TEACHER EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN UMEÅ

LÄRARUTBILDNINGOCH FORSKNING I UMEÅ

Nr. 1/1999

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Lärarutbildning och forskning i Umeå

Nr 1/1999 årgång 6

Lärarutbildning och forskning i Umeåges ut av Utbildnings- och forskningsnämnden för lärarutbildning vidUmeå universitet. Syftet med tidskriften är att skapa ett forum förlärarutbildare och andra didaktiskt intresserade, att ge information ochbidra till debatt om frågor som gäller lärarutbildning och forskning.

Lärarutbildning och forskning i Umeåberäknas utkomma med fyra nummer per år.Ansvarig utgivare: Daniel Kallós.Redaktör: Ingrid Nilsson. Tel 090/786 64 34.Redaktionskommitté: Ingrid Nilsson, Pedag inst, 090/786 64 34,Gaby Weiner, lärarutbildningen, 090/786 71 85 och Gun Malmgren,lärarutbildningen 090/786 64 66.E-post: ingrid.nilsson@pedag.umu.se, gaby.weiner@educ.umu.seRedaktionens adress: Lärarutbildning och forskning i Umeå, Pedagogiskainstitutionen, Umeå universitet, 901 87 Umeå. Fax 090/786 78 00.Tekniska upplysningar till författarna: Lärarutbildning och forskning i Umeåframställs och redigeras ur allmänt förekommande Mac- och PC-program. Sänd in manuskript på papper samt diskett eller e-post-bilaga.Tryckeri: Umeå universitets tryckeri.Layout: Ateljé 293, Umeå universitet.Distribution: Lösnummer kostar 40:- (dubbelnummer 70:-) och kanbeställas från Lärarutbildningens kansli, Umeå universitet, 901 87 Umeå.Helårsprenumeration kostar 120:-.Pg 15 613-3, ange Lärarutbildning och forskning i Umeå,konto 130-6000-9, samt avsändare. Använd gärna det förtrycktainbetalningskortet!

Tidskriften distribueras gratis till institutioner inomlärarutbildningen i Umeå.

© Författarna.Omslagsbild: Sparnäs Folkskola, Värmland 1914. Frida Åslundssamlingar, forskningsarkivet, Umeå universitet.

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Lärarutbildningoch forskning i Umeå

Teacher Educationand Research in Umeå

UTBILDNINGS- OCH FORSKNINGSNÄMNDEN FÖR LÄRARUTBILDNING I UMEÅTHE BOARD OF TEACHER EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN UMEÅ

Nr 1/1999 Årgång 6

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INNEHÅLL

Redaktionellt ............................................................................... 6

Artiklar

Pat Mahony and Ian Hextall: Representationand Accountability in the Formation of Policy onTeacher Education: The GCT (England) ....................................... 7Ingrid Nilsson and Gaby Weiner: Introduction. ......................... 28The Department for Education and Employment:Blunkett Launches Radical Reform of Teaching Profession ............. 29

Recensioner och anmälningar

Ingrid Nilsson: Att fånga en tanke. En fenomenologiskstudie av barns och ungdomars tänkande kring miljö,av Eva Alerby. ............................................................................ 33Ingrid Nilsson: Vocational Education and Trainingin Germany and Sweden. Strategies of control andmovements of resistance and opposition. Report froma symposium (Eds Lisbeth Lundahl & Theodor Sander). ............... 39

Författare .................................................................................... 41

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Redaktionellt

Välkommen till sjätte årgången av Lärarutbildning och Forskning i Umeå!Som vanligt publicerar vi innehåll i tidigare nummer längst bak i tid-skriften. Vid en genomläsning där ser vi, att de gångna fem åren präg-lats av en mångfald ämnen och infallsvinklar: förskole- och skolforskning,didaktik, metodik, pedagogik - och i form av artiklar, recensioner, med-delanden, utvärderingar, notiser. Tydligen har det funnits ett behov avtidskriften, och det är glädjande. Om redaktören skulle få önska någotför den omedelbara framtiden, så blir det fler debattartiklar! Då detgäller debatt är spalterna underutnyttjade. Årets första nummer domineras av engelska förändringar i lärarnasarbetsvillkor och relation till utbildningsdepartementet där. Det är vik-tigt för oss att vara informerade om detta. Många av de senaste årensnyheter på utbildningens område i Sverige, har redan tidigare prövats iEngland. Nu finns förslag att ”framgångsrika” lärare och rektorer skallfå väsentligt högre löner än dem som klassificeras som mindre fram-gångsrika. Såväl definition av ”framgång” som lärare, som mätning avgraden av framgång, torde lämna utrymme för diskussion. Före texten från det engelska departementet publicerar vi en aktuellpolicyanalys av Pat Mahony och Ian Hextall. Glädjande nog kan vimeddela att Pat Mahony, som är professor i London, gästar Umeå sam-tidigt som denna tidskrift kommer ut. Hon är inbjuden av lärar-utbildningsinstitutionerna och Pedagogiska institutionen i samverkan,och hon kommer att ha seminarier på båda ställena, den 3 mars kl 13.15på pedagogen och den 4 mars kl 15.00 på lärarutbildningarna. Läs meri universitetets kalendarium (www.umu.se) och kom och träffa en in-tressant forskare! Som vanligt presenterar vi ett par nya böcker som avslutning. Denena är en avhandling från Luleå i lärande, den andra en konferensrapportfrån det europeiska nätverket om lärarutbildning.

Ingrid Nilsson

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I A N H E X T A L L A N D P A T M A H O N Y

Representation and

Accountability in the Formation

of Policy on Teacher Education:

the GTC (England)

The future of European culture depends on its capacity to questionconstantly and seek new answers without prejudicing human values.This is the very foundation of citizenship and is essentialif European society is to be open, multicultural and democratic.(1997 European White Paper on Education and Training, p. 12)

Beyond the Parochial

In recent years there has been a significant shift in the governance, ma-nagement and administration of the public sector in most OECDcountries (Shand 1996). While patriarchal, capitalist market economicshas claimed a globalising influence, different historical, political andcultural traditions have mediated the ways that changes have beenintroduced and shaped within the various countries. Recent trans-formations have involved reorganising public sector provision so thatits operations conform more closely to the world of business orcommerce. Education has been no exception and the winds of whathas variously been called ‘managerialism’, ‘new managerialism’ or ‘newpublic management’ continue to be felt whether as relatively minorgusts in some countries or as full-force gales in others (Clarke et al.1994;Eliassen and Kooiman 1994). Despite the differences, there are a numberof trends, some of which seem to be evident in all of the Europeannation states: increased competition, the pursuit of efficiency andeffectiveness through employee performance measurement, increaseddemands for public accountability in achieving goals, targets and otheroutcomes (often specified centrally), increased regulation by centralgovernment at the same time as decentralisation or devolution ofresponsibility for local management to individual schools or regions

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(sometimes termed ‘de-regulation’). In all of it, the responsibility of theeducation service (or business) for producing a workforce geared tomeeting the demands of the global economy has been seen as para-mount, focusing a spotlight on what constitutes teacher effectivenessand how best to achieve it.

Inevitably, government attention has turned towards teacher trainingwhere the winds of change have generated varying degrees of reform,evidenced by a trend towards outcomes-focused modes of assessment(Sidgwick et al 1994). What counts as good teaching and how to rewardit are increasingly being underpinned by ‘teaching standards’ orcompetence-based models of teacher education which are well advancedin Australia, USA and the UK (Ingvarson 1998a; Mahony 1998).Experience in these countries of a shift in the locus of control awayfrom the ‘professionals’ undertaking teacher training and towards greatercentralised control by the state is bringing to the fore a whole host ofquestions about who, in any democratic society, ought to be involvedin decisions about teaching - an occupation which not only has to del-iver its targets today but also has a key role in shaping the future forindividual children as well as the political and cultural texture of wholesocieties.

Such issues pick up more general concerns that within the newlyframed purposes, organisation and delivery of public sector services of‘reinvented government’ with its emphasis on ‘steering not rowing’(Osborne and Gaebler 1992), the work of accountability that was onceborne by subjecting decisions to democratic scrutiny, is now mediatedthrough contractual relationships. It is often difficult to detect theboundaries between the government department framing such contracts,and the organisations (in the UK often from the private sector) successfulin the competitive bidding process through which they are awarded. Inthe UK the explicit move towards what has been called 'consumerdemocracy' was justified by a former Conservative Minister who said:

The key point is not whether those who run our public services are elected,but whether they are producer-responsive or consumer-responsive. Servicesare not necessarily made to respond to the public by giving our citizens ademocratic voice, and a distant and diffuse one at that, in their make-up.They can be made responsive by giving the public choices, or by instituting

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mechanisms which build in publicly approved standards and redress whenthey are not attained. (Waldegrave 1993)

Many political analysts and commentators argue that far from a newform of democracy emerging, rather what we are witnessing is a growing‘democratic deficit’ (Ranson and Stewart 1994; Mahony and Hextall1997a). Such issues spread far beyond the UK for if such a deficit isconsequent upon the competitive-economic models increasingly domi-nant (often at the cost of welfarist/equity driven approaches), in thevarious European (and non-European) nation states, then the future ofdemocracy and the forms that it takes in our complex societies are issuesfor all those undergoing the transformations outlined above. Our paperbegins from an assumption that there are a number of legitimatequestions to be asked about such a future. By focusing on recentdevelopments in England in relation to governance (which has becomeparticularly pertinent at a time of a major restructuring of teaching), weattempt to raise a number of general issues which bear considerationway beyond the parochial concerns of any one nation state. Thesequestions concern such matters as:• who ought to have a say in the training and professional

We shall return to these issues later in the paper. However, in order toprovide a concrete context in which to place them, we shall focus firston the recent proposals to establish a General Teaching Council (GTC)

development of teachers;• the basis on which these constituencies should be decided and by

whom;• the structural and sectional characteristics of such constituencies

and how they might be built into deliberative procedures in waysthat make them genuinely inclusive;

• the mechanisms which amplify some voices whilst silencing others;• how conflict, contestation and disagreement might be recognised

and resolved;• the extent to which existing deliberative and decision/policy-

making processes are accountable to these constituencies;• how far genuine inclusion would make education ‘better’ and why.

