www.sobell.com) .
, - :
$ cat practice , .
Mac OS X
Mac OS X
-
, , . ($)
, Linux, - , -, .
Arial . - emacs ls ls
( ls), ls a, . , , , .
. , memo5, letter.1283 reports .
, . Linux ext2, ext3 ext4, , memo5, MEMO5 Memo5 .
HFS+, Mac OS X , -HFS+, Mac OS X , -+, Mac OS X , -Mac OS X , -
OS X , -OS X , - X , -X , - , - , OS X memo5, MEMO5 Memo5 . - . 100
.
. -
, . - , passwd: Sorry, passwords do not match1 .
:
, 2, ESCAPE TAB .
, , , .
, CONTROL, CONTROL+D . (, D , , SHIFT; CONTROL+D CONTROL d
.)
1 ( ) . . .
2 . . RET, NEWLINE, ENTER, RETURN . . , , .
, 43
-
, Linux . ($), (#), - (%) .
, . . , .
, - . : $ vim memo.1204
- vim, vim memo.1204 . ( vim ESCAPE ZZ; vim 6 .) , .
, FOLDOC, (Denis Howe), -
Free On-Line Dictionary of Computing (foldoc.org), . , , , .
, , . , , - . , , , . .
-, URL-, http://, : ftp:// https:// . ,
, , http://, FTP- HTTP- . , URL- , .
, Linux- .
. .
. , .
URL- (-)
, - -
44 2. !
-
, , , - , (issue) ( /etc/issue) . Linux, , , . :
Ubuntu 9.10 tiny tty1
. - . Max, tiny:
tiny login: maxPassword:Last login: Wed Mar 10 19:50:38 from
dog[max@tiny max]$
login:, , . login: , CONTROL+Q ( Xon) .
, ? , , : . , , , . , , , , . , , .
Apple, PC, Linux- , , ssh, telnet - , , IP- , . , , - . , , . ,
Linux . Mac OS X .
45
-
TELNET telnet , , . ssh , , , , telnet. ssh , Linux. ssh .
, ssh - Linux:$ ssh max@tinymax@tiny's password:Permission
denied, please try again. , , max@tiny's password:Last login: Wed
Mar 10 21:21:49 2005 from dog[max@tiny max]$
Max , -Max , - , - , . , , - - -, , , at (@) . Max ssh tiny
.
( -), , . , , motd, /etc/motd .
($) . -, , , , , . $ ( ) - (max), at (@), (tiny) , Max . 8,
bash, 9, - tcsh .
TERM TERM . TERM , . , .
(GUI) UNIX, Linux ( -Linux ( - ( -
46 2. !
-
command-line interface, CLI) . , , ssh telnet .
() - . , . . .
- , . -
- , - , , . , GUI - - . , - . - , GUI , . , , - , - .
, - , GUI . , , ( . chmod V) .
- , , , , -
, , . -, , . , , dpkg-reconfigure, .
, , , , - . . : 5, Bourne Again Shell, , TC Shell, 8, 9 TC
Shell, 10 ( ) Bourne Again Shell .
-
-
47
-
? Bourne Again Shell (bash) TC Shell (tcsh) . , bash, , , tcsh -
, Z Shell (zsh) . ps . ps .$ ps PID TTY TIME CMD 2402 pts/5
00:00:00 bash 7174 pts/5 00:00:00 ps
, : bash ps . tcsh, bash ps tcsh . , ps .
, , - . , , - .
: -, . : , , .
, , . . , - . , - . , - . , - . , - . , - . , - . , - , - .
BACKSPACE . , DELETE, CONTROL+H . , stty1 ( . . 49):$ stty
ek
stty V .
1 stty set teletypewriter, , UNIX . stty .
48 2. !
-
, CONTROL+W . , . CONTROL+W, ( ) ( ) .
CONTROL+Z , ( CONTROL+Z) , . , Stopped (), , . fg, , . 155.
, . , , . CONTROL+U . , CONTROL+X . , stty, .48 .
. , , , , .
- (CONTROL+C , , DELETE DEL) . - - , . 841 V .
, ( CONTROL+Z), jobs, , kill, . , ( [1]) . kill TERM, , (%1) .
TERM -, kill .$ bigjobCONTROL+Z[1]+ Stopped bigjob
49
-
$ jobs[1]+ Stopped bigjob$ kill -TERM %1$ [1]+ Killed bigjob
kill . , . , . , , , (KILL) . - , . . 154 kill . 738 .
Linux . , .
( ), , , .
Bourne Again Shell , . , , - . , . , ; - . , .
, bash tcsh, . - . , , . , .
- . . .
- bash 8 tcsh 9 .
su/sudo: (root-) UNIX Linux root . root ( root-),
50 2. !
-
, . , root-, , . root- , - , . root-, . -, -, , .
ROOT- oot, . oot, . , . oot, . . oot , Linux.
root- . -root- . -- . - root . root-, . , , su (substitute user
), , root-, root-, . root -root - - su root- , root . , -root . , -
. , - su .$ ls -l /lost+foundls: cannot open directory /lost+found:
Permission denied /lost+found: $ su -c 'ls -l /lost+found'Password:
root total 0$
, , - root-, /lost+found: - ls . su c (command ) root- . , - .
(ls , - ), root- . su root- . root- (#) . exit .$ suPassword: root#
ls -l /lost+found
su/sudo: (oot) 51
-
total 0# exitexit$
(, Ubuntu) root ( root) -root ( root) - ( root) -root) -) - sudo
(www.sudo.ws), root- . sudo root- ( root) . , root- /lost+found .$
sudo ls -l /lost+found[sudo] password for sam: total 0$
i sudo root- . root- -root- . root- -- . root- -root- -- - (#) .
exit .$ sudo -i[sudo] password for sam: # ls -l /lost+foundtotal 0#
exitlogout$
Linux - . Linux . man (manual ) info, - man info . , Linux, . ,
Linux .
help GNU- help, . , GNU, h help .$ cat --helpUsage: cat [OPTION]
[FILE]Concatenate FILE(s), or standard input, to standard output.
-A, --show-all equivalent to -vET -b, --number-nonblank number
nonblank output lines
52 2. !
-
-e equivalent to -vE -E, --show-ends display $ at end of each
line
, help, , - less, :$ ls --help | less
man: man ( . V) man- . , , , - . man- - , Linux . , man-,
apropos . , , - .
. 2 .1 . man,
- MAN http://tldp.og/manpages/man.html man. , HTML, man.
, man, . . 2 .1 man, ; man man .
