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Part 4: LeadingPart 4: Leading

Chapter 8Chapter 8

Foundations of Individual and Group Foundations of Individual and Group BehaviorBehavior

個人與群體行為的基礎個人與群體行為的基礎

Foundations of Individual and Group Foundations of Individual and Group BehaviorBehavior

個人與群體行為的基礎個人與群體行為的基礎

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OutlineOutline1. Organizational behavior組織行為2. Individual Behavior個人行為

• Attitudes and their components態度• Personality and its use性格• Perception and how it can be shaped知覺

• Learning: shaping employee behavior學習

3. Group behavior群體行為

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心若改變 .... 你的態度跟著改變 ~ 態度改變 .... 你的習慣跟著改變 ~~ 習慣改變 .... 你的性格跟著改變 ~~~ 性格改變 .... 你的人生跟著改變 ~~~~

態度決定高度性格決定格局腦袋決定口袋

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Organizational Behavior (OB)Organizational Behavior (OB) 組織行為組織行為

• The study of the actions of people at work• The focus of OB

– Individual behaviors 個人行為。包括態度、人格特性、知覺、學習和動機

• Personality, perception, learning, and motivation

– Group behaviors 群體行為，包括規範、角色、團隊建立和衝突。

• Norms, roles, team-and conflict

• The goals of OB– To explain– To predict behavior OB

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The Organization as an Iceberg MetaphorThe Organization as an Iceberg Metaphor

EXHIBIT 8.1

態度

認知

規範

非正式互動

人際間與群體間之衝突

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OB’s InterestOB’s Interest

• Employee productivity 生產力– The efficiency and effectiveness of employees

• Absenteeism 曠職– The election by employees not to attend work

• Turnover 離職– The exit of an employee from an organization

• Organizational citizenship 組織的優質員工– Employee behaviors that promote the welfare

of the organization

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• K N O W L E D G E 11 + 14 + 15 + 23 + 12 + 5 + 4 + 7 + 5 = 96

• H A R D W O R K 8 + 1 + 18 + 4 + 23 + 15 + 18 + 11 = 98

• A T T I T U D E 1 + 20 + 20 + 9 + 20 + 21 + 4 + 5 = 100

• B U L L S H I T

2 + 21 + 12 + 12 + 19 + 8 + 9 + 20 = 103

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AttitudesAttitudes 態度態度• Valuative statements concerning objects,

people, or events 對於某些物品、人物、事件所作的評價

• 三要素（ components) ：– Cognitive component認知要素

• The beliefs, opinions, knowledge, and information held by a person 一個人所持有的信念、意見、知識或資訊

– Affective component情感要素• The emotional, or feeling, segment of an attitude 某種態度在

情緒或感情上的因素– Behavioral component行為要素

• An intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something 針對某些人或事所表現出的一特定行為意圖。

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Job-related AttitudesJob-related Attitudes• Job satisfaction 工作滿意度

– An employee’s general attitude toward his or her job.

• Job involvement 工作參與– The degree to which an employee identifies with

his or her job, actively participates in it, and considers his or her job performance important for self-worth.

• Organizational commitment 組織付出– An employee’s orientation toward the organization

in terms of his or her loyalty to, identification with, and involvement in the organization.

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PersonalityPersonality 性格性格• Combination of the psychological traits 心理

特質 that characterize that person.

• Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)– A method of identifying personality types uses

four dimensions of personality to identify 16 different personality types

• Big Five model– Five-factor model of personality that includes

extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness to experience

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Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

• Extroversion versus introversion (EI) 外向vs. 內向– An individual’s orientation toward the external

world of the environment (E) or the inner world of ideas (I).

• Sensing versus intuitive (SN) 感官 vs. 直覺– An individual’s preference on gathering data

focusing routine facts (S) or on the big picture among the facts (N).

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Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) (cont’d)(cont’d)

• Thinking versus feeling (TF) 思考 vs. 感覺– One’s preference for evaluating information in a

logical and analytical manner (T) or on the basis of values and beliefs (F).

• Judging versus perceiving (JP). 判斷 vs. 認知– Reflects an attitude toward the external world that

is either in a planned and ordered way 講求規畫及順序 (J) or preferring to remain flexible and spontaneous 保持彈性或順其自然 (P).

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Characteristics Frequently Associated with Myers-Briggs Characteristics Frequently Associated with Myers-Briggs TypesTypes

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The Big Five Model of PersonalityThe Big Five Model of PersonalityExtroversion 外向性 A personality dimension that describes the degree to

which someone is sociable, talkative, and assertive.