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in England. We shall then move on to highlight what our current re-search (see note 2) is illuminating as some major issues which the GTCraises, not just for the governance and control of teachers but for moregeneral debates about democracy, accountability and social justice.

Background to the English Story

Shortly after its election in May 1997 the ‘New’ Labour governmentannounced its intention to establish a General Teaching Council forEngland (and Wal This intention has now been formalised within theTeaching and Higher Education Act which became law in July 1998.Prior to the introduction of the legislation, the Department for Educationand Employment (DfEE) undertook a consultation that dealt with ge-neral issues surrounding the proposal (DfEE 1997). During the passageof the bill through parliament, a further consultation was conductedthat focused directly on the issue of the composition of the GTC (DfEE1998). It is these events which will form the substantive basis for thispaper and on which we have based our general questions concerningissues of governance, professional status and democratic accountability.

In his foreword to the 1997 Consultation, Stephen Byers (then Mi-nister for School Standards) laid out the basic thinking which under-pinned the government’s initiative:

There has long been agreement that a GTC is desirable. It will enhancethe standing of teachers by giving them a clear professional voice, indepen-dent of government but working with us to raise standards. It will helprestore the morale of teachers, who for too long have had too little say indetermining the shape and future of their profession. It will celebrate thebest of teaching, by drawing on the dedication and experience of those whohave made teaching their vocation. It will be able to promote a positiveimage of teaching both within the profession and outside. It will bring togetherand reflect the interests of all those with a stake in ensuring high standardsin teaching - parents, employers, higher education and the wider public aswell as teachers. The GTC will take its place in our new national partnershipto raise standards in schools.

Our aim is to set up a professional body which will encourage all teachersto play their part in the challenging programme of reform.... The GTCmust represent the highest professional standards and speak out where

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standards are not what they should be. We are not interested in a talkingshop for teachers or a body to defend the way things are. An effective GTCmust be an engine for change and a powerful driving force behind our newdeal for teachers: high expectations and pressure to succeed, matched by sup-port and recognition for achievement. (DfEE 1997 p.3)

Some brief clarification of two broad contextual features may help thereader to understand the significance of these statements. First, whilst thisis not the setting in which to enter into detailed history, it is important toknow that decades of conflict and indecision have accompanied the GTCdebate in England and Wales accompanied by vigorous campaigning byteacher unions and a whole variety of educational and professional pressuregroups (Sayer 1993; Tomlinson 1995). Previous endeavours have founderedon the twin rocks of political opposition from governments which havebeen unwilling to relinquish power and authority over such a significantoccupational group as teachers, and competitive struggles between teacherunions and professional associations over questions of status and weight ofrepresentation. Echoes of both quandaries can be found in the currentlegislation.

Second, the GTC is being established alongside another body - agovernment agency which is already vested with great powers in rela-tion to teacher education and professional development, namely, theTeacher Training Agency (TTA), about which we have written elsewhere(Hextall and Mahony 1998; Mahony and Hextall 1997a; Mahony andHextall 1997b). As the TTA’s most recent Annual Review states:

The purpose of the Teacher Training Agency is to raise standards in schoolsby improving the quality of teacher training, teaching and school leadership,and by raising the status and esteem of the teaching profession.(TTA 1997 p.1)

In the light of this background we shall now focus on some of thebasic issues and questions that the proposed introduction of a GTCraises for the governance of education and for democratic processes moregenerally.

General Teaching Council and TTA

It is not clear what relationship is envisaged between the GTC and theTTA given that the TTA already has a wide remit for policy development

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and implementation in the field of teacher education and professionaldevelopment. Both the legislation and official documents leave muchof the interface between the two bodies ‘intentionally’ hazy. Within theconsultations undertaken by the DfEE, the GTC is accorded largelyadvisory functions.

In their responses to the consultation, a number of key bodies publiclypointed out that the proposals to invest the GTC with such advisoryfunctions contrasted strongly with the decision-making and/or controlcapacities possessed by, for example, doctors, engineers and members ofthe legal profession (General Medical Council 1993, United KingdomCentral Council for Nursing, Midwifery and Health Visiting 1998).

One of the most interesting features emerging from our own reviewof the Consultation responses was what they revealed about peoples’perceptions of the TTA. A large number of the responses, and often themost substantial ones, drew attention to the unresolved tensions withinthe proposals between the intended remit of the Council and workcurrently falling within the ambit of the TTAp. With odd exceptions,and generally (though not always) in studiously courteous language,respondents used this ambiguity as an opportunity to ‘have a go’ at theTTA. For its part the Agency echoes the open-ended language ofpartnership which figures so large in contemporary official discourse.In her address at the launch of their current Corporate Plan, the ChiefExecutive of the TTA, Anthea Millett spoke as follows:

... we shall forge a close relationship with a brand new partner whosearrival is imminent - the General Teaching Council. I very much welcomethe creation of the GTC. I know I am not the only one here who recognisesthat it has great potential to add value. In order to realise that potential itwill be vital for the Council to maintain a clear focus on supporting highstandards for the teaching profession. And, at a time when there is increasingdebate inside and outside schools about what should be the structure of theteaching profession in the next century, the GTC has the potential to prov-ide an important leadership role. (Millett 1998 p 10)One important element of the tensions between the GTC and the TTAis that whilst the majority of the membership of the GTC representsand is elected/nominated by the teaching profession, the TTA boardmembers are appointed directly by the Secretary of State. Analysis of

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the consultation responses conveyed the very strong impression thatpeople were relishing an opportunity to remove the TTA (as anunrepresentative, unaccountable, undemocratic body) and to argue thatits activities and functions should be transferred to a more professionallyaccountable and reflective Council.

How the Government will respond to such tensions once the GTCis established is not yet known. However, it is important to note thatthe terms of the Act leave enormous areas of the GTC activity andstructure to be filled in t shrough later regulation by the Secretary ofState. This leaves him and his successors with considerable scope forredefining all the ‘ifs, mights and maybes’ with which the legislation iscurrently littered.

Professional Standards

This failure at a structural level to consider the relationship between theGTC and the TTA is not simply a minor point which can wait forpiecemeal resolution but strikes directly at the heart of the professionalstatus of the teaching force. The concern is that there are some vitalareas where issues that might be regarded as falling quite properly withinthe remit of the profession (Ingvarson 1998b) are being undertaken bythe TTA. At the centre of these are questions of professional standardsboth for entry to the profession and for subsequent professionaldevelopment. If there is to be any meaning to 'professional ownership'then there has to be greater influence on these matters by the appropriateprofessional body. Over the last few years, the TTA has been constructinga framework of National Professional Standards. These are intended tocover all stages from entry into the profession through a whole series ofstaging posts up to and including standards, training and qualificationsfor headship. They also directly impinge upon the pattern, form andresourcing of the continuing professional development which is availableto teachers. This stands in marked contrast to the situation for mostprofessional associations which tend to jealously guard their ‘knowledgebase’, for the twin purposes of regulating entry to and progression withinthe profession and for defining the professional field itself. Once again,the contrasts with doctors and nursing are quite stark as the literaturealready cited from these fields reveals5. The important point to note in

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this context is that if the nature of constitutive professional knowledgeis being radically redefined (as it is under the auspices of the NationalStandards framework) then there will be important consequences forthe definition of the profession concerned. This will be exacerbated ifthe reconstitution of that knowledge base is accomplished without theinvolvement of, or in the face of opposition from, the professionconcerned. Hence the critical significance of the interface between theremits and powers of the TTA and the GTC.

In accordance with the principles of 'reinvented government' theTTA have undertaken this redrawing of ‘the standards of the profes-sion’ through processes of consultation. However, such consultation iswidely viewed as tokenistic since agendas for consultation are notnegotiable, the context for discussing what such agendas might be doesnot exist and the relationship between consultation responses and finaldecisions is not clear (Mahony and Hextall 1997c). As Terri Seddon(1994) has put it: ‘Proposals for reorganization emerge in a neat glossystyle as if they were finished documents’ (p. 181). In addition schoolsand teachers, let alone wider constituencies, have figured very little inthe consultation process (Mahony and Hextall 1997c). Bob Lingard(1995) has pointed to a comparable phenomenon in the Australiancontext in what he calls 'the silencing of teachers' voices in policyproduction' (p. 15):

... the call for a reinstatement of teachers' and teacher educators' voices inthe relevant policy production process, .... is not about establishing professionalbarriers, but about providing a more inclusive and socially just form ofeducation for all. (p. 3)

We would not want to argue that the GTC should represent or beanswerable only to 'the profession', nor that it should possess autonomyover what are to count as professional standards for entry and progres-sion, but, if it is to operate as a professional body then it needs to occupya central place in the deliberative process, not be given merely an advisoryrole on a par with a whole host of other bodies. Certainly, many wouldargue that the TTA possesses neither the status nor experience to defineand enforce such standards. Its practices of consultation (given all thereservations attached to them) and its Ministerially appointed Boardare no substitute for a properly established system of professional debate

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and decision-making, subject to appropriate mechanisms of transparency,accountability and political ratification.

