Morphology and Lexicol-ogy

영어영문학과 임대동

Word Formation Ⅱ

LIST 4.1 Affixation

4.1.1 Prefixation 4.1.2 Suffixation

4.4 Blending

4.2.1 Characteristics of Compounds 4.2.2 Formation of Compounds

4.3 Conversion

4.2 Compound-ing

4.1 Affixa-tion접사

4.1 Affixation

Defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems.Affixation=DerivationAccording to the positions which affixes occupy in words, affixation falls into two subclasses: Prefixation and suffixation

4.1.1Prefixation

Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. Prefixes modify word’s meaning. Prefixes can be classify into nine groups.

4.1.1Prefixation

① Negative prefixes: a-, dis-, in-(il-, ir-, im-), non-, un-EX)amoral(nonmoral), disroyal(not royal), injustice(without justice), il-legal(not legal), irresistible(not to be resisted), immature(not mature), non-smoker(not a smoker), unwilling(not willing).

② Reversative prefixes: de-, dis-, un-EX)decentralize(give greater powers for self-government), disallow(refuse to allow), unwrap(open)

③ Pejorative( 경멸적인 ) prefixes: mal-, mis-, pseudo-EX) maltreat(treat badly), mistrust(not to trust), pseudo-friend(false friend)

4.1.1Prefixation

④ prefixes of degree or size: arch-, extra-, hyper-, macro-, micro-, mini-, out-, over-, sub-, super-, sur-, ultra-, under-EX)extra-strong(very strong), microcomputer(very small computer), over-weight(weighing more than normal), underdeveloped(less developed)

⑤ Prefixes of orientation( 지향 ) and attitude: anti-, contra-, counter-, pro-EX) anti-government, contraflow(the arrangement for the traffic to go on both directions on one side of the road), pro-student(on the side of the student)

⑥ Locative prefixes: extra-, fore-, inter-, intra-, tele-, trans-EX) extraordinary, forehead, inter-city(between cities), intra-party(within the party), telecommunication(communication by tele-phone, radio, etc)

⑦ Prefixes of time and order: ex-, fore-, post-, pre-, re-EX) ex-professor(former professor), foretell(tell before happening), post-election(after election), pre-prepared(prepared beforehand), reconsider(consider again)

⑧ Number prefixes: bi-, multi-,(poly-), semi-(hemi-) tri-, uni-(mono-)EX) bilingual(concerning two languages), multi-purpose(more than on purpose), semi-naked(half naked)

⑨ Miscellaneous ( 여러 가지의 ) prefixes: auto-, neo-, pan, vice-EX) autobiography, neo-Nazi(new Nazi), pan-European(the whole of Europe), vice-chairman

4.1.1Prefixation

4.1.2Suffixation

The formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.Suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems.We can group suffixes on a grammatical basis into noun suffixes, verb suffixes, adjective suffixes, etc.

1.Noun suffixes1)Denominal nounsa. Concrete( 사실적인 )The suffixes of this group are added to noun bases to produce con-crete nouns( 구상명사 ): -eer, -er, -ess, -letEX) engineer, hostess, booklet, ganster

4.1.2Suffixation

b. Abstract( 추상적인 )The following suffixes come at the end of noun stems to form ab-stract nouns( 추상명사 ): -age, -dom, -ery, -hood, -ing, -ism, -shipEX) wastage, officialdom(officials as a group), slavery, adulthood, terrorism, friendship

2)Deverbal nouns( 동사에서 유래된 명사 )a. The following suffixes combine with verb stems to create

largely nouns denoting people: -ant, -ee, -ent, -er(-or)EX) assistant, employee, respondent(person who responds)

4.1.2Suffixation

b. Suffixes of this group added to verb stems to produce largely ab-stract nouns. Denoting action, result, process, state, etc. : -age, -al, -ance, -ation, -ence, -ing, -mentEX) carriage, survival, attendance, protection, statement

