Lucrarea de Licentza

8/12/2019 Lucrarea de Licentza

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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

I. INTRODUCTION

The word noun comes from the latin nomenmeaning name. Word classes like

nouns were first described by th Sanskrit grammarian Pnini and ancient Greeks like

Dionysios Thra!and defined in terms of theirmor"hological"ro"erties.

#oun is a leical category which is defined in terms of how its members combine with

other grammatical kinds of e"ressions. Since different languages ha$e different in$entories

of grammatical categories! the definition of noun will differ from language to language. %n

&nglish! nouns can be defined as those mor"hological stems that form words which can co'

occur with (in)definite articles and attributi$e ad*ecti$es! and function as the head of a noun

"hrase.

%n traditional school grammars! one often encounters the definition of nouns that they

are all and only those e"ressions that refer to a person! place! thing! event! substance!

quality! or idea! etc. This is a semanticdefinition. %t has been critici+ed by contem"orarylinguists as being ,uite uninformati$e.

-ontem"orary linguists generally agree that one cant define nouns in terms of what

sort of object in the world they refer toor signify. Part of the "roblem is that the definition

makes use of relati$elygeneralnouns (/thing!/ /"henomenon!/ /e$ent/) to define what nouns

are.

0nother "roblem that we encounter in studying noun in different language is the

"roblem of loans. 1oanwords are words ado"ted by the s"eakers of one language from adifferent language (thesource language).0 loanword can also be called a borrowing.

2orrowing is a conse,uence of cultural contact between two language communities.

2orrowing of words can go in both directions between the two languages in contact! but often

there is an asymmetry! such that more words go from one side to the other.The actual "rocess

of borrowing is com"le and in$ol$es many usage e$ents. Generally! some s"eakers of the

borrowing language know the source language too! or at least enough of it to utili+e the

rele$ant words. They ado"t them when s"eaking the borrowing language. 3owe$er! in time

more s"eakers can become familiar with a new foreign word.

4
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panini_(grammarian)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysios_Thraxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panini_(grammarian)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysios_Thraxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)


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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

&nglish has gone through many "eriods in which large numbers of words from a

"articular language were borrowed. These "eriods coincide with times of ma*or cultural

contact between &nglish s"eakers and those s"eaking other languages. The wa$es of

borrowing during "eriods of es"ecially strong cultural contacts are not shar"ly delimited! and

can o$erla".

5urther on! in my study i6ll try to clarify also the "roblem of "lural regarding to

borrowed nouns.

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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

1. The REGULAR PLURAL

There are nouns that form the "lural in a regular way. These! according to

their form'be it singular or "lural'make the concord with the finite $erb. The general

rule for forming the "lural number of such a noun is by adding the inflection -sto the

singular form.

&am"les8

boy Boys

girl Girls

cat Cats

chair Chairs

day Days

dog Dogs

hose !oses

boo" Boo"s

#lay Plays

toy Toys

%n s"eech the regular "lural has three different "ronunciations(9i+9! 9+9! 9s9)

de"ending on the final sound of the base.

#ouns e$di$g i$ sile$t %e #receded by a &ricati'e add an etra syllable in

taking the (s8

bridge ) bridges

cor#se ) cor#ses

bo* ) bo*es

and these will be "ronounced 9i+9.

#ouns e$di$g i$ 'o+els a$d 'oiced so$ds other tha$ 'oiced sibila$ts

are to be "ronounced 9+98

bed ) beds

hero ) heroes

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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

#ouns e$di$g i$ 'oiceless so$ds other tha$ 'oiceless sibila$ts are to be

"ronounced 9s98

bet ) bets

,o$th ) ,o$ths

The ' s suffi is written ; s after most nouns including those ending in

silent ;e.

Adition of es

#ouns e$di$g i$ a &ricati'e - $less +ritte$ +ith a sile$t ( e (s- (/ - (* -

(ch- (sh - (ss- (//0add%esto the singular noun to build u" their "lurals! thus by adding a

syllable8

bo* ) bo*es

ta* ) ta*es

+atch ) +atches

#ouns e$di$g i$ (thare ece"tional! usually adding (sonly8

,oth ) ,oths

#ath ) #aths

Ttreatment of y

%f the nouns end in (y and (yis "receded by a consonant ! the "lural takes

the form of%ies8

cry ) cries

try ) tries

%n #ro#er $a,es! we sim"ly add the inflection%s to the singular8

ary ) arys

#ouns e$di$g i$ (2y form the "lural in%ies! because in such words the

does not make a di"hthong with ybut the 23"+0is regarded as a double consonant8

collo2y ) collo2ies

No$s e$di$g i$o


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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

