Materi Sejarah Dan Pendekatan Kesmas

7/23/2019 Materi Sejarah Dan Pendekatan Kesmas

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History(from Greek - historia, meaning "inquiry, knowledge acquired by

investigation"[2]) is an umbrella termtat relates to !ast events as well as te discovery,

collection, organiation, and !resentation of informationabout tese events# $e term includes

cosmic, geologic,and organic istory, but is often generically im!lied to mean uman istory#

%colars wo write about istory are called istorians#

&istory can also refer to teacademic disci!linewic uses a narrativeto e'amine and analyse a

sequence of !ast events, and obectively determine te !atterns of cause and effect tat determine

tem#[][*]

&istorians sometimes debate tenature of istoryand its usefulness by discussing te study of

te disci!line as an end in itself and as a way of !roviding "!ers!ective" on te !roblems of te

!resent#[][+][][]

%tories common to a !articular culture, but not su!!orted by e'ternal sources (suc as te tales

surrounding .ing /rtur) are usually classified as cultural eritageor legends, because tey do

not su!!ort te "disinterested investigation" required of te disci!line of istory#[0][1]vents

occurring !rior to written record are considered!reistory#

&erodotus, a +t-century 3#4# Greek istorianis considered witin te 5estern tradition to be

te "fater of istory", and, along wit is contem!orary $ucydides, el!ed form te

foundations for te modern study of uman istory# $eir work continues to be read today and

te divide between te culture-focused &erodotus and te military-focused $ucydides remains a

!oint of contention or a!!roac in modern istorical writing# 6n te astern tradition, a state

cronicle te %!ring and /utumn /nnalswas known to be com!iled from as early as 22 34altoug only 2nd century 34 te'ts survived#

/ncient influences ave el!ed s!awn variant inter!retations of te nature of istory wic ave

evolved over te centuries and continue to cange today# $e modern study of istory is wide-

ranging, and includes te study of s!ecific regions and te study of certain to!ical or tematical

elements of istorical investigation# 7ften istory is taugt as !art of !rimary and secondary

education, and te academic study of istory is amaor disci!linein 8niversity studies#

Etymology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-JosephJanda-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbrella_termhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe#History_of_the_Universehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geological_history_of_the_Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geological_history_of_the_Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organism#History_of_lifehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_disciplinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_disciplinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrativehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-evans1-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-evans1-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-Tosh1-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Arthurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_heritagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_heritagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legendhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-Low1-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_historiographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thucydideshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_Annalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_academic_disciplines#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_academic_disciplines#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_academic_disciplines#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-JosephJanda-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbrella_termhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe#History_of_the_Universehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geological_history_of_the_Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organism#History_of_lifehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_disciplinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrativehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-evans1-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-evans1-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-Tosh1-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Arthurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_heritagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legendhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-Low1-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_historiographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thucydideshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_Annalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_academic_disciplines#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language


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Historyby 9rederick :ielman(;01)

/ derivation from *weid-"know" or "see" is attested as "te reconstructed etymon wid-tor["onewo knows"] (com!are to nglis wit) a suffi'ed ero-grade form of te


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$e title !age to The Historians' History o the !orld

&istorians write in te conte't of teir own time, and wit due regard to te current dominantideas of ow to inter!ret te !ast, and sometimes write to !rovide lessons for teir own society#6n te words of 3enedetto 4roce,"/ll istory is contem!orary istory"# &istory is facilitated byte formation of a =true discourse of !ast= troug te !roduction of narrative and analysis of !astevents relating to te uman race# [;]$e modern disci!line of istory is dedicated to teinstitutional !roduction of tis discourse#

/ll events tat are remembered and !reserved in some autentic form constitute te istoricalrecord#[;*]$e task of istorical discourse is to identify te sources wic can most usefullycontribute to te !roduction of accurate accounts of !ast# $erefore, te constitution of teistorian=s arcive is a result of circumscribing a more general arcive by invalidating te usageof certain te'ts and documents (by falsifying teir claims to re!resent te =true !ast=)#

$e study of istory as sometimes been classified as !art of teumanitiesand at oter times as!art of te social sciences#[;+]6t can also be seen as a bridge between tose two broad areas,incor!orating metodologies from bot# %ome individual istorians strongly su!!ort one or teoter classification#[;]6n te 2>t century, 9renc istorian9ernand 3raudelrevolutionied testudy of istory, by using suc outside disci!lines as economics, antro!ology, and geogra!yin

te study of global istory#

$raditionally, istorians ave recorded events of te !ast, eiter in writing or by !assing on anoral tradition,and ave attem!ted to answer istorical questions troug te study of writtendocuments and oral accounts# 9or te beginning, istorians ave also used suc sources asmonuments, inscri!tions, and !ictures# 6n general, te sources of istorical knowledge can bese!arated into tree categoriesI wat is written, wat is said, and wat is !ysically !reserved,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Historians'_History_of_the_Worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedetto_Crocehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedetto_Crocehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-Whitney-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-wordnet-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-wordnet-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanitieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanitieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanitieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernand_Braudelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_traditionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_traditionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Historians'_History_of_the_Worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedetto_Crocehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-Whitney-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-wordnet-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanitieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernand_Braudelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_tradition


