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Policy Implications for the Sustainability ofCommunity Radio in Uganda: The Case ofMAMA

FM Radio

Milly Nattimba

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIALFULFILLMENT FOR THE AWARD OF A DEGREE OFMASTER OF ARTS IN COMMUNICATIONS STUDIES

OF THE UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS

September 1, 2004

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

AcknowledgementsDeclaration

List of Tables and BoxesTable 1: Ideal budget for MAMA FM 43Table 2: Volunteers minimum expenditures 51Box 1: Insensitive taxes 45

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction1.1 Overview 41.2 Purpose and Argument of the Research 51.3 Research Question and Hypothesis 6

1.4 Background of the Study 61.4.1 Community Radio Landscape in Uganda 61.4.1.2 Defining Community Radio 71.4.1.3 Advent of Community Radio in Uganda 81.4.2 History ofMAMA FM 111.4.2.1 Uniqueness ofMAMA FM 161.4.2.2 Economic Hardships of operating daily 10

1.5 Scope of Study 211.6 Limitations of Study 21

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Theoretical Conceptualisation 23

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Methodology 293.1 Research Design 293.2 Research Methods 29

3.2.1 Focused Interviews 293.2.2 Policy Review 303.2.3 Methods of Data Collection 30

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Data Presentation and Analysis 314.1 Broadcasting Policy Framework in Uganda 31

4.1.1 Uganda Communications Act, 1997 314.1.2 Draft Radio Communications Regulation, 2003 324.1.3 The Electronic Media Statute, 1996 34

4.1.3.1 Licencing 344.1.3.2 Licence to broadcast 34

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4.1.3.3 Licence to occupy a radio frequency 36

4.1.4 The Uganda National ICT Policy, 2002 374.1.5 The Draft Broadcasting Policy 40

4.2 The MAMA FMExperience 41

4.2.1 Composition of Interviews 414.2.2 Specific Results 424.2.2.1 Funding 424.2.2.2 Specific Policy Experiences 444.2.2.3 Partnerships and Linkages 464.2.2.4 Personnel 47

4.3 Data Interpretation and Analysis 524.3.1 Testing of Hypothesis 52

4.4 Discussion 524.4.1 Policy Gaps 524.4.2 Policy Experiences 54

4.4.3 Funding 554.4.4 Personnel 564.4.5 Partnerships and Linkages 56

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 Conclusions 575.1 Summary 575.2 Main Conclusions 575.3 Recommendations 59

5.3.1 Recommendations for government 595.3.2 Recommendations for Community Media Owners 60

5.3.3 Recommendations for government and donors 605.3.4 Research-oriented recommendations 61

Bibliography 62

AppendicesAppendix 1: Interview scheduleAppendix 2: List of interviewees

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CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

1.1Overview

This research examines the effects communications policy in Uganda has

on the sustainability of community radio. The research is specific on

MAMA FM, a womens radio station that aims to bridge the gender gap

created by corporate radio ownership, in disseminating development

information.

Uganda is currently under- going a series of changes. It has opened up

spheres of interaction: in the economy, politics, social-cultural debates and

other areas. This process has also involved freeing the air-waves to

corporate investment, leading to a highly commercialized broadcasting

sector which thrives on advertising; thus paying more attention to the

advertisers than the ordinary people.

Community radio comes in to serve the people underserved by

commercial radio, especially those in the low-income categories- the

urban poor and the rural-based, the women and those with disabilities.

Communications policy frameworks in Uganda however, are not

conducive to the survival of community radio.

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This research analyzes the different regulations governing broadcasting.

The findings indicate that the present policy framework affects funding, the

retention of personnel, and the service delivery of community radio,

making sustainability extremely problematic for operators of community

radio stations.

If community radio in Uganda continues to be regulated by a framework

designed for independent commercial radio, it will eventually collapse or

metamorphose into commercial broadcasting. This inevitably endangers

the on-going democratization process.

1.2 Purpose and Argument of the Research.

The purpose of this research is to establish the gaps in broadcasting

policy, how they affect the financial sustainability of community radio and

proposed strategies for reform.

The argument here is that Ugandas communication policy is corporate

radio- oriented having been formulated during the countrys trend of

liberalization.

To be sustainable, community radio needs a policy framework that is

sensitive to its peculiar structural, organizational and operational needs.

The report will follow a logical organization. The overview of the research,

purpose and argument of the research, the research question and

hypothesis, the background of the study problem, and the theoretical and

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empirical conceptualization of the study will be presented in the first

chapter of the report. The second chapter is a theoretical

conceptualization of the study while the third chapter covers the

methodology. Empirical data will be presented and analyzed in the fourth

chapter. Chapter five will present conclusions.

1.3Research question and hypothesis

Research question: Does the present communication policy guarantee

sustainability of community radio in Uganda?

Hypothesis: The communications policy in Uganda is not conducive for

sustainable operation of community radio in Uganda.

1.4 Background of the study

1.4.1 Community Radio Landscape in Uganda

Broadcasting in Uganda has since colonialism, been an area preserved

for government and the elite (Mutabazi, 2004, Buckley, 2000). From the

early 1950s to the early 1990s there was only one radio station and one

television station centrally-controlled by government. It is only in the early

1990s that the communications sector was opened up for corporate

investment. The late 1990s introduced another phenomenon in the sector

when the first community radio station-Kibale Kagadi Community Radio-

was opened (Mwangi, 1999).

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Since then community radio in Uganda has come to be regarded by

development communicators as one of the most appropriate means of

communication, especially in transmitting development information

(Buckley, 2000). Development information here means information on

health, education, agri-business, income generation and other categories

of information that can enable women transform their lives from

dependency to independency.

1.4.1.2 Defining Community Radio

Community radio can be universally defined as small scale radio stations

organized by the local community with the help of one or two technical

experts to transmit information that caters for the primary needs of a given

geographical community or community of interest. Therefore community

radio, is integrated with practices of community life while corporate radio

is integrated with the life of the business community. While the public

actively participates in the affairs of community radio the business

community is the backbone of corporate radio.

(http://www.wacc.org.uk/modules.php?name=News&file=print&sid=786)

Wanyeki (1999) writes that community radio ownership and management

patterns are quite diverse but they are generally non-governmental and

non-corporate. The nature of community media is participatory and the

purpose of community media (radio) is developmental (pp: 30).

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The World Association of Community Broadcasters (AMARC) defines

community radio as having three aspects: non-profit making, community

ownership and control, community participation

(http://www.amarc.org/amarc/ang/amarc-commun/radio/radio.htm).

1.4.1.3 Advent of Community Radio in Uganda.

Community radio in Uganda arose out of the realization by development

practictitioners that the lack of access to development-oriented information

especially on particular programmes like entandikwa (poverty eradication)

scheme, greatly hampered peoples participation in such programmes.

A number of NGOs and government donor-funded programmes on

poverty alleviation were continually failing because of poor information

flow or total lack of it (UMWA, 2003).