Using the arguments that the government is producing to justify theintroduction of a GTC, namely the enhancement of the professional sta-tus and standards of teaching, this cannot be accomplished without givingthe GTC much more say in the whole 'standards' establishment andregulation process. This applies not just to standards of entry, but also tothe much wider and longer-term question of professional developmentand career enhancement and progression. At present there is a centralambivalence in the government's proposals which revolves around issuesof power and control. As one of the consultation respondents put it: 'whosestandards are these?' The government is not going to want to give up itspower and the TTA acts as a very helpful lightning rod in this respect. Thegovernment can maintain all of the control it wants and divert the attendant'professional antagonism' to the TTA. It is hardly surprising that it is leavingunresolved the problematic interface between the two bodies.

The issue of ‘professional standards’ is closely linked to questions of‘professional gatekeeping’. It is intended that the GTC should have arole as the registration agency for teachers, indeed after an interim periodits activities will be financed through the registration funds it receivesfrom teachers. However, important though this registration function is,it is difficult to see it as other than administrative if the TTA is to establishand maintain control over the criteria (standards) on the basis of whichqualifications for QTS and headship are to be awarded.

Composition and Membership

There are still a host of questions left hanging over the precisecomposition of the GTC. Issues of composition and representationreceived a good deal of attention in the initial consultation responses.At the polar extremes some respondents could see no good reason whyanyone other than teachers should be represented on the Council. Otherswere clear that the Council needed to have a composition whichrepresented a wider range of interests in teaching and education. Suchviews indicate the divergence between the constituencies served andrepresented by the GTC and TTA. The TTA is, as we have noted, abody governed by a Board appointed by the Minister which explicitly

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avoids a representative format. During the passage of the legislation,the government appeared to move towards the unions/professionalassociations in agreeing that a majority of the Council will consist ofteachers and their representatives. The proposed composition now largelyreflects the major categories of practitioners, professional associations,employers and other representative bodies. There will also beapproximately 25% of the Council who will be appointed directly bythe Secretary of State to achieve ‘balance’, fill gaps, ‘ensure necessarymix of expertise, experience and personal qualities’ (eg financial, legal,people with experience of running large organisations), to reflect ‘widerpublic interest and bring fresh ideas’ (DfEE 1998 p.20). However, neitherin relation to the consultation responses nor the Secretary of State’sdeliberations, is there much evidence of any progressive definition ofrepresentation - virtually no mention is made anywhere of the importanceof ensuring the inclusion of marginalised groups nor of more generalissues of social diversity. In our view such avoidance fails to addressquestions about what form or forms of democracy may be appropriatefor complex and diverse societies at this point in time.

Professionality and power

There is a long history of debate in the literature concerning the extentto which teaching is an occupation which can be meaningfully seen as aprofession. More recently the debate has re-emerged in terms of moresophisticated discussions of deprofessionalisation, reprofessionalisation,proletarianisation and the managerialisation of teaching (Seddon 1997;Lawn 1997; Ozga 1995; Becher 1994). Whilst this is not the context inwhich to engage with these debates in detail it is important to note thatthe language within which the introduction of the GTC is being couchedis full of references to 'the profession' and 'professionalism'. For example,the most recent consultation document says:

The Council will be a major new professional voice for teachers.It willhave a substantial role in maintaining and improving high standards ofprofessional practice and professional conduct. (DfEE 1998 p.3)

However, on the basis of issues such as those we have outlined abovewe are left reflecting on the extent to which the proposed GTCconstitutes a ‘professional council’ in any meaningful respect. Even if

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we revert to the most mundane functionalist or trait theory accounts ofprofessionalism (which treat control over entry, establishment of adistinctive knowledge base, self regulation, responsibility for trainingmethods, control over assessment of competence and certification as definingcharacteristics of professions), there is little basis for viewing the GTC ascomparable with professional bodies in other occupational sectors.

The pervasive nature of the official discourse of 'profession, professio-nal, professionalism' leads us to question what work this language isbeing employed to accomplish. There is no doubt that the language of'professionality' camrries significant historical, cultural, symbolic andpersonal power in England. The terms have come to function as 'hurrah'words in denoting a committed and responsible approach to doing one’swork well; alternatively, to be called ‘unprofessional’ is to stand accused.But they are also highly collusive terms and contain new forms of culturalincorporation and plausibility outside of which it is difficult to step. Interms of the new language of Tony Blair’s 'Third Way' it is the vocabularyto use if you are to remain 'on-message' rather than being sidelined as a'whinger'. The question is raised as to whether in relation to the newGTC we are in the presence of a token-gesture, a chimera which pretendsto take the body of teachers seriously as ‘professionals’ whilst effectively're-engineering' them as cohorts of workers under the auspices of newmanagerialism. Or, whether we are in the realm of a new form of state-functionary carrying with it the gloss of profession and an appearanceof professional autonomy, whilst deeply embedded within structures ofincorporation within which there are rewards for compliance but littleroom for manoeuvre.

Generalising from the Particular

These then constitute some of the main issues currently being voicedabout the proposed introduction of a GTC. Most of the considerationswe have raised so far are 'insiders' versions. It could be argued that thedebate is dominated by professionally parochial concerns about repre-sentation, membership and powers which, whilst of vital significance toeducational practitioners, fails to engage with or even recognise, widerdemocratic issues that could and should be raised in discussions ofeducational governance. Beyond this insiders’ perspective and the

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protective fence of professionalism, there is a whole other debate withwhich we need to engage which focuses on issues of accountability, publicdebate and inclusivity. Teacher education is not some obscure, esotericmatter. Teachers have a vital role to play in the formation andmaintenance of the sense of nation and the culture of citizenship. Theirtraining and employment are by no means insignificant elements withinpublic sector expenditure patterns. They possess strategically significantaccess to the young (and not-so-young) learners in a society and have aprivileged position as conduits of the knowable, the thinkable and theprofane. They are literally paid to change consciousness, not necessarilyin progressive directions. As an occupational cohort they may seethemselves as in possession of a communal professional identity or definethemselves as servants of the state, perhaps neither, perhaps both at thesame time. Addressing such issues is vital if there is to be a robust andsustainable public debate about effective schools. Many teachers, parents,governing bodies, pupil councils, as well as academic researchers andpolicy professionals have engaged long and determinedly with such issues.Such deliberations require contexts in which they can be responsiblyand seriously debated and where it does not feel as though 'dissensuswill be identified with adolescent behaviour' (as one of our intervieweesput it). In such contexts we may find new grounds for what is happe-ning to teachers and teaching which are more general than particular,public than professional, transnational than localised. This would takeus into broader considerations of the nature of emergent patterns ofgovernance and their implications for power and control in the societieswithin which we live.

Governance, representation and accountability

Current concerns over democratic governance are exposing the ways inwhich such issues influence the formulation, steering and imple-mentation of policy. Questions of representation, accountability andtransparency are by no means limited to teacher education and as wehave noted, they are being asked internationally.

Our earlier research provided evidence that ‘a more democraticallyestablished Teaching Council would be far preferable to a Government-instigated quango’ (Mahony and Hextall 1997c). Alongside this, there

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was also some scepticism about the extent of the powers which mightbe accorded to such a council. As one of our interviewees said:

I've always been very sceptical about a GTC. I don't think the State islikely to give up its regulative functions to a professional body in the l99Osand it would probably like to take some of them away from existingprofessional bodies. So I think we would get a form of General TeachingCouncil which helped to mollify the profession, but not actually give it realpowers. So I actually think it is an illusion. I'd rather it was much clearerwho was pulling the strings.

A number of people whom we interviewed also expressed dissatis-faction with the idea of a GTC if that was ‘designed to enhance professio-nal autonomy’. One can detect a will to think beyond the rock ofprofessional autonomy and the hard place of an unelected, unrepresenta-tive agency of government, even though evidence from the consultationson the GTC indicates that awareness of issues of inclusivity aredisappointingly low.

One further expression of the crisis of democratic legitimacy residesin the ever-presenttensions of centralisation/ decentralisation/regiona-lism, which we know is a major issue in many other European (andnon-European) contexts. There is no sense within any of the recentdebates to which we have referred that this is regarded as an issue, nor isthere any hint of 'regionality' in any form, at any point within theproposed GTC framework. Yet it is surely important to engage with it,not least because of what is known about how and where good practiceflourishes; how energy and commitment is maintained; the importanceof trust in supporting teachers’ creativity and the danger of throttling orconstraining local developments within centralised systems.

This is not to say that the balance of advantages between centralisedand devolved situations is straightforward. The impact of the workingprocedures of new managerialism upon equity and entitlement structuresand opportunities available to teachers is one area where the centralisa-tion/decentralisation nexus may operate in contradictory ways. Researchconducted by the Wainwright Trust neatly summarises the contradictorytendencies involved when it asks:

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• Has devolution, by placing more authority in the hands of mana-gers who take everyday employment decisions, had the effect ofimproving implementation of equality principles? Or,

• Because of the pressures on managers to meet operational andbusiness objectives, have equal opportunities been sidelined?(Foreman, Bedingfield and Coussey 1997 p. 6)

Considerations such as these pose dilemmas about the new forms ofrepresentation and accountability which will best form the basis fordemocratic governance in the future. They also raise important questionsabout the nature and form of political accountability in this currenthistorical, political context. There are three levels at which it is possibleto consider accountability: Accountability upwards - which is pre-dominantly the model of accountability through which bodies like theTTA operate via its relationships with ministerial departments andparliamentary committees; Accountability sideways or horizontally - onwhich basis most professional associations operate in acting upon,reporting to and being largely responsive to the wishes of their members;Accountability downwards - which is a much more tangled and neglectedarea which is presumed to be covered through conventional electoralprocesses. But as Ranson and Stewart (1994) say:

Our current form of public accountability is inadequate or, more precisely,incomplete. It offers members of the public a particularly exiguous form ofparticipation (periodic voting) which has been used to distance them fromthe polity. It establishes the polity as something out there, not something weas citizens are members of or believe we have any responsibility for. (p 235)

If increased participation is being proposed as a better alternative to‘consumer democracy’ then debates will have to take account of theways in which our societies are increasingly diversified. Within mostofficial documentation in our country, it would be very surprising notto find lip-service being paid to the interests of parents, students,employers and the much vaunted 'community interests'. However, thesignificance of this, when fleshed out, often tends to appear somewhattokenistic. Clearly this is no easy issue even though, for some politicians,policy-makers, administrators and educationists, the resolution to thedilemmas seems straightforward. You form a defined policy (perhapsafter officially sponsored exploration of alternatives and consultation)

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and then implement it with clarity and determination. Policies on‘standards’, ‘quality’ and ‘effectiveness’ would be good contemporaryexemplars of such an approach. All too often, however, such policiesare insufficiently grounded in the nature of the educational experienceswhich most people encounter, are legitimated by consultations that havedrawn on too narrow a base, have failed to access or hear the 'voices' ofthose who are most excluded from the communicative discourse, fail toreflect upon or leave adequate space for the detailed specificities ofcircumstances, privilege certain interests over others, and operate with totali-sing orientations which fail to take account of structural, sectional, andregional differentiations. None of this may be intentionally malicious butit does not make for good democracy, although some would argue that itdoes make for strong government.