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and istorians often consult all tree#[;]3ut writing is te marker tat se!arates istory fromwat comes before#

/rcaeologyis a disci!line tat is es!ecially el!ful in dealing wit buried sites and obects,wic, once unearted, contribute to te study of istory# 3ut arcaeology rarely stands alone# 6t

uses narrative sources to com!lement its discoveries# &owever, arcaeology is constituted by arange of metodologies and a!!roaces wic are inde!endent from istoryJ tat is to say,arcaeology does not "fill te ga!s" witin te'tual sources# 6ndeed, &istorical /rcaeology is as!ecific branc of arcaeology, often contrasting its conclusions against tose of contem!oraryte'tual sources# 9or e'am!le, Eark Keone, te e'cavator and inter!reter of istorical /nna!olis,Earyland, 8%/ as sougt to understand te contradiction between te'tual documents and tematerial record, demonstrating te !ossession of slaves and te inequalities of wealt a!!arentvia te study of te total istorical environment, des!ite te ideology of "liberty" inerent inwritten documents at tis time#

$ere are varieties of ways in wic istory can be organied, including cronologically,

culturally, territorially, and tematically# $ese divisions are not mutually e'clusive, andsignificant overla!s are often !resent, as in "$e 6nternational 5omen=s Eovement in an /ge of$ransition, ;0>L;1+#" 6t is !ossible for istorians to concern temselves wit bot te verys!ecific and te very general, altoug te modern trend as been toward s!ecialiation# $earea called3ig &istoryresists tis s!ecialiation, and searces for universal !atterns or trends#&istory as often been studied wit some !ractical or teoreticalaim, but also may be studiedout of sim!le intellectual curiosity#[;0]

History and prehistory

Human history

and prehistory

before Homo(Pliocene)

Three-age systemprehistory

%tone /ge

Kower


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3rone /ge

Fear ast6ndiauro!e4ina.orea

6ron /ge

3rone /ge colla!se/ncient Fear ast

6ndiauro!e4inaMa!an.oreaFigeria

Recorded History

/ncient istory

arliest records

]

$is definition includes witin te sco!e of istory te strong interests of !eo!les, suc as/ustralian /boriginalsand Few Nealand EOoriin te !ast, and te oral records maintained andtransmitted to succeeding generations, even before teir contact wit uro!ean civiliation#
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Near_Easthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age_Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age_Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gojoseonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gojoseonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age_collapsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age_collapsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Near_Easthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Near_Easthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Near_Easthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Age_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Age_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Age_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Age_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Age_Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Age_Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Age_Japanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Age_Japanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Age_Japanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Three_Kingdoms_of_Koreahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Three_Kingdoms_of_Koreahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nok_culturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_writinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postclassical_Erahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_modern_periodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_modern_periodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contemporary_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Futurologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Futurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Human_history_and_prehistoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Human_history_and_prehistoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Human_history_and_prehistory&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protohistoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_sapiens_sapienshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._H._Carrhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Aboriginalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C4%81ori_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Near_Easthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age_Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gojoseonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age_collapsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Near_Easthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Age_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Age_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Age_Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Age_Japanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Three_Kingdoms_of_Koreahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nok_culturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_writinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postclassical_Erahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_modern_periodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contemporary_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Futurologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Futurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Human_history_and_prehistoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Human_history_and_prehistoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Human_history_and_prehistory&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protohistoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_sapiens_sapienshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._H._Carrhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Aboriginalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people


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Historiography

Eain articleI &istoriogra!y

&istoriogra!y as a number of related meanings# 9irstly, it can refer to ow istory as been

!roducedI te story of te develo!ment of metodologyand !ractices (for e'am!le, te movefrom sort-term biogra!ical narrative towards long-term tematic analysis)# %econdly, it canrefer to wat as been !roducedI a s!ecific body of istorical writing (for e'am!le, "medievalistoriogra!y during te ;1>s" means "5orks of medieval istory written during te ;1>s")#$irdly, it may refer to wy istory is !roducedI te


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/ de!iction of te ancient Kibrary of/le'andria

&istorical metod basics

$e following questions are used byistorians in modern work#

;# !hen waste source, writtenor unwritten, !roduced (date)Q

2# 5ere was it !roduced(localiation)Q

# 3y wom was it !roduced(autorsi!)Q

*# 9rom wat !re-e'istingmaterial was it !roduced(analysis)Q

+# 6n wat original form was it!roduced (integrity)Q

# 5at is te evidential value ofits contents (credibility)Q

$e first four are known as igercriticismJ te fift, lower criticismJand, togeter, e'ternal criticism# Thesi$th and inal in%#iryabout a source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_of_Alexandriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_of_Alexandriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calendar_datehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internationalization_and_localizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authorshiphttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credibilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_criticismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_criticismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_criticismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_of_Alexandriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_of_Alexandriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calendar_datehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internationalization_and_localizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authorshiphttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credibilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_criticismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_criticismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_criticism