The state-funded radio station, Radio Uganda was rapidly deteriorating

and narrowing in geographical coverage. When the Ministry of

Information- where Radio Uganda falls- was reduced to a department

under the Office of the President its funding was cut, while its duties,

personnel and coverage were expected to remain the same. This led to

loss of morale of the employees, loss of quality in programming and

reduced regularity in equipment maintenance. As a result of irregular

maintenance the signal became weak and reception to many parts of the

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country, especially those far from the capital city, was completely cut off

(Baguma, Lugalambi, Zawadi, 2000).

On the other hand commercial radio stations were more concerned about

covering issues and people that would make the advertisers put in more

money (Ojiambo, 1999a). Inevitably, commercial radio stations were more

concentrated in urban areas where peoples purchasing power was much

higher and promising in terms of attracting advertisements

(http://www.panos.org.uk/global/projectdetails.asp?

ProjectID=1026&ID=1002 )

The development practitioners in especially the rural areas and special

areas like gender and womens issues realized the need to come up with

communication channels that are particularly tailored to the specific

development needs of the communities in which they were operating

This explains why most of the community radio stations in Uganda are

initiated and run by Non-government Organizations. Non Government

Organizations are the key players because all communities they serve

lack the resources, the expertise and the skills to operate their own radio

stations.

Community radio in Uganda is a recent development; as recent as 1999

July when Kagadi-Kibaale Community Radio was launched by the Uganda

Rural Development and Training Trust.

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The station is fully owned by the local community who selected a

committee to take care of all the interests of the different stakeholders in

the running of the radio station.

It mobilizes and provides information to the local community of Kagadi

Sub County in western Uganda, for development that takes a holistic

nature, where the community members are not only recipients of

information but are also engaged in generating information used in

development planning.

The Uganda Rural Development and Training Trust came up with the

radio station to enhance its training programmes in rural sustainable

development in all areas like education, agriculture, small-scale business

development, human rights awareness and advocacy among others

(Mwangi, 1999).

In Northern Uganda where a civil war has been raging for the last 18

years, another community radio station has been set up to contribute to

efforts geared at peace-building in the region. Radio Apac broadcasts

programmes aimed at improving the livelihood of the local community of

Apac and neighboring districts affected by the war, mainly Gulu, Kitgum

and Pader. (http:www.interconnnection.org/radioapac/homehtm ).

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MAMA FM- another community station - specifically addresses itself to

gender and womens issues. It was launched in 2001 as the first radio

station started and run by women in Africa to bridge the gender gap that

commercial programming creates in addressing development needs of the

people. (http://interconnection.org/umwa/community_radio.html ).

From the above brief run-through of the community radio landscape in

Uganda it is clear that community radio stations come into being to

address divergent issues ranging from the general, like mobilizing for

community development and women empowerment, to the specific like

mobilizing for peace-building. This means community radio in Uganda is

started according to geographical location and community of interest.

1.4.2 History ofMAMA FM.

In Uganda, one of the most marginalized groups of people are the women;

they are the most hit by inequalities in education, access to productive

resources, political power and social recognition (Nassanga, 1997). While

women produce 80% of all food crops, 60% of all traditional exports like

maize and others, they own only 7% of land (Okwakol, 2002). Ojiambo

(1999) writes that women in Uganda occupy only 9% of decision-making

positions and only 1% can access credit. Yet in development practice it

has been observed that balancing the genders is a fundamental element

in working towards sustainable development (Nassanga, 1997). With high

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levels of illiteracy-55.1% for women in 2000-

(http://www.ifad.org/gender/learning/sector/extension/52.htm ) and the

eventual marginalization of women, it became evident that the print media

could not be of much use. Community radio, which can cater for specific

needs of specific people, and is easy to access, remained the most cost-

effective option (Isis-WICCE, 2002).

Photo 1: Learning to write at age 50: The kind of women MAMA FM

targets.

Source:http://www.ifad.org/gender/learning/sector/extension/52.html

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Womens access to information that is relevant to their development

needs; through a user-friendly channel became an urgent need that led to

the establishment ofMAMA FM, a women-focused radio station.

Traditionally in Uganda the media on average portray women as

belonging to the backyards of society, concerned with only entertaining

their husbands in bedroom and kitchen matters and having children.

Women are rarely portrayed as achievers (Nassanga and Nattimba,

1994). They are considered as appendages of men. Their views and

thoughts on public matters are considered sufficiently catered for by the

men, be they brothers, fathers, village chiefs and husbands (Kawamara,

1992). For instance, the women who were brave enough to come out and

engage in politics in the early 1990s are still queried as to who gave them

permission to get involved in an area that involves public speaking. And

those who are not married are considered idle and incompetent for a

public job like local council representative (UMWA, 1998).

These are the kind of images MAMA FMset out to correct.

MAMA FMwas founded in 2000 but launched in 2001 by the Uganda

Media Womens Association (UMWA), to counter the negative portrayal of

women, and the under-representation of gender and womens issues in

the mainstream broadcast media

(http://interconnection.org/umwa/community_radio.html).

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The radio station was started after the organization carried out a feasibility

study of information accessibility and realized that rural women and the

urban poor women were lagging behind in access to information, which

affected their participation in development activities (UMWA, 1998). They

also do not have the means to express their own realities, debate their

interpretations of those realities and engage in discussions about potential

solutions with decision and policy makers at the national level (Wanyeki,

2001: pp: 33). There were two main issues to note.

Media structures in Uganda are a reflection of the over-all cultural

orientation of the entire Uganda society where womens voices are not

expected to be heard in public, including public media like radio. Uganda

is a patriarchal society where women are not decision makers. (Nassanga,

1997).

Due to this mindset, even information on the development programmes

and projects that were designed for communities went through the men

who are the heads of households. Most men however would never pass

on the information to the women, yet in the homes women do 90% of the

work, like agricultural production, looking after sick members of the

household, catering for the food needs of the household, paying school

fees and husbands graduated tax, and the general management of the

home (UMWA, 2003). But this is not considered as viable contribution to

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the economy, and as a result women are left out of information

dissemination activities. Unfortunately, the mainstream media has done

very little to help women organizations and women at large to demystify

(this kind of) stereotype thinking (Ojiambo, 1999a pp: 11).

Therefore, by not accessing the necessary information on health and

hygiene, modern farming methods and nutrition needs of the family,

women did not have the opportunity to develop themselves and their

family members (Nassanga, 1997).

The second reason is that some women who had already overcome the

hurdle of cultural inhibitions did not have the necessary confidence to

appear and talk on radio, and in any case media practitioners were never

keen on interviewing the women. This made the women sink deeper into

their cocoons of seclusion. Such women needed some confidence-

building atmosphere, to give them the necessary boost (UMWA, 1998).

So, MAMA FMwas started to promote the voices of women both in the

public and private spheres and also provide training to young women

interested in broadcasting (UMWA, 2001).