3)De-adjective nouns-ity, -nessEX) popularity, happiness

4)Noun and adjective suffixesA small number of suffixes, when added to stems related to human beings or nationality names, form words that can be used both as nouns and adjectives: -ese, -an, -istEX) Chinese, Australian, socialist

4.1.2Suffixation

2. Adjective suffixes1)Denominal suffixes: -ed, -ful, -ish, less, -like, -ly, -yEX) simple-minded, successful, childish, dreamlike, priceless

2)Deverbal suffixes: -able(-ible), -ive(-ative)EX) arguable, active

3. Adverb suffixes: -ly, -ward, -wiseEX) naturally, clockwise(in the direction in which the hands of the clock move)

4. Verb suffixes: -ate, -en, -( i )fy, -ize(-ise)EX) darken, beautify, modernize

4.2 Compound-ing 합성

4.2 CompoundingThe formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Compounding=Composition‘Lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word’

4.2.1Characteristics of Com-pounds Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three as-peets.

1. Phonetic features( 음성학적 특징 )In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stress.

4.2.1Characteristics of Com-pounds EX

) Compounds Free phrases a `fat head a fat `head

a `hot house a hot `house a `black horse a black `horse a `green room a green `room

4.2.1Characteristics of Com-pounds

2. Semantic features( 의미적인 특징 )Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word.

EX) a green hand: ‘inexperienced person’ , not a hand that is green in colorRed meat: ‘beef’ or ‘lamb’, rather than any meat that is red in color

3. Grammatical featuresA compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence. EX) Bad-mouth(verb) – ‘he bad-mouthed me”

4.2.2Formation of Compounds

Compounding can take place within any of the word classes.

EX) Prepositions-Without, throughout Conjunctions-however, moreover Pronouns-oneself, somebodyBut the most productive ones are nouns and adjectives followed by verbs to a much lesser extent. Most compounds consist of only two stems but are formed on a rich variety of patterns and the internal grammatical relationships within the words are con-siderably complex.

4.2.2Formation of Compounds

(1) n + n: Moon walk, end product(2) n + v: Toothache, frostbite(3) v + n: Crybaby, tell-tale(4) a + n: Deadline, blueprint(5) n + v-ing: Brainwashing, air-conditioning(6) v-ing + n: Cleaning lady, wading bird(7) n + v-er: Stockholder, crime reporter(8) adv + v: Outbreak, downfall(9) V + adv: Sit-in, have-not(10) v-ing + adv: Going-over, carryings-on(11) adv + v-ing: Up-bringing

1. Noun com-pounds

4.2.2Formation of Compounds

(1) n + v-ing: Law-abiding, record-breaking(2) a + v-ing: easy-going, high-sounding(3) n + a: War-weary, thread-bare(4) a + a: Deaf-mute, bitter-sweet(5) n + v-ed: Custom-built, town-bred(6) a (adv) + v-ed: Far-fetched, hard-won(7) n (a) + n-ed: Short-sighted, lion-hearted(8) num + n: Ten-story, four-leg(9) num + n-ed: One-eyed, two-legged(10) adv + v-ing: Forth-coming, out-going(11) v-ed + adv: Worn-out, washed-up

2. Adjective com-pounds

4.2.2Formation of Compounds3. Verb compoundsVerb compounds are not as common as the other two classes.The limited number of verbs are created either through conversion or backformationThrough conversionNickname (n) to nick nameHoneymoon (n) to honeymoonMoonlight (n) to moonlightFirst-name (n) to first-name

Through backformationLip-reading to lip-readBottle-feeding to bottle-feedChain-smoker to chain-smokeMass production to mass-produce

As shown by these examples, back-formed verb com-pounds are formed mainly by dropping the suffixes:-er, -ing, -ion, etc.

4.3 Conversion변환

4.3 ConversionThe formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. This is a method of turning words of one part of speech to those of a different part of speech.

EX) for word ‘round ’[A] He was knocked out in the first round.[B] Round the number off to the nearest tenth.[C] The neighbours gathered round our barbecue.[D] The moon was bright and round.[F] People came from all the country round.