There are three different levels at which the representation of diffe-rent 'voices' within the policy process are crucial:

a) adequacy of representation on the policy making bodiesthemselves;

b) sensitivity of the criteria, values and needs underpinning policyto the needs of different constituencies;

c) quality of communicating policy outcomes and their rationalesand the extent to which they both speak and listen to the responsesof diverse, perhaps conflicting, bodies of interest.

In a society which takes democracy seriously, there are widespreadlegitimate interests in how teachers are themselves educated, in the con-tent and purpose of their education, in who should be represented inthese decisions and what values they espouse.

In her book Democracy and Difference, Anne Phillips (1993)describes and analyses the tensions and collisions which are involved inattempting to take account of the cacophony of 'voices' which make upcontemporary societies. In her discussion of what she calls the 'newpluralism' she says:

Many exponents of the new pluralism have explicitly concerned themselveswith identifying and empowering hitherto marginalized groups, stressingthe inequalities that regulate relations between different social or cultural

22

groups, and proposing new forms of democracy that can validate and empowePr people as members of their specific social groups. (p. 145)

She fully recognises the dilemmas which arise when recognition ofdiversity may exacerbate division and fragmentation and whichapparently pull against the quest for wider community and solidarity.In her own words, however, 'The ultimate goal is a wider sense ofbelonging, which is why difference can be neither denied nor simplyleft as it is' (p. 157). Her arguments are grounded in the need for atransformative politics which recognises power, domination andstructural oppressions. Although not specifically writing about educationher lengthy quote from Iris Young brings us back to our own substantivefocus by revealing what is currently missing from the routine debateson educational governance:

Group representation unravels the false consensus that cultural impe-rialism may have produced, and reveals group bias in norms, standards,styles and perspectives that have been assumed as universal or of highestvalue. By giving voice to formerly silenced or devalued needs andexperiences, group representation forces participants in discussion to takea reflective distance on their assumptions and think beyond their owninterests. When confronted with interests, needs and opinions that derivedfrom very different social positions and experience, persons sometimes cometo understand the limitations of their own experience and perspective forcoming to a conclusion about the best policy for everyone. Coupled withthe knowledge that the perspectives expressed by oppressed groups also carrya specific vote, and thus that they cannot be ignored if the whole body is tocome to a decision, such enhanced communication best promotes justoutcomes. (p. 158)These general concerns connect with the more educationally specificconclusions of Whitty, Power and Halpin (1998) where they haverecently argued that contemporary social justice, requires both a poli-tics of recognition and redistribution. Their comparative analysis of thetensions which arise between centralisation, devolution, choice andentitlement ends with an injunction to explore the refashioning ofeducational politics and decision-making to take account of widerconstituencies of representation. Like Phillips, they lay no claims toeasy solutions, indeed as they say:

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Future policies need both to recognize and redistribute, although pursuingboth paths simultaneously is not straightforward. For instance, as Fraser(1997) argues, the politics of recognition tend to involve the highlightingand valuing of group differences, while the politics of redistribution look toerode the basis of social difference. (p. 138)

These debates take us well beyond the confines of education policy,let alone the even more specific terrain of teacher education butaddressing such issues is vital if there is to be a sustainable public debateabout ‘effective’ schooling.

Conclusions

We have argued that questions of the most enormous democraticsignificance are raised by the increasingly porous nature of therelationships between what we used to call the public and private sectors.The boundary lines between these, which have never been water-tight,are becoming increasingly blurred under the impact of privatisation,market relations, deregulation, various forms of devolution and delega-tion of powers and responsibilities, and the emergence of what issometimes described as the contract state. Although these transforma-tions are taking diverse and complex forms in the various European(and non-European) nation states, it would appear that competitive-economic models are becoming increasingly dominant legitimating dis-courses within education, often at the cost of welfarist/equity drivenapproaches. It would also appear that this shift is no respecter of old-style political allegiances of a left-right form.

We have raised some of the issues emerging from the establishmentof the GTC in England and have indicated the lines along which abroader research agenda might be established. Conceptually, such a re-search agenda can be seen as falling into three related parts. The firstconcentrates on identifying the patterns of educational governance andaccountability in different countries. It asks whose voices are representedin debates about the future shape and structure of teacher education -what contribution, for example, do teachers and their representativeorganisations make to policy transformations and which other keyconstituents or stakeholders are involved in the policy process? It investi-gates how issues of representation, accountability and responsibility are

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recognised and addressed and how the balance and interaction betweencentralization/decentralisation/devolution are taken into account, andhow these are negotiated.

The second part of such a broader research agenda seeks out anygeneral trends behind the variability of nation-state policies. It askswhether there are common strands underlying the different discoursesand rhetorics, or whether specificity is all-important whether it is moreappropriate to think in terms of a pan-European, an Anglophonic, or aglobal paradigm emerging for teacher education and professionaldevelopment. In our specifically European context such questionsinevitably intersect with political issues of centralisation/ decentralisa-tion, federalism, harmonization and subsidiarity.

Behind all of these is a third set of questions focusing on whether thechanges which are being put in train will enable teachers to enhance thewhole range of individual and collective learning and developmentcapabilities that young people will need for the future and whether thevision of teaching provided is appealing enough to attract enough newteachers of high quality. In England, strong reservations have beenexpressed by one of our well respected and active teacher unions:

Why, when other employers are valuing autonomy, talent, creativity,intrinsic motivation towards quality and improvement, active participation,high employee self-esteem, and investment in continuing professional develop-ment, would one enter the low-trust, tight control, centrally and seeminglyideologically defined environment of teaching? (ATL, 1996 p. 4)

As we have argued, the demand for the development of robust andrepresentative governance structures for teaching is significant not onlyfor present and future cohorts of teachers, but for children or studentswith whom they work and also for the communities in which they areembedded. Complex issues of access and equity, entitlement anddiversity, representation and accountability pose dilemmas which lie atthe heart of social justice and require democratic arenas for theircontestation and resolution. We can find little evidence to suggest that,in our own context at least, such arenas are yet being established - henceour interest in the establishment of a broader research agenda whichmay establish more progressive ways forward.

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Edinburgh:Jordanhill.Becher T.(ed) (1994) Governments and Professional Education. Buckingham:

SRHE and Open University.Clarke, J., Cochrane, A. and McLaughlin, E. (eds) (1994)

Managing Social Policy. London: Sage.DfEE (1997) Teaching: High Status, High Standards. General Teaching Council;

a Consultation Document. London: DfEE.DfEE (1998) Teaching: High Status, High Standards. The Composition of the General

Teaching Council; a Consultation Document. London: DfEE.Eliassen, K.A. and Kooiman, J. (eds). (1994) Managing Public Organisations:

Lessons from Contemporary EuropeanExperience. London: Sage.

European White Paper on Education and Training (1997) Teaching and Learning:Towards the Learning Society.

Foreman, J., Bedingfield R. and Coussey, M. (1997)Decentralisation and Devolution: the impact on equal opportunities at work.Ware: Wainwright Trust.

Fraser, N. (1997) Justice Interruptus: Critical Reflections on the 'Postsocialist' Condition.New York: Routledge.

General Medical Council (1993) Tomorrow’s Doctors. London: GMC.Hextall, I. and Mahony, P. (1998) ‘Effective Teachers for Effective Schools’, in R. Slee, S.

Tomlinson and G. Weiner (eds) School Effectiveness for Whom?, London:Falmer pp. 128-143.

Ingvarson, L. (1998a) ‘Professional Standards: A Challenge for the AATE? English inAustralia No. 122 pp. 31-44.

Ingvarson, L. (1998b) ‘Professional Development as the Pursuit of Professional Standards:The Standards-Based Professional Development System’, Teaching and TeacherEducation, Vol. 14, No. 1 pp.127-140.

Lawn, M. (1997) Modern Times? Work, Professionalism andCitizenship in Teaching. London: Falmer.

Lingard, B. (1995) Re-articulating Relevant Voices inReconstructing Teacher Education. The Annual Harry Penny Lecture,University of South Australia.

Mahony, P. and Hextall, I.(1997a) 'Problems of Accountability in ReinventedGovernment: a case study of the Teacher Training Agency', Journal of EducationPolicy, Vol. 12, No. 4, pp. 267-78.

Mahony, P. and Hextall, I.(1997b) 'Sounds of Silence: the social justice agenda of theTeacher Training Agency', International Studies in Sociology of Education,Vol.7, No. 2, pp.137-156.

Mahony, P. and Hextall, I. (1997c) The Policy Context and Impact of the TTA: asummary. London: Roehampton Institute London.

