PASOS21 2010 Las Ciudades Como Espacio Creativo Para Turismo Special

8/13/2019 PASOS21 2010 Las Ciudades Como Espacio Creativo Para Turismo Special

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ISSN 1695-7121

Volumen 8, Nmero 3, 2010

PASOSRevista de Turismo y Patrimonio ultural


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www.pasosonline.org

PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural. D.L. TF-2059/2002 ISSN 1695-7121

Revista cuatrimestral gratuita de distribucin en webhttp://www.pasosonline.org E-mail: [email protected]

Instituto Universitario de Ciencias Polticas y SocialesUniversidad de La Laguna (Espaa)

COMIT EDITORIAL

DIRECTOR:Agustn Santana TalaveraI.U. Ciencias Polticas y SocialesUniversidad de La LagunaE-mail: [email protected]

Coordinadores Book Review:Ral Hernndez MartnDpto. Economa AplicadaUniversidad de La LagunaE-mail: [email protected]

Luisa Andreu SimDpto. Comercializacin e Investigacin de

MercadosUniversidad de Valencia (Espaa)E-mail: [email protected]

Editor adjunto: Eduardo Parra LpezDpto. Economa y Dir. EmpresasUniversidad de La LagunaE-mail: [email protected]

Vocal: Jos Pascual FernndezI.U. Ciencias Polticas y SocialesUniversidad de La Laguna (Espaa)E-mail: [email protected]

Vocal: Alejandro Alvarado HerreraUniversidad de Quintara Roo (Mxico)

E-mail: [email protected]

Secretaria: Carmen Vera EstvezI.U. Ciencias Polticas y SocialesUniversidad de La Laguna (Espaa)E-mail: [email protected]

EDICIN: Varadero Informtica

CONSEJO CIENTFICO ASESOR

Alenka Verbole. Education de velopmentcoordinator (OSCE)Alessandro Simonicca. Univ. La Sa pienza diRoma (Italia)lvaro Lpez Gallero. Univ. de la Rep blica(Uruguay)Anya Diekmann. Univ. Li bre de Bruxelles(Blgica)Artur Cristovao. Univ. de Trs-os-Montes e AltoDouro (Portugal)Aurora Pedro Bueno. Uni v. de Va lencia(Espaa)Christou Evangelos. Aegen Univ. (Grecia)Dallen J. Timothy. Brigham Young Univ. (USA)Daniel Hiernaux. Univ. Autnoma Metropolitana(Mxico)

Davis Gruber Sansolo. Univ. Anhembi-Morumbi(Brasil)Diego Medina Muoz. Univ. de Las Palmas deGran Canaria (Espaa)Dimitrios Buhalis. Univ. of B ournemouth(Inglaterra)Elizabette Tamanini. IELUSC Jo inville/SantaCatarina (Brasil)Elisabeth Kastenholz. Univ. de Avei ro(Portugal)Enrique Bigne Alcaiz. Univ. de Va lencia(Espaa)Francisco Calero Garca. Univ. La Laguna(Espaa)

Gemma McGrath. Univ. of the A rts Lo ndon(Inglaterra)Julio Grande. Asesor de Proyectos, Sepinum(Espaa )Lloren Prats i Canalls. Univ. de B arcelona(Espaa)Margaret Hart Univ. de Las Palm as d e GranCanaria (Espaa)

Margarita Barretto. Fund. Univ. Reg. Blumenau(FURB) Univ. Fed. Santa Catarina (UFSC) (Brasil)

Mara D. lvarez. Bogazici University (Turqua)Marianna Sigalas. Aegen Univ. (Grecia)Michael Riley. Univ.of Surrey (Inglaterra)Raoul Bianchi. Univ. of East London (R einoUnido)Regina Schlter. Centro de I nvestigaciones yEstudios Tursticos (Argentina)Richard W. Butler. Univ. o f Strath clyde(Escocia)Rosana Guevara Ramos. Univ. A utnomaMetropolitana (Mxico)Thomas George Baum. Univ. of Stra thclyde(Escocia)Vicente Monfort Mir. Univ. Jaume I (Espaa)Yolanda Bethencourt. Univ. de La L aguna(Espaa)

Detalles de filiacin institucional enpasosonline.org


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PASOS. REVISTA DE TURISMO Y PATRIMONIO CULTURAL

GUA DE ESTILO PARA AUTORESRevista indexada en: DOAJ; Latindex; ISOC; Redalyc; DICE; E-Revistas; CAB-Abstract



PASOS.RevistadeTurismoyPatrimonioCulturalesunapublicacin en web que se especializa en el anlisisacadmicoyempresarialdelosdistintosprocesosquese desarrollan en el sistema turstico, con especialinters a los usos de la cultura, la naturaleza y elterritorio, la gente, los pueblos y sus espacios, elpatrimonio integral. Desde una perspectiva inter ytransdisciplinarsolicitayalientaescritosvenidosdesdelascienciasylaprcticaadministrativoempresarial.Suobjetivoescumplirconelpapeldeforodeexposicinydiscusin de metodologas y teoras, adems de ladivulgacin de estudios y experiencias. Pretendecontribuiraotrosesfuerzosencaminadosaentenderelturismo y progresar en las diversas formas deprevencin de efectos no deseados, pero tambinperfeccionar la manera en que el turismo sirva decomplementoalamejoraydesarrollodelacalidadde

vidade

los

residentes

en

las

reas

de

destino.

PERIODICIDAD:ENERO;ABRIL;OCTUBRE

Estilo: Para simplificar el proceso de revisin ypublicacinsepidealoscolaboradoresqueseajustenestrictamente a las normas editoriales que acontinuacinseindican.Entrega de originales: los trabajos debern serremitidos a la direccin [email protected] indicando en el Asunto (alremitirelcorreo):PARAPUBLICACINIdioma:Lostrabajossernpublicadosenel idiomaenel que sean entregados (espaol, portugus, ingls ofrancs).Mrgenes: Tres centmetros en todos los lados de lapgina.Tipografa:Seutilizarenel texto la letraTimesNewRomanoArial, tamao10, o similar. En las notas seutilizarelmismotipodeletraatamao9.Noutilizardiversidad de fuentes ni de tamaos. Si se deseadestacar alguna palabra o prrafo dentro del textoutilizarlamismafuenteencursiva.Notas: siempre sern situadas al final, utilizando elmismotipodeletraqueeneltexto(TimesNewRomanoArial)atamao9.Ttuloydatosdelautoroautores:El trabajodebe irencabezado

por

su

ttulo

en

minsculas

ynegrita.

Bajo

l se insertar el nombre del autor o autores,indicando su centro de estudio (universidad,departamento, etc.), empresa o administracin,adems de la especialidad y el correo electrnico decontacto. Si se desea pueden ofrecerse ms datosbiogrficos en una nota, no sobrepasando las 60palabrasResumen: se debe insertar un resumen del artculo(110120palabras)enelidiomaenqueestescritoysu traduccin al ingls. Para los artculos escritos eninglsseaportarsutraduccinalespaol.

Palabrasclave:seindicarn57palabrasclavesobreeltemaprincipal.Texto:El textodebe serescritoa1,5deespaciado ycon una extensin de 5.000 a 9.000 palabras paraartculos y de 3.000 a 5.000 tanto para opiniones yensayoscomoparanotasde investigacin, incluyendoTtulo, Datos Biogrficos de los autores, Resumen,Introduccin,losapartadosqueseestimenoportunos,Conclusin, Agradecimientos (si fuera pertinente) yBibliografa.Cuadros, Grficos e Imgenes: los artculos puedenincluir cualquier grafismo que se estime necesario.Debern estar referidos en el textos y/o situadosconvenientementeyacompaadosporunpieque losidentifique. Pueden utilizarse colores, pero ha detenerse en consideracin la posibilidad de unapublicacinensoportepapelenblancoynegro.

Abreviaciones y acrnimos: debern ser biendeletreados y claramente definidos en su primer usoeneltexto.Citas y Bibliografa: En el texto las referenciasbibliogrficas harn referencia al autor y el ao depublicacin de la obra citada. Por ejemplo: (Smith,2001) o (Nash, 1990; Smith, 2001). Cuando seconsiderenecesariaunacitamsprecisaseindicarelnmero de pgina (Smith, 2001: 34). La listabibliogrfica al final del texto seguir el ordenalfabticodeautores,siguiendoelformato:Smith,ValeneL.yBrent,Maryann2001 Introduction to Hosts and guests revisited:Tourism issuesof the21stcentury.EnSmith,ValeneL.yBrent,Maryann (Eds.),Hostsandguestsrevisited:Tourism issues of the 21st century (pp. 114). NewYork:CognizantCommunication.Smith,ValeneL.1998 War and tourism. An American Ethnography.AnnalsofTourismResearch,25(1):202227.Urry,J.1990 The tourist gaze. Leisure and travel incontemporarysocieties.London:Sage.Para otro tipo de publicaciones se har constarsiempre autor, ao, ttulo y lugar de celebracin opublicacin y un estndar para documentoselectrnicos,indicandodireccinyfechadeacceso.