53
-
man , less, .
less , , , Manual page man(1) line 1, , , . h (help ), less . q
(quit ), - . . 66 .
FHS (Filesystem Hierarchy Standard - ), Linux
man- , - :
1 . User Commands ( ) .
2 . System Calls ( ) .
3 . Subroutines () .
4 . Devices () .
5 . File Formats ( ) .
6 . Games () .
7 . Miscellaneous () .
8 . System Administration ( ) .
9 . Kernel () .
10 . New () .
UNIX . , man - , . 1, 6 7; .
. , man- passwd 1 :$ man passwd
man- passwd 5, :$ man 5 passwd
man man- 5 . , man- passwd(5) . man- , a (adjacent ), , q . , ,
passwd, man a passwd .
less
54 2. !
-
. , . , , . . . 138.
apropos: , , apropos - . ( ) man- , . man k (keyword ) , apropos
.
, apropos, whatis, Linux- , -Linux- , -- , - cron ( cron V ,
crontab) .
, apropos who . , - , , man- . (who) , :$ apropos whoat.allow
(5) - determine who can submit jobs via at or batchat.deny (5) -
determine who can submit jobs via at or batchfrom (1) - print names
of those who have sent mailw (1) - Show who is logged on and what
they are doing.w.procps (1) - Show who is logged on and what they
are doing.who (1) - show who is logged onwhoami (1) - print
effective userid
. 2 .2 . , info coeutils
55
-
whatis whatis apropos, , :$ whatis whowho (1) - show who is
logged on
info: info, , , - , GNU - Linux . info - Linux, , GNU . info
www.gnu.org/software/texinfo/manual/info . . 2 .2 , info info
coreutils (coreutils , Linux) .
MAN INFO info GNU , man. man , info, man info. man , , GNU. info
, GNU, man.
, , . info- :
? info;
, ;
m , ;
m , ;
q CONTROL+C info.
info, , . C-h , CONTROL+H . , M-x META ALT x . , META+X, ESCAPE,
x . : - . 231 .
, INFO PINFO pinfo info, , emacs. , info, . , pinfo . pinfo
.
56 2. !
-
. 2 .3 . info coeutils, /sleep
info coreutils /sleep, sleep . / , Search for string []: , . , .
sleep , sleep .
sleep ( . 2 .3) - / ( /sleep) . - , . , .
info-, . , , , . menu . , sleep, m sleep, . m ( menu), ( , /)
Menu item: . sleep , .
. 2 .4 sleep . , . n, p . ( sleep .) man info . -
57
-
PostScript-, , man t . , man t cat | lpr cat . -, -
www.tldp.org, - .
. 2 .4 . info, sleep
HOWTO: , HOWTO , -, Linux, -Linux, - - . Mini-HOWTO . Linux, ,
-Linux, , -, , - HOWTO, .
HOWTO mini-HOWTO - Linux (Linux Documentation Project, LDP) . -
www.tldp.org, HOWTOs, HOWTO mini-HOWTO . HOWTO , LDP .
, Linux .
58 2. !
-
. 2 .5 . Google
,
/usr/share/doc /usr/src/linux/Documentation ( - )
, , man info . , , . , .
, grep info . , , zcat ( . V), less .$ less
/usr/share/doc/grep/README$ zcat /usr/share/doc/info/README.gz |
less
, Linux . . , , , Google ( www.google.com Linux
www.google.com/linux) . , . , , ( . 2 .5) .
/usr/share/doc
59
-
GNU www.gnu.org/manual . GNU (www.gnu.org) - GNU- . GNU- - .
. 2 .6 . Linux Documentation Poject
Linux (Linux Documentation Project, www.tldp.org, . 2 .6), -
Linux, , HOWTO, , man-
, Linux . , -, , , . . - , , Linux ( Links Search
www.tldp.org/links) . , , , , - , .
, - .
GNU
Linux
60 2. !
-
Linux , . - , 63 ( ) . , . , CONTROL ALT, , , . , CONTROL+ALT+F5
. , CONTROL+ALT+F1, .
, . , , . , , ( ) .
, , , , , . - , , . - - - , .
:
. , , , .
. , - . , , .
. , . .
- CONTROL+D .
61
-
EOF (end of file ) . -EOF (end of file ) . - (end of file ) .
-end of file ) . - of file ) . -of file ) . - file ) . -file ) . -
) . - - - - - - - -- exit . ; , . , , GNOME, GNOME .
- , , . .
: , , , ( ). , .
, , , , ( ) . . , , : , , , .
. , ; . , : , .
, passwd . passwd () . , , - , . .
PWGEN pwgen (, , ) . , , , .
, , . , . , , , - :Sorry, passwords do not match ,
, :You must choose a longer password
62 2. !
-
, :Bad: new password is too simple :
, . , , - passwd .
. , -, root-, passwd, .
OS X passwd , Keychain . Keychain -Keychain . Keychain - .
Keychain -Keychain - - . , Keychain Access .
, ,
. :
( - ) . - .
, , - .
, , .
.
, - .
. - (, CONTROL+H), . . .
Linux, , -Linux, , -, , - . login: , . passwd . , , , .
. - . - - , . -
63
-
. - , root-, - root su sudo . root- .
root-, . -, root-, - . , .
man . , Linux, , . info , Linux .
1 . ,
: Login incorrect
, , , , . ?
2 . . ? . , .
3 . fido ? .
4 . , ?
5 . dog . ? . ?
1 . tcsh, root- .
2 . man- Devices () ? (: Devices Special
Files .)
3 . apropos: , man- passwd 1 5 . , - man, , .
4 . , Linux ?
64 2. !
-
3 .
Linux, (GUI): , - (command-line interface, CLI) . . - Linux , ,
, - . , GUI- . GUI , , .
( . - 5, 8 10) . , , - . : ls, cat, rm, less hostname . , , , -,
, , , , , .
, . . 157 . , , , - . , - ( emacs ), :& ; | * ? ' " ' [ ] (
) $ < > { } # / \ ! ~
, , TAB, , .
, , . - , - .
, , , ( ) . -
-
. - . (/) - , .
, - (\) .
, (, ** \*\*) . , (\\) .
: '**' . -
, : ' : >' . , .
(CONTROL+H), - (CONTROL+U) ( CONTROL+M) , CONTROL+V . . :$ echo
'xxxxxxCONTROL+U'$ echo xxxxxxCONTROL+V CONTROL+U
, CONTROL+U, , , , . echo od (octal display ), , CONTROL+U 25
(025):
$ echo xxxxxxCONTROL+V CONTROL+U | od c
0000000 x x x x x x 025 \n
0000010
\n , echo .