Mahony, P. and Hextall, I. (1997d) ‘Do Key Concepts Travel?:exploring thereconstruction of teachers and teaching’. European Conference on EducationalResearch, Frankfurt.

Mahony, P. (1998) The Rise And Fall Of Standards in Teaching. Paper presented atProfessional Standards and the Status of Teaching Conference,Edith CowanUniversity, Perth, 24-26 February.

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Millett, A. (1998) Corporate Plan Conference: Address by Anthea Millett, London: TTA.Osborne, A. and Gaebler, T. (1992) Reinventing Government: How the Entrepreneurial

Spirit is Transforming the Public Sector, Reading MA: Addison Wesley.Ozga, J. (1995) 'Deskilling a Profession: Professionalism, deprofessionalism and the new

managerialism' in H. Busher and R. Saran (eds.) Managing Teachers asProfessionals in Schools. London: Kogan Page.

Phillips, A. (1993) Democracy and Difference. Cambridge: Polity Press.Ranson, S. and Stewart, J. (1994) Management for the Public Domain: Enabling the

Learning Society. London: MacMillan.Sayer, J. (1993) The Future Governance of Education. London: Cassell.Seddon, T. (1997) 'Education: Deprofessionalised? Orderegulated, reorganised and

reauthorised,' Australian Journal of Education, Vol. 41, No. 3, pp. 228-247.Seddon, T. (1994) Context and Beyond. London: Falmer.Shand, D. (1996) The New Public Management: an International Perspective, Paper

presented to Public Services Management 2000 Conference, University ofGlamorgan 11th October 1996.

Sidgwick, S. Mahony, P. & Hextall, I. (1994) A Gap in the Market? A consideration ofmarket relations in teacher education, British Journal of Sociology of Education,15(4) 467-479. TTA (1997) Annual Review 1997. London: Teacher TrainingAgency.

Tomlinson, J. (1995) 'Professional Development and Control: the Role of GeneralTeaching Councils', Journal of Education for Teaching, Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 59-68.United Kingdom Central Council for Nursing, Midwifery and Health Visiting(1998).UKCC Handbook: Protecting the Public through Professional Standards.London: UKCC

Walby, S.and Greenwell, J. (1994) Medicine and Nursing:Professions in a Changing Health Service. London: Sage.

Waldegrave, W. (1993) Speech to the Public Finance Foundation, OPSS, Cabinet Office,5th July, 1993.

Whitty, G. Power, S. and Halpin, D. (1998) Devolution and Choice in Education:the School, the State and the Market. Buckingham: Open University Press.

Young, I. (1993) ‘Justice and Communicative Democracy’, in R. Gottlieb (ed) Tradition,Counter Tradition, Politics: Dimensions of Radical Philosophy. Philadelphia:Temple University Press.

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Notes

1 We can see some of these issues beginning to be picked up in the recently established EUproject on Educational Governance and Social Integration and Exclusion (EGSIE).

2 Our paper is based on our previous and current research projects into the restructuring ofteaching The Policy Context and Impact of the Teacher Training Agency and The Impact onTeaching of the National Professional Qualifications have been funded by the Economic andSocial Research Council.

3 There will be slightly different arrangements for the GTC for Wales but in this paper weshall be concentrating on the arrangements for England. It is also worth noting that a GTChas been in existence in Scotland for some decades.

4 This advisory role is now enshrined in law (Teaching and Higher Education Act Part 1 Ch.1 para 2 pp.3-4).

5 It is interesting to note that the TTA make regular references to the medical profession intheir justifications for restructuring the teaching profession. As Walby and Greenwell (1994)have pointed out issues of certification and control as well as definitions as to what countsas ‘professionality’ carry quite different resonances for doctors and nurses. These raise complexquestions about the restructuring of public services under the auspices of ‘new managerialism’and raise important issues of power, hierarchy and their intersection with gender relations.

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Introduction

After 18 years of Conservative government, Great Britain elected a La-bour Government in May 1997. The political aim of Tony Blair, the PrimeMinister, was to transform the party into New Labour‚ and sever itsconnections with old (e.g. pro-union and leftist) Labour. New Labour‚to date has been able to establish itself, rather successfully, as a newmiddle-class left-of-centre political alternative to its former more worker-ist composition and image.

As a new middle-class party, New Labour has needed also to positionitself within a new or neo-liberal education rhetoric of choice, con-sumerism and individualism. In the context of education this hasincluded policies for parental choice, excellence, high academic standards‚and competition. According to this view, ”good” performance is to bemeasurable wherever possible.

This narrow interpretation (to many observers) of good education –which calls for ranking of measurable, quantitative results – has thus farbeen the monopoly or terrain of the Conservative educational establish-ment in Britain, but this is no longer the case. Tony Blair and his minis-ters have presented a series of proposals including rewards for successfuland effective‚ teachers and school leaders (mainly through higher salaries),new tests for trainee teachers and the expansion of the number of teacherassistants (that is, less qualified classroom workers).

In Sweden, proponents of radical neo-liberal changes in educationtend to look at British policies as a blueprint for future Swedish policy-making. By presenting some of the most recent policy statements fromBritain, we hope to initiate a debate and a deeper discussion about theseissues. Letters in response are welcomed from readers and will be pub-lished in forthcoming issues of this journal. We also suggest that thoseof our readers who have interest in extending their understanding ofpresent British education policy-making, will log on to the Britishgovernment´s home page: http://www.dfee.gov.uk/teachers/index.htm

I N G R I D N I L S S O N , G A B Y W E I N E R

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T H E D E P A R T M E N T F O R E D U C A T I O NA N D E M P L O Y M E N T

Blunkett Launches Radical

Reform of Teaching Profession

Radical plans to reform the teaching profession - to strengthen schoolleadership and provide incentives for excellence - were announced to-day by Education and Employment Secretary David Blunkett. Thepackage includes plans for a new pay system to reward good teachers.Successful teachers would gain an initial salary boost of around £2000a year under the new proposals.

Announcing the publication of the consultation document Teachers:meeting the challenge of change, Mr Blunkett said:

”The Government has shown its determination to raise standards.Supported by an extra £19 billion for education over the next threeyears, children are already learning to read effectively in the newliteracy hour, infant class sizes are falling for the first time in a decadeand we are rapidly expanding specialist schools and developingEducation Action Zones.

”We want to accord the teaching profession an entirely new status.Today‘s Green Paper heralds a fundamental step forward.”

It has four main objectives.

First, to reward good teachers.

At the heart of the Green Paper is a new career structure for teachersthat will recruit, retain and reward good teachers. The system willrecognise high performance, offer incentives for success and be backedby tough new arrangements for appraisal and assessment.

After working for 7 years, teachers‘ salaries are typically pegged at£22,500 - further reward is paid only for responsibility, rarely forperformance. We propose two pay scales for classroom teachers,separated by a new performance threshold.

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There will be a tough new appraisal system. Up to the threshold,teachers would progress as now. To cross the threshold, teachers willneed to demonstrate high and sustained levels of achievement andcommitment. Heads will appraise and review their progress, under-pinned by external assessment. This will ensure credibility andconsistency. Success in crossing the threshold would mean an initialsalary increase of up to 10 per cent - of the order of £2,000 a year -and access to further pay steps on this higher scale, based on appraisalof performance. Over time we expect a majority of teachers to be of astandard to cross the threshold.

Second, to strengthen leadership.

Good heads are the key to success. We need to develop strong leaders,reward them well and give them the freedom to manage. Successfulheads who have turned around the most challenging schools could earnup to £70,000 a year, with strengthened appraisal and the option offixed-term contracts.

We will also set up a National College for School Leadership tostrengthen headship training and give it a new more dynamic focusdrawing on the best that education and business have to offer. We alsowant to reward staff for teamwork in raising standards. Our new annualschool performance award would provide a significant number of schoolswith a financial reward - payable as a bonus available to all staff - forimproved performance achieved year-on-year and for sustained goodresults. This could mean rewards for staff as teams or individuals,including classroom assistants and other support staff.

Third, we want to improve teacher training.

We have already taken significant steps with the establishment of the Ge-neral Teaching Council, a curriculum for initial teacher training - withOfsted inspection - and the induction year for newly qualified teachers.

Today I can announce that we intend to go further by introducingnew national tests for all trainee teachers in numeracy, literacy and ICT.Additional help will be available to mature entrants in achieving thisstandard. We plan to establish a network of training schools to shareinnovation and good practice in school-led teacher training.

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It is vital that we attract the best graduates into teaching and ensurethat our outstanding teachers can move quickly through the profes-sion. Industry and the Civil Service already have fast tracks and we planto introduce a new fast track for teaching to enable good new teachersto make rapid progress.

Every teacher should keep their expertise up to date. We have investedin better training in literacy, numeracy and information technologyand in improving the quality and availability of teachers’ professionaldevelopment.

A pilot scheme of individual learning accounts will encourage allschool staff to invest in their development over and above the fundsalready committed to this area. We will enable more training to takeplace out of school hours, to minimise disruption to pupils’ educationthrough over reliance on supply cover.

Our fourth priority is to provide better

support for teachers in the classroom.

We are committed to creating the classroom of the future. We have alreadyinvested in the National Grid for Learning to help teachers get the bestfrom new technology and in the programme of repair and renewal to providea better learning environment for both pupils and teachers. Today I pro-pose a new targeted fund to improve the working environment for all staffand give teachers access to the equipment they need.

The teacher of the future will also make better use of the talent ofsupport staff in schools. Many schools already use classroom assistantsto help literacy and numeracy, or to support children with special needs.

Over the next three years we will fund at least 20,000 more qualifiedteaching assistants with improved training, qualifications and opportun-ity, enabling those with the ambition and potential to join the teachingprofession. We are also keen to see the use of undergraduate and post-graduate students earning whilst learning, together with others fromthe wider community.