Originalidad:Serequiereelcompromisodelosautorestanto de la originalidad de su trabajo como de noremitirsutextosimultneamenteaotrosmediosparasupublicacin.Derechos de autor y Responsabilidad: los autoressern los nicos responsables de las afirmaciones ydeclaracionesrealizadasensutexto.ElequipoeditorialdePASOSsereservaelderechodeutilizarenedicionescompilatoriassucesivaslosartculoseditados.Trabajossometidosaevaluacinporparesannimosexternos a la revista. Se notificar a los autores elresultadode la revisin realizadamediante una ficharesumendelarbitrio.


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PASOS. REVISTA DE TURISMO Y PATRIMONIO CULTURAL

GUA DE ESTILO PARA AUTORESRevista indexada en: DOAJ; Latindex; ISOC; Redalyc; DICE; E-Revistas; CAB-Abstract



PASOS.RevistadeTurismoePatrimnioCulturalumapublicao eletrnica especializada na anliseacadmica e corporativa dos distintos processosrelacionados ao sistema turstico, com interesseespecialpelosusosdacultura,naturezae territrio,agente,ospovoseseusespaos,dizer,opatrimnio

integral. A partir de uma perspectiva inter etransdisciplinar, PASOS solicita e encoraja o envio deescritosvindosdascinciasedaprticaadministrativoempresarial.Seuobjetivocumpriropapelde frumde debates de metodologias e teorias, alm dadivulgaodeestudoseexperincias.PASOSpretendecontribuir, juntamente com esforos oriundos deoutras reas, para a compreenso do turismo eavanar sobre as diversas formas de preveno de

efeitos no desejados, bem como aperfeioarse medida em que o turismo sirva de complemento

melhoriada

qualidade

de

vida

dos

residentes

nas

reas

dedestinoturstico.

PERIODICIDADE:JANEIRO;ABRIL;OUTUBRO

Estilo: Para simplificar o proceso de reviso epublicaopedeseaoscolaboradoresqueseustextosseajustemestritamentesnormaseditoriaisindicadasemseguida.Entrega de originais: os trabalhos devero serenviados para a direo [email protected] indicando PARAPUBLICAOnoespaoAssuntodocorreioeletrnico.Idioma:Os trabalhos seropublicadosno idioma emque forem entregues (espanhol, portugus, ingls oufrancs).Margens: Trs centmetros em todos os lados dapgina.Tipografia: Devese utilizar no texto as fontes TimesNew Roman, Arial tamanho 10 ou similar. A notasdevemapresentaromesmotipodeletra,notamanho9.Noutilizarfontesnemtamanhosdistintosnotexto.Caso pretenda destacar alguma palavra ou pargrafoutilizeamesmafonteemcursiva.Notas:Sempredeveroviraofinaldotexto,utilizandoomesmo tipo de letra deste (TimesNew Roman ouArial),notamanho9.

Ttuloedados

do

autor

ou

autores:

O

ttulo

do

trabalhodeverserredigidoemletrasminsculaseemnegrito. O nome do autor ou autores seguir logoabaixo, indicando a instituio de origem(universidade, departamento, empresa, etc.), aespecialidade e o correio eletrnico para contato.Podese inserir dados biogrficos adicionais em umanotadesdequeestanoultrapase60palavras.Resumo: O artigo deve vir acompanhado de umresumo no idioma em que est escrito (110 120palavras)e sua traduo em ingls (resumo e titulo).Paraosartigosescritosem inglsdeveseacrescentarumresumoemespanhol.

Palavraschave: o texto deve conter entre 5 e 7palavraschavesobreotemaprincipal.Texto:O textodeveserescritocomentrelinhas1,5ecomumaextensoentre5.000e9.000palavrasparaartigos e de 3.000 a 5.000 tanto para opinies eensaios como para notas de investigao. Os artigos

devem conter ttulo, dados biogrficos dos autores,resumo, introduo, as divises internas que sejulguem necessrias, concluso, agradecimientos (sepertinente)ereferncias.Quadros, Grficos e Imagens: Os artculos podemconter quaisquer imagens que se faam necessrias.Elas devero estar referidas no texto e/ou situadasconvenientemente e acompanhadas por umaidentificao. Podese utilizar imagens coloridas,

embora sedevaavaliarapossibiliddedeutilizlaemformatopapel,embrancoepreto.

Abreviaes

e

acrnimos:Devero

ser

definidos

claramentenoseuprimeirousonotexto.Citaes e Referncia: No texto as refernciasbibliogrficas devem apontar o autor e o ano de depublicaodaobracitada.Porexemplo:(Smith,2001)ou(Nash,1990;Smith,2001).Casosejanecessriaumacitaomais precisa se indicar o nmero de pgina(Smith,2001:34).Alistabibliogrficaaofinaldotextoseguir em ordem alfabtica de autores, de acordocomoseguinteformato:Smith,ValeneL.yBrent,Maryann2001 Introduction to Hosts and guests revisited:Tourism issuesof the21stcentury.EnSmith,ValeneL.yBrent,Maryann (Eds.),Hostsandguestsrevisited:Tourism issues of the 21st century (pp. 114). NewYork:CognizantCommunication.Smith,ValeneL.1998 War and tourism. An American Ethnography.AnnalsofTourismResearch,25(1):202227.Urry,J.1990 The tourist gaze. Leisure and travel incontemporarysocieties.London:Sage.Paraoutrostiposdepublicaesdeveseindicarautor,ano, ttulo e local de realizao ou publicao. Paradocumentos eletrnicos, deve haver um padro,indicandoendereoedatadeacesso.Originalidade: Solicitase o compromisso dos autores

quantooriginalidade

de

trabalho

submetido

publicao e quanto ao no envio de seu texto paraotrosperidicosououtrosmeiosenquantoesteestiversobavaliaoemPASOS.Direitos autorais e Responsabilidade: os autores soosnicosresponsveispelasafirmaesedeclaraescontidasemseutexto.AequipeeditorialdePASOSsereservaaodireitodeutilizarosartigosjeditadosemcompilaesposteriores.Trabalhossubmetidosaavaliaoporparesannimos

externosrevista.Osautoresseronotificadossobreo resultado da avalio de seu texto mediante umaficharesumodoavaliador.


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PASOS. JOURNAL OF TOURISM AND CULTURAL HERITAGE

NOTES ON STYLE FOR CONTRIBUTORS


Revista gratuita de distribucin en webhttp://www.pasosonline.org E-mail: [email protected]

Pasos. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Heritageis an i nternet publication dedicated t o the aca-demic and m anagement-based a nalysis o f t hediverse pro cesses in scribed with in th e touristsystem, with a particular emphasis on the uses of

culture, th e en vironment an d territo ry, people,communities a nd spaces, int egral heritage. It en-

courages articles from inter and trans-disciplinaryperspectives, f rom bot h sci entific and m anage-ment points of view. Its objective is to prov ide aforum for t he di scussion o f methodologies an d

theories as well as the presentation of case studiesand the results of em pirical research. It hopes to

contribute t o on going de bates sur rounding at -tempts to comprehend the phenomenon of tourismand to develop diverse approaches to the preven-tion of the undesirable consequences of tourism aswell as enhance the quality of life of th e residents

of tourist destinations.

Frequency: January; April; October

STYLE:In order to simplify the p rocess of edit-ing and publication contributors a re re quested tocomply with the following editorial guidelines:

Submission of original manuscripts: papersshould b e sent to th e following em ail a ddress:

[email protected] i nserting F OR PUB -LICATION in the Subject box.Language:Articles will b e published i n the lan-guage in which they are submitted.

Margins: 3 centimetres on all sides.Font:Times New Roman or Arial, in 10-point or

similar. Th e sam e fo nt shou ld b e used in th efootnotes, bu t in 9 -point. Th ere should be novariation in fonts or text size throughout the text.Highlighted paragraphs or words should be indi-

cated in italics.Notes: These should always be placed at the end

of the article an d written in the same font as themain body ( Times New R oman or A rial) i n 9-point.Title and author note(s): The title o f the articleshould be written in lower case and highlighted in

bold, at the top of t he first page. Thi s should beaccompanied by the aut hor(s) full nam e(s) andtitle(s), indicating clearly their institutional affilia-

tion, specialism and email address. If it is desired,further biographic det ails may be i nserted i n aseparate note, not exceeding 60 words.Abstract: An abstract m ust be include d (m ax.

110-120 words)in the same language as the mainarticle. This should be accompanied by a t ransla-

tion in English, or, Spanish, if the language of thearticle is English.

