Overview of Child Development(幼兒發展概覽 )

Child Development

Definition( 定義 ): Change in the child that occurs over time. Changes follow an orderly pattern that moves toward greater complexity and enhances survival. 全時的改變，以及朝向既定更為複雜與生存

Periods of development( 發展的時點 ): Prenatal period: from conception to birth( 胎兒

期 ) Infancy and toddlerhood: birth to 2 years( 嬰兒

期 ) Early childhood: 2-6 years old( 幼兒期 ) Middle childhood: 6-12 years old( 兒童期 ) Adolescence: 12-19 years old( 青春期 )

Domains of Development

Development is described in three domains, but growth

in one domain influences the other domains.由三個領域來描述發展，並且交互影響

Physical Domain( 生理領域 ): body size, body proportions, appearance, brain

development, motor development, perception capacities, physical health.

Cognitive Domain( 認知領域 ): thought processes and intellectual abilities including

attention, memory, problem solving, imagination, creativity, academic and everyday knowledge, metacognition, and language.

Social/Emotional Domain( 社會 / 情緒領域 ): self-knowledge (self-esteem, metacognition, sexual

identity, ethnic identity), moral reasoning, understanding and expression of emotions, self-regulation, temperament, understanding others, interpersonal skills, and friendships.

Theories( 理論 )

What is a theory? Orderly set of ideas which describe, explain, and predict behavior.

描述、解釋、預測 Why are theories important?

To give meaning to what we observe. As a basis for action -- finding ways to improve the lives and education of children.

賦予觀察意義成為行動基礎

Origins of Child Development Theories幼兒發展理論緣起

6th - 15th centuriesMedieval period( 中古世紀 )

Preformationism( 先天說 ): children seen as little adults( 小大人).

Childhood is not a unique phase. Children were cared for until they could begin caring for themselves, around 7 years old.

Children treated as adults (e.g. their clothing, worked at adult jobs, could be married, were made into kings, were imprisoned or hanged as adults.)

對待孩童如成人

16th CenturyReformation period( 文藝復興 )

Puritan religion influenced how children were viewed.

Children were born evil, and must be civilized.

A goal emerged to raise children effectively.

Special books were designed for children.

孩童被視為天生邪惡，必須被加以教化

17th Century Age of Enlightenment( 啟蒙時期 )

John Locke believed in tabula rasa( 白板 )

Children develop in response to nurturing.

Forerunner of behaviorism

孩童發展反映出培育的對待

www.cooperativeindividualism.org/ locke-john.jpg

18th CenturyAge of Reason( 理性時期 )

Jean-Jacques Rousseau children were noble savages, born

with an innate sense of morality; the timing of growth should not be interfered with.

Rousseau used the idea of stages of development.

Forerunner of maturationist beliefs( 成熟理論)

孩子們是高尚的野蠻人，天生具有一種與生俱來道德的感覺。生長的時間不應該干涉。

19th CenturyIndustrial Revolution( 工業革命 )

Charles Darwin theories of natural selection( 天

擇說 ) and survival of the fittest ( 適者生存 )

Darwin made parallels between human prenatal growth and other animals.

Forerunner of ethology(動物行為學)

20th Century

Theories about children's development expanded around the world.

關於孩童發展理論擴及世界 Childhood was seen as worthy of special attention.

Laws were passed to protect children( 立法 )

Psychoanalytical Theories( 精神分析 )

Beliefs focus on the formation of personality. According to this approach, children move through various stages, confronting conflicts between biological drives and social expectations. 聚焦於個人化的型態

Sigmund Freud

Psychosexual Theory性心理分析理論

Was based on his therapy with troubled adults.

He emphasized that a child's personality is formed by the ways which his parents managed his sexual and aggressive drives.

Erik EriksonPsychosocial Theory(社會心理 )

Expanded on Freud's theories. Believed that development is

life-long. Emphasized that at each stage,

the child acquires attitudes and skills resulting from the successful negotiation of the psychological conflict.

Identified 8 stages: Basic trust vs mistrust (birth - 1

year)( 信任與不信任 ) Autonomy vs shame and doubt (ages 1-3)

( 主動害羞 ) Initiative vs guilt (ages 3-6)( 主動與內

疚 ) Industry vs inferiority (ages 6-11)( 勤

奮與自卑 ) Identity vs identity confusion

(adolescence)( 認同混淆 )

Intimacy vs isolation (young adulthood)( 親密與疏離 )

Generativity vs stagnation (middle adulthood)( 成長與停滯 )

Integrity vs despair (the elderly)( 整合與絕望 )

Behavioral and Social Learning Theories( 行為與社會學習理論 )

Beliefs that describe the importance of the environment and nurturing in the growth of a child.環境與培育對於孩童的重要性

Behaviorism- 行為主義 Developed as a response to psychoanalytical theories.

對於心理分析理論的反動

Behaviorism became the dominant view from the 1920's to 1960's.

從 1920 到 1960 年代，行為主義成為顯學

John Watson- 美國行為主義理論之父 Early 20th century, "Father of American Behaviorist theory.”

Based his work on Pavlov‘s experiments on the digestive system of dogs. Researched classical conditioning

立基於古典制約 Children are passive beings who can be molded by controlling the stimulus-response associations.

刺激與反應的連動

www.psych.utah.edu./…/Cards/Watson.html

B. F. Skinner

Proposed that children “operate” ( 操作 )on their environment, operational conditioning.