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is called internal criticism#

$e istorical metod com!rises te tecniques and guidelines by wic istoriansuse!rimary

sourcesand oter evidence to researc and ten to write istory#

&erodotusof &alicarnassus(*0* 34 L ca#*2+ 34)[2;]as generally been acclaimed as te "faterof istory"# &owever, is contem!orary $ucydides(ca# *> 34 L ca# *>> 34) is credited witaving first a!!roaced istory wit a well-develo!ed istorical metod in is work te&istoryof te 34), autor of te &hii(Hecordsof te Grand &istorian)# 9or te quality of is written work, %ima Rian is !ostumously knownas te 9ater of 4inese &istoriogra!y# 4inese istorians of subsequent dynastic !eriods in4ina used is &hiias te official format for istorical te'ts, as well as for biogra!icalliterature#[citation needed]

%aint /ugustinewas influential in 4ristianand 5estern tougtat te beginning of temedieval !eriod# $roug te Eedieval and Henaissance!eriods, istory was often studiedtroug a sacredor religious !ers!ective# /round ;0>>, German !iloso!er and istorianGeorg

5ilelm 9riedric &egelbrougt!iloso!yand a more seculara!!roac in istorical study#[;0]

6n te !reface to is book, te(#%addi"ah(;), te/rab istorianand early sociologist, 6bn.aldun, warned of seven mistakes tat e tougt tat istorians regularly committed# 6n tiscriticism, e a!!roaced te !ast as strange and in need of inter!retation# $e originality of 6bn.aldun was to claim tat te cultural difference of anoter age must govern te evaluation ofrelevant istorical material, to distinguis te !rinci!les according to wic it migt be !ossibleto attem!t te evaluation, and lastly, to feel te need for e'!erience, in addition to rational!rinci!les, in order to assess a culture of te !ast# 6bn .aldun often criticied "idle su!erstitionand uncritical acce!tance of istorical data#" /s a result, e introduced a scientific metodto testudy of istory, and e often referred to it as is "new science"#[2]&is istorical metod also

laid te groundwork for te observation of te role of state,communication,!ro!agandaandsystematic biasin istory,[2*]and e is tus considered to be te "fater of istoriogra!y"[2+][2]orte "fater of te !iloso!y of istory"#[2]

6n te 5est istorians develo!ed modern metods of istoriogra!y in te ;t and ;0tcenturies, es!ecially in 9rance and Germany# $e ;1t-century istorian wit greatest influenceon metods was Keo!old von Hankein Germany#
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_sourcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_sourcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_sourcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halicarnassushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-lamberg-karlovsky-p5-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thucydideshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-lamberg-karlovsky-p5-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-lamberg-karlovsky-p5-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historic_recurrencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-lamberg-karlovsky-p6-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sima_Qianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shijihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shijihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Records_of_the_Grand_Historianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Records_of_the_Grand_Historianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Historiographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twenty-Four_Historieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Christianityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_thoughthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacred_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacred_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secularhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secularhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-graham-ch1-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-graham-ch1-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muqaddimahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Islamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Islamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sociology_in_medieval_Islam&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Khaldunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Khaldunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_(polity)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_(polity)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propagandahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_biashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-Mowlana-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-Enan-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-Akhtar-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_von_Rankehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_sourcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_sourcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halicarnassushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-lamberg-karlovsky-p5-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thucydideshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-lamberg-karlovsky-p5-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historic_recurrencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-lamberg-karlovsky-p6-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sima_Qianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shijihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Records_of_the_Grand_Historianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Records_of_the_Grand_Historianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Historiographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twenty-Four_Historieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Christianityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_thoughthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacred_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secularhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-graham-ch1-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muqaddimahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Islamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sociology_in_medieval_Islam&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Khaldunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Khaldunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_(polity)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propagandahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_biashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-Mowlana-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-Enan-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-Akhtar-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_von_Ranke


9/31

6n te 2>t century, academic istorians focused less on e!ic nationalistic narratives, wic oftentended to glorify te nation or great men,to more obective and com!le' analyses of social andintellectual forces# / maor trend of istorical metodology in te 2>t century was a tendency totreat istory more as a social sciencerater tan as an art, wic traditionally ad been te case#%ome of te leading advocates of istory as a social science were a diverse collection of scolars

wic included 9ernand 3raudel, # 4arr,9rit 9iscer,mmanuel Ke Hoy Kadurie,&ans-8lric 5eler, 3ruce $rigger, Earc 3loc, .arl :ietric 3racer,