MAMA FMdeals with issues that are of great concern to women in the

areas of health, economic empowerment, politics, policy, agricultural

production and marketing, leadership skills, peace-building, human rights,

education and others.

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The radio station is estimated to serve over ten million people in central,

part of Western, South Western and Eastern Uganda

On 101.7 FM, MAMA covers a radius of 300- 400km targeting particularly

women in the reproductive age bracket (15-50 years). It promotes

interactive communication as it provides for immediate feedback between

the station volunteers and the communities through field visits.

1.4.2.1 Uniqueness ofMAMA FM

Although MAMA FMis a community radio station it deals with a national

issue; that of bringing womens concerns to the development agenda, and

it is fully managed and three quarters staffed by women.

.MAMA FMis bridging the divide between the private and the public and

bringing women to the public arena where issues that affect their lives are

debated and sometimes solutions provided (Kawamara, 2003).

With this radio station UMWA could counter the difficulties of single

programme in the mainstream media. This single programme applies to

public service broadcasting and not corporate broadcasting. Corporate

stations will only put on air a programme on women or gender concerns if

it is sponsored by an organization.

Many radio stations have one token programme once a week on womens

issues and gender concerns. With a single programme, it is difficult to

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sustain the debate on the many issues concerning womens development

needs (Nassanga, 1997).

To break the shackles of patriarchy on women requires more sustained

debate and this is where an issue- focused radio station like MAMA FM

becomes crucial (UMWA, 2001).

Women right from the manager to the technical staff wholly manage the

radio station, while three quarters of the volunteers have to be women.

MAMA FMworks at changing the way women participate in radio

programming as producers and as listeners and also to give a human face

to the women and gender issues that were previously predominantly

represented in terms of mere statistics. The aim was to give the statistics

a face and a voice. So MAMA FMtook on its slogan, The Voice for the

Voiceless [statistics] by encouraging women to participate in its

programmes (http://interconnection.org/umwa/community_radio.html).

Researches and studies had been carried out in Uganda on the impact of

the gender sensitive policies of government and varying statistics given as

to how rapidly women in Uganda were actively getting visible in the public

sphere, but without being audible (Tripp, 1998,Nassanga, 1997, Tripp and

Kwesiga, 2002).MAMA FMgives them that element of audibility

(Matembe, 2001).

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Since MAMA FMcannot cover the entire nation, radio listenership groups

were set up by the management in fifteen districts to achieve a multiplier

effect in its information dissemination projects to rural areas. Recorded

programmes were distributed to womens groups and their views and

opinions on the issues raised are then recorded and aired on the radio.

Women were given radio sets and programme schedules from which- with

some guidance- they would select programmes that suit their needs like

health, agriculture, human rights, income generation, and adult literacy.

After listening they record their own discussions of the information in the

programme and the tapes are exchanged between groups in the same

language-speaking districts. Such programmes were scheduled to go on

air at night when women have time to listen to them.

However, many women dropped out of the group listening scheme

because their husbands and fathers would not let them go out at night and

sit with groups of other women to listen to radio. The other problem was

that many of the groups could not afford to buy the batteries that were

needed to run the radio sets, and the groups weakened (Sentamu, 2004).

MAMA FMtries to encourage the women to talk to the radio stations

producers and presenters about the issues in their lives that they would

like to let out. A few have grabbed this opportunity and they are very

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active in participating in all the programmes, but many are still afraid of

their husbands.

One woman with a health question believes she ought to ask herhusband before talking to the programme presenter. Others simplylack the technical and financial means. Many women would like tocome over to the studios us but don't have the money for transport.Others have no radio at home, because it belongs to the husbandand he takes it into town every day, said Tiisa.(http://www.radioafrica.oneworld.net/article/view/72080/1).

This means they cannot listen regularly and independently.

In a society where the death of a goat in a homestead may mean the end

of ones future, many women find it difficult raising money to buy and

maintain their own radio sets. In rural Uganda, for instance, on average

an individual household earns approximately $5 a month- the World Bank

puts it at $1 a day- (Appleton, online) which covers the daily expenses like

medical treatment, consumables, school fees, agricultural implements and

other necessities. The major source of income is agriculture, which is

carried out at the most rudimentary level. Such people cannot even think

of supporting a radio station, financially.

1.4.2.2 Economic hardships of operating daily

The radio station is on air 18 hours a day. This means there are more than

6 people working everyday. They have to be transported. These two

elements are crucial.

Transport makes life very tense at the station; sometimes presenterscall one hour before the time they are supposed to go on air and

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report they will not be able to make it: they have no money fortransport. Like wise, it is almost impossible to make people work onempty stomachs. We tried providing them with lunch but it proved tooexpensive and we stopped that, Tiisa noted.

She notes this has led to absenteeism, resulting into broadcasting fillers

and repeats, a thing that draws the audience to other stations.

Electricity supply in Uganda is quite erratic. On average supply gets cut off

three times a day.

This means there has to be fuel in the standby generators at all time.

Sometimes the generator develops problems and it leaks so you findsome of the fuel has been lost, or sometimes it develops a blockageand the fuel does not flow well. You may think it is a big mechanicalproblem and you call in the technician, who will charge you for onlyremoving a piece of rubbish that was sucked into the generator, saidTiisa.

Sentamu notes;

It is hard enough maintaining the staff, but it is even hardermaintaining the audience. Working in a highly commercialenvironment means co-existing with radio stations that invest heavilyin giving out freebies to attract listeners, which MAMA FM cannotafford doing.

The MAMA FMmodel is that of a womens radio station organizing

separately as opposed to the model where a radio station is built within

the structure of another radio station. (Mitchell, 2002). Some womens

radio stations are part of bigger general radio stations; they are more like

divisions within a bigger arrangement. This to some extent ensures them

security of funding since they are budgeted for as a department within the

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bigger organization. Radio Venus (a womens radio station in the UK), at

Bradford Community Broadcasting is one such radio station that is part of

a bigger arrangement.

MAMA FMon the other hand is an independent arrangement, organizing

separately, as opposed to Radio Venus. MAMA FMtherefore has to carry

out its own sourcing of funds to ensure survival.

But the institutional and the ideological context within which the

community radio station is situated is very crucial to whether and to what

extent women can actually access this community radio. This is where it is

very important to examine the legal framework within which the radio is

operating and how it affects its operations.

1.5 Scope of study

The study focuses on the implications of broadcasting policy, on the

survival of community radio in Uganda. The case study is MAMA FM.

1.6 Limitations of the study

There was limited funding to carry out the research. The researcher could

not travel, and had to rely on email communication with the interviewees.

A lot of in-depth information that would have made the research more

informative was lost along the way.

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The time frame, within which the research was conducted, was not

enough to allow observation of the daily stress operators ofMAMA FMgo

through to go on air.

The limited literature on community radio in Uganda was a hindrance

since the researcher could not carry out much comparison of data.