In each sentence round is used as a different part of speech: noun, verb, preposition, adjective, and adverb.

4.3 Conversion1. Conversion to noun

1)Verb to nounAlmost all monomorphemic( 단일형태소로 이루어진 ) verbs can be used as nouns.

EX) Desire, love, swim, buy, paper, divide, drive, and so much more

And also many simple nouns converted from verbs can be used with have, take, make, give, etc.

EX) have a look(smoke, swim, try, wash), take a walk(ride, glance, rest, shower), give a cry(grant, start, laugh), make a move(guess, offer)

4.3 Conversion

2)Adjective to nounIt is not unusual to have nouns converted from adjectives. Some are completely converted(Full conversion), others are only partially converted.(partial conversion)

(1)Words fully converted (Full conversion)A noun fully converted from an adjective has all the characteristics of nouns.EX) white, native, finals, liberal

4.3 Conversion

(2)Word partially converted(Partial conversion)Nouns partially converted from adjectives do no possess all the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with definite articles.

EX) the poor, the rich, the young, the wounded, the poorer

Words of this class generally refer to a group of the kind

EX) the young=young people, the wounded=wounded soldiers.

But such nouns can refer to a single person as well.

4.3 Conversion

3) Miscellaneous conversionThis covers nouns converted from conjunctions, modals, finite verbs, prepositions, etc.

EX) with, without, also-ran, never-was, downs, must, isms

4.3 Conversion

2.Conversion to verbsAs it often the case, a noun can be converted to a verb without any change.

1)Noun to verbVerbs converted from nouns are semantically related to the orig-inal nouns in a variety of ways.

EX)bottle, butter, feather, finger, window and many more.

4.3 Conversion

2)Adjective to verbConversion of adjectives into verbs is not as productive as that of nouns.The verbs thus converted are semantically simple.

EX) [1] He walked carefully so as not to wet his shoes. wet=used as a transitive verb as ‘He walked carefully so as not to make his shoes wet.’ [2] The photograph yellowed with age yellow=an intransitive use meaning ‘become yellow ’ ‘the photograph became yellow with age’

4.3 Conversion

3)Miscellaneous conversionIn some cases, conversion is accompanied by certain changes which affect pronunciation or spelling or stress distribution. The most common changes are: (1)Voiceless to voiced consonant Noun VerbHouse /-s/ House /-z/Use /-s/ Use /-z/Mouth /-θ/ Mouth /-ð/Shelf /-f/ Shelve /-v/Sheath /-θ/ Sheathe /-ð/

4.3 Conversion

(2) Initial to end stressThis stress shift occurs usually in two syllable words.

Used as a noun=the stress fall on the first syllableEX) ‘Conduct(n) , ‘permit(n)

② Used as a verb=the stress moves onto the second syllableEX) Con’duct(v), per’mit(v)

4.4 Blending합성

4.4 Blending

The formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word.Blending=Blends=Portmanteau

EX) Flush= fl(flash)+ush(blush) Smog= sm(smoke)+og(fog)

We can blends fall into four major groups.

4.4 Blending1. Head + tail Autocide from(automobile + suicide)Motel from (motor + hotel)Slurb from (slum + suburb)Cremains from (cremate + remains)Chunnel from (channel + tunnel)

2. Head + headComsat from ( communications + satellite)Telex from (teleprinter +exchange)Amerind from (American + Indian)Sitcom from (situation + comedy)Fortran from (formula + transator)

4.4 Blending3. Head + wordMedicare from (medical + care)Eurasia from (Europe + Asia)Telequiz from (telephone + quiz)Autocamp from (automobile + camp)

4. Word + taillunarnaut from (lunar + astronaut)Bookmobile from (book + automobile)Workfare from (work + welfare)Tourmobile from (tour + automobile)

4.4 Blending

Blends are mostly used in writing related to science and technol-ogy, and to newspapers and magazines. Though many of them have already achieved currency in English, blends are still consid-ered by serious-minded people as a slang. Therefore it will be bet-ter for you to not use these words too often, especially in formal writing.

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