實境操作 Believed that learning could be broken down into smaller tasks, and that offering immediate rewards for accomplishments would stimulate further learning.

細分學習區塊與立即成就

Social Learning Theory( 社會學習理論 )Albert Bandura Stressed how children learn by observation and imitation.

經由觀察與模仿來學習 Believed that children gradually become more selective in what they imitate.

相信經由模仿獲得更多的選擇性

Biological Theories( 生物學理論 )

Belief that heredity and innate biological processes govern growth. 遺傳與內在生理過程

Maturationists: G. Stanley Hall and Arnold Gesell

Believed there is a predetermined biological timetable.

既定的生物時間表 Hall and Gesell were proponents of the normative approach to child study: using age-related averages of children's growth and behaviors to define what is normal.

Ethology( 動物行為學 )

Examines how behavior is determined by a species' need for survival.

Has its roots in Charles Darwin's research.

Describes a "critical period" or "sensitive period,” for learning

物種生存需求關鍵點

Konrad Lorenz

Ethologist, known for his research on imprinting(銘印).

Attachment Theory( 依附理論)

John Bowlby applied ethological principles to his theory of attachment.

Attachment between an infant( 嬰兒 ) and her caregiver( 照顧者 ) can insure the infant’s survival.

Cognitive Theories( 認知理論 )

Beliefs that describe how children learn描述孩童如何學習

Jean PiagetCognitive

development theory認知理論

Children "construct" their understanding of the world through their active involvement and interactions.

Studied his 3 children to focus not on what they knew but how they knew it.

Described children‘s understanding as their “schemas” (基模)and how they use: Assimilation( 同化 - 擇善固

執 ) Accommodation( 調適 - 從善

如流 ).

Piaget’s Cognitive Development Stages( 認知發展 )

Sensori-motor 感官動作期 Ages birth - 2: the infant uses his senses and motor abilities to understand the world

Preoperation 準備運思期 Ages 2-7: the child uses metal representations of objects and is able to use symbolic thought and language

Concrete operations 具體運思期 Ages 7-11; the child uses logical operations or principles when solving problems

Formal operations 形式運思期 Ages 12 up; the use of logical operations in a systematic fashion and with the ability to use abstractions

Lev VygotskySocio-Cultural Theory

(社會文化理論 ) Agreed that children are active learners, but their knowledge is socially constructed.

Cultural values and customs dictate what is important to learn.

Children learn from more expert members of the society.

Vygotsky described the “zone of proximal development“(近側發展區), where learning occurs.

ced.ncsc.edu/hyy/devtheories.htm

Information Processing Theory資訊處理理論 Uses the model of the computer to describe how the brain works.

Focuses on how information is perceived, how information is stored in memory, how memories are retrieved and then used to solve problems.

Systems Theory( 系統理論 )

The belief that development can't be explained by a single concept, but rather by a complex system.發展係複雜系統非單一的純粹解釋

Urie Bronfenbrenner

Ecological Systems Theory

The varied systems of the environment and the interrelationships among the systems shape a child‘s development.( 多元環境塑造孩童 )

Both the environment and biology influence the child's development.

The environment affects the child and the child influences the environment.( 環境與孩童的相互影響 )

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model(生態模式)

The microsystem (微系統 )- activities and interactions in the child's immediate surroundings: parents, school, friends, etc.

The mesosystem ( 中系統 )- relationships among the entities involved in the child's microsystem: parents' interactions with teachers, a school's interactions with the daycare provider

The exosystem (外系統 )- social institutions which affect children indirectly: the parents' work settings and policies, extended family networks, mass media, community resources

The macrosystem (鉅系統 )- broader cultural values, laws and governmental resources

The chronosystem ( 時間系統)- changes which occur during a child's life, both personally, like the birth of a sibling and culturally, like the Iraqi war.

Outline of 20th Century Theories

Psychoanalytical Theories Psychosexual: Sigmund Freud Psychosocial: Erik Erikson

Behavioral & Social Learning Theories Behaviorism: Classical Conditioning - John Watson & Operant

Conditioning - B.F. Skinner Social Learning - Albert Bandera

Biological Theories Maturationism: G. Stanley Hall & Arnold Gesell Ethology: Konrad Lorenz Attachment: John Bowlby

Cognitive Theories Cognitive Development: Jean Piaget Socio-cultural: Lev Vygotsky Information Processing

Systems Theories Ecological Systems: Urie Bronfenbrenner

Outline of 20th Century Theories

Physical Domain

( 生理 )

Cognitive Domain

( 認知 )

Social/Emotional Domain

( 社會 / 情緒 )

• maturationist : 階段性 - 關注體能與反應• Ethology: 依附性 - 信任與崇拜

生理問題 行為改變 ( 增強、消弱 )

• Cognitive development theory: schemas- 同化、調適 - 差異性的衝突、 想像、創意

• Behavioral Theories: 刺激、反應 ( 行為 )- 秩序、常規• Psychosexual Theory: 早年影響 ( 理解 )- 特殊學生關注• Psychosocial Theory: 階段任務 ( 特色 )- 提供表現機會• Social Learning Theory: 觀察、模仿 - 小組合作、競爭• Socio-Cultural Theory: 近側發展 ( 鷹架 )- 貼近生活