Agreeableness A personality dimension that describes the degree to which someone is good-natured, cooperative, and trusting.

Conscientiousness A personality dimension that describes the degree to which someone is responsible, dependable, persistent, and achievement oriented.

Emotional stability A personality dimension that describes the degree to which someone is calm, enthusiastic, and secure (positive) or tense, nervous, depressed, and insecure (negative).

Openness to experience A personality dimension that describes the degree to which someone is imaginative, artistically sensitive, and intellectual.

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五大性格模式五大性格模式 • 外向性格構面：描述一個人喜好社交、交談與專斷程

度。• 適合性格構面：描述一個人良好本質、合作性與信任

程度。• 正直性格構面：描述一個人負責、可信賴、堅毅與成

就取向程度。• 情緒穩定構面：描述一個人鎮靜、熱忱、穩定（正面

的）或壓力、緊張、沮喪及不安（負面的）的程度。• 對經驗的開放性格構面：描述一個人富想像力、對藝

術的敏感度與智力程度。

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Emotional intelligence (EI)Emotional intelligence (EI) 情緒智商 情緒智商 or or EQEQ

• An assortment of noncognitive skills, capabilities, and competencies that influence a person’s ability to cope with environmental demands and pressures

– Self-awareness own feelings

– Self-management of own emotions

– Self-motivation in face of setbacks

– Empathy for others’ feelings

– Social skills to handle others’ emotions

• 知覺自己情感• 自我管理情緒• 自我激勵面對

挫折• 同理心• 處理他人情緒

之社交技能

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Personality Traits And Work-related Personality Traits And Work-related BehaviorsBehaviors

• Locus of control– A personality attribute that measures the

degree to which people believe that they are masters of their own fate

• Machiavellianism (“Mach”)– A measure of the degree to which people

are pragmatic 務實 , maintain emotional distance, and believe that ends can justify means 目標可以合理化任何手段

• 命運之內外控傾向

• 馬基維利主義

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Personality Traits And Work-related Personality Traits And Work-related Behaviors (cont’d)Behaviors (cont’d)

• Self-esteem (SE)– An individual’s degree of life dislike

for him- or herself

• Self-monitoring– A measure of an individual’s ability to

adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factors

• Propensity for risk taking– The willingness to take chances—a

preference to assume or avoid risk

• 自尊

• 自我監控

• 冒險傾向

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Matching Personalities And JobsMatching Personalities And Jobs

PersonPerson JobPerformancPerformancee

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Personality Characteristics of Personality Characteristics of EntrepreneursEntrepreneurs

• Proactive Personality– High level of motivation

• Internal locus of control

• Need for autonomy

– Abundance of self-confidence• Self-esteem

– High energy levels• Persistence

– Moderate risk taker• Problem solver

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PerceptionPerception 知覺知覺

A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.

• 個人經由整理及解釋感官印象，並賦予環境意義的過程。

• 每個人對同樣的事物，產生不同的知覺。

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Influences on PerceptionInfluences on Perception 知覺的影響知覺的影響

• Personal characteristics 個人特質– Attitudes– Personality– Motives– Interests– Past experiences– Expectations

• Targetcharacteristics 目標特質– Relationship of a target

to its background– Closeness and/or

similarity to other things– The context in objects is

seen– Other situational factors.

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Perceptual Challenges: What Do You See?Perceptual Challenges: What Do You See?

EXHIBIT 8.5

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Attribution theoryAttribution theory 歸因理論歸因理論 ((How How Managers Judge Employees)Managers Judge Employees)

• A theory based on the premise that we judge people differently depending on the meaning we attribute to a given behavior 解釋我們對於人的判斷不同，乃基於我們對特定行為有不同的歸因。– Internally caused: believed to be under the control

of the individual. 內在引發的行為，是那些被認為在個人控制之下的行為。

– Externally caused: results from outside causes; having been forced into the behavior by the situation. 外在引發的行為，是外界原因所造成的結果，也就是個人迫於情境而產生的行為。

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Interpreting BehaviorInterpreting Behavior 解讀解讀行為行為• Distinctiveness 特異性

– Whether an individual displays a behavior in many situations or whether it is particular to one situation. 是否在許多不同情境下，或只有在特定情境下，才有這樣的行為表現。

• Consensus共通性– If the individual responds in the same way as everyone

else faced with a similar situation responds. 每個人面對相似情境時，是否以同樣的方式應對

• Consistency 一致性– The individual engages in the same behaviors regularly

and consistently over time. 是否表現出一致的行為

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EXHIBIT 8–6 The Process of Attribution Theory

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Judgment ErrorsJudgment Errors

• Fundamental attribution error 基本歸因錯誤– The tendency to underestimate the influence of

external factors and overestimate the influence of internal or personal factors when making judgments about the behavior of others.