Linux , , . , , -, , . , . , .
66 3.
-
, , . , , GUI, .
, - , . -
, Windows Mac OS X, Linux GUI, . : , , ( ) .
. : , , . 4.
ls: , practice . ( vim 6, emacs 7 .) , , ls (list ) . , 3 .1, ls
practice . ( , .) , 3 .1, - . . V info coreutils 'ls invocation'
.
3.1. ls, cat rm practice
$ lspractice$ cat practice , $ rm practice$ cat practicecat:
practice: No such file or directiory
cat: cat . catenate, . ( 5, - 5 .4 cat - .)
67
-
cat, . 3 .1 cat, practice . ls cat: ls , cat . V info coreutils
'cat invocation' .
rm: rm (remove ) . 3 .1 rm, practice . rm , ls cat , practice .
( ls , cat , .) rm . V info coreutils 'rm invocation' .
, ( ), , m. m i , m , , , y (yes ). , y, .$ rm -i toollistrm:
remove regular file 'toollist'? y
. m i (. 8, m i (. 8, i (. 8, i (. 8, (. 8, ) (. .103), m .
less more: , , - less, more . , - . -, . less more . , less END
, , , q . h , . less practice more practice cat, 3 .1, - 3 .1, -3
.1, -, . - , less /usr/share/dict/words . less more V man- .
68 3.
-
hostname: hostname , . - , , . man- .$ hostnamedog
, , -, , , , .
( ) T, oune gain Shell, , T, oune gain Shell, , , oune gain
Shell, , oune gain Shell, , gain Shell, , gain Shell, , Shell, ,
Shell, , , , . , . , . , , , . T , T (. , oune gain Shell 8)
CONTROL+D (. , TC Shell 9), .
cp: cp (copy ) ( 3 .2) . , ( -) . cp .
, cp, , -:cp _ _
_ , cp, _- , cp () .
3.2. cp
$ lsmemo$ cp memo memo.copy$ lsmemo memo.copy
cp, 3 .2, - 3 .2, -3 .2, - memo memo.copy . , . ls , memo -
69
-
. cp ls : memo memo.copy .
. 30 (0130):$ cp memo memo.0130
Linux , , . - , . . 99 .
cp V info-, info coreutils 'cp invocation' . - , scp, ftp rsync,
V .
CP , cp, cp, , . cp ( ) , , cp . cp i (inteactive ) . , oange.2
cp. , y:$ cp i orange orange.2cp: overwrite 'orange.2'? y
mv: mv (move ) . , mv, , , - cp:mv __ __
3 .3 memo memo.0130 . ls , memo . - mv memo.0130 . , 3 .2 cp
.
mv . - mv, cp: . 110 . V, , info coreutils 'mv invocation' .
MV , cp, mv . , cp, mv i (inteactive). . cp .
70 3.
-
3.3. mv
$ lsmemo$ mv memo memo.0130$ lsmemo.0130
lpr: lpr (line printer ) . Linux , . . ( , ), lpstat p . lpr - ,
( ) , P . report:$ lpr report
, , . , .
, - mailroom:$ lpr -P mailroom report
, , - lpstat o lpq:$ lpqlp is ready and printing Rank Owner Job
Files Total Sizeactive max 86 (standard input) 954061 bytes
Max , , . , ( 86) lprm:$ lprm 86
. - laser1:$ lpr -P laser1 05.txt 108.txt 12.txt
lpr lpr 4 man- .
71
-
grep: grep1 . , , - , .
grep 3 .4 memo , credit, , . memo , discredit, creditor
accreditation, grep , , . w (words ) -words ) - ) - grep . , , -
.
3.4. grep
$ cat memoHelen:In our meeting on June 6 wediscussed the issue
of credit.Have you had any further thoughtsabout it? Max$ grep
'credit' memodiscussed the issue of credit.
grep , . V -V - - man- .
head: head ( ) . , - . , months, 12 , , head Jan Oct ( 3 .5)
.
3.5. head , tail
$ head monthsJanFebMarApr
1 grep , ed UNIX-, Linux . g/re/p . g global ( ), re , , p
(print) .
72 3.
-
MayJunJulAugSepOct$ tail -5 monthsAugSepOctNovDec
head , - , . . , , . , months:$ head -1 monthsJan
head , . V info coreutils 'head invocation' .
tail: , tail head, . , - , , , , .
tail 3 .5 ( Aug Dec) months .
logfile:$ tail -f logfile
tail -, ( CONTROL+C) . V info coreutils 'tail invocation' .
3.6. sort
$ cat daysMondayTuesdayWednesdayThursdayFriday
73
-
3.6 ()
Sunday$ sort
daysFridayMondaySaturdaySundayThursdayTuesdayWednesday
sort: sort , - . 3 .6 cat, - days, , . sort .
sort - . u , ( ) . n . - V info coreutils 'sort invocation'
.
uniq: uniq (unique ) , -unique ) , - ) , - ) , -) , - , . , ,
uniq - ( 3 .7) .
uniq , . (, sort , u .) V info coreutils 'uniq invocation' .
diff: diff (difference ) . . , .
diff u (unified output format -unified output format - output
format -output format - format -format - -) , , (+), () . 3 .8
colors.1, colors.2 .
74 3.
-
3.7. uniq, -
$ cat dupsCathyFredJoeJohnMaryMaryPaula$ uniq
dupsCathyFredJoeJohnMaryPaula
diff u , (hunk) . , - at (@@) . , , . - 3 .8 colors.1 ( ) . +1,5
, colors.2 .
diff u - , . , , . , , . , ( , ), . V info-, diff .
3.8. diff,
$ diff -u colors.1 colors.2--- colors.1 2009-07-29
16:41:11.000000000 -0700+++ colors.2 2009-07-29 16:41:17.000000000
-0700@@ -1,6 +1,5 @@red+bluegreenyellow-pinkpurpleorange
file: file . file ,
75
-
letter_e.bz2 , bzip2, - :$ file letter_e.bz2letter_e.bz2: bzip2
compressed data, block size = 900k
file :$ file memo zach.jpgmemo: ASCII textzach.jpg: JPEG image
data, resolution (DPI), 72 x 72
file V -V - - man- .
| (): Linux, . . 151 .
Linux- ( . - . 321) . UNIX Linux . ( [|] -) . - . UNIX Linux, ,
. ( . 143 .) -, , . , . , - . , head , head, . months ( . 3 .5)
head :$ sort months | head -4AprAugDecFeb
-, (, ) . wc (word count ) w (words ) -words ) - ) - , :$ ls |
wc -w14
76 3.