%f the noun ends in%o and the %o is #receded by a co$so$a$t! the "lural is

generally formed by adding%es4

Negro ) $egroes

to,ato ) to,atoes

2ut all nouns ending in (o #receded by a 'o+el form the "lural in%sand

not in%es8

ba,boo ) ba,boos

e,bryo ) e,bryos

&olio ) &olios

Some nouns ending in%o#receded by a co$so$a$t! form the "lural in%s

and not in%es4

grotto Grottos

#ro'iso Pro'osos

ca$to Ca$tos

ta$go Ta$gos

tobacco Tobaccos

,e,e$to e,e$tos

#ia$o Pia$os

solo 5olos

so#ra$o 5o#ra$os

co$certo Co$certos

There are few nouns ending in%owhich form the "lural both in (s and

%es8

5G. PL. i$ (s PL. i$ %es

archi#elago archi#elagos archi#elagoes

ba$6o ba$6os Ba$6oes

b&&alo b&&alos B&&aloes

cargo cargos Cargoes

co,,a$do co,,a$dos co,,a$does

do,i$o do,i$os Do,i$oes

&la,i$go &la,i$gos &la,i$goes

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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

,os2ito ,os2itos ,os2itoes

,otto ,ottos ottoes

tor$ado tor$ados Tor$adoes

'olca$o 'olca$os 7olca$oes

8. The IRREGULAR PLURAL

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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

2.1 The irregular plural formed through mutation

There are nine nouns which form the "lural by a change of the inside $owel8

,ose ice

goose Geese

tit,ose Tit,ice

+o,a$ 9o,e$

tooth Teeth

dor,ose Dor,ice &oot :eet

lose Lice

,a$ e$

2.2 The irregular plural formed by adding the inflection -en

There are four nouns which form the "lural in%e$ or ($e

o* O*e$

co+ ;i$e

child Childre$

brother Brethre$

The "lural form brethren has suffered a change in meaning8 fellow

members of a religious society otherwise the "lural is regular8 brothers

The noun #e$$yalso admits two "lural forms ha$ing a different meaning8

#e$cein 2ritish currency8 !ere is te$ #e$ce.

#e$$ies for indi$idual coins8 !ere are te$ #e$$ies.

>>


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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

9har& +har'es and +ar&s

ha$d"ercie& ha$d"erchie'es ) ( chie&s

D+ar& d+ar'es and d+ar&s

There are at least three nouns ending in 'fe which form the "lural by sim"ly

adding (s4

5a&e sa&es

5tri&e stri&es

:i&e &i&es

2.4 The IRRE!"#R $"!R#" formed by the %ero plural

&the 'ame form in the 'ingular and plural(

Some nouns ha$e the same form for singular and "lural either always or in certain

contets. Aerbs and reference words used with such nouns are either singular or "lural

corres"onding to the reality e"ressed by the nouns8

Li'i$g bei$gs ( deer) 'heep) '*ine) 'almon) trout) cod) etc.as well as the

names of other animals! when used in a hunting contet! referred to as game8

' The fi'herman caught t*o pi+e.

or whcn the animal is thought of as food8

' ,ould you li+e 'ome more fi'h

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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

"lurals. Such nouns ("articularly ones from 1atin) often retain their original "lurals! at least

for some time after they are introduced. %n some cases both forms are still $ying for attention8

for eam"le! for a librarian! the "lural of a##e$di* is a##e$dices (following the original

language) for "hysicians! howe$er! the "lural of a##e$di*is a##e$di*es. 1ikewise! a radio

engineer works with a$te$$as and an entomologist deals with a$te$$ae. The /correct/ form

is the one that sounds better in contet! or that "eo"le in the field use.

-orrectly formed 1atin "lurals are the most acce"table! and indeed are often re,uired!

in academic and scientific contets. %n common usage! "lurals with (s are sometimes

"referred.

5inal abecomes (ae! or *ust adds -'4

Al,$a al,$ae

:or,la &or,lae)&or,las

5inal e*or i*becomes (ices! or *ust adds (es4

I$de* i$dices

atri* ,atrices

7erte* 'ertices

5inal isbecomes es4

A*is a*es

Crisis crisesTestis testes

5inal o$becomes (a4

Ato,ato$ ato,ata

Criterio$ criteria

#he$o,e$o$ #he$o,e$a

#olyhedro$ #olyhedra

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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

5inal ,becomes (a-or *ust adds (s4

Adde$d, adde$da

Dat, data

:or, &ora)&or,s

edi, ( ,edia (in communications and

com"uters)

( ,edi,s (s"iritualists)

,e,ora$d, ,e,ora$da ) ,e,ora$d,s

5inal sbecomes (ior (eraor (oraor *ust adds%es4

Al,$s al,$i

Cor#s cor#ora

Ge$s ge$era

#ros#ects #ros#ectses

Radis radii

7iscs 'iscera

Eany nouns of 1atin origin with a final (sthat take an (iin "lural form can also! in

modern usage! take an (esinstead. Euch formal or technical writing insists on the (i

"lural! whereas either ending is acce"table in common usage.