Key words:A l ist of 5 7 key words should beprovided, which relate to the principal themes inthe article.Text: Articles should be type d, 1.5 s paces apart,

exceeding no m ore than 9,000 words (m ax. 35

pages), including the title, biographic information,abstract, i ntroduction, rel evant ap pendices, co n-clusion, acknowledgements (if rel evant) and bib-liography.Tables, Diagrams and Figures: These ca n beincluded in t he article where neces sary. The y

should be referenced in the main text and/or situ-ated where c onvenient a nd accompanied by anexplanatory sub-heading. Colour graphics can beused.Abbreviations and Acronyms: These should bespelt ou t in full an d clearly d efined wh ere th ey

initially appear in the text.

References and Bibliography: The st andardHarvard sy stem shoul d be use d, i ndicating t heauthor and da te of p ublication of the rel evantwork. For example: (Smith, 2001) or (Nash, 1990;Smith 2001). Where it is necessary to in clude amore p recise citation the page number should be

included (Smith, 2 001: 34). The bibliographyshould be i n a lphabetical order at t he end of thearticle, and written in the following format:Smith, Valene L. and Brent, Mary-Ann2001 Int roduction to hosts and guests revisited:

Tourism i ssues of t he 21stcentury. In

Smith, Valene L. & B rent, Mary-Ann

(Eds.),Hosts and guests revisited: Tourismissues in the 21

st century(pp. 1-1 4). New

York: Cognizant Communications.Smith, Valene L.1998 W ar and tourism. An Am erican ethnogra-

phy. Annals of Tourism Research, 25(1):

202-227Urry, J.1990 The tourist gaze: leisure and travel incontemporary societies. London: Sage

For other ki nds of publications, t he name of t heauthor, date of publica tion, title and place of pub-

lication/conference title, should be stated.

Rights and Obligations of the Author: Theauthors are entirely responsible for t he content ofthe article. The editors reserve the right to re-printarticles which appear, in subsequent collections.

All papers are subject to external and anony-

mous evaluation, the results of which shall be

communicated to author(s), so that they heed

observations and recommendations.

Journal indexing: DOAJ; Latindex; ISOC; Redalyc; DICE; E-Revistas; CAB-Abstract


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www.pasosonline.org



Volumen 8, Nmero 3 Abril 2010

Special Issue / Nmero Especial

Cities as Creative Spaces for Cultural TourismCiudades como espacios creativos para el Turismo Cultural

NDICE

Editorial

Duygu Salman Rethinking of Cities, Culture and Tourism within aCreative Perspective

1

Artculos

Evinc Dogan Reimaging the City: Istanbul towards Globalizationand Commodifi-cation

7

Marian Walker Cities as Creative Spaces for Cultural Tourism: APlea for the Con-sideration of History

17

Ebru KuzgunTue GkseliDeniz zalpiBillur SomeriMaria D. Alvarez

Perceptions of Local People Regarding Istanbul as aEuropean Capital of Culture

27

Paolo RizziIlaria Dioli

From Strategic Planning to City Branding: SomeEmpirical Evidence in Italy

39

ebnem Gken Dndar Rise of Culture and Fall of Planning in Izmir,Turkey

51

Elitza Iordanova-KrastevaEugenia WickensAli Bakir

The Ambiguous Image of Linz: Linz09 EuropeanCapital of Cul-ture

67

Hulya Kurgun The Effect of Country Based Image in Accurance ofBrand in Cul-tural Destinations

79

Patricia Oom do ValleJlio Mendes Sustainable Cultural Events Based on MarketingSegmentation: The Case of Faro Capital of Culture 91

zen Krant YozcuOrhan z

A Model Proposal on the Use of Creative TourismExperiences in Congress Tourism and the CongressMarketing Mix

105

Reseas de publicaciones

Burin Hatipolu Tourism and the branded city: film and identity onthe Pacific rim. (Stephanie H. Donald and John G.Gammack)

115

Dilek nalan Environment and tourism (Andrew Holden) 119


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DDiinnmmiiccaassddeettrraannssffoorrmmaacciinnddeellTTuurriissmmooeenneell

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Tenerife (Islas Canarias), 17, 18 y 19 noviembre 2010

Escuela Universitaria de Ciencias Empresariales (Univ. de La Laguna)

C de la Hornera S/N. Edificio de Ciencias Econmicas y Empresariales

NORMAS PARA PRESENTACIN DE TRABAJOS:1. Lascomunicaciones/posters deberntratarsobrecualquieradelostemasrelacionadosconelttulodelcongreso.

ElComitCientficopodrconsiderarlanoadmisindealgntrabajoalconsiderarquenoseadecuaalatemtica

delCongreso.

2. Todas lascomunicacionessernevaluadasdeformaannima,almenos,pordosmiembrosdelComitCientfico

delCongreso.

3. Se establece un premio de 1.000 Euros a la comunicacin (o panel) y poster mejor valorada por el Comit

Cientfico.

4. Fechas para recordar:

COMUNICACIONES PSTERENVIO: 1 de septiembre 2 1 ENVIO ABSTRACT: 3 de septiembre 2 1ACEPTACIN: 15 de octubre 2 1 ACEPTACIN: antes 3 de octubre 2 15. TodoslosfirmantesdelostrabajosaceptadosdebernestarinscritoscomoasistentesalXVCongresoAECIT.

6. Laextensinmximadelascomunicacionesdebeserde5000palabras.Laprimerapginadeberincluirelttulo

delacomunicacin,losautores,datoscompletosdecategoraprofesionaleinstitucin,ascomounresumendela

comunicacindeunmximode300palabras. La segundapgina incluirel ttulode la comunicacin sin citar

autoresni institucionesa lasquepertenecen,a findegarantizarelanonimatoenelprocesodeevaluacin.El

formatodebeser:procesadorWord, letraTimesRoman12,coninterlineadodoble,yespaciossuperior,inferior,

izquierdoyderechode2,5.

Laextensinmximade lospsteresserde2pginas.Laprimerapginadeber incluirelttulodelpster, los

autores y datos completos de categora profesional e institucin. El formato del pster ser el siguiente:

mnimo:30x42cm(formatoA3);mximo:50x70cm(formatopster).

7. LostrabajosaceptadosseadjuntarnalahojadeinscripcindesusrespectivosautoresenelXVCongresoAECITa

travsde ladireccindeemaildelXVCongresoAECIT ([email protected]),siendo recibidasdirectamente

porlaSecretaradelXVCongresoAECIT.

8. LascomunicacionesypstersseleccionadassernpresentadasenelXVCongresoAECITypublicadasjuntoconlas

ponencias.

9. Lascomunicacionesaceptadasserneditadas,juntoconlasponencias,enCDROM,olibro,conISBN,queser

publicadodespus

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Congreso,

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podrnserincluidasendichapublicacin.


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Vol. 8(3) Special Issue pgs. 1-5. 2010

www.pasosonline.org

PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural. ISSN 1695-7121

Editorial

Rethinking of Cities, Culture and Tourism

within a Creative Perspective

Duygu Salman

Boazii University (Turkey)

The last decade has been a period of in-tensive interest for creativity. In fact, it isnot the creativity that is new to human-kind, as people have been creative through-out history. What is new is the rather fre-

quent use of the word creativity to de-scribe a diverse set of areas in our lives.Creative economy (Howkins, 2001), creativeindustries, creative jobs, creative class(Florida, 2002), creative cities and creativetourism (Richards & Wilson, 2006) havebeen some of the areas where the concepthas been utilized to relate the consequentfields to innovation and imagination.

The ever-growing interest with (re)-creation is not without reason. The majorissue almost in all arenas of life today is to

be different. It is the combination of thetwo powerful concepts of our age; competi-tiveness and standardization that callsfor a need to be creative in order to differ-entiate our selves, our products, our jobs,our economies and of course our cities fromthe rest.

The concept of creativity has been intro-duced to the field of tourism relatively re-cently. Acknowledging this new concept ofinquiry, the international conference ofCities as Creative Spaces for CulturalTourism in Istanbul (CCSCT) was organ-

ized to bring together an international

group of scholars to discuss their work andideas about creativity in tourism in orderdeepen the existing knowledge on the topic.

The conference also aimed to integratethe concept of culture with creativity, as it

was mainly organized as a contribution toIstanbul 2010 European Capital of Cultureevent. The aim to include culture in thediscussions of creativity in tourism wastwofold. Firstly, the conference intended tore-present the concept of cultural tourismto discussion in order to understandwhether the terms culture and culturaltourism need to be expanded beyond thecommonly agreed borders and to envisionthe possible influences of this expansion onvarious actors. Secondly, the conference

aspired to address how host cities that har-bour the entire range of cultural heritage,events and actors, can be redesigned andregenerated as creative cultural spacesusing all their tangible and intangible cul-tural assets.