-
, - :$ tail months | lpr
echo date - Linux- . script , todos unix2dos , , Windows Mac OS
X .
echo: echo , echo . 3 .9 . , (*), : , .
echo Linux- . , * . 158, echo . - 4, 8 10 echo , .
3.9. echo ( echo)
$ lsmemo memo.0714 practice$ echo HiHi$ echo This is a
sentence.This is a sentence.$ echo star: *star: memo memo.0714
practice$
V -V - - info coreutils 'echo invocation' . echo, - bash tcsh,
man- .
echo , :
$ echo 'My new file.' > myfile
$ cat myfile
My new file. , (>) echo myfile . -myfile . - . - . 146 .
77
-
date: date :$ dateWed Mar 18 17:12:20 PDT 2009
, , , :$ date +"%A %B %d"Wednesday March 18
V info coreutils 'date invocation' .
script: script , , . , , . vim, , vim - , , , .
cat , vim, .
script typescript . , script - . , script, , a . , script:$
scriptScript started, file is typescript$ whoamisam$ ls -l /bin |
head -5total 5024-rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 2928 Sep 21 21:42
archdetect-rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 1054 Apr 26 15:37
autopartition-rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 7168 Sep 21 19:18
autopartition-loop-rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 701008 Aug 27 02:41 bash$
exitexitScript done, file is typescript
, script, - exit . , cat, less, more . , script:$ cat
typescriptScript started on Thu Sep 24 20:54:59 2009
78 3.
-
$ whoamiSam$ ls -l /bin | head -5total 5024-rwxr-xr-x 1 root
root 2928 Sep 21 21:42 archdetect-rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 1054 Apr 26
15:37 autopartition-rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 7168 Sep 21 19:18
autopartition-loop-rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 701008 Aug 27 02:41 bash$
exitexitScript done on Thu Sep 24 20:55:29 2009
vim, emacs - , fromdos dos2unix ( ), ^M, . man-, script .
todos/unix2dos: Linux Mac OS X Windows , Linux-, -, Windows Mac
OS X, , . todos (to DOS DOS, tofrodos) unix2dos (UNIX to DOS UNIX
DOS, unix2dos) Linux, , Windows OS X . memo.txt ( ) DOS-, :$ todos
memo.txt
$ unix2dos memo.txt
-- Windows OS X . , -Windows OS X . , - OS X . , -OS X . , - X .
, -X . , - . , - todos . todos , .bak, b (backup ) . unix2dos - ,
(unix2dos ), n (new ) .
Windows OS X , Linux, fromdos (from DOS DOS, tofrodos) dos2unix
(DOS to
UNIX DOS UNIX, dos2unix):$ fromdos memo.txt
$ dos2unix memo.txt
fromdos dos2unix
79
-
man-, - todos, fromdos, unix2dos dos2unix .
t (translate , . V) Windows OS X Linux . d (delete ) tr ( \r)
:
$ cat memo | tr -d '\r' > memo.txt
, (>) t memo.txt . 5, - . , todos unix2dos, .
- . , --, DVD . , . , - , . , , , . , . , . , , , .
bzip2: bzip2 . - . - - . bzip2 , . - , .
. 8000 - letter_e 72 e , . .$ ls -lrwrwr-- 1 sam sam 584000 Mar
1 22:31 letter_e
l (long ) ls - . , letter_e
80 3.
-
584 000 . v (verbose ) bzip2 , . - 99,99 :$ bzip2 -v
letter_eletter_e: 11680.00:1, 0.001 bits/byte, 99.99% saved, 584000
in, 50 out.$ ls -l-rw-rw-r-- 1 sam sam 50 Mar 1 22:31
letter_e.bz2
50 . bzip2 , .bz2 . - , ;
, . bzip2 , .
K ip2 , unip2, ip2 , unip2, 2 , unip2, unip2, 2, . k (keep )
.
, zach.jpg - :$ ls -l-rw-r--r-- 1 sam sam 33287 Mar 1 22:40
zach.jpg
bzip2 28 , :$ bzip2 -v zach.jpgzach.jpg: 1.391:1, 5.749
bits/byte, 28.13% saved, 33287 in, 23922 out.$ ls -l-rw-r--r-- 1
sam sam 23922 Mar 1 22:40 zach.jpg.bz2
V man-, - bzip2 . - www.bzip.org Bzip2 mini-HOWTO (, , HOWTO: ,
. 58) .
bunzip2 bzcat: , bzip2, bunzip2:$ bunzip2 letter_e.bz2$ ls
-l-rw-rw-r-- 1 sam sam 584000 Mar 1 22:31 letter_e$ bunzip2
zach.jpg.bz2$ ls -l-rw-r--r-- 1 sam sam 33287 Mar 1 22:40
zach.jpg
bzcat , bzip2 . cat .bz2, bzcat . cat, bzcat
.bz2
81
-
. , , - bzcat, head, :$ bzcat letter_e.bz2 | head
-2eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
bzcat letter_e.bz2 , - .
bzip2recover , . -
bzip2recover, , .
gzip: gzip (GNU zip) , bzip2, . ,
gzip, .gz . Linux - gzip- . , - , gzip- . gzip, gunzip zcat -
bzip2, bunzip2 bzcat . V man-, gzip .
compress , - , gzip . ,
.Z .
GZIP ZIP gip gunip ip unip. gip gunip ip unip. gunip ip unip.
gunip ip unip. ip unip. ip unip. unip. unip. . ip, , , indows
indows . ip ip, unip. ip unip PKZIP, indows, .
tar: tar . tape archive . tar - . ( tar-, ) , tar- . cpio ( . V)
.
ls g, b d . tar c (create ), v (verbose ) f (file ) all.tar . ,
tar .
bzip2recover
gunzip zcat
compress
82 3.
-
tar . - all.tar 9700 , 6000 . .$ ls -l g b d-rw-r--r-- 1 zach
other 1178 Aug 20 14:16 b-rw-r--r-- 1 zach zach 3783 Aug 20 14:17
d-rw-r--r-- 1 zach zach 1302 Aug 20 14:16 g$ tar -cvf all.tar g b
dgbd$ ls -l all.tar-rw-r--r-- 1 zach zach 9728 Aug 20 14:17
all.tar$ tar -tvf all.tar-rw-r--r-- zach /zach 1302 2009-08-20
14:16 g-rw-r--r-- zach /other 1178 2009-08-20 14:16 b-rw-r--r--
zach /zach 3783 2009-08-20 14:17 d
t . x t tar- . , tar 1, v .
tar-, - , bzip2, compress gzip .