10/31


11/31

different causal circumstances#

4ultural istoryI te study of

culture in te !ast#

:igital &istoryI te use of

com!uting tecnologies to!roduce digital scolarsi!#

conomic &istoryI te study

of economies in te !ast#

9uturologyI study of te

futureI researces te mediumto long-term future of societies

and of te !ysical world#

6ntellectual istoryI te study

of ideas in te conte't of tecultures tat !roduced temand teir develo!ment overtime#

Earitime istoryI te study of

maritime trans!ort and all teconnected subects#

Eodern istoryI te study of

te Eodern $imes, te eraafter te Eiddle /ges#

Eilitary &istoryI te study of

warfare and wars in istoryand wat is sometimesconsidered to be a sub-brancof military istory,Faval

&istory#

Fatural istoryI te study of

te develo!ment of tecosmos, te art,biologyandinteractions tereof#


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te'ts#


13/31

classificatory generalisations" to be used by istorians#[20]$e names given to a !eriod can varywit geogra!ical location, as can te dates of te start and end of a !articular !eriod# 4enturiesand decadesare commonly used !eriods and te time tey re!resent de!ends on tedatingsystemused# Eost !eriods are constructed retros!ectively and so reflect value udgments madeabout te !ast# $e way !eriods are constructed and te names given to tem can affect te way

tey are viewed and studied#[21]

#eographical locations


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o &istory of te 4aribbeanbegins wit te oldest evidence were ,>>>-year-old

remains ave been found#

o &istory of %out /mericais te study of te !ast !assed down from generation to

generation on te continent in te art=s soutern and western emis!ere#

&istory of /ntarcticaemerges from early 5estern teories of a vast continent, known as

$erra /ustralis, believed to e'ist in te far sout of te globe#

&istory of /ustraliastart wit te documentation of te Eakassar trading wit

6ndigenous /ustralians on /ustralia=s nort coast#

&istory of Few Nealanddates back at least >> years to wen it was discovered and

settled by 34, in Eeso!otamia (6raq)#

&istory of %out /siais te study of te !ast !assed down from generation

to generation in te %ub-&imalayan region#

&istory of %outeast /siaas been caracteried as interaction between

regional !layers and foreign !owers#

%ilitary history

Eain articleI Eilitary istory
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Caribbeanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_South_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Antarcticahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Antarcticahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Australiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Australiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_New_Zealandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_New_Zealandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Pacific_Islandshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Eurasiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_East_Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Middle_Easthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_South_Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Southeast_Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Caribbeanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_South_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Antarcticahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Australiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_New_Zealandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Pacific_Islandshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Eurasiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_East_Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Middle_Easthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_South_Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Southeast_Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history


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Eilitary istoryconcerns warfare, strategies, battles, wea!ons, and te !sycology of combat#$e "new military istory" since te ;1>s as been concerned wit soldiers more tan generals,wit !sycology more tan tactics, and wit te broader im!act of warfare on society andculture#[>]

History of religion

Eain articleI Heligious istory

$e istory of religion as been a main teme for bot secular and religious istorians forcenturies, and continues to be taugt in seminaries and academe# Keading ournals includeh#rch History,atholic Historical .e/iew,andHistory o .eligions#$o!ics range widely from!olitical and cultural and artistic dimensions, to teology and liturgy#[;]very maor country iscovered,[2]and most smaller ones as well#

&ocial history

Eain articleI %ocial istory

&ocial history, sometimes called te new social history0is te field tat includes istory ofordinary !eo!le and teir strategies and institutions for co!ing wit life#[]6n its "golden age" itwas a maor growt field in te ;1>s and ;1>s among scolars, and still is well re!resented inistory de!artments# 6n two decades from ;1+ to ;11+, te !ro!ortion of !rofessors of istory in/merican universities identifying wit social istory rose from ;T to *;T, wile te!ro!ortion of !olitical istorians fell from *>T to >T#[*]6n te istory de!artments of 3ritisuniversities in 2>>, of te +2 faculty members, ;** (21T) identified temselves wit socialistory wile!olitical istorycame ne't wit ;*2+ (2+T)#[+]$e "old" social istory before te

;1>s was a odge!odge of to!ics witout a central teme, and it often included !oliticalmovements, like


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education

tnic istory

Hural istory

8rban

istory

'ultural history

Eain articleI 4ultural istory

4ultural istory re!laced social istoryas te dominant form in te ;10>s and ;11>s# 6t ty!icallycombines te a!!roaces of antro!ology and istory to look at language, !o!ular culturaltraditions and cultural inter!retations of istorical e'!erience# 6t e'amines te records andnarrative descri!tions of !ast knowledge, customs, and arts of a grou! of !eo!le# &ow !eo!lesconstructed teir memory of te !ast is a maor to!ic# 4ultural istory includes te study of art in

societyas well is te study of images and uman visual !roduction (iconogra!y)#[0]