Cacts cacti)cactsesC

hi##o#ota,s hi##o#ota,i)hi##o#ota,ses

Octo#s octo#ses4

Platy#s #laty#i)#laty#ses

Uters teri)terses

5inal as in one case of a noun of Greek origin changes to

(a$tes8

Atlas Atla$tes (statues of the hero)

Atlas atlases (ma" collections)

Cin0ri+onamany "eo"le a$oid either choice with cactusas both singular and "lural4octo#i also occurs! although strictly s"eaking unfounded! since the word is of Greek! not 1atin origin. Thetheoretically correct form octo#odesis rarely used

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arizonahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arizonahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arizona


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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

5inal ,a in nouns of Greek origin can add -ta-although (s

is usually also acce"table! and in many cases more common

5tig,a stig,ata ) stig,as

5to,a sto,ata ) sto,as

5che,a sche,ata ) sche,as

Dog,a dog,ata ) dog,as

Le,,a le,,ata ) le,,as

There are also +ordsborrowed &ro, other languages that in certain

circumstances retain their original endings in the "lural8

!EBRE94

cherub 8 cherubim &cherub'() 'eraph 8'eraphim &'eraph'(

ITALIAN4

bandit8bandi9ii &bandit'() virtuo'o 8virtuo'i also 'irtosos

Co$&etti(from %tallian co$&etto! which is not used in &nglish) takes a

singular $erb.

Gra&&iti(lacking a singular form) takes the "lural.

:RENC!4

beau 8beau) bureau 8bureau

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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS


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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

=. DE:ECTI7E NOUN5

Some nouns ha$e no singular form. Such a noun is called a "lurale

tantum8

billiards-clothes- ,easles- tha$"s- 'ittles

Some of these do ha$e singular ad*ecti$e forms! such as billiard ball.

%n addition! some are treated as singular in construction! e.g.! /billiards is a

ga,e #layed o$ a table +ith ,lti#le balls a$d a ce stic"./

0 "articular set of nouns! describing things ha$ing two "arts!

com"rises the ma*or grou" of "luralia tantum in modern &nglish8

#a$ts- scissors- shorts- trosers

These words are interchangeable with a #air o& scissors- a #air o&

trosers! and so forth. %n the F.S. fashion industry it is common to refer to a

single "air of "ants as a "ant! the &nglish word (deri$ing from the 5rench

#a$talo$) was originally singular. %n the same field! one half of a "air of

scissors se"arated from the other half is! rather illogically! referred to as a

hal&(scissor.T+ee/ersused to be "art of this grou"! but twee+er has come

into common usage since the second half of the twentieth century.

Eass nouns(or uncountable nouns) do not re"resent distinct ob*ects!

so the singular and "lural semantics do not a""ly in the same way.

&am"les8

0bstract nouns

good$ess- idle$ess- ho$esty- deceit- &resh$ess- bitter$ess-

i$&or,atio$- obscrity- +isdo,- c$$i$g

0rts and sciences

>=
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plurale_tantumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plurale_tantumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_nounhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plurale_tantumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plurale_tantumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_noun


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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

che,istry- geo,etry- srgery- ,echa$ics- o#tics- bles-76a//-

roc" a$d roll- i,#ressio$is,- srrealis,

-hemical elements and other "hysical entities8

a$ti,o$y- gold- o*yge$- e2i#,e$t- &r$itre- gear- s#ecies- air-

+ater- sa$d

Some mass nouns can be "lurali+ed! but the meaning thereof may

change slightly. 5or eam"le! when % ha$e two "ieces of sand! % do not ha$e

two sands % ha$e sand. There is more sand in your "ile! not more sands. 2ut

there could be many /sa$ds o& A&rica/either many distinct stretches of

sand! or distinct ty"es of sand of interest to geologists or builders! or sim"ly

the allusi$e sa$ds o& A&rica.

%t is rare to "lurali+e &r$itrein this way. #or would i$&or,atio$

be so treated! ece"t in the case of cri,i$al i$&or,atio$s! which are

"rosecutors briefs similar toindictments.

There is only one class of atoms called oygen! but there are se$eral

isoto"es of oygen! which might be referred to as different oygens. %n

casual s"eech! o*yge$ might be used as shorthand for o*yge$ ato,s! but in

this case it is not a mass noun! so it is entirely sensible to refer to multi"le

oygens in the same molecule.

5#ecie and s#eciesmake a fascinating case. 2oth words come from a

1atin word meaning /kind/! but they do not form a singular'"lural "air they

are se"arate nouns. -oins! such as nickels! euros! and cents are s#ecie! but

there is no "lural. The idea is /"ayment in kind/. 0nd s#ecies! the /kinds of

li$ing things/! is the same in singular and "lural.

7

Heferring to the musical style as a whole.