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CHAPTER TWO

2.0: Theoretical Conceptualisation

Not many researches have been done on this subject. Most of the few that

exist are general covering the global community radio movement. The

predominant theory under which most of the literature on community radio

appears is democracy.

From the perspective of present day Uganda when the process of

democratization is permeating all sectors of society, community radio is a

tool that can empower the information-deprived communities to contribute

to decisions that affect their lives (Girard, 1992).

The ideals of community radio relate to the normative theories of the

media, where the media are considered tools of liberation, and channels

which people can use to agitate for political and cultural change

(Thompson, 1994, Lewis, 2002)

Community radio therefore operates under the theory of communicative

democracy and self-governance, where communities on the margins of

society access power to determine their destiny (Mitchell, 2002)

(http://www.rnw.nl/realradio/community/html/definition.html).

Ojiambo (1999a) writes that community radios have the unique two-way

communication aspect that enables them enhance democratic procedures

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in communication (pp: 1), both internally within the organization and

externally in the communities.

In here, emphasis is on how less privileged people who are the primary

stakeholders of information can be accorded more space to voice their

contributions to national and community debates of whatever nature

(Nelson and Wright, 1995). This space provided, creates avenues for

developing confidence and changing the attitudes of the stakeholders who

can then work together to create more impact in their community affairs

(Girard, 1994).

Mitchell (cited in Hollander, 2002, pp: 359) argues that community radio

can act as an arena for feminist public sphere, meaning a womens radio

can provide a platform for developing a media environment that is gender-

tolerant in a field that is rife with inequality.

Writing about the financing of community radio, Jawonski (2003) noted

that this could be through among other sources advertising. There are

some community radio stations that do depend on some level of

advertising but it is also enlightening to take into account the policy

framework of the different media landscapes under which the community

media operates.

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This concern is echoed by Rennie (2003) who writes that it is erroneous to

concentrate on the dynamics of community communication without due

regard to the influence of frameworks set by government. This gives an

image far from realistic on how the sector works (pp: 52).

Linden [1999, online] writes that,

Formulation of policy and planning procedures in the Third World arecharacterized by vagueness in conceptualization, and National Plansare often prescriptive than analytical, showing the gaps betweenreality and rhetoric, intention and implementation [pp: 159].

These gaps affect how community radio contributes to the process of

democracy.

Linden further comments,

What prevails are isolated policies on various media andcommunication components and national governments playing a rolein their ownership, management and controlin many Africancountries there is a glaring contrast between officially declaredintentions and reality..[ pp: 168]

Opubor (1999) observed that the general policy framework under which

community radio is regulated is not favorable. Although governments have

come to legislate for the opening up of all sectors of the economy,

including the media, which has led to the establishment of community

radio initiatives, the legal framework is still not clear about the position of

such initiatives.

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Opubor stresses the need to have communication and information policies

at all levels that are pro- poor and reflect a wider understanding of how

accessing information can aid the poor take part in the development

process.

Taking a historical approach- a departure this time from the rest of the

writers- Wanyeki (1999) notes that regulating the media in the East African

region has historically taken on a barrier-approach. She says instead of

ensuring access to information and the means to generate information by

all categories of people, governments have focused on policies that

control this access.

She notes further that even with the advent of pluralism in all sectors,

Few concrete constitutional, legal and policy provisions have beenadopted to ensure that community media- as opposed toindependent commercial media- are developed and explicitlysupported (pp: 38).

In Wanyekis view the emphasis should be on what purpose regulation

serves and not what should be regulated and whether it should be

regulated.

Wanyeki (2000, ed) writes that the communications policy in Uganda was

primarily concerned with opening up the airwaves in line with other sectors

of the economy without much regard to the kind of media landscape that

would emerge eventually. Major focus is on consumer choice that

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automatically arises from freeing the market forces but community radio

cannot survive under the harsh market forces.

There appears to have been little reflection on what kind of

broadcasting would emerge in a free market in the existing economicconditions, and whether it would meet the development needs of thecountrys population (pp: 5).

In here democracy has been left to compete with the forces of supply and

demand.

Ojiambo (1999a) writes that the government of Uganda formulated its

communications policy without having clearly defined its development

agenda, which leads to having in place policies that are not harmonized at

all. She further writes that as long as the communications industry in

Uganda is left to the regulation of the market forces the information-

deprived who are meant to benefit from community radio will lag behind.

Gawaya 1999 (online) argues that government policies are sometimes

formulated poorly and used as a punitive tool against the sector they are

meant for.

License fees are sometimes used as a political tool for those radio

stations that go out of line with the government views.

He says that the 1999 unexpected hiking of the annual license fees by the

Broadcasting Council to 5 million Uganda shillings (approx $ 2780) is a

case in point.

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Gawaya may have judged this move a little too radically since at the end

of the day it affects all stations, but it is an indicator of the undemocratic

system of decision making in the country.

In line with Wanyekis (1999) argument debates going on elsewhere to

develop community radio in Uganda indicate that for the geographically

and information poor, community radio is still their internet.

Rural [community] radios are different from private radios. Theyserve different purposes. It is therefore hyper-and cyber-important

that different licensing procedures be put in place for theirfunctioning.http://www.wougnet.org/WSIS/ug/docs/ISUGreport_en.pdf

Enabling communications policies are therefore an empowering tool in the

democratization process. Such policies should provide community radio

an operational environment free of uncertainties but guarantees

sustainability. (Buckley, 2000).

.

While the literature reviewed above indicates how bad policies endanger

the sustainability of community radio thus hampering the democratization

of communities, most of it is in form of brief workshop and seminar papers.

Overall empirical data is very scanty. This is the gap I hope to fill in this

research.

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CHAPTER THREE

3.0 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design

This is basically a case study and the aim is to examine how policy affects

the service delivery of community radio in Uganda. The study is focused

on MAMA FM, which is a unique community radio station in that it is not

geographically confined, but a national community radio station

addressing gender equity and social justice.

But most pertinent to this study, establishing MAMA FMbrought to light

policy related trials and tribulations as well as opportunities that go with

implementing a community radio station in Uganda.

3.2 Research Methods

3.2.1 Focused Interviews

Since this is a research that aims to bring out policy gaps and

experiences, one of the methods used in gathering information is focused

interviews with different categories of people.

These people include community radio station managers, station policy

makers, programme producers, and officials of regulatory bodies. In order

to remain focused on the issues and capture the relevant regulatory

insights and experiences, the research involved fourteen interviewees.

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After analyzing the policy gaps, the interviews are the best method to

solicit the experiences of the people involved in the running of these radio

stations and also getting an insight into the policy-making and

implementation process from the people involved.

3.2.2 Policy Review

Document Analysis is the obvious method to use in order to assess the

gaps that exist in the policies that may endanger the future of community

radio in Uganda.

3.2.3 Method of Data Collection

For the interviews, interview schedules are used to guide the interviews.

Interview schedules are the best in this case where in-depth information is

needed. They give the researcher plenty of room to probe and adjust the

direction of the interview where necessary.