Small schools can benefit particularly from sharing facilities, techniciansor bursary support. A new small school support fund will provide pilotfunding to help small schools invest in new ways of working together. Iexpect this to benefit many rural schools as well as those in the inner city.

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This Green Paper contains radical and modernising proposals whichwill help to transform the standards and status of teaching in this coun-try. It is about the new three Rs: recruitment, retention and reward.This is about something for something. For the first time in years, acommitment to invest and reward teachers in return for a new profes-sionalism is on offer. This will mean greater individual accountability,more flexibility and higher standards. The vision of a world-class ser-vice for our children in the next century is one I believe we all share.Good teachers and support staff are the key to achieving that vision.

It is to prepare for that new century, to celebrate the value and worthof our teachers, and for the sake of our children, that I am launchingthis consultation today.

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RecensionI N G R I D N I L S S O N

Att fånga en tanke

En fenomenologisk

studie av barns och ungdomars

tänkande kring miljö

av Eva Alerby

Inom den relativt nya doktorandutbildningen i ”Lärande” på Institu-tionen för pedagogik och ämnesmetodik i Luleå, börjar nu de förstaavhandlingarna läggas fram. I slutet av 1998 publicerade Eva Alerby sinavhandling om barns tänkande om miljöfrågor just i detta nya exa-mensämne.

Bakgrunden till Eva Alerbys intresseinriktning är flerfaldig. Genomsin yrkesmässiga utbildning och erfarenhet som lärare har hon natur-ligtvis en ambition att förstå barns och ungdomars tankeprocesser. Dessagår att studera på miljöområdet, då den samhälleliga debatten om miljö-frågor nu pågått ganska länge och har hunnit tränga in i både läroplaneroch barns tänkande.

Detta ursprungliga intresse hos Eva Alerby (EA) kunde formas ochväxa till en avhandling med stöd av fenomenologisk teori och naturligt-vis också med stöd av de arbeten, som inom denna teoriströmning pu-blicerats i Sverige och utomlands under senare år. Något förenklat kandessa forskare sägas ha intresserat sig för hur fenomen i omvärlden upp-fattas - t ex av barn - och hur ett medvetande om världen formas. Barnstankeprocesser i relation till de erfarenheter som de har gjort, står i fo-kus för forskningen. (Också lärares tänkande, ”teacher thinking”, fårnaturligtvis betydelse inom denna forskningsinriktning.)

Syfte, uppläggning, begrepp

E A redovisar inledningsvis sin bakgrund, intresseinriktning, teoretiskaförankring och också sitt sätt att använda de två centrala begreppen”tänkande” och ”miljö”. Hon gör också en granskning av vilka under-sökningar det finns som angränsar till hennes egen, nationellt och in-

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ternationellt. Sålunda redovisar hon, utöver pedagogiska studier av na-turvetenskapliga utbildningar, t ex den Nationella Utvärderingen från1992 om elevers miljökunskaper. Den undersökningen visade bl a attelevers tänkande snarare domineras av vardagsbegrepp än vetenskapligabegrepp, vilket givet vissa förutsättningar för undervisning, förmodasförsvaga utfallet av den naturvetenskapliga utbildningen.

Avhandlingens syfte formuleras som att synliggöra barns ochungdomars tänkande kring miljö och att tolka innebörden i detta tän-kande. Utifrån detta syfte formulerar E A en teoretisk - filosofisk för-ankring, samt motiverar avhandlingens två empiriska delstudier - enanalys av teckningar samt en intervjuundersökning.

Utan att i detalj redovisa design och praktiska val under arbetet, kanföljande fakta noteras: 47 flickor och 62 pojkar i åldrarna 7 - 16 ärdeltog i teckningsundersökningen, samt beroende på vad som fram-kom i denna (stratifierat urval) senare intervjuer med 16 barn och ung-domar i två omgångar. Undersökningen genomfördes i skolmiljö, delsdärför att det är en miljö som är bekant för alla barn (och inte nys-kapad för undersökningen) dels av praktiska skäl. Instruktionen vidteckningsundersökningen var att barnen skulle rita/måla vad de tänkerpå när de hör ordet ”miljö”. Som hjälpmedel i intervjuerna användes fo-tografier av växter, sopor och andra såväl positiva som negativa föremåloch företeelser.

Resultat

Då teckningarna samlats in klassificerar Eva Alerby dessa i fyra grupper,eftersom hon tycker sig se fyra teman i barnens tankegångar:

- tankar som fokuserar den goda världen- tankar som fokuserar den onda världen- tankar som fokuserar dialektiken mellan den

goda och den onda världen- tankar som fokuserar miljöbefrämjande symboler och handlingar.

I resultatredovisningen diskuterar Eva Alerby dessa grupper och repro-ducerar också foton på barnteckningar som hon klassificerat in i deolika temana. Hon diskuterar också om äldre eller yngre elever tenderaratt placera sig i en viss kategori, och också om pojkar eller flickor domi-

35

nerar inom en grupp. Som exempel på resultat kan nämnas att yngrebarn i större utsträckning än äldre relaterar till en nära, konkret verklig-het. Äldre ungdomar relaterar oftare till globala miljöaspekter. De äldrehar också ett längre tidsperspektiv, liksom de gör fler teckningar somfokuserar dialektiken mellan onda och goda delar i miljön. Dessa kon-stateranden, som kanske kan uppfattas som ganska självklara, har in-tressanta undantag och är inte genomgående.

Generellt har barn och ungdomar en positiv syn på miljöfrågor iallmänhet, och flickor tenderar att något oftare än pojkar välja att be-skriva ”den goda” världen. Pojkar däremot väljer dubbelt så ofta somflickor att visa upp en dialektisk blid av miljön, dvs att i samma bild visaupp en positiv och en negativ aspekt av en miljöfråga.

Intervjuresultaten blir något mer komplicerade då de skall redovisasför läsaren. Här framkommer åtta teman, som dessutom går in i varan-dra på ett sätt, som säkerligen avspeglar den komplicerade verkligheten.Barns och ungdomars tänkande om miljön klassificeras i åtta teman avE A, och dessa åtta kan dessutom anta negativa eller positiva drag.

De åtta temana eller perspektiven är: pragmatiska perspektiv, lär-ande perspektiv, ansvarsperspektiv, känslomässiga, visionära, filosofiska,estetiska och romantiska perspektiv. Som exempel på ett lärande per-spektiv i positiv variant är utbildning och dialog, i negativ variant attutbildningen inte fungerar. Samtliga åtta teman eller perspektiv får igenomgången av resultaten flera exempel ur intervjuerna.

Slutsater

Avslutningsvis framhåller E A några sammanfattande tankar, som jagtill en del skall förmedla här. Uppenbart är att skolan som informa-tionskälla i miljöfrågor är mindre betydelsefull, enligt barnen själva. TVanges som det genomgående viktigaste mediet, oavsett ålder. Dialogeroch diskussioner med andra är också en källa till information. Påtagligtär också en uttalad misstro mot vuxenvärlden, som inte antas ta miljö-problem på allvar. Nedsmutsningen fortsätter, och kommer att lämnasöver till nästa generation, enligt barnens samstämmiga synsätt. Att detverkligen skulle gå att göra något åt föroreningar och utsläpp tror mångaunga, och de är mycket positiva till försök i den riktningen. Pendlingmellan hopp och förtvivlan är vanlig i unga människors tänkande om

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miljöfrågor. Negativt är det moderna stressade livet, framhåller många idenna undersökning, vilket gör att många människor aldrig hinner tänkaefter hur de lever och hur de förbrukar den omgivande naturen. När deväl ser att naturen inte längre går att använda t ex till rekreation, drab-bas inte bara människan, utan också de oskyldiga djuren. Oberoende avålder på respondenterna ger de djuren en högre status än människan,djuren drabbas värst av det människorna ställt till med.

Kommentar

Det är en intressant studie av barns och ungdomars tänkande som EvaAlerby har genomfört. Både undersökningens uppläggning och bokensdisposition är förtjänstfullt strukturerade. Resultatens värde begränsasegentligen heller inte endast till miljöområdet, utan är relevanta för flerastörre frågeställningar med ungdoms- och samhällsrelevans. Resultatenvinner också i styrka genom en validering från ett flertal undersökningarmed liknande tematik eller uppläggning.

En otvetydig fördel är studiens starka förankring inom ett bestämtteoretiskt perspektiv, som inte är löst påhakat den empiriska delen avstudien, utan som av läsaren upplevs som ovanligt impregnerat i av-handlingens olika delar. Här måste jag emellertid konstatera att alterna-tiva teorier och metoder aldrig egentligen värderas som tänkbara mo-deller. Hade resultaten blivit de samma eller helt annorlunda, om enpsykologisk inlärningsmodell ersatt den filosofiska förankring E A valde?Vad hade ett läroplansteoretiskt resonemang, om t ex skolundervisning-ens innehåll, tillfört slutdiskussionen? Och var finns etnicitet och (so-cial) klass? Eller det historiskt komparativa perspektivet? Nu kan detsägas till författarens försvar att delar uteslöts för att avhandlingen skullerymmas inom ett behändigt omfång och därigenom bli läsbar. Person-ligen hade jag dock gärna sett några fler genomarbetade diskussionerom olika teorier, forskningsmetoder och andra små och stora val enförfattare och doktorand måste göra under ett så långvarigt arbete somett avhandlingsarbete.

De resonemang som trots den nämnda begränsningen ingår i de dis-kuterande och analyserande delarna har stort intresse för var och ensom vill lära sig mer om hur barn tänker i skolåldern, och också omflera närbesläktade frågor. Sålunda för E A en diskussion i slutet av

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avhandlingen om den Nationella Utvärderingens värdering av ungdo-mens avsaknad av en vetenskaplig begreppsapparat. I NU framstår detsom problematiskt att ungdomar håller sig med vardagsbegrepp. Där-med saknar de den rätta beredskapen för att tillägna sig den naturveten-skapliga undervisningen.