@?
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indictmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indictment


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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

>. PLURAL5 O: COPOUND

NOUN5

The ma*ority of &nglish com"ound nouns ha$e one basic term! or

head! with which they end! and are "lurali+ed in ty"ical fashion8

able sea,a$ able sea,e$

headba$ger headba$gers

yello+(dog co$tract yello+(dog co$tracts

0 com"ound that has one head! with which it begins! usually

"lurali+es its head8

attor$ey ge$eral attor$eys ge$eral

bill o& attai$der bills o& attai$der

cort ,artial corts ,artial

go'er$or(ge$eral go'er$ors(ge$eral

#asserby #assersby

5hi# o& the li$e shi#s o& the li$e

5o$(i$(la+ so$s(i$(la+

#rocrator &iscal &in 0cotland( #rocrators &iscal

but8

,a6ordo,o ,a6ordo,os

%t is common in informal s"eech to instead "lurali+e the last word in

the manner ty"ical of most &nglish nouns! but in edited "rose! the forms

gi$en abo$e are "referred.

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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

%f a com"ound can be thought to ha$e two heads! both of them tend to

be "lurali+ed when the first head has an irregular "lural form8

,a$(child ,e$(childre$

,a$ser'a$t ,e$ser'a$ts

+o,a$ doctor +o,e$ doctors

Two'headed com"ounds in which the first head has a standard "lural

form! howe$er! tend to "lurali+e only the final head8

City(state city(states

$rse(#racticio$er $rse(#racticio$ers

scholar(#oet scholar(#oets

%n military usage! the term ge$eral! as "art of an officers title! is

etymologically an ad*ecti$e! but it has been ado"ted as a noun and thus a

head! so com"ound titles em"loying it are "lurali+ed at the end8

brigadier ge$eral brigadier ge$erals

,a6or ge$eral ,a6or ge$erals

5or many other com"ounds of three or more words with a head at the

frontes"ecially in cases where the com"ound is ad hoc and9or the head is

meta"horicalit is generally regarded as acce"table to "lurali+e either thefirst ma*or term or the last8

!a, o$ rye ha,s o$ rye)ha,(o$(ryes

6ac"(i$(the(bo* 6ac"s(i$(the(bo*)6ac"(i$(the(bo*es

6ac"(i$(the(#l#it 6ac"s(i$(the(#l#it)6ac"(i$(the(#l#its

With a few etended com"ounds! both terms may be "lurali+ed

again! with an alternati$e8

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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

head o& state heads o& states)heads o& state

With etended com"ounds constructed around o?!only the last term is

"lurali+ed (or left unchanged if it is already "lural)8

cat(o?($i$e(tails cat(o?($i$e(tails

6ac"(o?(la$ter$ 6ac"(o?(la$ter$s

9ill(o?(the(+is# +ill(o?(the(+is#s

Co,#o$ds &ro, the :re$ch

Eany &nglish com"ounds ha$e been borrowed directly from the 5rench!

and these generally follow a somewhat different set of rules. 5rench'loaned

com"ounds with a head at the beginning tend to "lurali+e both words!

according to 5rench "ractice8

age$t #ro'ocater age$ts #ro'ocaters

e$te$te cordiale e$te$tes cordiales

:ait acco,#li &aits acco,#lis

id@e &i*e id@es &i*es

5or com"ounds ado"ted directly from the 5rench where the head

comes at the end! it is generally regarded as acce"table either to "lurali+e

both words or only the last8

bea geste bea* gestes)bea gestes

belle @#o2e belles @#o2es)belle @#o2es

bo$ ,ot bo$s ,ots)bo$ ,ots

bo$ 'i'a$t bo$s 'i'a$ts)bo$ 'i'a$ts

5rench'loaned com"ounds longer than two words tend to follow the

rules of the original language! which usually in$ol$es "lurali+ing only the

head at the beginning8

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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

aide(de(ca,# aides(de(ca,#

cri de coer cris de coer

co# d?@tat co#s d?@tat

tor de &orce tors de &orce

but8

tte((tte tte((ttes

0 distincti$e case is the com"ound &il, $oir. 5or this 5rench'loaned

artistic term! &nglish'language tets $ariously use as the "lural &il,s $oirs!

&il,s $oir! and! most "re$alently! &il, $oirs.

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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

. T!E PLURAL O: PROPER

NOUN5 PLURAL5 O: NAE5 O:

PEOPLE5

There are se$eral different rules for this.

%n discussing "eo"les whose demonym takes (,a$or (+o,a$! there

are three o"tions8 "lurali+e to (,e$ or (+o,e$ if referring to indi$iduals!

and use the root alone if referring to the whole nation! or add #eo#le.

Dtch,a$

Dtch+o,a$

Dtch,e$

Dtch+o,e$

the Dtch

E$glish,a$

E$glish+o,a$

E$glish,e$

E$glish+o,e$

the E$glish

:re$ch,a$

:re$ch+o,a$

:re$ch,e$

:re$ch+o,e$

the :re$ch

Irish,a$

Irish+o,a$

Irish,e$

Irish+o,e$

the Irish

5cots,a$

5cots+o,a$

5cots,e$

5cots+o,e$

the 5cots

9elsh,a$

9elsh+o,a$

9elsh,e$

9elsh+o,e$

the 9elsh

Ine can say /a 5cots+o0,a$/ or /a Scot/! /5cots+o0,e$/!

/5cottish #eo#le/! or /5cots!/ and /the 5cottish/ or /the 5cots/. (5cotchis

considered old fashioned.)