, , . , tar bzip2, .tar.bz2 .tbz . , tar gzip, - .tar.gz, .tgz
.gz, , tar compress, - .tar.Z .
, tar gzip, . ( , bzip2, , gunzip bunzip2 .) , GNU- make
(ftp.gnu.org/pub/gnu/make/make-3.81.tar.gz):$ ls -l mak*-rw-r--r--
1 sam sam 1564560 Mar 26 18:25 make-3.81.tar.gz$ gunzip mak*$ ls -l
mak*-rw-r--r-- 1 sam sam 6072320 Mar 26 18:25 make-3.81.tar$ tar
-xvf mak*make-3.81/make-3.81/config/
1 UNIX- tar , - , GNU- Linux- , . tar , .
tar-
83
-
make-3.81/config/dospaths.m4make-3.81/config/gettext.m4make-3.81/config/iconv.m4make-3.81/tests/run_make_testsmake-3.81/tests/run_make_tests.plmake-3.81/tests/test_driver.pl
, - tar gzip: make-3.81.tar.gz ( 1,2 ) . (*) ( . * . 158, ls ,
mak . . , . gunzip make-3.81.tar ( .gz), - 4,8 . tar make-3.81, .$
ls -ld mak*drwxr-xr-x 8 sam sam 4096 Mar 31 2006
make-3.81-rw-r--r-- 1 sam sam 6072320 Mar 26 18:25 make-3.81.tar$
ls -l make-3.81total 2100-rw-r--r-- 1 sam sam 53838 Mar 31 2006
ABOUT-NLS-rw-r--r-- 1 sam sam 2810 Mar 19 2006 AUTHORS-rw-r--r-- 1
sam sam 18043 Dec 10 1996 COPYING-rw-r--r-- 1 sam sam 106390 Mar 31
2006 ChangeLog-rw-r--r-- 1 sam sam 16907 Feb 11 2006
vmsjobs.c-rw-r--r-- 1 sam sam 17397 Feb 11 2006 vpath.cdrwxr-xr-x 6
sam sam 4096 Mar 31 2006 w32
tar , , mak: make-3.81.tar make-3.81 . d (directory ) ls - , .
ls , - make-3.81 . V man-, tar .
TAR: X ta . ta . . , , ta t ta. (. mkdi 4), ta mkdi 4), ta 4),
ta ta . , . . , , ta , ta , , . t , ta .
84 3.
-
TAR: X x ta , , . , .
gunzip tar (|), gunzip, tar:
$ gunzip -c make-3.81.tar.gz | tar -xvf -
c gunzip . () tar . , , - . 151, V ( gzip tar) . tar z . tar
gunzip ( gzip, ) :
$ tar -xvzf make-3.81.tar.gz
j bzip2 bunzip2 .
, whereis slocate , , , , . , which , . slocate .
which whereis: Linux - , -
. . , , PATH: , . 312 . , , - . .
which , , . ( 4 -
Linux .) . - . which , - . which tar:$ which tar/bin/tar
which
, 85
-
which , , . which, , , , . ( . 111 .) , , tar -, /bin/tar
/usr/local/bin/tar, , .
whereis , -, , .
, , , - tar:$ whereis tartar: /bin/tar /usr/include/tar.h
/usr/share/man/man1/tar.1.gz
whereis , tar: tar, tar man-, - tar .
WHICH WHEREIS , which () , (. . 312, PTH: , , . , which (, ).
wheeis , . wheeis () , ; wheeis .
WHICH, WHEREIS , which, wheeis, , , , , (. 5, ). wheeis, , echo
( , , ), :$ whereis echoecho: /bin/echo
/usr/share/man/man1/echo.1.gz
wheeis echo. which wheeis echo. which echo. which echo. which .
which which :$ which echo/bin/echo
ash, type (. 10, ), , :$ type echoecho is a shell builtin (echo
, )
slocate locate: slocate (secure locate ), -secure locate ), -
locate ), -locate ), - ), - locate, :
whereis
86 3.
-
$ slocate
motd/usr/share/app-install/icons/xmotd.xpm/usr/share/app-install/desktop/motd-editor.desktop/usr/share/app-install/desktop/xmotd.desktop/usr/share/base-files/motd.md5sums/usr/share/base-files/motd
, slocate locate, - . slocate locate updatedb slocate . - cron (
crontab cron V) .
, , , . , , .
, , , .
, , - , . who -, , , , .
w finger , , . , finger - , . . 3 .1 , .
who: , who , . 3 .10 who , Sam, Max Zach . (Max .) , . -, . . (
) , .
, who, , , . ,
87
-
write ( . ) . who , ( . ) .
, who, , (|, . . 151), less, . - grep, .
, , who am i:$ who am imax tty2 2009-07-25 16:42
3.10. who
$ whosam tty4 2009-07-25 17:18max tty2 2009-07-25 16:42zach tty1
2009-07-25 16:39max pts/4 2009-07-25 17:27 (coffee)
3.11. finger, : ,
$ fingerLogin Name Tty Idle Login Time Office max Max Wild *tty2
Jul 25 16:42max Max Wild pts/4 3 Jul 25 17:27 (coffee)sam Sam the
Great *tty4 29 Jul 25 17:18zach Zach Brill *tty1 1:07 Jul 25
16:39
finger: , finger , . finger - , , , , , - - , , . , , , . , 3
.11 Max coffee . (*), Tty, - , , ( . mesg: . 92) .
FINGER , , finge. , . Mac OS X finge .
88 3.
-
finger - , . 3 .12 finger Max, - (tty2) . (pts/4) 3 7 . finger ,
Max , Zach - 1693 .
3 .12 finger . ,
Plan:, Max . finger .plan Max .
3.12. finger, : ,
$ finger maxLogin: max Name: Max WildDirectory: /home/max Shell:
/bin/tcshOn since Fri Jul 25 16:42 (PDT) on tty2 (messages off)On
since Fri Jul 25 17:27 (PDT) on pts/4 from coffee 3 minutes 7
seconds idleNew mail received Sat Jul 25 17:16 2009 (PDT) Unread
since Sat Jul 25 16:44 2009 (PDT)Plan:I will be at a conference in
Hawaii all next week.If you need to see me, contact Zach Brill,
x1693.: . , . 1693.
( , , .plan, - , ls, .) , .plan, , , , . finger .project
.pgpkey, . Max , finger , , .
finger . , , Helen Simpson, , Helen Simpson, , - hls . finger, ,
Helen, . -, Helen Simpson:
.plan .project
89
-
$ finger HELENLogin: hls Name: Helen Simpson.$ finger
simpsonLogin: hls Name: Helen Simpson.
finger V .
w: , w , . w , , - who: , w, , - .