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CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS.

The first section of this chapter is an analysis of the gaps in the policy and

their effect on community radio operations, while the second section will

present MAMA FMs experience with the gaps.

4.1 Communications policy framework in Uganda

There are communications regulations in place guiding the broadcast

sector in Uganda. These regulations form a framework that is currently

working as broadcasting policy (Mutabazi, 2004).

4.1.1 The Uganda Communications Act, 1997.

The Uganda Communications Act establishes the Uganda

Communications Commission, which is the regulatory body in charge of all

the technical aspects of telecommunications and broadcasting in the

country. The commission was set up by the Communications Commission

Act 1997, an Act of Parliament. The commission was put in place after

government opened up the airwaves following the general policy of

liberalizing the economy.

However by the time the commission was put in place; there was already

a commercial radio station on air: Ssanyu FM.

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Among other duties the commission has to lay down specific regulations

regarding frequency allocation and licensing, the overall operations of the

telecommunications sector, radio communications and technical rules

regarding the broadcasting sector.

On its website, (http://www.ucc.co.ug/), The Uganda Communications

Commission states that,

The rise of competition in the restructured telecommunication andbroadcasting sectors in Uganda is representing new challenges inthe way the radio frequency spectrum is managed.

This statement indicates that the commission realizes that the increase in

competition in the country comes with new aspects in how the sector has

to be handled.

One of the regulations formulated by the commission is the Draft Radio

Communications Regulation, 2003.

4.1.2 The Draft Radio Communications Regulation 2003.

This draft regulation, which is one of those that have been formulated by

the Uganda Communications Commission, has only two sections on

broadcasting frequency under sub-regulation 12 (http://www.ucc.co.ug/).

Section (1) says that

The Commission, shall in consultation with the Broadcasting Councilestablished under the Electronic Media Statute, 1996 designate andallocate a part of the spectrum which shall be included in the Uganda

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Table of Frequency Allocations as being primarily for broadcastingpurposes.

Section (2) further says that,

The Commission shall not issue a radio spectrum license authorizingoperation of a radio frequency device within part of the spectrumdesignated for broadcasting purposes, unless the licensee firstobtains an authorization by the Broadcasting Council, in accordancewith the Electronic Media Act, 1996.

In the regulation these two sections are termed special provisions for

broadcasting. The problem is that what is special about them is not

explicitly mentioned.

The Uganda Communications Commission Act, 1997, in The

Communications (Universal Service) regulation, 2003, sub-regulation 2,

section (e) has a provision for the formation of Rural Communications

Development Fund established under the Communications (Establishment

and management of the Rural Communications Development Fund)

Instrument, 2002.

According to Nabunya (2004), it is very unfortunate that this golden

opportunity is geared towards aiding and developing the

telecommunications sector, itself purely commercial and able to finance

itself quite adequately

Rural Uganda needs a well-serviced telecommunications sector inorder to catch up with the rest of the country in developmentactivities. But looking at the sector in terms of priorities and viability,this fund is well suited for the broadcast sector, more specifically the

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community radio service that is the best option-the fact that it usesthe local language and local experiences- for transmitting informationto rural areas, Nabunya added.

4.1.3 The Electronic Media Statute, 1996.

The Broadcasting Council was set up in 1998 by an Act of Parliament; the

Electronic Media Statute 1996, now referred to as an ACT CAP 104 2000

OF THE LAWS OF UGANDA. Among the main duties of the Council is the

responsibility to formulate and provide guidelines on the content of

electronic media programmes and also determine and set the

broadcasting license fees. The Electronic Media Statute created a

licensing system for radio and television stations in the country, among

other duties.

Baguma (2004), said,

This is the Statute that is now being used in regulating the media. Ithas no space for community radio whatsoever. How can radiopromote cultural values, with community radio at such adisadvantage?

4.1.3.1 Licensing

4.1.3.2 License to broadcast

For every radio station to go on air it must obtain a license from the

Broadcasting Council. The organization or individual(s) applying for the

frequency have/has to go through the Broadcasting Council for a vetting

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process of eligibility after producing name and address, written proof of

qualifications and experience, and name and address of the station.

The cost of the license is between one million (approx $ 555) and five

million (approx $ 2777) Uganda shillings. (Note: Rate used; 1 USD= 1800

Uganda shillings). This is levied according to the location of the station,

whether rural or urban.

The Electronic Media Statute 1996 in Part 11, Chapter 3,Article (1) section

(c), says that the council shall, before issuing a license under this section,

take into account{c} the location of station and the geographical area to

which broadcast is to be made;

Although it is commendable and necessary that the bill recognizes the

unique financial position of stations that operate in the rural areas,

Kyomuhendo (2004) maintains that it appears to be blind to the fact that

regulation should be based on the nature and mission of the station as

location is not enough.

There are commercial rural FM stations that are likely to benefit morefrom this kind of regulation, by paying less for the license yet theiroperations are purely commercial, she said.

Part of the problem here arises from the fact that in policy-making in

Uganda a number of issues are never conceptualizes fully by the parties

involved in formulating the policy. According to Sentamu (2004), in

Uganda, community radio is understood to mean rural, meaning

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community radio stations that are not strictly located in rural areas are

taken for being commercial or well off financially.

MAMAFMdeals with bringing women and their concerns onto the

development agenda, and this means dealing with the poorest among the

poor in Uganda. These people cannot sustain their station due to their

extreme poverty levels, said Sentamu.

So, a fee structure that does not put into place provisions that can cater

for such radio stations does not foster development at all.

4.1.3.3 License to occupy a radio frequency

After obtaining the license to broadcast and paying the license fee, the

applying organization has to be allocated a frequency by the Uganda

Communications Commission, where again an annual frequency fee has

to be paid (approx $ 555).

Among its duties the Communications Commission has to put in place a

frequency fee structure, which is determined and classified according to

transmitter power, using the following formula:

AFE=Klog (P/25) x (BW/12500) x 30000

PF=0.17 x AFE

Where;

AFE= Annual Frequency Fee in Uganda shillings.

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APF= Application Processing Fee.

P= Transmitter power in Watts.

BW= Bandwidth in KHz.

K= 0.14 which is a constant.

BW= 200 KHz for radio broadcasting.

So, FM radios pay 5,000,000 ( $2777) a year

(Source: Sengendo, Geofffrey, Uganda Communication Commission).

4.1.4 The Uganda National Information and Communications

Technology Policy, 2002.

This policy recognizes the fact that information flow is a key component in

the development process. (http://www.ilo.org/).

The policy has three principal areas of focus, but for this research only two

are relevant;

Information as a resource for development.

Mechanisms for accessing information.

It is important here to examine how the Information and Communications

Technology policy positions information in the development process.

The policy considers information as an empowering tool for people in the

development process and it addresses itself to such information as health,

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agriculture, energy, education, science and technology, among other

categories of information.