Se$eral "eo"les ha$e names that are sim"le nouns and can be

"lurali+ed by the addition of either (sor (ish(the later case often calls for the

elimination of terminal letters so the "lurali+ing suffi can be connected

directly with the last consonant of the root)8

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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

Da$e Da$es the Da$esthe Da$ish

:i$$ :i$$s the :i$$s

the :i$$ish5#a$iard 5#a$iards the 5#a$iards

the 5#a$ish ,ch ,oreco,,o$0

5+ede 5+edes the 5+edesthe 5+edish

#ames of "eo"les that end in (esetake no "lural8

Chi$ese Chi$ese

Chi$ese #eo#le

the Chi$ese

a#a$ese a#a$ese

a#a$ese #eo#le

the a#a$ese

Ither names of "eo"les that ha$e no "lural form include 5+issand@b@cois.

Eost names for #ati$e 0mericans are not "lurali+ed8

Blood

!o#i

Iro2ois

i?",a2

O6ib+a

5io*

Some ece"tions include 0lgon,uins! 0+tecs! -hi""ewas! -rees!

3urons! Eohawks! and Ineidas.

Pro"er nouns usually takethe singular and arein$ariable8

enry) the Thame'

2ut some "ro"er nouns ,ay take a "lural form8

9he$ the #ro#er $o$ is reclassi&ied as a co,,o$ $o$

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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

There are 0ha+e'pear' all over the *orld.- meaning authors like

Shakes"eare

9he$ they are &a,ily $a,es a$d re&ere$ce is ,ade to the +hole

&a,ily4

The ,il'on' are out to tunch.- meaning the 9ilso$ &a,ilyF

5o,e geogra#hical $a,es are #lral i$'ariables4

the 6etherland') the#lp'

%f the "ro"er nouns are used in the "lural as mentioned abo$e than

the forming of the "lural is done by adding ' s to the singular8

ary arys

Bro+$ Bro+$s

-ertain "ro"er nouns e$di$g i$ a &ricati'e add ( es4

Br$s Br$ses

Co* Co*es

Dic"e$s Dic"e$ses

Pro"er names +ith titles form their "lurals by "lurali+ing only the

title or by "lurali+ing only the name.

isses Bro+$ oriss Bro+$s

The "lural for iss is isses! for r. is essrs.! for

ada, is esda,es! for asteris asters! rs.has no "lural!

hence the name must show the "lural i+ation.

When a title "recedes two or more names! the title only is "lurali+ed8

Dr. Bright a$dDr. 5,ith ) Drs. Bright a$d 5,ith

:oreig$ #ro#er $a,es usually form iheir "lurals in the &nglish way8

the Borgias- the D#o$ts- the Arlostos.

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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

. The PLURAL o& Abbre'iatio$s-

N,bers a$d Letters o& the Al#habet

Letters o& the al#habet- $,erical characters a$d other s,all

sy,bols used as nouns form their "lurals by adding ' s4

Dot this i ) dot yor iHsO$e a$d too ,a$y ) t+o a$dHs too ,a$y

Ca$cel the = ) ca$cel yor =Hs

Eany abbre$iations are "lurali+ed in the regular way by adding ; s to

the singular8

bro.(brother)

bros.(brothers)

dr.(doctor) drs.(doctors)

lb.("ound) lbs.("ounds)

,s.(manuscri"t) ,ss.(manuscri"ts)

P.(member of "arliament) PHs orPs(members)

PhD(doctor) PhdHsor PhDs(doctors)

Dobli$g the i$itials

The initials are doubled to signify the "lural of certain

abbre'iatio$s4

l. (line) ll. (lines)

#. ("age) ##. ("ages)

&. (following "age) &&. (following "ages)

5i$glar 3 Plral

0 few abbre'iatio$sha$e the same form in the singular and "lural

ft. (foot) ft. (feet)

deg. (degree) deg. (degrees)

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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

fig. (figure) fig. (figures)

3eb. 9 3ebr (3ebrew) 3eb. 9 3ebr (3ebrews)

J. No$s +ith di&&ere$t ,ea$i$gs i$the #lral a$d the si$glar

There are nouns which ha$e one ,ea$i$g i$ the si$glar a$d

a$other i$ the #lral8

ad'ice(counsel) ad'ices (information)

air (atmos"here) airs (demeanour)

co,#ass (range or etent) co,#asses (an instrument)

co##er (a metal) co##ers ("ennies)

&orce (strength) &orces (army)

good (benefit) goods (mo$able "ro"erty)

retr$ (coming back) retr$s (statics)

There are nouns which ha$e t+o ,ea$i$gs i$ the #lral agai$st o$ei$ the si$glar8

color(tint) colors(kinds of colour 9 flag of regiment)

csto, (habit) csto,s(habits 9 toll or ta)

e&&ect(result) e&&ects(results 9 goods)

There are nouns which ha$e t+o ,ea$i$gs i$ the si$glar agai$st o$e i$the #lral4

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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

abse(wrong use 9 re"roaches) abses(wrong uses)

&oot("art of body 9 infantry) &eet("arts of body)

horse(ca$alery 9 a ,uadru"ed) horses(,uadru"eds)

#eo#le(a nation9 "ersons) #eo#les(nations)

K. No$s +ith ,lti#le #lrals

Some nouns ha$e two "lurals! one used to refer to a number of things

considered indi$idually! the other to refer to a number of things collecti$ely.