Diplomatic history

Eain articleI :i!lomatic istory

:i!lomatic istory,sometimes referred to as ".an1ian History"[1]in onor of Keo!old vonHanke, focuses on!olitics, !oliticians and oter ig rulers and views tem as being te drivingforce of continuity and cange in istory# $is ty!e ofpolitical historyis te study of te conductof international relationsbetween states or across state boundaries over time# $is is te mostcommon form of istory and is often te classical and !o!ular belief of wat istory sould be#

Economic history

Eain articleI conomic istory

/ltoug economic istory as been well establised since te late ;1t century, in recent yearsacademic studies ave sifted more and more toward economics de!artments and away fromtraditional istory de!artments#[*>]

Enironmental history

Eain articleI nvironmental istory

nvironmental istory is a new field tat emerged in te ;10>s to look at te istory of teenvironment, es!ecially in te long run, and te im!act of uman activities u!on it#[*;]

$orld history
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rural_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diplomatic_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diplomatic_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diplomatic_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_von_Rankehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_von_Rankehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_relations#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rural_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diplomatic_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diplomatic_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_von_Rankehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_von_Rankehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_relations#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#cite_note-41


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Eain articleI 5orld istory

5orld istory is !rimarily a teacing field, rater tan a researc field# 6t gained !o!ularity in te8nited %tates,[*2]Ma!an[*]and oter countries after te ;10>s wit te realiation tat studentsneed a broader e'!osure to te world as globaliation !roceeds#

$e 5orld &istory /ssociation !ublises te2o#rnal o !orld Historyevery quarter since ;11>#[**]$e &-5orld discussion list[*+]serves as a network of communication among !ractitioners ofworld istory, wit discussions among scolars, announcements, syllabi, bibliogra!ies and bookreviews#

Peoples history

Eain articleI


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Eain articleI


19/31

strong movement emerged at te university level to teac courses in 5estern 4iviliation, so asto give students a common eritage wit uro!e# 6n te 8#%# after ;10> attention increasinglymoved toward teacing world istoryor requiring students to take courses in non-westerncultures, to !re!are students for life in a globalied economy#[*0]

/t te university level, istorians debate te question of weter istory belongs more to socialscience or to te umanities# Eany view te field from bot !ers!ectives#

$e teacing of istory in 9renc scools was influenced by teFouvelle istoireasdisseminated after te ;1>s by ahiers pdagogi%#es and 3nseigne"entand oter ournals forteacers# /lso influential was te 6nstitut national de recerce et de documentation!Udagogique, (6FH:


20/31

Public health

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Newspaper headlines from around the world about polio vaccinetests (! "pril

#$$%

Public healthis "te science and art of !reventing disease, !rolonging life and !romoting ealt

troug te organied efforts and informed coices of society, organiations, !ublic and !rivate,

communities and individuals#"[;]6t is concerned wit treats to ealt based on !o!ulation ealt

analysis# $e !o!ulation in question can be as small as a andful of !eo!le, or as large as all te

inabitants of several continents (for instance, in te case of a!andemic)# $e dimensions of

ealt can encom!ass "a state of com!lete !ysical, mental and social well-being and not merely

te absence of disease or infirmity", as defined by te 8nited Fations=5orld &ealt

7rganiation#[2]


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Eodern !ublic ealt !ractice requires multidisci!linary teamsof !rofessionals including

!ysicianss!ecialiing in !ublic ealtcommunity medicineinfectious disease, e!idemiologists,

biostatisticians,!ublic ealt nurses,medical microbiologists, environmental ealt officers

!ublic ealt ins!ectors,!armacists,dental ygienists,dietitiansandnutritionists, veterinarians,

!ublic ealt engineers, !ublic ealt lawyers, sociologists, community develo!ment workers,

communications e'!erts, and oters#[]

&ontents

'bectives

) *istory

o )+ arly public health interventions

o )+) -odern public health

)+)+ .isease control

)+)+) /ublic *ealth )+0

! ducation and training

o !+ 1chools of public health

o !+) .egrees in public health

2 /ublic health programs

o 2+ "pplications in healthcare

o 2+) 3mplementing e4ective improvement strategies

$ 1ee also

5 6eferences

7 8ibliography

9 ternal links

'bectives

$e focus of a !ublic ealt intervention is to !revent and manage diseases, inuries and oter