Eva Alerby är kritisk till resonemanget. Undervisningen måste utgåfrån de ungas faktiska tänkande, utveckla detta och efter hand infogavetenskapliga begrepp. Det får inte finnas en programmatisk motsätt-ning mellan vardagskunskap och vetenskaplig kunskap och termino-logi. De bör fogas samman. Då blir tankebanorna också kreativa ochnydanande.

Två viktiga frågor finns implicita i denna diskussion: Skall vi utgåfrån objeketet eller subjektet i lärandesituationen? Vad vill vi att ungamänniskor skall tillägna sig i undervisningen? Det finns naturligtvis,enligt E A, inte ett paket med ackumulerad kunskap, t ex om veten-skapliga begrepp. Enligt henne handlar det inte heller endast om kogni-tiv tillägnan, utan om en ambition att medverka till att utveckla olikamedvetandeformer i undervisningen.

Boken rekommenderas varmt, särskilt inom lärarutbildnings-programmen, men också för dem som av andra skäl intresserar sig förbarns och ungdomars tänkande.

Eva Alerby (1998). Att fånga en tanke. En fenomenologisk studieav barns och ungdomars tänkande kring miljö. Akademisk avhandling,Institutionen för pedagogik och ämnesdidaktik, Centrum förforskning i lärande, Luleå Tekniska Universitet, 1198:44. 191ss.ISSN 1402 -1544.

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39

AnmälanI N G R I D N I L S S O N

Vocational Education and Training

in Germany and Sweden.

Strategies of control and movements of

resistance and opposition. Report from a symposium

(Eds Lisbeth Lundahl & Theodor Sander).

123 ss. ISSN 1403-5782

Inom ramen för det europeiska nätverket för lärarutbildning TNTEE(Thematic Network on Teacher Education in Europe) har en rapportom yrkesutbildning publicerats. Rapporten är resultatet av ett sympo-sium i Umeå i september 1997, och medverkade där gjorde forskarefrån Danmark, Tyskland och Sverige, och fackliga experter från Tysk-land och Sverige.

En del av artiklarna i rapporten anlägger ett historiskt perspektiv påden nuvarande yrkesutbildningens ställning och problem. Sålunda finnsen kritisk granskning av den tidigare yrkesutbildningspolitiken i DDR(Sander, Universitetet i Osnabrück) och för Tysklands del också en till-bakablick på krigsåren och perioden närmast därefter, då många ung-domar visade stor påhittighet, när det gällde att undvika oönskade ar-beten och arbetsförhållanden (Kenkmann, Universitetet i Münster).

De svenska forskarna är medvetna om betydelsen av det historiskaperspektivet - vår nuvarande yrkesutbildning har, liksom utbildning iövrigt, vuxit fram ur en kombination av traditioner, politiska reform-försök, ekonomisk nödvändighet, internationell anpassning och eleversoch föräldrars efterfrågan. Det huvudsakliga intresset är emellertid i desvenska forskarnas bidrag till rapporten fokuserat på 1990-talet. Deväsentliga förändringar av skolväsendet i allmänhet, som t exdecentraliseringen och kommunaliseringen innebar, hade betydelse ocksåför yrkesutbildningen. Inte minst torde den på 1990-talet större förstå-elsen för näringslivets krav, i kombination med en lokal differentiering,innebära att det lokala näringslivet kan få stort inflytande över vissa

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yrkesutbildningar. Näringslivet som helhet kan också få stort inflytandeöver hela yrkesutbildningsfältet, eftersom retoriken om den globala täv-lingen om marknadsandelar ger legitimitet åt det mesta. Här pågår enförändring, och inte minst en diskussion om den nya gymnasieskolan,en skola som har haft problem att övervinna framför allt på de yrkesför-beredande programmen.

Också tyska forskare skriver om den nya retoriken och ideologin,men relaterar detta då till det som brukar fokuseras inom den tyskayrkesutbildningen, nämligen uppdelningen mellan gymnasium och yr-kesutbildning och det stora antalet utbildningsvägar. Sociala klyftorbefaras bli fördjupade om inte radika reformer initieras - inte oväntat ärdet den tyska fackföreningsrepresentantens åsikt.

Rapporten rekommenderas för dem som är intresserade av jämförel-ser mellan länder på utbildningsområdet, och den rekommenderas ocksåför dem som särskilt intresserar sig för yrkesutbildningsfrågor. Det gårbra att titta på rapporten på nätet och där också finna beställnings-adressen för den som önskar en pappersvolym:

http://tntee.umu.se/publications

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Författare

Ian Hextall, Faculty of Education, Froebel College, RoehamptonInstitute London, Roehampton Lane, London SW 15 5PJ, UK.

Pat Mahony, professor, Faculty of Education, Froebel College,Roehampton Institute London, Roehampton Lane, LondonSW15 5PJ, UK.e-mail: pmahony@macline.co.uk

Ingrid Nilsson, docent, Pedagogiska institutionen,Umeå universitet, S-901 87 Umeå, Sweden.e-mail: ingrid.nilsson@pedag.umu.se

Gaby Weiner, professor, lärarutbildningarna,Umeå universitet, S-901 87 Umeå, Sweden.e-mail: gaby.weiner@educ.umu.se

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Lärarutbildning och forskning i Umeå

Innehåll i nummer 1/94:

Daniel Kallós: Lärarutbildning och forskning.Maja Jacobson: Kläder, kultur och identitet.Ingvar Rönnbäck: Fredsundervisning - en problematisk uppgift.Britt-Marie Berge: Grundskola för alla - på vems villkor?Boel Henckel: Förskollärarutbildningen i Karlstad.Håkan Andersson: Vad händer framgent med elever med svårigheter? En pessimistiskbetraktelse.Evald Nässtrand: På väg mot elevautonomi i språkundervisningen? Om en imponerandeavhandling i språkdidaktik.Ingrid Nilsson: Lärarinnor utvecklar sin praktik (Karin Rönnerman).

Innehåll i nummer 2/94:

Eva Alerby: Laverskolan - en patriarkalisk kvarleva i en kapitalistisk era.Margareta Sjöström: Om katter och hermeliner.Svea-Maria Kuoppa: Institutionen för barn- och ungdomspedagogik, specialpedagogikoch vägledning.Ingrid Nilsson: Ett möte med Marie-Louise Rönnmark.Daniel Kallós: Forskning och lärarutbildning i internationell samverkan.Hans Ciné: Vart är den svenska skolan på väg?Svante Åberg: Lärarkemi för att väcka intresse.

Innehåll i nummer 3/94:

Gerd Arfwedson: Om hur man forskningsanknyter lärarutbildningen.Björn Falkevall: Hur formas lärares tänkande - exemplet “samarbete”?Kerstin Hägg, Inger Tinglev och Svea-Maria Kuoppa: Utveckling - anpassning- underordning.Jan Nilsson: Hur kan praktikrapporterna nyttjas i lärarutbildningen.Jan-Erik Romar: Basket med pojkar i årskurs åtta: Vad händer verkligen i en klass?Els-Marie Staberg: Röster från gymnasiets naturvetarprogram.Ingrid Nilsson: Englands Open University.Christina Segerholm: “Förskola och skola” av Gunilla Dahlberg och Hillevi Lenz Taguchi.

Innehåll i nummer 4/94:

David Hamilton: Educational Research, Policy and Practice.Martin Lawn: The Collapse of the Modern Teacher and Rise of the Differantiated ClassroomWorker?Thomas S Popkewitz: Teacher Education, Reform and Politics of Knowledge in theUnited States.Robert B Tabachnick: Learning to Teach from Multicultural Perspectives in MulticulturalClassrooms.Inga Elgqvist-Saltzman: Gender, Curriculum, Pedagogy and Practice. A Review of GabyWeiner: Feminisms in Education - An Introduction.

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Innehåll i nummer 1/95:

Astrid Ahl: Tidigare skolstart och åldersintegrerade elevgrupper - hur utformasläsundervisningen?Inger Andersson: Långt borta och nära. Ett läroplanshistoriskt perspektiv på utbildningensinternationalisering i den svenska grundskolan.Thor Egerbladh: Lärare forskar om sin praktik.Gunmarie Johnson: Läsning och skrivning under småbarnsåren - ett socialt fält. Beskrivningav ett ständigt växande utkast.Bodo Willmann: Interkulturell uppfostran och utbildning i tyska skolor. Preliminära resultatav fallstudier i skolor med multietnisk sammansättning.Lars-Göran Högman: “Nyare forskning om lärare” av Gerhard Arfwedson.Gunmarie Johnson: “Pennan, plikten, prestigen och plogen. Den folkliga skrivkunnighetensspridning och funktion före folkskolan” av Daniel Lindmark.

Innehåll i nummer 2/95:

Kerstin Hägg: Om muntlig och skriftlig kultur.Jan Mannberg: AMS syn på studie- och yrkesorienteringens syfte sådant det framstår i egetproducerat yrkesorienterande material. Tankar kring ett avhandlingsområde.Karin Rönnerman: “Lärare forskar om sin praktik” - reflektion över en försöksverksamheti samarbete mellan några kommuner och pedagogiska institutionen.Katarina Weinehall: Våldet i vår vardag - angår det skolan och lärarutbildningen?Agneta Hult: “Vurderer selv. Skolevurdering i praksis” av Tom Tiller.Ulla Johansson: “Utbildningshistoria 1994” (Årsböcker i svensk undervisningshistoriavol 176, utgiven av Föreningen för svensk undervisningshistoria).Ingrid Nilsson: ”Lära till lärare - En vänbok till Karl-Georg Ahlström”.Redaktion: Biörn Hasselgren, Ingrid Carlgren, Maud Jonsson och Sverker Lindblad.