The selection of papers in this special is-sue is skilfully chosen to give you a sense ofthe spirit of the conference. On one hand,there are works of those scholars advocat-ing the regeneration of urban spacesthrough creative cultural practices. Thesepractices do not only regenerate cities

physically, socially, culturally and economi-


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2 Editorial: Rethinking Cities, Culture and Tourism within a Creative Perspective

PASOS. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural, 8(3) Special Issue. 2010 ISSN 1695-7121

cally, but they also (re)create an image forit, which is a sine qua non for tourism.Thus, discussions of various /contemporaryconcepts of marketing is also a natural andan important part of these papers. On the

other hand, there are papers criticizing andwarning us about the commodification ofculture, creation of fake/induced images forcities, staged authenticities, top-down poli-cies, exclusion of host communities, gentri-fication of culturally diverse neighbour-hoods, and the elitist character of creativecultural practices.

The latter group of papers are writtenby Dogan, Walker and Kuzgun, Gksel,zalp, Somer and Alvarez. They questionthe process and outcomes of creative cul-

tural events /practices. The core idea be-hind these papers is the necessity to honourthe local culture and people as the majoractors in constructing a creative city. Theyall suggest that the efforts towards build-ing a creative city should be linked to theexisting culture.

Among these papers, the one with thestrongest critical tone is by Dogan. Set inthe context of Istanbul, the paper of Dogancritically discusses the commodification ofurban cultures and spaces as a result ofcultural projects that reinvent the imagesof the cities. The author specifically focuseson the nature of the projects within theframe of European Capital of Culture(ECOC). The main purpose is to point outthe fact that these projects should be care-fully planned in order to provide long term,sustainable benefits to its residents.

The paper discusses that although theECOC event can be a valuable opportunityfor the cities, there is also the possibilitythat ECOC projects will create inventedimages by brushing up the visible parts of

the cities for the tourist gaze. The paperis not against the conservation of buildings,however finds it problematic that no inte-gration is built between physical conserva-tion and the host community. It is arguedthat the result is a city left out of its pecu-liarities, its identity and its meaning.

The ideas offered by the paper are dis-cussed through the case of Istanbul, whichis the ECOC for 2010. The author providesan example of Tarlabasi and Sulukule ar-eas where the government plans to clean

up and revitalize through mass displace-

ment of current population for gentrifica-tion purposes and renewal of the historicalbuildings. The article provides these exam-ples in order to discuss that without localpeople the heritage looses its meaning.

Instead of constructing a creative city thenewly renovated buildings end up beingsole theatrical stages of the history. As asolution to this, the article reminds us ofthe importance of community participationand also of Floridas creative triad - Toler-ance, Talent and Technology- (Hospers &van Dalm, 2005) underlining the impor-tance of tolerance to diversity of people inurban spaces.

The paper by Walker focuses on the im-portance of congruency between tourism

image and the tourist product. The authoroffers the consideration of history duringthe branding, imaging and marketing proc-esses of creative tourism projects in orderto protect cultural integrity and authentic-ity of the cities both for the host communityand the tourist. The benefits of using his-tory as a mechanism to prevent culturaldistortion during image formation processis explained to be twofold: On the one hand,if the promotional messages provided dur-ing the image building are linked with his-torical truths, they can be helpful in clarify-ing the transforming reality of the destina-tion, as well as its self-presentation overtime. On the other hand, it will relieve thecommunity members from living up to aninvented destination image to which theydo not subscribe. The paper asks a veryvital question: Whose city, after all, is it?

The final paper of this group is byKuzgun et al. It complements the two for-mer conceptual papers with empirical datacollected from the host community of Istan-bul. The core interest of the paper is to

question whether the Istanbul ECOC pro-gram is successful to link itself with alllayers of the society or whether it only tar-gets people with cultural and monetarycapital. The purpose of the research is todetermine the perceptions of Istanbulslocal community regarding the city as aECOC. The research also proposes a scaleto measure the construct of ECOC.

One important commonality that thispaper has with Dogans, is its understand-ing and appreciation of the local commu-

nity as a highly diversified group. Thus, the


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Duygu Salman 3


authors aim to learn the perceptions oflocal residents with different education andincome levels, and from different districtsof the city, regarding Istanbul as a ECOC.This paper has also a mutual point with

Walkers paper that it perceives the localcommunity as the real owners of the citywho should be a part of creative culturalactivities in order to render sustainability.The research is based on surveys collectedfrom a diverse sample. The results of thestudy show that the perceptions of resi-dents of Istanbul regarding their city as aECOC tend to be positive. However, themajor finding of the study is very impor-tant as it determines that Istanbul ismarked by socio-spatial polarization (Yar-

dimci, 2007) when it comes to the ECOCevent. Thus, better communication of ac-tivities, cultural exchange and recognitionemerges as crucial actions to be taken tobuild the link between social segments

The second group of papers presents ex-amples of creative cultural regenerationprojects. The first one is from Italy, a coun-try which is deeply embedded within theflows of cultural networks. Rizzi and Diolipresent us the case of four major Italiancities -Turin, Genoa, Venice and Piacenza-as examples of how carefully engineeredplanning processes can successfully helpcities regenerate themselves. The secondcase is from Turkey. Gkcen Dndar, pro-vides us with the case of Izmir, a major cityon the Aegean coast of Turkey. It is an ex-ample of a city which carries the potentialand intention to regenerate itself and takepart within the flows of cultural networksbut had hard times right from the planningstage of the process.

The paper by Rizzi and Dioli approachesmarketing as a major policy tool for urban

issues. Thus, they integrate three contem-porary marketing concepts in their paper:Strategic Planning, Place Marketing andCity Branding. The paper discusses thatthrough the holistic use of these three con-cepts cities can renew their image, embedthemselves in knowledge and busi-ness/social networks and increase theircompetitiveness. The authors also suggestthat the successful use of these tools willalso protect the identity of the cities andfight the danger of copy cat reproduction.

Within this framework the paper exam-ines the implications raised in Turin,Genoa, Venice and Piacenza. The paperdiscusses how these cities exploited someevent-based (i.e. 2006 Winter Olympic

Games in Turin, G8 and ECOC 2004 inGenoa, Sensation Carnival in Venice) op-portunities to rebuild and strengthen theiridentity and image, to preserve and trans-mit their heritage and to provide variousforms of artistic expression. It is clearlypictured how successful planning can widenparticipation of the community, eventuallystimulating creativity. In order to analysethe effects of Strategic Planning, PlaceMarketing and City Branding the paperalso provides data on population growth

and attraction of new residents, touristsand visitors, and Foreign Direct Invest-ment (FDI) of these four cities.

While the paper by Rizzi and Dioli ex-hibits accomplished examples of city re-newal projects, the paper of Gkcen Dndarpoints out that those cities like zmir,which seek to establish themselves as com-petitive cities of culture in the global arenashould consider such examples of othernations carefully. However, the author alsounderlines a reality that developing na-tions can go through very different prob-lems during regeneration processes start-ing from the planning stage. The paperprovides us both with the story of zmirsurban development over time and gives usexamples of specific projects as evidences ofIzmirs intention to achieve a culture-ledregeneration. However, as the paper as-serts, the failures of the planning systemconstitutes a major obstacle against anyintention toward a culture-led rise of thecities.

The third group of papers focuses on the

importance of understanding the visitorsboth before and after their experiences in adestination. Having knowledge of visitorimages, expectations, perceptions, opinionsand habits prior to the actual experience isobviously very helpful during the planningstage of events or marketing strategies.Collecting post-data is also a must in un-derstanding whether the previously setgoals are achieved. However, beyond these,it is also very important to note that sinceboth cities and visitors are in a constant

process of transformation, continuous data


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4 Editorial: Rethinking Cities, Culture and Tourism within a Creative Perspective


collection is very significant to follow thisever-changing process of becoming.

The first article by Iordanova-Krasteva,Wickens and Bakir compares the projectedimage of Linz as a tourist destination pro-

moted by its policy makers with the per-ceived image held by Linzs potential tour-ists in the context of the Linz 2009 ECOC.The main difference between this studyand the monitoring survey conducted bythe policy makers are (1) Instead of closedended questions with predetermined con-structs this study uses open ended ques-tions allowing respondents to share theirfeelings and perceptions of Linz (2) unlikethe study by Linz09 organizers which wasconducted on a mainly Australian sample,

the data of this study was collected from aninternational sample. The results of thestudy suggest a difference between theprojected image of Linz as promoted by theofficials and its perceived image as seen bythe respondents.