ealt conditions troug surveillance of cases and te!romotion of ealty beaviors,

communitiesand environments# Eany diseases are !reventable troug sim!le, non-medical
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multidisciplinarityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biostatisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biostatisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nursing#Public_health_nursinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nursing#Public_health_nursinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbiologisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_health_officerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health_inspectorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental_hygienisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental_hygienisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietitianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietitianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutritionisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutritionisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veterinarianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#Objectiveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#Early_public_health_interventionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#Modern_public_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#Disease_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#Public_Health_2.0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#Education_and_traininghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#Schools_of_public_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#Degrees_in_public_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#Public_health_programshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#Applications_in_healthcarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#Implementing_effective_improvement_strategieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#Bibliographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_promotionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthy_community_designhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_protectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multidisciplinarityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biostatisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nursing#Public_health_nursinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbiologisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_health_officerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health_inspectorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental_hygienisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietitianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutritionisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veterinarianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#Objectiveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#Early_public_health_interventionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#Modern_public_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#Disease_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#Public_Health_2.0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#Education_and_traininghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#Schools_of_public_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#Degrees_in_public_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#Public_health_programshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#Applications_in_healthcarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#Implementing_effective_improvement_strategieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#Bibliographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_promotionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthy_community_designhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_protection


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metods# 9or e'am!le, researc as sown tat te sim!le act of and wasingwit soa! can

!revent many contagious diseases#[*]6n oter cases, treating a disease or controlling a!atogen

can be vital to !reventing its s!read to oters, suc as during an outbreak of infectious disease, or

contamination of food or water su!!lies#> !er

ca!ita in 2>>># &owever, e'!enditures on ealt care sould not be confused wit s!ending on

!ublic ealt#


23/31

eaten, to regulating certain indulgent beaviors, suc as drinkingalcoolor se'ual relations# $e

establisment of governments!laced res!onsibility on leadersto develo! !ublic ealt !olicies

and !rograms in order to gain some understanding of te causes ofdiseaseand tus ensure social

stability!ros!erity,and maintain order#

$e term "ealty city" used by today=s !ublic ealt advocates reflects tis ongoing callenge to

collective !ysical well-being tat results from crowded conditions and urbaniation#

arly public health interventions

/ublic health nursing made available through child welfare services in ;+1+ (c+

#!0s%

3y Homantimes, it was well understood tat !ro!er diversion of uman wastewas a necessary

tenet of !ublic ealt in urban areas# $e ancient 4inesemedical doctorsdevelo!ed te !ractice

of variolationfollowing a small!o'e!idemic around ;>>> 34# /n individual witout te disease

could gain some measure of immunity against it by inaling te dried crusts tat formed aroundlesions of infected individuals# /lso, cildren were !rotected byinoculatinga scratc on teir

forearms wit te !us from a lesion# $is !ractice was not documented in te 5est until te

early-;0t century, and was used on a very limited basis# $e !ractice ofvaccinationdid not

become !revalent until te ;02>s, following te work of dward Mennerto treatsmall!o'#

:uring te ;*t century 3lack :eatin uro!e, it was believed tat removing bodies of te dead

would furter !revent te s!read of te bacterial infection# $is did little to stem te !lague,

owever, wic was most likely s!read by rodent-borne fleas# 3urning !arts of cities resulted in

muc greater benefit, since it destroyed te rodent infestations[citation needed]# $e develo!ment of

quarantinein te medieval !eriod el!ed mitigate te effects of oter infectious diseases#&owever, according to Eicel 9oucault,te !lague model of governmentalitywas later

controverted by te coleramodel# / 4olera !andemic devastated uro!e between ;021 and

;0+;, and was first fougt by te use of wat 9oucault called "social medicine", wic focused

on flu', circulation of air, location ofcemeteries, etc# /ll tose concerns, born of te miasma

teory of disease,were mi'ed wit urbanisticconcerns for te management of !o!ulations,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_sexual_behaviourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadershiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wealthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wealthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthy_cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Romehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variolationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smallpoxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inoculationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inoculationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccinationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccinationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Jennerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smallpoxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smallpoxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Deathhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quarantinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Foucaulthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Foucaulthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governmentalityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cemeterieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cemeterieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miasma_theory_of_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miasma_theory_of_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miasma_theory_of_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_sexual_behaviourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadershiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wealthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthy_cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Romehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variolationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smallpoxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inoculationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccinationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Jennerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smallpoxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Deathhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quarantinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Foucaulthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governmentalityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cemeterieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miasma_theory_of_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miasma_theory_of_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanism


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wic 9oucault designated as te conce!t of "bio!ower"# $e German conce!tualied tis in te

Poli4eiwissenschat("


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:uring te 2>t century and early in te ne't, te dramatic increase in average life s!an is widely

credited to !ublic ealt acievements, suc as vaccination !rograms and control of many

infectious diseases including!olio,di!teria,yellow feverand small!o'J effective ealt and

safety !olicies suc as road traffic safetyandoccu!ational safetyJ im!roved family !lanningJ

tobacco controlmeasuresJ and !rograms designed to decrease non-communicable diseasesby

acting on known risk factors suc as a !erson=s background, lifestyle and environment# 7ne of

te maor sources of te increase in average life s!an in te early 2>t century was te decline in

te "urban !enalty" brougt on by im!rovements in sanitation# $ese im!rovements included

clorinationof drinking water, filtration and sewage treatmentwic led to te decline in deats

caused by infectious waterborne diseasessuc as coleraand intestinal diseases# 6n 4utler and