Government realized that development planning needed proper

communication and information flow planning from the centre to the

people and vice-versa, plus the lateral flow of information between the

people and other actors involved in development practice.

The policy formulators acknowledge the need to have in place a

framework that bridges the rural- urban divide in information accessibility

especially for people who are on the margins of society; the women, the

disabled and the rural poor.

Under section 3.3.1 Communication Infrastructure (Broadcasting), the

policy recognizes the fact that the FM stations have limited geographical

coverage and mainly carry commercial and entertainment programmes.

The chapter on Investment in ICT Industry (3.6), (3.6.2) recognizes the

danger of leaving the communication sector to market regulation. It states

thus;

Communication is one of the basic human rights and access tocommunication channels should not be left entirely to market forces.This creates a situation of information dualism, with a minority urbaninformation rich and rural majority being information poor. Conduciveenvironment for investment in communication infrastructures should

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be promoted to narrow the information gap between the urban andthe rural areas (pp: 21).

Yet initiative like community radio that aim at narrowing the information

gap are left vulnerable to market forces. It is ironical said Sentamu.

The same chapter states that, there should be regulation that encourages

media pluralism to flourish, while media enterprises are given space to

expand. But Sentamu argues that commercialism is taken to mean

pluralism yet these are two different arrangements. Commercialism is a

component under pluralism, she added.

Objective 3 [j] talks about facilitating the establishment of community

radio stations so as to increase levels of information dissemination and

public participation [pp: 25].

It is not clear what kind of facilitation is meant here. According to Sheila

Kawamara-Mishambi (2004), it could be just allowing them get registered

and get allocated frequencies and licenses, having paid the same amount

of money and going through the same registration rigors like everybody

else.

Objective 9 [c], the government is like shooting itself in the foot when it

says that one of the objectives of the policy is to encourage and support

private sector initiatives that develop and disseminate multilingual content,

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particularly to the disadvantaged groups and communities with special

needs. This goes with section [b] under objective 10, which addresses the

development of mechanisms that aim at increasing womens access to

information, in order to reduce the gap between the genders and between

rural and urban.

This would partly be done through good policy, so that initiatives like

MAMA FM, do not find themselves spending valuable time thinking about

how they can possibly survive, instead of fulfilling their mission of

empowering the communities (Dunaway, 2002).

4.1.5 The Draft Broadcasting Policy A new Broadcasting Aspiration for

Uganda May 2004.

This draft broadcasting policy acknowledges the fact that the lack of clear

and explicit policy guidelines has led to community radio stations

operating under the same regulations like all other FM stations (pp: 21).

The Broadcasting Council therefore proposes broadcasting to be

classified and regulated under three tiers: Public Service broadcasting,

Commercial broadcasting and community broadcasting, with each

category paying a different license fee. Community stations are expected

to pay less than commercial stations, according to this draft policy.

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In general terms, the draft policy is a positive step toward solving some of

the problems that bedevil community radio in Uganda. There are however,

a few but important areas that need to be revisited.

Under Policy Area 4 that addresses community broadcasting, by definition

a community broadcasting service should either be catering for a

geographical community or a community of interest. However according to

the categories given under community of interest, it is not clear how a

radio station like MAMA FMwould fit in; whether under institutional or

cultural communities (pp: 21-22), an issue that Sentamu agrees with.

On page 23, the policy document states that radio stations that desire to

broadcast over a wide geographical area, beyond their basic audience will

have to put up a viable explanation.

For a radio station like MAMA FMwhose community of interest iscountrywide (women), this phrase may make its existing operationaldifficulties worse, said Sentamu.

4.2 The MAMA FMexperience

4.2.1 Composition of Interviews

This section of the research involved 12 interviewees; the station

manager, the Executive Director of UMWA- the organization that runs

MAMA FM, and 10 of the 22 producers and presenters of the station.

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4.2.2 Specific Results.

The most pertinent issues this section was looking at were the

experiences of the people managing community radio stations in relation

to the identified policy gaps, most especially how the policy environment

affects the sustainability of the station.

According to the responses from the Executive Director Uganda Media

Womens Association, (the NGO that runs MAMA FM) Margaret Sentamu

Masagazi, the major problem is that the broadcasting policies are broad

policies, which dont have any provisions for specific needs and

characteristics like those of community radio. This she says makes the

policies insensitive to the difficulties involved in implementing and

operating a community radio station that to a large extent would depend

on the less-t-do beneficiaries who cannot afford its sustainability by way of

covering the operational costs.

4.2.2.1 Funding

The state of the policy affects the funding of the radio station that depends

on donors for over 80% of its funding. Donor funding with the current

prevalent donor fatigue, is not sustainable at all, said Sentamu.

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Table 1: Monthly requirements forMama FM

S/N ITEMS AMOUNT(USD)

1 Ground rent 2002 Water bill 1003 Electricity 5004 Field for 2 standby generators 1505 Frequency fees to Uganda Communication Commission 506 License to UBC 2407 License fees to Kampala City Council 908 Volunteers facilitation (22) (Presenters) @ $300 66009 Station Managers Salary (2) 180010 Producers (3) @ 500 150011 Technician (2) 500 100012 Researchers (3) 240013 Editors (2) 120014 Administrator 90015 Insurance / Security 100016 Maintenance/Servicing machines 40017 Supplies tapes / batteries/stationery etc 350

18 Transport 45019 Maintenance of vehicle 15020 Coordination vehicle (2) 1000

TOTAL (MONTHLY) 20080

Source: Uganda Media Womens Association, (2004).

The above table gives an indication of what the radio station would need to

run without any difficulties.

Sentamu said the fact that there is no difference between profit-making

and non-profit making radio stations before the law, has made it an

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extremely hard task to run MAMA FM. According to the stations

fundraising policy, it can receive funding from local and international

donors as long as the nature of the donors work does not lead to

compromising the principles, policies and values ofMAMA FM. This has to

be done with caution not be seen as making profit, but simply generating

enough money for sustainability. The question however is how enough for

sustainability is determined, she mused. The Uganda Revenue Authority

will not hesitate to pounce on you as long as they think you are making

some money, she concluded.

Community radio theoretically survives on the contributions of its

beneficiary community in terms of labor, some donations, and programme

ideas. MAMA FM however, cannot depend on its community members,

who Sentamu described as marginalized, low income earners (if any),

vulnerable and with no platform of expression.

The maximum we ever got from the community all the time wehave been on air was USD 50. But in terms of other resourcessuch as time/ideas, this they do as they bring in program ideas,propose areas for improvement among other things. And they domobilize people to listen to Mama FM.

4.2.2.2 Specific Policy Experiences

Sentamu maintains that MAMA FMhas tried to meet the financial

requirements and demands of government, but with difficulty due to the

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insensitivity of the regulators to the needs of the station. She remembers

one particular incident,

MAMA FMmanagement was waiting for a positive answer from theauthorities to waive some fees but along the way it was closeddown in a very crude way! Very insensitive people they are!