The second paper by Kurgun seeks tounderstand the influence of country imageon the destination brand equity. In tryingto understand this relationship the authorconducted a structured survey on 293 for-eign visitors in Izmir. The questions aim toidentify visitors impressions that havebeen effective on their choice of Turkey as avacation destination and to determinewhether there is dependency between theseimpressions and their perceptions aboutIzmir. The results of the study reveal thatthere is a significant and positive relationbetween countrys image and any destina-tions brand equity in the country

Finally, the article by Guerreiro, Oomdo Valle and Mendes aspires to clarify thelink between segmentation and culturalevent management by using the case of

Faro which was designated as the 2005National Capital of Culture by the Portu-guese government. The paper analysessegments of the population that partici-pated in the Faro 2005 event and discussesthe relation between the events successand the degree of satisfaction from partici-pants. The contribution of the paper lies inunderstanding the importance of an ade-quate marketing approach of large-scaleevents, such as cultural events, in order toachieve greater audience appeal/impact, in

order to ensure sustainability. Each par-

ticipant holds a unique set of experiencesand perceptions; more than one productneeds to be made available.

This special issue closes with an articleby Krant Yozcu and cz which brings a

distinct discussion for integrating creativitywith different forms of tourism. The paperdraws attention to the fact that creativetourism activities need not to exist in anisolated fashion from different types oftourism such as congress tourism. Thestudy adapts the 8Ps of tourism marketing-packaging, partnership, people, product,price, promotion, place- to congress tour-ism. A model also illustrates how to inte-grate creative tourism activities to themarketing mix of congress tourism. The

proposed model aims to ensure that theattendants of congress tourism take part increative tourism activities in the destina-tion. The authors suggest that this partici-pation will provide multiple benefits bothfor the tourist and the destination. Thepaper posits that the creative activities willfoster learning the social and culturalstructure of the destination for the tourist,as well as increasing the number of days oftheir stay and contributing to local econ-omy.

Creativity and its relation to culture andurban spaces are very new topics in thefield of tourism. Therefore, further empiri-cal research, both qualitative and quantita-tive is necessary to construct well-established concepts. Thus, it is hoped thatthe selection of papers in this special issuewill not only contribute to existing concep-tual discussions of creative tourism andcreative cultural practices in urban spacesbut also promote further research on thetopic.

eferencesFlorida, Richard2002 The Rise of the Creative Class. New

York, NY: Basic Books.Howkins, John2001 The Creative Economy. London: Allen

Lane.Hospers, Gert-Jan & van Dalm, Roy2005 How to Create a Creative city? The

Viewpoints of Richard Florida and Jane

Jacobs. Foresight, 7(4):8-12


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Richards, Greg and Wilson, Julie2006 Developing Creativity in Tourist

Experiences: A Solution to the SerialReproduction of Culture. TourismManagement, 27:1209-1223

Yardimci, Sibel2007 Festivalising Difference: Privatiza-

tion of Culture and Symbolic Exclusionin Istanbul. EUI Working PapersRSCAS 2007/35 Mediterranean Pro-gramme Series.


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Congreso Internacional

CONFINES MVILES

Lengua y cultura en el discurso del turismoUniversidad de Miln, Polo di Mediazione interculturale e

Comunicazione, Sesto San Giovanni

10-12 noviembre 2010

El congreso "Confini mobili. Lengua y cultura en el discurso

del turismo" pretende proponer una reflexin interdisciplinaria

sobre el discurso que se ha desarrollado en el mbito del

turismo para responder a los objetivos comunicativos de este

sector profesional. Se pondrn de relieve, especialmente, los

procedimientos lingsticos que configuran la identidad y laimagen de los lugares, tambin desde una perspectiva intercul-

tural e interlingstica. En este marco se presentarn los resulta-

dos del Proyecto de Investigacin de Inters Nacional "El len-

guaje de la comunicacin turstica espaol-italiano. Aspectos l-

xicos, pragmticos e interculturales".

La lengua desempea un papel fundamental en la creacin

del lugar turstico, en la representacin del espacio otro y en la

generacin de expectativas; sin embargo, el anlisis crtico del

discurso turstico no se puede afrontar slo con instrumentos

lingsticos, sino que exige superar las fronteras de la especia-lidad. Por esta razn el congreso se abrir tambin a otras

disciplinas (sociologa, antropologa, geografa, estudios cultu-

rales, etc.) que se ocupan de turismo y tratar, entre otros te-

mas, la diversificacin de la oferta tradicional, la construccin

de nuevas identidades urbanas y el encuentro con el otro en los

espacios multiculturales, as como algunos proyectos vincula-

dos con la EXPO 2015 de Miln.

Se partir de una mirada local, dirigida a las nuevas polticas

del territorio que han transformado una ciudad postindustrial

como Sesto San Giovanni en un nuevo escenario social, antro-polgico, lingstico y cultural, con confines mviles; una ciu-

dad visible, por el patrimonio heredado, que hoy en da es

candidata al reconocimiento de la UNESCO. Pero tambin

ciudad invisible, de difcil lectura, impregnada de valores que

potencialmente se pueden plasmar en grandes eventos, como la

prxima EXPO internacional, y en nuevas formas de turismo.

Comit organizador: Maria Vittoria Calvi, Cristina Bordonaba

Zabalza, Giovanna Mapelli, Javier Santos Lpez, Milin Bonomi.

[email protected]


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Vol. 8(3) Special Issue pgs. 7-16. 2010

www.pasosonline.org


Reimaging the City: Istanbul towards Globalization and

Commodification

Evinc DoganiIstanbul Technical University (Turkey)

Abstract: The research aims to facilitate a discourse on urban and cultural identity of the cities versusinvented and projected images created for marketing them. While the city itself becomes a commodity tobe consumed, cultural activities turn into means of promoting and selling it. Integrating conservation andvalorization of cultural heritage in the domain of community development, education and tourism, aswell as encouraging its accessibility and knowledge, can be helpful in raising awareness among

communities on the importance of cultural heritage in its identity. Reimaging the city brings aboutreconstructing and rethinking it as a transforming and mutating place by all social, cultural and historical

means.

Keywords: Urban representations; Urban transformation; Identity; Mega-events; Heritage; Tourism.

Resumen:La investigacin pretende facilitar el discurso relative a la identidad urbana y cultural de lasciudades, frente a las imagenes inventadas y proyectadas para su promocin. Mientras la ciudad se con-vierte en un artculo de consumo, las actividades culturales se tornan en un medio de promocin y venta.

Integrando la conservacin y la valorizacin del patrimonio cultural de la comunidad, la educacin y elturismo, as como alentando su acceso y conocimiento, se puede lograr la concienciacin sobre la impor-

tancia del patrimonio cultural para la identidad de la comunidad. El cambio de imagen de la ciudad traeconsigo la reconstruccin y reflexin sobre si misma como sitio de transformacin y mutacin gracias asus medios sociales, culturales e histricos.

Palabras clave:Representaciones urbanas; Transformacin urbana; Identidad; Mega-eventos; Patrimo-nio; Turismo.

i

Istanbul Technical University, Turkey (MSc. in History of Architecture); Boazii University, Turkey (BA in Tour-ism Administration); E-mail: [email protected]


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8 Reimaging the City


Visualizing the City of SignsCities are complex systems of represen-

tations in which space and time are un-derstood and experienced in the form of aportrayal. The systems of representationsare composed of signs: written words,painting, photographic images, maps andsignals, filmic narratives, choreographicmovements, installations and events, build-ings and places (Borden et al., 2001). Theseselective representations (re)shape the me-taphors and narratives which are widelyused to describe the experience of urbanliving. In this sense, the city is recognizedas an interface between individual expe-

rience and cultural representations (Miles-tone, 2008: 1165). Cities play a major rolein the construction and experience of thecultures of everyday life and, within theirspaces, collective and individual meaningsare made and unmade and identities areformed (Stevenson, 2003).

Similarly places to visit are chosenthrough representations that are sustainedthrough a variety of non-tourist practices,such as films, newspapers, TV, magazines,records, and videos which create the tour-

ist gaze. Moreover the gaze is constructedthrough signs, and tourism involves thecollection of those signs (Urry, 1995). Whatis consumed in tourism are visual signs andsometimes a simulacrum in which touristsare the semioticians (Urry, 1990). The sig-nificance of visual consumption can be seenin the pervasive tendency to producethemed environments. The top-down poli-cies for urban regeneration are mostlyaimed at brushing up the facades of the oldbuildings and creating pastiched surfacesleading to what MacCannell (1973: 595)

calls staged authenticity. What is soughtfor in a holiday is a set of photographicimages which have been already seen inglossy brochures or other media.