• Self-serving bias 自我滿足的偏見– The tendency for individuals to attribute their own

successes to internal factors while putting the blame for failures on external factors.

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Distortions in Shortcut Methods in Judging Distortions in Shortcut Methods in Judging OthersOthers 判斷扭曲偏頗的情形判斷扭曲偏頗的情形

EXHIBIT 8.7

Selectivity選擇性

Assumed similarity假設有類同經驗

Stereotyping刻板（先入為主）印象

Halo effect光環效應

Self-fulfilling prophecy自我實現預言

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LearningLearning 學習學習Any relatively permanent change in behavior

that occurs as a result of experience 任何經由經驗所產生的較持久的行為改變。

Operant conditioning操作性制約 (B. F. Skinner)– Voluntary, or learned, behavior is a function of

its consequences 行為是其結果的函數• Reinforcement強化 increases the likelihood that

behavior will be repeated; behavior that is not rewarded or is punished is less likely to be repeated.

• Rewards 獎勵 are most effective if they immediately follow the desired response.

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Learning (cont’d)Learning (cont’d)• Social learning theory社會學習理論

– People can learn through observation and direct experience; by modeling the behavior of others 人們經由觀察和直接經驗來學習的理論；透過模擬別人行為的方式

• Modeling processes– Attentional processes– Retention processes– Motor reproduction processes– Reinforcement processes

• 注意• 留意• 動作重現• 強化

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How to Shape BehaviorHow to Shape Behavior 如何如何塑造行為塑造行為• Shaping behavior

– Systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to a desired behavior系統化的強化每一系列的步驟，使個人逐漸趨近目標行為

• Four ways to shape behavior:– Positive reinforcement– Negative reinforcement– Punishment– Extinction.

• 正向強化• 負向強化• 處罰• 消弱

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Steps in Shaping BehaviorSteps in Shaping Behavior

1. Identify the critical behaviors that have a significant impact on an employee’s performance.

2. Establish a baseline of performance.

3. Analyze the contributing factors to performance and their consequences.

4. Develop a shaping strategy.

5. Apply the appropriate strategy.

6. Measure the change that has occurred.

7. Reinforce desired behaviors.

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Foundations Of Group BehaviorFoundations Of Group Behavior• Group 群體

– Two or more interacting and interdependent individuals who come together to achieve particular objectives

• Role 角色– A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to

someone in a given position in a social unit 某人在社會中擔任職位的一套行為模式 。

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Foundations Of Group Behavior Foundations Of Group Behavior (cont’d)(cont’d)

• Norms 規範– Acceptable standards (e.g., effort and performance,

dress, and loyalty) shared and enforced by the members of a group 群體中成員互相認同的標準

• Status地位– A prestige grading, position, or rank within a group 群體中較具聲望的成績、職位、階級

• May be informally conferred by characteristics such as education, age, skill, or experience.

• Anything can have status value if others in the group admire it.

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Why do People Join Groups?Why do People Join Groups?

Security

Status

Self-esteem

Affiliation

Power

Goal achievement

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Examples of Cards Used in Asch StudyExamples of Cards Used in Asch Study

EXHIBIT 8.9

Solomon Asch and Group Conformity:Does the desire to be accepted as a part of a group leave one susceptible to conforming to the group’s norms? Will the group exert pressure that is strong enough to change a member’s attitude and behavior? According to the research by Solomon Asch, the answer appears to be yes.

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Group EffectsGroup Effects 群體效應群體效應• Social loafing社會虛擲

– The tendency of an individual in a group to decrease his or her effort because responsibility and individual achievement cannot be measured由於個人的責任及成就無法量測，成員會有降低自己努力的傾向。

• Group cohesiveness凝聚力– The degree to which members of a group are

attracted to each other and share goals• Size, work environment, length of time in existence, and

group-organization goal congruency affect the degree of group cohesiveness.

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The Relationship Between Group The Relationship Between Group Cohesiveness and ProductivityCohesiveness and Productivity

EXHIBIT 8.10

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