Box 1: Insensitive Taxes

On December 20th 2001, Uganda Media Womens Association, UMWAreceived an invoice totaling to Uganda Shillings 7,623,000 (approx $4235)from the office of the President.

The amount was to cover the period July 2001-June 2002 for technicalservices received from government in form of tower/mast on which MAMAFM antennae are connected, plus the ground rent.

This was the first time we were made aware of the said costs otherwise weshould have included them in the 2001 and 2002 budgets. But when weprotested we were told to give ten reasons as to why we think we should beexempted from paying this money.

(Source:http://www.wougnet.org/Profiles/umwa.html) (Verbatim report).

Community radio in Uganda is not affected by communication policies

only; there are other policies outside communications that affect this

sector. One of these, according to Sentamu is the taxation policy where it

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is a requirement to pay import duty (25% of total cost of equipment

imported), VAT, and Income Tax among others. These are collected by

the Uganda Revenue Authority. Again these dont differentiate profit from

non-profit making ventures or institutions. They are all blanket policies.

Government seems to be pre-occupied with collecting revenue no matter

how, or from where she noted.

On top of the above taxes and the license and frequency fees, MAMA FM

has to pay for a trading license to the Local Administration area, pay for

technical services-hire of the government mast- and pay for ground rent

where the mast is located. But the licensing and Uganda Revenue

Authority taxes are the most prohibitive to MAMA FM, according to

Sentamu.

4.2.2.3 Partnerships and Linkages

Community radio depends on good mobilization machinery for both the

communitys involvement and funding. In the case ofMAMA FM, Sentamu

notes that the local leadership- in Kisaasi village, Kawempe Division of

Kampala district where the radio station studios are located- are very

active in identifying topical areas for discussion programmes.

Actually there is a programme run by the locals themselves calledFocus on Kisaasi Community, where various issues that affect allpeople of the community are discussed freely, she points out.

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She added that when they take announcements to the radio station, they

insist they should be run at no fee at all.

However higher up the hierarchy support from the leadership at the

district level is non-existent, according to Sentamu.

4.2.2.4 Personnel

Like all community radio stations MAMA FMdepends on the services of

volunteers as programme producers who are facilitated to carry out the

fieldwork for their programmes. Ninety two percent of the presenters and

producers at MAMA FMare volunteers who get very little money that is

far below a living wage.

According to Sentamu, only two positions are salaried station manager

and a technician. But even then none of these get a living wage. The

Station Manager earns $330 while the technician gets $110 a month, she

said.

Sixty five percent of the programme producers and presenters interviewed

pointed out that low pay affects how they deliver services.

Lynn Sewava a producer and presenter affirmed that the low pay is a

challenge to the volunteers because at the end of the month there are

accumulated deficits in their personal budgets, which affects their output

at MAMA FM.

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Christine Nabunya looked at it as a struggle and she wonders how she

manages to go through the month.

For obvious reasons, the field takes a lot of money especially theresearch for the programmes, but we report for work everyday by [thegrace of God], she observed.

Eighty percent of these said they would not hesitate to leave MAMA FMif

some worthy opportunity presented itself. Laura Kabanda said she would

certainly grab any such opportunity;

When I get greener pasture, like any other development-orientedperson, I do not think I can shun a well paying job once it crosses mysight. This is because my desires are many. I would like to furthermy education, and the current cost of living in Uganda is very high.

Kabandas concern about the law was on lack of a provision for a

minimum wage for people working in the media.

The average facilitation fee the producers and presenters at MAMA FM

get is Uganda shillings One hundred and twenty thousands (120,000/=),

equivalent to approximately $ 66 a month. From this they are supposed to

carry out fieldwork, and also save some for their living expenses.

Many say they have become very creative trying to make ends meet. But

Charles Ssuuna has quite often had to leave things in the capable hands

of [the Lord God his provider].

As a creative man, I try other means and where luck comes to myside I earn something and when the worst comes to the worst Isurrender each and everything to the almighty.

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With such restless workers, any manager would have trouble maintaining

consistency in service delivery. Margaret Sentamu reaffirmed this,

An unstable manpower destabilizes planning,putting the fulfillment of the stations mission atstake!Volunteers may not be obliged to report everyday,Uganda is a poor country, people have got to earna living and since there is no social benefitscheme in place for the unemployed, volunteersdecide to look somewhere else for survival.

Sentamu pointed out that even though MAMA FMmanagement is

determined to see its mission through, it has great difficulties. She said

management has even thought of re-registering the radio station as a 50%

commercial radio station, just so that the mission of helping the

marginalized be part of the development process is not completely lost.

Station management does its best to motivate the volunteers by providing

training opportunities in different aspects of broadcasting, and giving them

as much room as possible for creativity. But, Sentamu said, when it comes

to monetary motivation nothing much can be done.

All the presenters and producers however pointed out that they enjoy

serving the community through a radio station that aims to better the lives

of the marginalized. They also believe their community is very enthusiastic

of what radio volunteers are doing.

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Photo 2:Left; Some of the volunteers at MAMA FM at work in the studios; and right

one of their community members.

Source:(http://interconnection.org/umwa/community_radio.html).

Uganda Media Womens Association is involved in other projects. Sentamu

says that these are not spared the adverse effects of the unstable financing of

the radio station. She notes that in most cases the budgets of other projects,

which are themselves financed by donors, have had to be tampered with in

order to finance the radio station. Volunteers at MAMA FMare encouraged to

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perform roles under other projects that have monetary value. They therefore

end up doing dual roles i.e. forMAMA FMand another project.

Table 2: Minimum monthly Expenditure for the Programme Producers

(Average estimates).

S/N ITEMS AMMOUNT (USD)1 Transport cost to and from office 38.82 Transport to the field 88.93 Lunch 23

4 Medical Expenses 55.55 Household Needs 166.66 Rent 111

TOTAL 483.2

The above estimates are calculated basing on 28 days a month, and sixteen

days for the field work. However, it should be noted that this is the bare

minimum one needs for survival. The figures used are averages derived from

the information interviewees gave for question 12, on the producers section

of the interview schedule. (See appendix 1).

Given the fact that volunteers get $66 per month they have to live with a

deficit of $ 417.2.

4.3 Data Interpretation and Analysis

The findings of this research have close links to the other researches

and studies carried out by other people. Although the research material

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available on community radio that has been reviewed for this particular

research is not specifically about MAMA FM, the major themes of policy

gaps and how they affect funding and retention of personnel have come

out clearly as the issues threatening sustainability ofMAMA FM.

4.3.1 Testing of hypothesis

The data presented above indicates that community radio in Uganda

faces serious sustainability problems unless government comes up with

an articulate policy. Presently the regulatory frameworks that work as

policy for the broadcasting sector have no provisions for radio stations

that are not profit- making.

4.4 Discussion

4.4.1Policy gaps

The major concern of the Communications Commission regarding

challenges in sector was with competition and predominantly in the

telecommunications sector, and not on regulation in the broadcasting

sector.