3 .13 , Max, Zach Sam . , - . , - . , (, , ) . , - , , . , .
, w, , , ( , ), - ( ) . , , , , 1, 5 15 . , uptime . w, who
finger . 3 .1 .
3.13. w
$ w 17:47:35 up 1 day, 8:10, 4 users, load average: 0.34, 0.23,
0.26USER TTY FROM LOGIN@ IDLE JCPU PCPU WHATsam tty4 - 17:18 29:14m
0.20s 0.00s vi memomax tty2 - 16:42 0.00s 0.20s 0.07s wzach tty1 -
16:39 1:07 0.05s 0.00s run_bdgtmax pts/4 coffee 17:27 3:10m 0.24s
0.24s bash
3.1. w, who finger
w who finger
( )
90 3.
-
w who finger
,
,
( /etc/passwd)
,
, , - , , .
write: write , . write , . write - ( 3 .14) .
write :write _ []
3.14. write,
$ write maxHi Max, are you there? o , Ma, ? o
3.15. write,
$ write maxHi Max, are you there? o , Ma, ? oMessage from
[email protected] on pts/0 at 16:23 Yes Zach, I'm here. o , ,
.
_ , - . , , . who, w finger , , .
, , write, , . write - ( 3 .15) . -
91
-
, o ( over ), , , oo ( over and out ), . , CONTROL+D . write ,
EOF (end of file) . .
, , CONTROL+ L CONTROL+ R, .
, , . , , .
mesg: . , :$ mesg y
Max , Zach - , Zach :$ write maxwrite: max has messages disabled
max
mesg n . mesg y ( yes, , ) n ( no, , ) .
- write, , -, , :$ write maxwrite: write: you have write
permission turned off. write
, , -, . .
write , - , .
92 3.
-
, . .
Linux , mailx, , Mozilla/Thunderbird, pine, Kmail , . emacs .
sylpheed (sylpheed.sraoss.jp/en) .
, . procmail (www.procmail.org) , , - ; , - ; . . GNU Privacy
Guard (GPG GNUpg; www.gnupg.org) , .
, , ,
, , . , Max , . , [email protected] .
, , , , Linux- . , .
, . 3 .2, -, , .
3.2.
cp
diff
file
grep ()
head
lpq ,
lpr ()
lprm
93
-
mv ()
sort
tail
uniq , -
, , bzip2 . , , , - . , bzip2 bunzip2, () . . 3 .3 - 3 .3 -3 .3
- , . bzip2 .
3.3.
bunzip2 , bzip2,
bzcat , bzip2
bzip2
compress
gunzip , gzip compress, -
gzip ( , bzip2)
zcat , gzip
, , - , , - , , - . tar ( . 3 .4) . .tar.bz2, .tar.gz .tgz , , ,
tar, , .
3.4.
tar
, . 3 .5, , - . , C++, .
3.5.
locate
whereis , man-
which
3.2 ()
94 3.
-
. 3 .6 , - . , , , , , - .
3.6.
finger ,
hostname
w ,
who ,
, . 3 .7, - 3 .7, -3 .7, - .
3.7.
mesg , write
write ,
. 3 .8
3.8.
date
echo
1 . , , -
?
2 . write ? ?
3 . , , done -?
$ cp to_do done $ mv to_do done
4 . ? Hi $2, I'm number * (guess)!
5 . Ace Electronics phone, ? ? -? -?
6 . , diff -, ? ( gzip .) , , diff , , ASCII .
95
-
7 . .plan . finger .plan?
8 . , which , , ?
9 . , - ? , ?
10 . , file /usr/bin . ?
11 . status.report? ?
1 . colors.1 colors.2, 3 .8 .
, diff u . , ?
2 . : $ echo cat $ cat echo
, .
3 . 5, phone.gz, - . , .
4 . ,
) gzip 80 ;
) gzip 10 ;
) gzip .
ls l , - . , , ?
5 . . , , gzip, - , . man-, uuencode, - ASCII . .
) ASCII, uuencode . , ? . ( uuencode , , yum aptitude, .
sharutils .)
) uuencode ? .
96 3.
-
4 .
, . , - . Linux , , . , . , - , Access Control Lists (ACL), ( )
. - , .
, - df, fsck, mkfs tune2fs, V, -V, -, - .
. -
: , , , - , . - ( . 4 .1) .
1 2
1 2
. 4 .1 .
-
-
Linux . -
. , . Linux- , - . - .
, . ,
. , . , . 4 .2 , - correspond () . : business (), memos ()
personal () .
business , , . , , , , milk_co .
Linux . - .
, , , , , - . . 4 .2 4 .3 , , , . , . , , - . , , , . , - , , .
( . 4 .2 4 .3 .)
, . , , ( , ) ( ) . , . .
98 4.
-
Directory Files and Ordinary Files 79
downward from the root, with paths connecting the root to each
of the other files. Atthe end of each path is either an ordinary
file or a directory file. Special files, whichcan also appear at
the ends of paths, provide access to operating system
features.Ordinary files, or simply files, appear at the ends of
paths that cannot support otherpaths. Directory files, also
referred to as directories or folders, are the points thatother
paths can branch off from. (Figures 4-2 and 4-3 show some empty
directo-ries.) When you refer to the tree, up is toward the root
and down is away from theroot. Directories directly connected by a
path are called parents (closer to the root)and children (farther
from the root). A pathname is a series of names that trace apath
along branches from one file to another. See page 83 for more
informationabout pathnames.
FilenamesEvery file has a filename. The maximum length of a
filename varies with the type offilesystem; Linux supports several
types of filesystems. Although most of todaysfilesystems allow
files with names up to 255 characters long, some filesystems
Figure 4-2 A secretarys directories
correspond
personal
milk_co
businessmemos
cheese_co
letter_2letter_1
Figure 4-3 Directories and ordinary files
DirectoryDirectory
Ordinary FileOrdinary File
Ordinary File Ordinary File
Ordinary File
Directory
Directory
Directory
Directory
000.book.fm Page 79 Wednesday, September 30, 2009 10:13 AM
. 4 .2 .
. 4 .3 .
. - . Linux . - . - - 255 , . , , , , :
(AZ) .
(az) .
(09) .
(_) .
( .) .
(,) .
99
-
, . ( , Linux .) -Linux .) - .) -, , .
. , hold1, wombat junk, , foo foobar . , , . , :
correspond ();
january ();
davis ();
reports ();
2001;
acct_payable (__) .
- , -
. , - DOS Windows, , , . UNIX- 14- , Macintosh 31- . , , , , .