%n some cases! one of the two is nowadays archaic or dialectal.

brother brothers 2rethren

cannon cannons -annon

child children childer :

cloth cloths clothes?

:hilderhas all but disa""eared! but can still be seen in hildermas(%nnocents Day).

?"iesis used as the "lural for diein the sense of a mould

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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

fish fish fishes>>

iris #plant$ iris irises>@

"enny "ennies "ence>B

"erson "ersons "eo"le>C

Pig "igs swine

Sow sows swine

1. 5INGULAR

IN7ARIABLE5ha'e o$ly a

si$glar &or,0 A5 A

UNCOUNTABLE NOUN5

Co$table 7s. U$co$table.

>>%ish8 the "lural for one s"ecies of fish! or caught fish! isfish! but for li$e fish of many s"ecies! or in "oetic

usage!fishesis used.

>@5or multi"le "lants! irisis used! but irisesis used for multi"le blossoms.

>B %f you ha$e se$eral (2ritish) one'"enny "ieces you ha$e se$eral pennies. &ence is used for an amount of

money! which can be made u" of a number of coins of different denominations8 one "enny and one fi$e'"enny

"iece are together worth si "ence.&ennyandpenniesalso refer to one or more F.S. one'cent "ieces! though in0merican usage! a nickel is worth fi$e cents! not fi$e "ence.

>CThe wordpeopleis usually treated as the su""leti$e "lural ofperson(one "erson! many "eo"le). 3owe$er! inlegal and other formal contets! the "lural ofpersonispersons furthermore!peoplecan also be a singular noun

with its own "lural (for eam"le! /We are many "ersons! from many "eo"les/).

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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

Eany material things and many "henomena. 2oth natural and

"sychological are uncountable by their $ery nature.

Inly countables may be used in the singular and "lural. %n the

singular they must ha$e either an article a-a$-the0 or a determinati$e

each- e'ery- this- etc.0

Both co$tables a$d $co$tables ,ay be sed +ith 'ome

'ome M co$table 3 a &e+ 'omeM $co$table 3 a certai$ a,o$t0

a$d +ith the de&i$itre article the.

The most common categories of uncountables are8 gases! fluids! food!

natural "henomena! materials(with "articles too small to count)! metals!

cereals! abstractions! fields of study! other intangibles.

TRAN5:ORING UNCOUNTABLE5 INTO COUNTABLE5

Some names of raw manufactured materialks do not ordinarily admit

of "lurals 8 bread! butter! coffee! cotton! flour! milk! hay! gold! sil$er!

soa"! chocolate! toast! sugar! beef! mutton! "ork! etc. because they are

uncountable. They may become countable if a word is su""lied in front

of them.

There are also other categories of uncountables 8 gases! natural

"henomena! cereals! abstractions (ideas! ideals! modes of beha$iour!

emotions! ,ualities!etc) which a""ear with certain e"ressioins when

countable8

$e+s- &r$itre- e2i#,e$t- ad'ice- i$&or,atio$- light$i$g-

th$der- +or"- cor$- lc"- 6e+elry- lggage- ,sic- s,o"e-

grass-laghter.

The e"ression that will "remodify the noun in order to make it

countable is referred to as a #artiti'e. There are three ty"es of "artiti$es to

e"ress ,uantity of mass nouns8

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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

>. measures 4 ( le$gth4 o &oot o& +ater- a yard o& cloth

( area4 a$ acre o& la$d- > s2, o& roo,

( 'ol,e4 a #i$t o& beer- a gallo$ o& #etrol

( +eight4 a$ o$ce o& gold- a to$ o& coal

@. ty"ical "artiti$es ( restricted to s"ecific words)8

( a sit o& ar,or- a bloc" o& ice- a si# M

dri$"so& +his"y0-

a dab M coloro& red0- a bo+l M &oodo& rice0

A s#oo$&l o&- a ha$d&l o&- bc"et&lmay also be

"artiti$es.

B. general "artiti$es (can be used with any uncountable noun!

e$en if this has a ty"ical "artiti$e) a #iece o&- a bit o&-

a$ ite, o&(mainly with abstract nouns)

There are also general "artiti$es that e"ress 2ality8 a "i$d o&- a

sort o&4 a delicios sort o& bread

Partiti$es are used to refer to8 ( o$e ite,4 a loa& o& bread

( a #art o& a +hole4 a slice o& bread

( a collectio$ o& ite,s4 a #ac"et o&

biscits

3ere is a list of uncountables together with their countable "artiti$es.