Vedutismo- the influential Italian art ofimaging the city - evolved from a veritablepandemic of urban imaging and a hunger -a taste - for viewing sites. As an art of view-ing in the Italian vedute, the portrait ofthe city was staged. Masters of this type ofrepresentation include Canaletto and Pan-nini (18th century). As they merged the

codes of urban topography and landscape

painting city views, they also incorporatedthe cartographic drive, creating imagina-tive representational maps. Imaging a cityin fact involves a cluster of multiple diversemaps that are inhabited and physicallycarried around by city dwellers. More thana factual accuracy, it was rather an exhi-bited interest in rendering a mental imageof the city and it proposed not a singlecognitive mapping but diverse observa-tional routes. The art of viewing followedthe older touristic drive to embrace a ter-rain that led to climbing of church towers,mountains and buildings to take in thepanorama (Bruno, 2007).

Baudelaire developed a derived meaning

of the French term flneur that of "aperson who walks the city in order to expe-rience it". His description of flneur has akey role in understanding, participating inand portraying the city. Simmel and Ben-jamin adopted the concept as a product ofmodernity. The modern city was transform-ing humans, giving them a new relation-ship to time and space. According to Sim-mel, the deepest problems of modern lifederive from the claim of the individual topreserve the autonomy and individuality of

his existence in the face of overwhelmingsocial forces, of historical heritage, of ex-ternal culture, and of the technique of life(Weinstein, 1950). Benjamin, on the otherhand, became his own prime example offlneur, making social and aesthetic obser-vations during long walks through Paris.His description of flneur is an uninvolvedcharacter but highly perceptive toward anaesthetically attuned observation, whichbrought the term into the literature of pho-tography. Sontag (1977: 55) claims thathand-held camera has become the tool of

theflneur:The photographer is an armed versionof the solitary walker reconnoitering,stalking, cruising the urban inferno, thevoyeuristic stroller who discovers thecity as a landscape of voluptuous ex-tremes. Adept of the joys of watching,connoisseur of empathy, the flneurfinds the world 'picturesque'.Benjamin, in his writings on social and

urban life in 19th century Paris, has shownthat representation entered fully into the

commodity relation by its production of an


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Evinc Dogan 9


economy of display in which the spaces ofvisual display and mass consumption areincluded. The visual, informational and theexotic were commodified through the newand global imagery: the national exhibition

(Crystal Palace), the panorama, the plate-glass window and the shopping arcade inwhich the world of people, places and goodswere gathered for display and consumption(Pickles, 2003). Not merely commoditiesare being displayed in world exhibitions,but also their metropolitan sites are beingrepresented too. In other words, visitors tothese exhibitions participated in the con-sumption of symbols of the city itself. Thecity is not merely epitomized through thedisplay of all the important styles of the

present cultural world but also, through itsown production, a city can represent itselfas a copy and sample of the manufacturingforces of the world culture (Frisby, 2001).Recent accounts of urban political changehave been typified by the speculative dep-loyment of resources to attract investment.Within such processes, the construction ofspectacular urban landscapes has become arequisite strategy for making the city at-tractive as a site for investment, yet, with afew notable exceptions, the meanings pro-jected by these landscapes have been givenlittle attention (Hubbard, 1996: 1441).

Marketing the City: Creative Cities andMega EventsCity-marketing and place-branding

strategies today often stress ideas and ste-reotypes of culture and creativity to pro-mote attractive urban images (Vanolo,2008: 370). Cities compete with each otherin (re)producing and promoting their urbanheritage and symbolic assets for tourism

(Urry, 1990). The medium of competitionhas become the activities on the city. Theattractiveness of these activities brings anincrease in the number of tourists and thisgrowth contributes remarkably to the econ-omy of the state (Beyazt & Tosun, 2006).In light of the convergence of the innercircle of cultural tourism (heritage and artstourism) and the outer circle (lifestyle andthe creative industries), product develop-ment will become increasingly importantfor cities who want to offer a differential

advantage and thereby stay ahead of the

competition. Urban cultural tourism re-lated product development can range fromthe potential offered by cultural diversityand ethnicity, culinary culture, fashion anddesign to signature architecture for cultur-

al institutions, cultural festivals and events(World Tourism Organisation and Euro-pean Travel Commission, 2005).

The development of urban cultural fes-tivals and their support of political authori-ty and local economy dates back to the Ro-man Empire. From the mid-19th centuryonwards, however, the fashion for newlarge-scale, prolonged and spectacular city-based festivals gathered pace (Gold & Gold,2005). The staging of the 1851 Great Exhi-bition in London's Hyde Park, which is also

known as the Crystal Palace Exhibition, asa temporary structure made of iron andglass designed by Joseph Paxton, had be-come an emblem of the commodity fetish-ism the term used by Marx to describethe phenomenon of consumption. In thissense, the Crystal Palace was the precursorof the modern department store or shop-ping mall: unlimited objects of desire in onepublic space (Thackeray & Findling, 2002).Mitchells argument is that starting fromthe exhibitions of modern capitalism suchas the Crystal Palace the world isrepresented by the exhibition itself; simplya further series of representations of a real-ity that we cannot know except in the formsof symbols that are culturally determined(Mazlish, 1994: 55). As we refer back toBenjaminsArcades Project, we can think ofthe Crystal Palace as a shopping arcadecreating a new and global imagery for con-sumption (Pickles, 2003), which would bejoined by an ever-growing list of eventsthat included sports meetings, garden fes-tivals, song competitions, international arts

festivals, major trade fairs, awards cere-monies, scientific congresses and mega-events. One good example for mega-eventsis the European Capital of Culture (ECOC)programme in which the city is given achance to showcase its cultural life andheritage for a period of one year (Gold &Gold, 2005).

According to the definition of culturalheritage by UNESCO (2008), the term en-compasses several main categories such asmovable-immovable or tangible-intangible.

The term cultural heritage includes build-


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ings, monuments, landscapes, urban areas,countryside, buried remains and objectsthat are classic and contemporary, and itcontributes to the identity and branding ofterritory, so relevant in an age of globaliza-

tion (Pugliese & Da Sacco, 2007). Heritageis part of a common past; it is a source ofthe community identity as it offers us vari-ous perspectives to ponder over our histo-ries, identities and our current standing.The preservation of heritage allows us toconstruct our collective memories and es-tablishes our cultural identities, as it in-cludes the common patrimony of historicalevidences (identity and memory) of a specif-ic territory that needs to be safeguarded ina combined process of protection, manage-

ment and usage. However this does not andshould not necessarily mean making uphistorical sites into museums. Between thepossibilities of making the territorial defi-nition of cultural district reachable andpreserving cultural heritage, there is acombination of interests aimed at visualiz-ing possible strategic development actions.

For Lefebvre space is produced and re-produced, and thus represents the site andthe outcome of social, political and econom-ic struggle. Heritage is a key element inthose processes of the production and re-production of power relationships (Graham,Ashworth and Tunbridge, 2000). Recogniz-ing local/global relationships and conflictsis essential to address cultural continuityin recognizing the intangible cultural prac-tices and heritage resources of the histori-cally built environment. History, traditions,local lifestyle, art and culture are intangi-ble elements of the cultural heritage thatshape the built environment, vernaculararchitecture and cultural landscape. Herethe crucial point is forming a collective

cultural memory for communities and tocommunicate these intangible categories tothe future generations. Another questionwhich should be asked is the level of con-sciousness as well as the level of interac-tion. Various interest groups affect the lev-el of public consciousness: Governmentaland non-governmental organizations, in-ternational non-profit organizations, etc.This is done through legislations and pro-tection of listed buildings, the organizationof fairs and festivals, visual media such as

documentaries and films and all other re-

lated media, public campaigns and megaevents such as the ECOC Program. Theresult is not only raising the consciousnesslevel of the local community, but also at-tracting visitors to the site, as cultural her-

itage can be lost due to lack of awarenessand interest. On the other hand, intensepromotional campaigns to attract a highnumber of visitors may result in exceedingcarrying capacity of the historical site anddamaging the cultural heritage.

Cities that have been awarded as Cul-tural Capitals of Europe and that are pro-moted to the public with their outstandingcultural properties constitute a good basisto determine issues related to urban herit-age, urban transformation, culture politics

and continuity in terms of socio-culturaland socio-economic aspects. The transfor-mation does not only happen on the urbanlevel but also occurs on the national andtransnational level. The designation of Is-tanbul as one of three very different capi-tals of culture for 2010 reflects the chang-ing nature of the European Unions spaceand identity and the evolving capital ofculture program (Hein, 2008).

Cities can intensify, exploit and even re-invent their image and identity through theECOC process. It is a fact that ECOCpresents a valuable opportunity to marketcities. In this sense, 1990 has been a turn-ing point in the history of cultural capitalsof Europe with the designation of Glasgow,a non-capital city. It has changed the scaleof the event and showed that the pro-gramme could evolve into something thatplayed a strong promotional and regenera-tive role. Staging of major cultural events isoften seen as more flexible and distinctivecarriers of the symbolic capital of a placethan hard infrastructure-based projects.