.
stat ( . V) . , Namelen:, , - (/home) .$ stat -f /home | grep -i
name ID: ff1f5275f648468b Namelen: 255 Type: ext2/ext3
f stat . i (case insensitive ) -case insensitive ) - insensitive
) -insensitive ) - ) - grep .
. , - . . 69 .
() , : - . , ext UFS
-
100 4.
-
, JANUARY, January january . FAT (- ) - , . HFS+, OS X, , , -
.
, . , . . : joe.05.04.26, new_stuff. , , , , . my file .$ lpr
my\ file$ lpr "my file"
, . , . 4 .1, . , C, , - . , . , , notes.4.10.01 files.tar.gz .
- Mac OS X , .
4.1.
compute .c C
compute .o compute .c
compute compute .c
memo .0410 .txt
memo .pdf PDF-; GUI xpdf kpdf
memo .ps PostScript- GUI; -- GUI; -GUI; - - gs kpdf
memo .Z , compress; - uncompress gunzip
memo .tgz memo .tar .gz tar- , gzip
101
-
memo .gz , gzip; - zcat, gunzip
memo .bz2 , bzip2; - bzcat, bunzip2
memo .html , -, - Firefox
photo .gif, photo .jpg,photo .jpeg, photo .bmp,photo .tif, or
photo .tiff
, ,
, , ( - ), ls . ls a , . ( . . 103) , .
.plan ( . 3, .plan .project) . - - - - (. ..) ( . . . . . 108)
.
Linux ,
. : ( ) zach . pwd (print working directory ) ( . - 5, ) .
. pwd ( . 4 .1) . - Linux /home, Mac OS X /Users .
ls . , ls , . ( , , - .)
pwd
4.1 ()
102 4.
-
, , - . Mac OS X . , -, stty (set terminal ) ( . . 48) ( . . 49)
.
4.1.
login: maxPassword: Last login: Wed Oct 20 11:14:21 from bravo$
pwd/home/max
, -, , . , , . , , ls a . . 284 ( bash) 9 ( tcsh) .
, . (/) , . , , - . , . , .
.
(/), , - .
(/), . , . , - , . , (/) . ,
/ ( )
103
-
, - . - , , , (, /home/zach/) . , , , . . 4 .4 .
( ), - , , . , Sam, -Sam, -, -, , /usr/bin:$ pwd/home/sam$ ls
/usr/bin7z kwin7za kwin_killer_helper822-date kwin_rules_dialog84
Chapter 4 The Filesystem
~ (Tilde) in PathnamesIn another form of absolute pathname, the
shell expands the characters ~/ (a tildefollowed by a slash) at the
start of a pathname into the pathname of your homedirectory. Using
this shortcut, you can display your .bashrc startup file (page
272)with the following command, no matter which directory is the
working directory:
$ less ~/.bashrc
A tilde quickly references paths that start with your or someone
elses home directory.The shell expands a tilde followed by a
username at the beginning of a pathname intothe pathname of that
users home directory. For example, assuming he has permissionto do
so, Max can examine Sams .bashrc file with the following
command:
$ less ~sam/.bashrc
Refer to Tilde Expansion on page 337 for more information.
Relative PathnamesA relative pathname traces a path from the
working directory to a file. The path-name is relative to the
working directory. Any pathname that does not begin with theroot
directory (represented by /) or a tilde (~) is a relative pathname.
Like absolutepathnames, relative pathnames can trace a path through
many directories. The sim-plest relative pathname is a simple
filename, which identifies a file in the workingdirectory. The
examples in the next sections use absolute and relative
pathnames.
Significance of the Working DirectoryTo access any file in the
working directory, you need only a simple filename. Toaccess a file
in another directory, you must use a pathname. Typing a long
pathnameis tedious and increases the chance of making a mistake.
This possibility is less likelyunder a GUI, where you click
filenames or icons. You can choose a working direc-tory for any
particular task to reduce the need for long pathnames. Your choice
of a
Figure 4-5 Absolute pathnames
/
etctmphome
hlszachmax
notesbin
report log
/home /etc
/home/hls
/home/hls/notes
/home/hls/bin/log
/home/zach
000.book.fm Page 84 Wednesday, September 30, 2009 10:13 AM
. 4 .4 .
~ () - ~/ (, ), , . , .bashrc ( . . 286) ( , ):$ less
~/.bashrc
104 4.
-
, - . , - , . (, ), Max .bashrc, Sam, :$ less ~sam/.bashrc
. 355 .
. , ( /) (~), . , , , . , . - .
. . , . (GUI), . , . - , - , - .
, , , ( ). , , . pwd. , vim, , . , . , goals, :$ vim ~/goals
. 4 .5 . , - , . , , : ,
105
-
. . , , - , - . ( . .. . . . . . 108 .)
/
etctmphome
hlszachmax
notesbin
report log
..
notes
bin/log
.. /zach
=.
. 4 .5 .
( mkdir), - ( cd), ( rmdir), , . , Linux .86 Chapter 4 The
Filesystem
mkdir: Creates a DirectoryThe mkdir utility creates a directory.
The argument (page 941) to mkdir becomes thepathname of the new
directory. The following examples develop the directory struc-ture
shown in Figure 4-7. In the figure, the directories that are added
appear in alighter shade than the others and are connected by
dashes.
In Figure 4-8, pwd shows that Max is working in his home
directory (/home/max)and ls shows the names of the files in his
home directory: demo, names, and temp.Using mkdir, Max creates a
directory named literature as a child of his home direc-tory. He
uses a relative pathname (a simple filename) because he wants the
literaturedirectory to be a child of the working directory. Max
could have used an absolutepathname to create the same directory:
mkdir /home/max/literature or mkdir~max/literature.
The second ls in Figure 4-8 verifies the presence of the new
directory. The F option tols displays a slash after the name of
each directory and an asterisk after each executable
Figure 4-7 The file structure developed in the examples
/
home
max
literature
promo
demonames temp
$ pwd/home/max$ lsdemo names temp$ mkdir literature$ lsdemo
literature names temp$ ls -Fdemo literature/ names temp$ ls
literature$
Figure 4-8 The mkdir utility
000.book.fm Page 86 Wednesday, September 30, 2009 10:13 AM
. 4 .6 . ,
106 4.
-
mkdir: mkdir . mkdir . , . 4 .6 . .
4 .2 pwd , Max (/home/max), ls : demo, names temp .
mkdir, Max literature - . ( ), , literature - . Max : mkdir
/home/max/literature mkdir ~max/literature .
ls, 4 .2, - . F ls - ( , ) . ls , . ls , literature .