In most of the regulations put down by the commission, the broadcasting

sector is quite squeezed into the phrases that mainly address

themselves to the telecommunications sector. Apart from the fact that

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government gets more money from the telecommunications sector than

broadcasting, this anomaly is also a reflection of the fact that the media

fraternity in Uganda is never consulted adequately whenever such

policies and laws that will affect their operations are being formulated.

Richard Baguma agrees that the final product of a policy that lacks the

input of the major stakeholders will not reflect the actual needs of that

sector.

This is probably why the license fee structure set by the Broadcasting

Council did not explore the different manifestations of radio

broadcasting.

The effect is that community radio ends up getting marginalized into and

under an already marginalized sector of broadcasting as far as policy

and regulations are concerned.

The policy and regulatory frameworks in place do not foster the process

of democratization but instead are designed to widen governments

revenue base.

Although the Information and Communications Technology policy

mentions community media the few times it does, it does so without

defining what community media is. This is a major loophole that

government can use to worm its way out of responsibility, ending up not

doing what it should do for community radio to develop in Uganda

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In all the regulations and policies reviewed above, community radio is

treated as a by-the-way.

4.4.2 Policy Experiences

The policy experiences ofMAMA FMindicate that community radio is

not specially catered for under the communication policy framework in

Uganda. As a result community radio stations have the same financial

obligations as commercial stations, making the financial sustainability of

community stations quite precarious.

Policy and regulatory decisions appear to be made in an ad hoc manner

without any systematic procedures and logic followed. This destabilizes

planning, budgeting and the overall operations of the station.

Government should actually be extending grants to community radio,

instead of expecting such stations to pay exorbitant taxes.

Community radio has the potential to bridge urban marginalized and

rural information poor communities to the better served often

information-rich urban communities. This potential however, is analyzed

in isolation with policy, which is the key factor in providing the firm

foundation upon which sustainability can be built. Without sustainability

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ensured through good policy, community radio cannot be an effective

bridge and the process of democracy is endangered

While the need for community radio in Uganda is there, it is not the

communities that initiate and drive the establishment of these radio

initiatives. To most Ugandans all radio stations are the same-owned by

businessmen. This means the necessary sense of ownership is lacking

and therefore communities do not feel obliged to exert the required

pressure on government to design proper regulations.

In its

4.4.3 Funding

Funding for community radio in Uganda appears to be an unresolved

problem. While the theory is that the community donates most of the

finances and materials, in poverty- stricken Uganda the community

instead expects free things from the radio station.

Communities served by community radio stations in Uganda live way

below the poverty line (on less than 5 dollars a month); meaning they

cannot afford to make any financial contributions to the station.

While donor agencies in many cases contribute the initial capital, donor

fatigue creates urgent need for these stations to be self-sustaining.

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4.4.4 Personnel

Community radio stations basically depend on voluntary labor, an

arrangement that is proving difficult to work out in Uganda. Instead,

community radio stations become a transit area for people interested in

broadcasting but need some training to move on. The funding status of the

radio station affects the stability of personnel.

4.4.5 Partnerships and Linkages

Lack of clear policy articulation for community radio makes it difficult for

radio stations to form strong partnerships and networks with local

leadership. As a result, instead of local governments developing funding

strategies for community radio stations they extract taxes that cripple the

stations.

CHAPTER FIVE

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5.0 CONCLUSIONS

5.1 Summary

This research set out to examine broadcasting policy in Uganda and

analyze how its state affects the future and sustainability of community

radio. Using MAMA FM radio as a case study the research specifically

focused on the licensing procedure for radio stations, the taxation systems

and regimes in place and sources of funding for community radio visa-avis

the policy.

The results as analyzed in the preceding chapter confirm my hypothesis

that the state of broadcasting policy in Uganda cannot foster the growth of

community radio, thus endangering the process of democracy.

It has come out that the costs community radio stations have to incur to

operate are too high, sometimes even for commercial radio stations.

5.2 Main Conclusions

In the broadcast sector in Uganda, regulatory frameworks were put in

place before an actual policy was formulated. The current policy

framework therefore has gaps regarding the operations of community

radio. Community radio does not have any specific provisions in the laws

that address its unique organizational and financial structures.

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By the time community radio was established these regulations that were

meant for commercial radio were there and so community radio had to be

regulated under the same rules. Being accorded the same status as

commercial radio however, puts heavy financial obligations on community

radio, making the future of such stations uncertain.

Since community radio in Uganda cannot ideally depend on advertising,

and neither can it depend on its beneficiary communities, financial

difficulties develop.

As a result these financial difficulties cause problems in planning,

budgeting and maintaining a stable and motivated labor force. Instability of

the labor force means high labor turnover, which causes problems of lack

of consistence in quality programming. The organization spends lots of

funds and time on training new recruits who leave the radio station as

soon as they gain the necessary skills.

Overall the picture is of financial problems and uncertainty.

If this kind of situation continues, community radio in Uganda may

become extinct thus endangering the process of democratization and self-

governance for those living on the margins of society like the women.

5.3 Recommendations

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However, a number of courses of action are possible to rectify this

situation. These may include the following.

5.3.1 Government:

Government should revisit the policy framework to ensure it is sensitive to

the different types of broadcasting. Government should make it a matter of

priority to consult development communication practitioners, policy

analysts and other stakeholders in all stages of policy formulation. This will

ensure- among other things- that policies arrived at are actually

addressing the needs of the people and also that the policies are well

coordinated and not contradicting each other.

There should be a clear developmental agenda if it is to facilitate

participation, self-governance and all those democratic principles then

ready access to information should be facilitated. Community radio does

just this.

Government should put in place a mechanism where corporate

broadcasting can cross- subsidize community radio so that operational

costs are not heavy on community radio. In line with this, community radio

initiatives should be exempted, or at least should benefit, from tax holidays

to give them time to establish themselves.

Policy makers should take time to educate themselves about the benefits

of community broadcasting.

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5.3.2 Community Media Owners:

Should consider a one time investment into erecting own facilities like

tower/mast to cut annual payment of USD 3,000 to office of the President.

Potential community radio activists should be fully aware of the policy

framework to avoid rude surprises!

Community broadcasters Forum should be quickly established /

strengthened to:

(a) Create general awareness about this radio broadcasting type.

(b) Sensitize general public.

(c) Create critical mass among self to engage government in policy

reform.

5.3.3 Government / Donors

For the national awareness campaigns managed by government and most

times funded by donors, a special consideration be made for community

radios as Mama FM. Such review would help sustain part of the

operations.

Donors should consider supporting sustainability moves made by the

community radios, for instance, a full time person to fundraise for a year.

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5.3.4 Research

There are more areas that need research in Uganda in the field of

community radio, and the results should be well publicized and

disseminated both to policy makers and the general public. One such area

is how local governments can be empowered and aided to support

community radio stations, without the stations losing their autonomy.

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