Thus, the example of Glasgow stands fornew style urban cultural policies as well ascultural production and consumption. Itallowed the municipal authorities to under-take a rebranding exercise to confront thecity's established image as a dour manufac-turing city, build venues that would enrichlocal cultural life when the festival wasover, and use culture as an engine to pro-mote urban regeneration (Gold & Gold,2005). The social and cultural transforma-tion gained a different and multidimen-

sional structure by bringing a new model to


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Evinc Dogan 11


promote the city through art and cultureevents. Artists, designers, architects, intel-lectuals are attracted to the city as a part ofurban development policies; art and culturezones are created. In this way, a new image

is created for Glasgow: creative city.Like in many sectors and projects, crea-

tivity is very important in the ECOCproject. So as the time is limited, theprojects that will represent the city shouldbe creative, expressive and impressive(Beyazt & Tosun, 2006). With mass mediaand mass tourism as their most powerfultools, intercultural communication is large-ly based on image transfer. Nonetheless,without a carefully structured approach,these opportunities may be overlooked and

indeed wasted, with a huge expense in-curred on the part of the city with little orno long term benefits for its residents (Bes-son & Sutherland, 2007). The question iswhether the projects within the frame ofECOC are the outcomes of a strategic plan-ning process which lead to sustainability orif they are short-term projects to create analluring theatrical stage for the sake ofmarketing.

Reimaging the City: Case of IstanbulIstanbul has been a gateway between

Asia and Europe or in general terms Eastand West through the ages. The popularbridge metaphor also represents a connec-tion between the past and the present. Thecity that has been the capital of three em-pires (Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman) inthe past is now getting prepared for 2010.

Similar to many global cities Istanbulis exposed to economic, social and politicalchanges along with the bombardment ofglobalization, which has brought rapid and

chaotic urbanization. There is still some-thing mystical in Istanbul, mostly becauseof the Orientalist representations of thecity. Although the city silhouette with mi-narets is still in place, it is now coupledwith the image of a metropolis in pace withglobal standards: a booming culture indus-try, lively entertainment and night life, fivestar hotels, business districts and shoppingmalls. The change of the city image from anoriental portrait to a multicultural Euro-pean city vibrating with arts and culture

started synchronously with negotiations on

Turkeys European Union membership andthe designation for the ECOC (Ozkan,2008). Improving the capitals image wasthe concluding order of the business. Themodels most admired were the European

capitals. The deterioration of Istanbul sotroubled the rulers that many attemptswere undertaken to bring the old city up tomodern standards (Celik, 1993).

Tourism has become a tool to demon-strate to the European Union the economic,technological and physical, as well as theconservative/Islamic power change in thesocial context of Istanbul; in other words,the making of a stage for the dialogue ofcivilizations between the West and theIslamic countries, as well as a stage for the

Cultural Capital of Europe in 2010 hasbeen introduced through the tourist gaze.In the period of the tourist gaze, Istanbulhas witnessed the physicalization of multi-national investments through an upscalearchitectural vocabulary including multi-use complexes of residential towers, officesand shopping malls located in globalizedcores of social distinction (Akpnar, 2008).Within the emergence of the new globalpolitics and economics, the municipal pro-gram of Istanbul may be seen as a market-ing strategy for attracting foreign invest-ment and tourists. The government clearlydeclared that marketing Istanbul is theirpriority in the highly competitive interna-tional tourism sector and supported theidea of the museumized Historic Peninsula(Kayaalp, 2008). In 2005, the law (no. 5366)on the Preservation by Renovation andUtilization by Revitalizing of DeterioratedImmovable Historical and Cultural Proper-ties was approved by the Council of Minis-ters. The law aims reconstruction andrestoration of the zones which are regis-

tered and declared as SIT (Conservation)areas by boards of conservation of culturaland natural assets which have been worndown and are loosing their characteristics(Act No: 5366, 2005). To give an example,the districts of Fener, Balat, Sleymaniye,Tarlaba and Sulukule, which are theplaces where diverse ethnic groups (Jews,Armenians, Greeks) used to live, now havechanged into poor urban areas where cul-tural properties are not taken care of.

The government plans to clean up these

areas by moving out the current population


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for gentrification purposes and by renew-ing the historical buildings. The renovationand redevelopment of the area, like manysimilar plans, seems to be a part of theidentity construction project of the ruling

party through a top-down implementation.The revitalization of two of these targetedareas, Sulukule and Tarlaba, will involvethe mass displacement of local populations.Socially, these two areas of Istanbul embo-dy precisely what makes the city so emble-matic of European culture in the 21st cen-tury: migration. In the last fifty years, asthe citys population has increased ten foldbecause of migration from Turkeys East,

the neighborhood has become a squatterszone, home to Kurdish and Arabic speakerswhose culture is synonymous with manyaspects of contemporary Istanbul life. Whatboth neighborhoods have in common is the

fact that, in spite of the contributions oftheir communities to the citys vibrancy,their inhabitants are overwhelmingly poor.They also comprise populations whose exis-tence is a threat to myths of nation-stateidentity (Pine, 2008). On the other hand,without local people, the heritage looses themeaning and the renewal projects onlytouch the facades of the buildings, creatinga theatrical stage of the history.

Figure 1.Conservation Areas: Fener, Balat, Sleymaniye, Tarlaba, and Sulukule

The social and cultural transformationgained a different and multidimensional

structure by bringing a new model to pro-

mote the city through art and cultureevents. Artists, designers, architects, intel-

lectuals are attracted to the city as a part of


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Evinc Dogan 13


urban development policies; art and culturezones are created. In this way, a new imageis created: creative city. Major culturalevents staged are often seen as more flexi-ble and as distinctive carriers of the sym-

bolic capital of a place than hard infra-structure-based projects. Istanbul seems toemerge as a creative city. Thus, contempo-rary art events, biennials and festivalshave become a vital economic developmentstrategy in cityscapes that are increasinglycharacterized by social segmentation andgentrification, and thus may actually feedinto exclusionary practices in the urbanrealm. However what makes the differenceis the urban experience. Jacobs says that;

The streets are the vital organs of the

creative city. After all, people meet inthe streets and it is here that humancontact, unexpected encounters andbusiness life take place. This street bal-let contributes to creativity and econom-ic dynamics. (Hospers & van Dalm,2005: 10)The melting-pot metaphor and chaotic

structure with crowds of people from differ-ent nationalities, ethnicities and speakingdifferent languages are signifiers of theheterogeneity of Istanbuls urban cultureand rich cultural life not in buildings, ci-nema and theater halls but on the streetsof the city. As Florida argues, creative ci-ties are able to combine the Ts of Toler-ance, Talent and Technology. Jacobs bringsabout urban environment and the need forurban diversity: diversity of buildings,people and their economic activities as ahelping hand to Floridas creative triad(Hospers & van Dalm, 2005: 11). As well asits melting-pot structure, the diversity inIstanbul is formed through union of theopposites. As Istanbul is a city between

Orient and Occident, the conflicting sidesare not perceived as somewhat negative buton the contrary they are appraised as qual-ities enriching the city and its identity.Different ethnic groups living in the sameneighborhood, churches, synagogues andmosques in vicinity to each other, boomingpopulation with continuous migration de-spite the carrying capacity of the land, sky-scrapers rising shoulder by shoulder withgecekondus - they all seem like the signsof a problematic and chaotic city. The

sphere of circulation of commodities,

money and individuals provides the basisfor an image of the city as a highly complexweb of interactions verging on the chaotic(Frisby, 2001). As Foucault (1970) notes,discourses constitute not only representa-

tions that lie at a surface covering reality;they form concepts, political positioning,and most substantially, the order ofthings. Decq claims that for most of thepeople, there is not much to discover in theplanned, orderly cities of Europe, and onthe contrary, there is always a lot to dis-cover in a chaotic city like Istanbul (Atma-ca, 2005). As such, the Dutch starchitectRem Koolhaas expresses his excitementabout the chaotic and self-generatingquality of Istanbul (Ozkan, 2008 qtd. in

Arkitera Online 17.04.2005). Conception ofIstanbul as a nicely chaotic and therebyexciting city is also what makes the differ-ence. The distinctiveness of the places pro-vides attachment to particular neighbor-hoods or cities, given that people perceiveplaces through their own identity and cha-racteristics. These characteristics can beanonymity, uncertainty and unpredictabili-ty of events in complex and urban envi-ronments, the senses of possibility anddanger induced by cities. Conover (2004)goes beyond the chaos and claims that de-lirium rules Istanbul:

Istanbul wrote delirious into the scriptof the urban imaginary. What protectsus against delirium or hallucinationsare not our critical powers but the struc-ture of our space, Merleau-Ponty wrote.In the case of Istanbul, there is no pro-tection. Delirium is order.In such representations, it is suggested

that chaos or delirium would be the quin-tessential representations of Istanbulsurban order, thus giving its uniqueness.