Innehåll i nummer 3-4/95

Inga Elgqvist-Saltzman: Opening address at the conference ”Gender and Education”.Robin Burns: Engendering Helth: Feminist issues in school helth and physical education.Joan Eveline: The (Im)possible Reversal: ’Advantage, Education and the Process of FeministTheorising’.Victoria Foster: Barriers to equality in Australian girls´schooling for citizenship in the 1990s.Alison Mackinnon: Revisiting the fin de siècle: representation, discourse and the educatedwoman.Jane Roland Martin: Between Two Worlds, or, Two Gaps in the Text: Reflections from theUnited States.Lyn Yates: Constructing and deconstructing ’girls’ as a category of concern in education -reflections on two decades of research and reform.Christina Segerholm: “Education Reform. A critical and post-structural approach”, by Stephen JBall.

Innehåll i nummer 1/96:

Eva Alerby: Låt tusen blommor blomma... - Några sjuåringars miljöuppfattningar.Stefan Nordström: Vetenskapsfilosofi och forskningsstrategi i lärarutbildningen.T Strandberg, P-A Sundbaum & T Egerbladh: Musikpedagogisk forskning. En komparativstudie angående musikskapande.Inga-Brita Melin: En tidig fredspedagog: Jane Addams (1860-1935).Daniel Kallós: Lærerprofessionalisme. Redigeret af John Cederstrøm, Lejf Moos, Lotte RahbekSchou og Jens Rasmussen.Leif Lindberg: Norsk forskning om utdaning. Perspektiver og veivalg (Red: Jon Lauglo).Ragnhild Nitzler: ”Kvalitestssäkra förskolan” av Kerstin Holmlund och Karin Rönnerman.

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Innehåll i nummer 1/97:

PO Erixon: “Du som ammar blomman av vårt land”. Om skolan i litteraturenoch den svenska skolromanen.Maria Eliasson och Sara Qvarnström: “Learner autonomy” - en modell för indiviualiseradundervisning. Vad kan lärare i samhällskunskap och historia lära av nytänkande inomspråkundervisningen?Hans Junker Mortensen: University Education in an Arctic Region.Ingrid Nilsson: Spjutspets mot framtiden? Skolministrar, riksdagsmän och SÖ-cheferom skola och skolpolitik (Red: Gunnar Richardson. ÅSU 185).

Hille Stål: ”De liknade varandra, men inte mer än andra. Begåvningshandikapp ochinterpersonellt samspel” av Kerstin Göransson.Håkan Andersson: ”Specialpedagogiskt arbete i grundskolan” av Bengt Persson.Lärarutbildningoch forskning i Umeå

Innehåll i nummer 2/96:

Jane Jensen: Examination inom högre utbildning - hur tänker lärare?Eva Åström: Utveckling av distansutbildning - vem bryr sig?Ann-Kristin Nyström & Margareta Wolf-Watz: ...Det är viktigt att känna att manär värd någonting.Sture Brändström: Om musikalitet och musikpedagogik.Ryszard Kucha & Jolanta Misiak: The Issue of the Private Schools’ Development inPoland in 1989-1995.Kjell Gisselberg: Aurelius’ räknelära från 1814.Anders Olofsson: Foucault - namnet på en modern vetenskaplig och filosofisk problematik.Texter om maktens mentaliteter, pedagogik, psykologi, medicin, sociologi, feminism &biopolitik. (Red: Kenneth Hultqvist & Kenneth Petersson.)Karin Rönnerman: ”Att stärka lärares röster. Sex essäer om lärarforskning och lärar-forskar-samarbete” av Ivor F Goodson. (Översättning Gerhard Arfwedson och Ingvor Gerner.)

Innehåll i nummer 3/96:

Bengt Grensjö: Vygotsky - i tidenInger Tinglev: Samverkan - en väg till kunskap.Adam Winiarz: Schools for Girls in the Kingdom of Poland in the Nineteenth Century.Utbildnings- och forskningsnämnden för lärarutbildning i Umeå: Angående departements-promemorian ”Studiefinansiering och examina i forskarutbildningen” (Ds 1996:35).Gunilla Halldén : Förskolan som ett fält där olika traditioner och olika kulturellt kapitalförhandlas. Recension av Kerstin Holmlunds avhandling i pedagogik: ”Låt barnen komma tilloss. Förskollärarna och kampen om småbarnsinstitutionerna 1854-1968.” Pedagogiskainstitutionen, Umeå universitet.Ingrid Nilsson: Teacher Education in Europe. Evaluation and Perspectives. (Eds Sander et al).

Innehåll i nummer 4/96:

Sigbrit Franke: Symposium : Evaluation and Policy Analysis.Inger Andersson: Management by Objectives and Results - Accuntability or Visibility.Limin Gu: Chinese Daycare in Cultural Change.Christina Segerholm: Democracy and Educational Evaluation.Eva Åström: Evaluation - The Panopticon of Pedagogy.Per-Olof Erixon: Titta den flyger! En recension av Olof Johansson & Daniel Kallós (red). Tänkutveckling! En antologi om skolans kvalitet och effektivitet - vad kan ledaren göra?

45

Innehåll i nummer 2/97:

Britt-Marie Berge: Steering of Teachers´ Work– Lessons from an Action Research Project in sweden.Hildur Ve: Teacher Participation in an Action Research Project AboutGender Equality in Primary School.Karin Rönnerman: Action Research – A sophisticated Way of Steering Teacher Work.Ulla Johansson: Education and State Control. The case of Sweden 1842-1994.

Innehåll i nummer 3/97:

Eva Erson: Preparing Gender-Conscious Teaching and learning ina Technological Education – Some first stepsRebecca Sidell: The shaping of The British Educational System: 1945 to 1997Review: Håkan Andersson: Specialpedagogisk kunskap som ett socialt problem:en historisk analys av avvikelse och segregation – av Rolf Helldin.

Innehåll i nummer 4/97:

Tomas Kroksmark:...att lära andra att lära sig att lära andra att lära sig (något)– eller till frågan om att organisera en lärarutbildning vid ett universitetHans Junker Mortensen: Western Impact on Democratic Processes withinArctic Education SystemsIngrid Nilsson: Pietistisk skola bland krigsfångar i Sibirien - den karolinska Tobolsk-skolan

Innehåll i nummer 1/98:

Jörgen From & Carina Holmgren: Vad kan undervisning betyda? En diskussion kringrelationen mellan kinesisk tanketradition och kinesiska gymnasieelevers förhållningssätt tillundervisning, i kontrast mot svenska gymnasieeleversUlla Lindgren: Makt, språk och könInger Tinglev: Grundskolläraren och specialpedagogikenLars Holmstrand:”Efter svensk modell - LO, SAF och utbildningspolitiken 1944-90”av Lisbeth LundahlKerstin Hägg: Recension av Gunnel Lindhs avhandling: Samtalet i studie-och yrkesvägledningsprocessen

Innehåll i nummer 2/98:

Ann-Kristin Nyström & Margareta Wolf-Watz:"Vad för sorts skola skall vi jobba på?" Lärarstudentersuppfattningar om Nv-utbildningen av grundskollärare.Anders Marner: Multimodalitet - medier, kognition och semiotikMiriam David: Blair's babes or Britain's babes: New Labour,women, parents and child care.Martin Johansson: Idrottsämnet och lärarutbildning i postmoderna tider.Karin Rönnerman: "Forskning i skolans vardag"av Thor Egerbladh och Tom Tiller.

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Innehåll i nummer 3/98:

Gaby Weiner: The Good News - Feminism, Equality and Teacher EducationDavid Hamilton: The Professor‘s PlatformAgneta Hult & Anders Olofsson: Vad är en lärare?- En analys av examinationsdokument för grundskollärare 1 - 7Håkan Andersson: Kommunerna och den specialpedagogiskaverksamheten - nutid och framtid, av Rolf Helldin.Kerstin Hägg: Utvecklingsarbete - en grund för lärares lärande, av Karin Rönnerman.

Innehåll i nummer 4/98:

Inger Andersson: Etniska relationerInger Andersson: Den nationella läroplanen i det globala sammanhanget – en läroplansanalysAnders Lindström: Att motverka ”rasism” i skolan genom att inoformera eller kommunicera?Katarina Nordberg: Den god viljan. En studie av kulturmöten i klassrummet.Dra Vilma Pruzzo de Di Pego, Celia M Coll, Araceli Fernándes & silvia Siderac: ActionResearch in Teacher Training Transformation.Lena Markgren: ”Sångskatten som socialt minne. En pedagogisk studie av en samlingskolsånger” av Ann Mari Flodin.Helena Stenbäck: ”Computer Based Creative Music Making.Young Peoples´ Music in the Digital Age” av G Folkestad.

Lärarutbildning och forskning

i Umeå 1/1999

Teacher Education and Research in Umeå 1/1999

UTBILDNINGS- OCH FORSKNINGSNÄMNDEN FÖR LÄRARUTBILDNING I UMEÅTHE BOARD OF TEACHER EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN UMEÅ

Printed in Sweden ISSN 1104-523X

INNEHÅLL

Redaktionellt

Artiklar

Pat Mahony and Ian Hextall: Representation and Accountabilityin the Formation of Policy on Teacher Education: The GCT(England)Ingrid Nilsson and Gaby Weiner: IntroductionThe Department for Education and Employment:Blunkett Launches Radical Reform of Teaching Profession

Recensioner och anmälningar

Ingrid Nilsson: Att fånga en tanke. En fenomenologisk studieav barns och ungdomars tänkande kring miljö, av Eva Alerby.Ingrid Nilsson: Vocational Education and Training in Germanyand Sweden. Strategies of control and movements of resistanceand opposition. Report from a symposium (Eds Lisbeth Lundahl& Theodor Sander).