Eiller=s, "$e Hole of


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as te 2>>* 6ndian 7cean tsunami, 2>>+=s &urricane .atrinain te 8nited %tates and te 2>;>

&aiti eartquake#

%ince te ;10>s, te growing field of!o!ulation ealtas broadened te focus of !ublic ealt

from individual beaviors and risk factorsto !o!ulation-level issues suc as inequality,!overty,

and education# Eodern !ublic ealt is often concerned wit addressing determinants of ealt

across a !o!ulation# $ere is a recognition tat our ealt is affected by many factors including

were we live, genetics, our income, our educational status and our social relationsi!s - tese

are known as "social determinants of ealt#" / social gradient in ealt runs troug society,

wit tose tat are !oorest generally suffering te worst ealt# &owever even tose in te

"iddle classeswill generally ave worse ealt outcomes tan tose of a iger social stratum#[1]

$e new!ublic ealt seeks to address tese ealt inequalities by advocating for !o!ulation-

based !olicies tat im!rove ealt in an equitable manner#

/ublic *ealth )+0

P#5lic Health 678is te term given to a movement witin !ublic ealt tat aims to make te

field more accessible to te general !ublic and more user-driven# $ere are tree senses in wic

te term "" is used# 6n te first sense, "" is similar to te term

"&ealt 2#>" and is used to describe te ways in wic traditional !ublic ealt !ractitioners and

institutions are reacing out (or could reac out) to te !ublic troug social media and ealt

blogs#[;>][;;]6n te second sense, "" is used to describe !ublic ealt researc tat

uses data gatered from social networking sites, searc engine queries, cell !ones, or oter

tecnologies#[;2]6n te tird sense, "" is used to describe !ublic ealt activities

tat are com!letely user-driven#[;]/n e'am!le tis ty!e of is te collection and

saring of information about environmental radiation levels following te Earc 2>;; tsunami

in Ma!an#[;*]6n all cases, draws on ideas from 5eb 2#>, suc ascrowdsourcing,

information saring, and user-centred design#[;+]

ducation and training

ducation and training of !ublic ealt !rofessionals is available trougout te world in

Eedical %cools, Zeterinary %cools, %cools of Fursing, %cools of


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9oundation#[;1]$e re!ort was autored by 5illiam 5elc, founding dean of teMons &o!kins

3loomberg %cool of ]%ome ave blamed te

Hockefeller 9oundation=s ;1; decision to su!!ort te establisment of scools of !ublic ealt

for creating te scism between !ublic ealt and medicine and legitimiing te rift between

medicine=s laboratory investigation of te mecanisms of disease and !ublic ealt=s nonclinical

concern wit environmental and social influences on ealt and wellness#[;1][2;]

ven toug scools of !ublic ealt ad already been establised in 4anada,uro!eandFort

/frica, te 8nited %tates ad still maintained te traditional system of ousing faculties of !ublic

ealt witin teir medical institutions# / X2+,>>> donation from businessman %amuel Nemurray

instituted te %cool of


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e!idemiology and statistics as te scientific basis of !ublic ealt !ractice and tose tat include

a more eclectic range of metodologies# / Easter of %cience of


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monitoring the health situation and assessing health trends+

6n !articular, !ublic ealt surveillance !rograms canI[*]

serve as an early warning systemfor impending public health emergencies=

document the impact of an intervention, or track progress towards speci?edgoals= and

monitor and clarify the epidemiology of health problems, allow priorities to beset, and inform health policyand strategies+

diagnose, investigate, and monitor health problems and health ha@ards of thecommunity

;;# /ltoug te !rioritiation of !ressing !ublic ealt issues is im!ortant, Kaurie

Garrett argues tat tere are following consequences#[+]5en foreign aid is funneled into

disease-s!ecific !rograms, te im!ortance of !ublic ealt in general is disregarded# $is !ublic

ealt !roblem of stove!i!ingis tougt to create a lack of funds to combat oter e'isting

diseases in a given country#

9or e'am!le, te 5&7 re!orts tat at least 22> million !eo!le worldwide suffer from diabetes#

6ts incidence is increasing ra!idly, and it is !roected tat te number of diabetes deats willdouble by te year 2>>#[]6n a Mune 2>;> editorial in te medical ournal The 9ancet, te

autors o!ined tat "$e fact tat ty!e 2 diabetes, a largely !reventable disorder, as reaced

e!idemic !ro!ortion is a !ublic ealt umiliation#"[]$e risk of ty!e 2 diabetes is closely

linked wit te growing !roblem of obesity# $e 5&7Vs latest estimates igligted tat

globally a!!ro'imately ;#+ billion adults were overweigt in 2>>0, and nearly * million

cildren under te age of five were overweigt in 2>;>#[0]$e 8nited %tates is te leading

country wit >#T of its !o!ulation being obese# Ee'ico follows beind wit 2*#2T and te