:;;< and

a loa& ) slice o& bread a #ac"et ) #o$d

o& btter

a cbe ) bloc" o& ice a #o$d o& &lor

a bottle ) glass ) #i$t ) si# o& ,il" a bar o& chocolate

a #iece o& toast a l,# ) a #o$d

o& sgar

a #o$d o#or" ) bee& ) ,tto$ a #i$ch o& salt

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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

a 6oi$t) ch$" ) roast #iece o& ,eet a +hi&& o& garlic

a rasher o& baco$ a$ ear o& cor$

a bit ) bo+l ) grai$ o& rice a glass ) s#lash o&

+ater

a glass ) #i$t ) crate o& beer a si# ) #ot ) c# o&

tea ) co&&ee

6#T!R#" $E6;?E6#

a bea, o& light a dro# o& rai$

a #&& ) +is# ) col,$ ) ribbo$ o& s,o"e a &lash o& light$i$g

a cla# ) bolt ) roll o& th$der a breath o& &resh

air

a s#ell o& +ar, ) dry +eather a gst o& +i$d

?#TERI#"0

a t&t ) blade o& grass a grai$ i& sa$d

a stri# ) #iece ) acre o& la$d a stac" o& hay

a stic" ) #iece o& chal" a ball o& stri$g

a scra# ) shett ) #iece ) #ad o& #a#er a stra$d ) loc" o&

hair

a bloc" o& co$crete a #iece o&

6e+ellery

a #iece o& lggage a bar o& soa#

a tbe o& tooth#aste a set o& ctlery

a$ article o& clothi$g a s#ec" o& dst

a #iece ) set ) site ) article o& &r$itre a stretch o& road

a #iece o& e2i#,e$t a$ o$ce o& gold )

sil'er

#50TR#T 6;TI;60

a #iece ) a$ ite, o& $e+s a$ o$ce o& e$ergy

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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

a #iece ) +ord ) bit o& ad'ice a #iece ) ite, o&

i$&or,atio$

a #iece ) stro"e ) s#ell o& +or" a stro"e #iece o&

lc"

a brst ) #eal ) roar o& laghter a #iece o& ,sic

a$ attac" o& $er'es a +i$" o& slee#

a hi$t o& troble a &eat o& i$dra$ce

a$ attac" o& &e'er a &eat o& #assio$

a corse o& treat,e$t a ter, o&

i,#riso$,e$t

a state o& e,erge$cy a +ord o& abse

a$ ite, o& bsi$ess a #iece o& e'ide$ce

When countability as to ,uantity or number is to be attached to an

uncountable noun a countable word ( a "artiti$e) must be su""lied in

front of it.

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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

11. NOUN5 !A7ING BOT! :OR5COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE0

Some uncountable nouns eist in a countable $ersion with a

different meaning8

bssi$ess a bsi$ess ) bsi$esses (stores or factories)

cha$ge(coins) a cha$ge ) cha$ges (alterations)

co,#a$y($isitors) a co,#a$y ) co,#a$ies(>' business

establishments! @ ; military units)

glass a glass ) glasses (> ; rece"tacles for drinking!

@ ; mirrors! B ; eye glasses)

iro$(metal) a$ iro$ ) iro$s (household a""liances for

smoothing clothes)

la,b(meat) a la,b ) la,bs (animals)#a#er a #a#er ) #a#ers (news"a"ers! written

com"ositions)

roo,(s"ace) a roo, ) roo,s("artitioned areas)

salt a salt ) salts(saline com"ounds)

+or" a +or" ) +or"s("ieces of literary9 musical

com"ositions)

lace(needlework) a lace ) laces(strings for lacing shoes! etc)

yoth(the ,uality) a yoth ) yoths (indi$idual young "eo"le)

abse(insult) a$ abse ) abses(misuse)

i$terest(finance) a$ i$terest ) i$terests(hobby)

beaty(,uality) a beaty ) beaties(a beautiful woman)

tal"(idle talk) a tal" ) tal"s (con$ersation)

so$d(the sound ofJ) a so$d ) so$ds(noise)

sto$e(material) a sto$e ) sto$es(indi$idual "iecces of

material)

+ood(material) +oods(a little forest)

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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

5or nouns referring to ATERIAL5the uncountable $ersion is used

when reference is made to the material8

Glass brea"s easily.&!(

and the countable $ersion when we refer to a thing made out of the material8

9hold yo li"e a glass o& +i$e&(

5or nouns denoting :OODthe countable $ersion is used when we

refer to single items8

!e ate a hole chic"e$.&(

I had a boiled egg &or brea"&ast.&(

while the uncountable $ersion is used when they refer to substances8

9old yo li"e so,e chic"e$&!(

ThereH s egg o$ yor tie.&!(

Some uncountables when described with an ad*ecti$e become countable8

The North 5ea #rodces oil.&!(

It #rodces a light oil.&(

This regio$ #rodces +i$e.&!(

It #rodces a$ e*celle$t +i$e.&(

Words for DRIN;5are normally uncountable but in the contet of

ordering drinks they are treated as countables8

Is there so,e co&&ee&!(

IHd li"e t+o co&&ees&(

Eany uncountable nouns ha$e a countable conter"art that is differebt

leically8

see a $ice little #ig&( by Da$ish #or"&!(

cho# trees i$ the +ood&( i,#ort Ca$adia$ ti,ber&!(

sitcase&( lggage&!(

shirt&( cloth&!(

$i'ersity&( edcatio$&!(

,eado+&( grass&!(

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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

18. PLURAL IN7ARIABLE5 as collecti'e $o$s

Some nouns! singular in form! are used only in a "lural sense.