4.2. mkdir
$ pwd/home/max$ lsdemo names temp$ mkdir literature$ lsdemo
literature names temp$ ls -Fdemo literature/ names temp$ ls
literature$
promo, - literature . , /home/max , - :$ pwd/home/max$ mkdir
literature/promo
:$ mkdir /home/max/literature/promo
, literature promo, mkdir p (parents ):$ pwd/home/max
107
-
$ lsdemo names temp$ mkdir -p literature/promo
$ mkdir -p /home/max/literature/promo
cd: cd (change directory ) , . 4 .3 /home/max/literature, pwd .
Max cd , - literature . , .
pwd , Max . -Max . - . - cd , . cd, 4 .3, , Max -Max - - . , , ,
Max literature (cd literature) pwd .
4.3. cd
$ cd /home/max/literature$ pwd/home/max/literature$ cd$
pwd/home/max$ cd literature$ pwd/home/max/literature
. . . , , , . , . , . , , . cd . Sam, .
. . . mkdir : (.) (..) . . 4 .5 . (.) - , (..) ,
108 4.
-
. , .
literature (..) - : (/home/max), memoA .$
pwd/home/max/literature$ ls ..demo literature names temp$ cp memoA
..$ ls ..demo literature memoA names temp
cd promo ( literature ) Max vim - .$ cd promo$ vim
../../names
, , , . ls, vim, mkdir, rm Linux- .
rmdir: rmdir (remove directory ) . , -, . .., . , , rm , . ( ) .
.., rmdir . promo:$ rmdir /home/max/literature/promo
rm r (rm r filename), , .
RM R , m , m , , , , . , (*). , .
, -
letter . - touch ( . V):
touch
109
-
$ cd$ pwd/home/max$ touch letter
/home/max, cp letter /home/max/literature/promo . ( promo, .)
letter.0610:$ cp letter literature/promo/letter.0610
Max , -Max , - , - vim :$ vim literature/promo/letter.0610
Max , cd, vim promo :$ cd literature/promo$
pwd/home/max/literature/promo$ vim letter.0610
( /home/max/literature), Max , -Max , - , - ..:$ cd ..$
pwd/home/max/literature90 Chapter 4 The Filesystem
mv, cp: Move or Copy FilesChapter 3 discussed the use of mv to
rename files. However, mv works even moregenerally: You can use
this utility to move files from one directory to another(change the
pathname of a file) as well as to change a simple filename. When
usedto move one or more files to a new directory, the mv command
has this syntax:
mv existing-file-list directory
If the working directory is /home/max, Max can use the following
command to movethe files names and temp from the working directory
to the literature directory:
$ mv names temp literature
This command changes the absolute pathnames of the names and
temp files from/home/max/names and /home/max/temp to
/home/max/literature/names and/home/max/literature/temp,
respectively (Figure 4-10). Like most Linux com-mands, mv accepts
either absolute or relative pathnames.
As you work with Linux and create more files, you will need to
create new directo-ries using mkdir to keep the files organized.
The mv utility is a useful tool for movingfiles from one directory
to another as you extend your directory hierarchy.
The cp utility works in the same way as mv does, except that it
makes copies of theexisting-file-list in the specified
directory.
mv: Moves a DirectoryJust as it moves ordinary files from one
directory to another, so mv can move direc-tories. The syntax is
similar except that you specify one or more directories,
notordinary files, to move:
mv existing-directory-list new-directory
Figure 4-10 Using mv to move names and temp
home
sammaxzach
literature
names temp
names temp
/
000.book.fm Page 90 Wednesday, September 30, 2009 10:13 AM
. 4 .7 . mv names temp
mv, cp: 3 mv . mv :
110 4.
-
( ), . mv - , :mv __
/home/max, Max names temp literature :$ mv names temp
literature
names temp /home/max/names /home/max/temp
/home/max/literature/names /home/max/literature/temp ( . 4 .7) .
Linux, mv , .
Linux , -, mkdir . mv .
cp , mv, , __ .
mv: mv , . , , :mv __ _
_ , __ - , mv _ ( mv ) .
mv, cp , - r (recursive ) . V, tar cpio .
Linux - . - Linux, , Linux- . Linux, FSSTND (Linux Filesystem
Standard) 1994 . 1995 - , UNIX- FHS (Linux Filesystem Hierarchy
Standard Linux;
111
-
proton.pathname.com/fhs) . FHS LSB (Linux Standard Base Linux;
www.linuxfoundation.org/en/LSB), FSG (Free Standards Group ) . ,
FSG Open Source Development Labs (OSDL), Linux Foundation
(www.linuxfoundation.org) . . 4 .8 FHS . . Working with Directories
91
If new-directory does not exist, the existing-directory-list
must contain just onedirectory name, which mv changes to
new-directory (mv renames the directory).Although you can rename
directories using mv, you cannot copy their contents withcp unless
you use the r (recursive) option. Refer to the explanations of
tar(page 846) and cpio (page 644) for other ways to copy and move
directories.
Important Standard Directories and FilesOriginally files on a
Linux system were not located in standard places within
thedirectory hierarchy. The scattered files made it difficult to
document and maintain aLinux system and just about impossible for
someone to release a software packagethat would compile and run on
all Linux systems. The first standard for the Linuxfilesystem, the
FSSTND (Linux Filesystem Standard), was released early in 1994.
Inearly 1995 work was started on a broader standard covering many
UNIX-like sys-tems: FHS (Linux Filesystem Hierarchy Standard;
proton.pathname.com/fhs). Morerecently FHS has been incorporated in
LSB (Linux Standard Base; www.linuxfoun-dation.org/en/LSB), a
workgroup of FSG (Free Standards Group). Finally, FSG com-bined
with Open Source Development Labs (OSDL) to form the Linux
Foundation(www.linuxfoundation.org). Figure 4-11 shows the
locations of some importantdirectories and files as specified by
FHS. The significance of many of these directo-ries will become
clear as you continue reading.
The following list describes the directories shown in Figure
4-11, some of the direc-tories specified by FHS, and some other
directories. Most Linux distributions donot use all the directories
specified by FHS. Be aware that you cannot always deter-mine the
function of a directory by its name. For example, although /opt
stores add-on software, /etc/opt stores configuration files for the
software in /opt.
/ Root The root directory, present in all Linux filesystem
structures, is the ancestor ofall files in the filesystem.
/bin Essential command binaries Holds the files needed to bring
the system up and run itwhen it first comes up in single-user or
recovery mode.
/boot Static files of the boot loader Contains all files needed
to boot the system.
/de