8nited .ingdom wit 2T# 7nce considered a !roblem in ig-income countries, it is now on

te rise in low-income countries, es!ecially in urban settings# Eany !ublic ealt !rograms are

increasingly dedicating attention and resources to te issue of obesity, wit obectives to address

te underlying causes including ealty dietand!ysical e'ercise#

%ome !rograms and !olicies associated wit !ublic ealt !romotion and !revention can be

controversial# 7ne suc e'am!le is !rograms focusing on te !revention of &6Ztransmission

troug safe se'cam!aigns and needle-e'cange !rogrammes# /noter is te control of tobacco

smoking# 4anging smoking beavior requires long term strategies, unlike te figt against
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_warning_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health_policyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabeteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterborne_diseaseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterborne_diseaseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic_resistancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic_resistancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Dayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Dayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stovepipinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stovepipinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#cite_note-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lancethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#cite_note-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#cite_note-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthy_diethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_exercisehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_exercisehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIVhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIVhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safe_sexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Needle-exchange_programmehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_smokinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_smokinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_warning_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health_policyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabeteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterborne_diseaseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic_resistancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Dayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Dayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stovepipinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#cite_note-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lancethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#cite_note-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#cite_note-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthy_diethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_exercisehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIVhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safe_sexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Needle-exchange_programmehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_smokinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_smoking


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communicable diseaseswic usually takes a sorter !eriod for effects to be observed# Eany

nations ave im!lemented maor initiativesto cut smoking, suc as increased ta'ation and bans

on smoking in some or all !ublic !laces# ;;#[1]

Eany ealt !roblems are due to malada!tive !ersonal beaviors# 9rom an evolutionary

!sycology!ers!ective tey can classified as overconsum!tion of evolutionary novel substances

tat are armful but strongly activates evolutionarily old reward systems(drugs, tobacco,

alcool, and refined salt, fat, and carboydrates)J overconsum!tion of evolutionary novel

tecnologies wit armful side effects suc as modern trans!ortation causing reduced !ysical

activityJ and underconsum!tion of evolutionary novel tecnologies tat are beneficial but ave

no intrinsic motivation (condoms, contrace!tion, soa!, bednets, toilets, and gas stoves instead of

wood burning)# Hesearc ave found tat beavior is more effectively canged by taking

evolutionary motivations into consideration instead of only !resenting information about ealt

effects# $us, increased use of soa! and andwasing in order to !revent diarreais muc moreeffectively !romoted if associating lack of use wit te emotion of disgust# :isgust is an

evolutionary old system for avoiding contact wit substances s!reading infectious diseases and

oter armful beavior# 'am!les include sowing films of ow disgusting fecal matter

contaminates food wic are ten eaten or using messages suc as "%oa! it off or eat it later"#

$e marketing industry as long known te im!ortance of associating !roducts wit ig status

and attractiveness to oters# 4onversely, it as been argued tat em!asiing te armful and

undesirable effects of tobacco smoking on oter !ersons and im!osing smoking bans in !ublic

!laces ave been !articularly effective in reducing tobacco smoking#[*>]

"pplications in healthcare

/s well as seeking to im!rove !o!ulation ealt troug te im!lementation of s!ecific

!o!ulation-level interventions, !ublic ealt contributes to medical care by identifying and

assessing !o!ulation needs for ealt careservices, includingI[*;][*2][*][**]

"ssessing current services and evaluating whether they are meeting theobectives of the health care system
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicable_diseaseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_smoking#Public_policyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_smoking#Public_policyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_smokinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-communicable_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-communicable_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#cite_note-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#cite_note-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reward_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reward_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diarrheahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disgusthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#cite_note-AEP-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_carehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#cite_note-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#cite_note-42http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#cite_note-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#cite_note-44http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_care_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicable_diseaseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_smoking#Public_policyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_smokinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-communicable_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#cite_note-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reward_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diarrheahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disgusthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#cite_note-AEP-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_carehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#cite_note-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#cite_note-42http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#cite_note-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health#cite_note-44http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_care_system


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"scertaining reAuirements as epressed by health professionals, the publicand other stakeholders

3dentifying the most appropriate interventions

&onsidering the e4ect on resources for proposed interventions and assessingtheir cost>e4ectiveness

1upporting decision making in health care and planning health servicesincluding any necessary changes+

3nforming, educating, and empowering people about health issues

3mplementing e4ective improvement strategies

$o im!rove !ublic ealt, one im!ortant strategy is to !romote modern medicine and scientific

neutrality to drive te !ublic ealt !olicy and cam!aign, wic is recommended by /rmanda

%olorana, troug a case study of te Hockefeller 9oundation=s ookworm cam!aign in Ee'ico

in te ;12>s# %olorana argues tat !ublic ealt !olicy can=t concern only !olitics or economics#

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