These are nouns of multitude8 #oltry- 'er,i$- cattle- #eo#le- ge$try-

#olice

The #oltryare doing well.

These cattleare mine.

These 'er,i$do much harm.

These #eo#leha$e returned home.

These ge$try are e"ected today.

The #oliceare following the thief.

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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

0 collecti$e noun is treated as singular if the rest of the sentence

suggests that is naming a singular unit ; the 5INGULAR stresses the

$o$(#erso$al collecti'ity o& the gro#4

A good tea, $eeds a good ca#tai$.

The co,,ittee +as discssi$g the #ro#osal.

and as "lural if it suggests a collection of li$ing things ca"able of acting

se"arately( the PLURAL stresses the idea o& #erso$ i$di'idality

+ithi$ a gro#4

The tea, +ere ta"i$ a shi+er.

The co,,ittee decided to re6ect the #ro#osal by a 'ote o& &i'eto t+o.

0 collecti$e noun may ha$e a "lural form as well and thean it

always takes the $erb in the "lural8

The t+o tea,s +ere o$ the &ield.

The co,,ittees o& e'ery school had to get together to ta"e a

'ote.

There are collecti$e nouns that grou" li$ing beings or things

together. These ha$e a restricted usage8

T!ING5

a b$ch o& gra#es a bo2et o& &lo+ers

a #ac" o& cards a crate o& beer

a stri$g o& beads a &light o& stairs

a cl,# o& trees a clster o& stars

a &leets o& ta*is a &leet o& shi#s

a b$dle o& rags

ANIAL5

a gaggle o& geese a #lage o& locsts

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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

a #ride o& lio$s a colo$y o& a$ts

a s+ar, o& bees a #ac" o& +ol'es

a #ac" o& ho$ds a &loc" o& birds

a herd o& deer) cattle a herd o& ele#ha$ts

a school o& &ish a litter o& ###ies) "itte$s

PEOPLE

a #a$el o& e*#erts a tro#e o& da$cers

a sta&& o& techers a be'y o& girls

a co,#a$y o& actors a ga$g o& thie'es

a ,ob o& rioters a bord o& directors

a tribe o& INDIAN5 a cro+d o& #eo#le

a cre+ o& sailors

The rules of concord stand true also for collecti$e nouns

designating grou"s.

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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

%n the net cha"ter! cha"ter number : %6$e s"oke about

THE PLURAL OF ABBREVIATIONS

0nother "roblem in &nglish language is about #IF#S

W%T3 D%55&HT E&0#%#GS %# T3& P1FH01 0#D T3&

S%#GF10H! words like good recei$e the sence of benefit. The"lural form of word gets a final KS and recei$e the sence of

mo$able "ro"erty. Those "roblems are re$ealed in Cha#ter$,ber J

hapter number ( is about NOUNS WITH MULTIPLE

PLURALS.

%n this case we ha$e a good e. in noun Kbrother. Ine "lural

form of these noun is Kbrothers with the usual significance. The

other one "lural form of Kbrother is Kbrethren@) with meaningof fellow members of a religious society

%n the net cha"ter! cha"ter number >? ! %6 $e s"oke about

the SINGULAR INVARIABLES AS UNCOUNTABLE

NOUNS. Ex:a #iece o& toast-ha"ter number >> is about #IF#S 30A%#G 2IT3 5IHE

(-IF#T021& 0#D F#-IF#T021&). %n this case a good e. is

the noun Kstone

sto$e(material) a sto$e ) sto$es(indi$idual "iecces of

material)The final cha"ter resol$e the "roblem of P1FH01

%#A0H%021&S 0S -I11&-T%A& #IF#S. Some nouns!

singular in form! are used only in a "lural sense8 KThese #eo#leha$e returned home.

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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

K. Gria- George- 88. A Co$cise E$glish Gra,,ar- Ed.

Gr#s-

Craio'a

1. es#er$- O. 1K>. Esse$tials o& E$glish Gra,,ar. Lo$do$-

George Alle$ X

U$+i$ Ltd.

11. Leech- G. a$d 5'arti"- I. 1KK=. A Co,,$icati'e Gra,,ar

o& E$glish- Lo$do$- Lo$g,a$ !ose

18. Le'ichi- Leo$- 1K1. Gra,atica li,bii e$gle/e- BcreSti-

Ed. Didacatic Si Pedagogic

1

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