In July, 2005 Istanbul hosted the 22ndWorld Architecture Congress, organized bythe International Union of Architects(UIA). efik Onat, the Head of the UIA2005 Organization Committee, highlightedIstanbul as being the most problematiccity of the world, in contrast to Florence asthe worlds center of art and culture andNagoya as the most perfect city of theworld, which were the other two candi-dates for the same year. Interpreting Is-tanbuls problematic urbanization as a po-

tential point of attraction for architects,


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Onat was already giving clues of the up-coming celebrations of Istanbul as a chaoticcity (Ozkan, 2008).

The congress was a great opportunityfor Istanbul in terms of contributing to the

citys tourism sector because it would in-clude a lot of publicity and thus promotethe citys image on the world stage. Thebillboards featured photographs of mosquesby the 16thcentury Ottoman master archi-tect Sinan, while banners stretched on pe-destrian overpasses displayed a monoch-rome sketch of the Maidens Tower, one ofthe iconographic symbols commonly used inpublicity campaigns about Istanbul. Thatis, the iconography of the citys welcomecall to architects was not much different

from the touristic and commercial imageryused to make Istanbul look appealing to itstouristically motivated visitors (Ozkan,2008).

ConclusionIt is expected that the ECOC will foster

the improvement of tourism in the city andIstanbul will attract more tourists with itsnew image. However, when the project isapproached from the tourism side, beingthe European Capital of Culture will be nodifferent than hosting the Olympic Gamesor Formula 1. What is different about theECOC from the other events is the under-standing of the concept of culture. Thecrucial point is to place culture as a drivingforce in city development, not to consume itto become more competitive. Here, the in-tegration of the projects with the social andphysical structure of Istanbul becomes veryimportant, as they are thought as a part ofcultural policy (Beyazt & Tosun, 2006).Combining the physical city and the servic-

es/events creates the citys image. Thisimage can be of beauty, excitement, charm,or artistic value. The image can also arisefrom the lifestyles and values of the localresidents, such as an ethnic culture, thefriendly attitude of the residents, etc. Thiscombination of physical product, servicesand events provided, and the image of thecity is part of the experience of visiting theplace. It is actually this entire experiencethat must be promoted when marketing acity (Kolb, 2006).

Tourism is one of the main mechanisms

to reformulate Istanbul through its charac-teristics. In Robins words the particulari-ty and identity of cities is about productdifferentiation; their cultures and tradi-tions are now sustained through the dis-

courses of marketing and advertising (Do-gan, 2005: 20 qtd. in Robins, 1993: 306).Keyder (2000) states that, Istanbul has totake part in the global mobility in accor-dance with the concept of global city.Therefore, globalization brings about rei-maging Istanbul as a world capital andmarketing it in the global market. Howev-er, together with the globalization and itseffects, it is also crucial to think of the ref-lections on the society. An urban space isnot solely an image to be sold through the

media, but rather it is something to be ex-perienced physically through high level ofinteraction with its inhabitants, history,culture and heritage. Today culture indus-tries, governments and private sectors sep-arate the culture from its urban contextand create new values through the processso called urban renewal. There is a gapbetween local needs and the cultural poli-cies due to the absence of local communitysrepresentation. The Municipality is so oc-cupied with marketing Istanbul that itseems to miss one point of the creative tri-ad: Tolerance! Although the marketingstrategies emphasize ethnic diversity tocelebrate Istanbul as a world city, the reali-ty is different. The minority groups andRomani populations are subjected to socialstigmatization and exclusion. Nonetheless,the creative city cannot be constructed onglamorous projects of Starchitects orworld-famous artists simply, but can onlybe achieved by encouraging its citizens totake an active role and to participate. Thecreative city needs creative citizens.

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Recibido:

Reenviado:

15/09/2009

20/12/2009

Aceptado: 23/02/2010

Sometido a evaluacin por pares annimos


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Vol. 8 Special Issue pgs. 17-26. 2010

www.pasosonline.org


Cities as Creative Spaces for Cultural Tourism: A Plea for the

Consideration of History

Marian WalkeriUniversity of Tasmania (Australia)

Abstract: Cultural tourism around the world is big business. Tourism stakeholders within tourismdestinations understandably work hard to develop brands and images that entice cultural tourists to visit.

However, when tourism stakeholders involved in this process do not prioritise host community self-knowledge, cultural integrity is compromised and cultural distortion inevitably arises. The purpose ofthis paper is to raise the issue of congruity between tourism brand and tourist experience, and to make aplea for the consideration of history in the imaging, branding and interpretation processes. Theconclusion is that the effective use of local history can illuminate host community self-knowledge for the

benefit of both cultural tourist and host community.

Keywords: Cities; Cultural Tourism; History; Images; Identity; Authenticity.

Resumen:El turismo cultural es un gran negocio a nivel internacional. Las partes interesadas en losdestinos tursticos trabajan incansablemente, como es de esperar, con el fin de desarrollar marcas eimgenes que inciten a la visita a los turistas de cultura. Sin embargo, cuando las partes interesadas eneste proceso no dan prioridad al conocimiento de s mismo que tienen las comunidades receptoras delturismo, se compromete la integridad cultural e inevitablemente surge una distorsin cultural. Elobjetivo de este artculo es el de reflexionar sobre la cuestin de la congruencia entre la marca turstica y

la experiencia turstica, y pedir que la historia se considere en los procesos de imagen, marca einterpretacin. Se llega a la conclusin de que el uso efectivo de la historia puede iluminar el

conocimiento de s mismo que tiene la comunidad receptora, creando beneficios tanto para el turista decultura como para la comunidad.

Palabras clave:Ciudades; Turismo de cultura; Historia; Imgenes; Identidad; Autenticidad.

iPhD., University of Tasmania, Tourism History; E-mail: [email protected].


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18 A Plea for the Consideration of History


IntroductionCultural tourists are infinitely interest-

ed in cultural meaning. Signs and symbols,roles and rituals, buildings and landscapesall manifest as marks of meaning and aretherefore of perennial interest to tourists.This is what cultural tourism is all about(Enzensberger, 1996 [1958]). Most touristsanticipate that when they visit a place toexperience other people's cultures they willencounter the real thing: the authenticreality of what Clifford Geertz described as'webs of significance' (1973: 5). This is,after all, why they are there. Despite mod-ern technology, which allows tourists to

travel virtually more easily than they cantravel physically, they still choose the lat-ter. This is because there is no substitutefor the sensual, emotional and physicalexperience of 'being there'. In a post-modern world, where tourists still want toexperience first hand the semiotics of cul-ture the architecture, literature, art,food, history and mores that link the'webs of significance' together, they, likeGeertz, take culture to be an 'interpretive[science] in search of meaning' (Geertz,

1973: 5).In considering cities as creative spacesfor cultural tourism, this paper makes aplea for the consideration of history in theprojects of both branding and imaging ci-ties, as well as in the interpretation andmarketing of creative tourism projects. Itdiscusses how tourism stakeholders short-change cultural tourists as well as the hostcommunity when the depth of history is notreflected in the tourism images, brands andcultural products that are offered and por-trayed. It defends history as a mechanism

to protect cultural integrity and upholdauthenticity for the sake of the host com-munity as well as for the tourist expe-rience. In so doing it extols the importanceof the city's soul its people.

The purpose of this paper is to demon-strate how, through the consideration ofhistory, the historical depth of organic im-ages already evident within communitiescan reveal notions of cultural identity forthe edification of both tourists and hostcommunities. To this end, it raises three

points for consideration and discussion.

First, in imaging and branding cities orany destination for that matter it arguesthat tourism stakeholders should strive forcongruency between the tourism brand andthe tourist experience by prioritising self-knowledge of the host community. Second,it suggests that the temporal component of'becoming' in host communities should beemphasised because organic images withincommunities frequently underpin tourismimages and brands. Third, in seeking tobrand and image the cultural city, tourismstakeholders are encouraged to considerthe ramifications of imaging and brandingon local citizens at large. Host communitymembers cannot be expected to live up to

the image or brand that is projected ontheir behalf if they do not also subscribe toit. This applies to all tourism destinations,not just cities. Host communities need toown their identities and histories for cul-tural identity to be an effective intangibleasset.

Congruence between City Brand and Tour-ist ExperienceCongruence between the tourism image

and the tourist product is clearly essentialin successful imaging and branding. AsHankinson notes, the success of city brand-ing 'requires consistency between the "in-duced" image-building processes created bypromotional bodies such as tour operatorsand local authorities, and the "organic"processes as portrayed by the mass media.In other words, the destination brand likeany other must deliver the promise' (2001:132). In the never-ending dialogue betweenhosts and guests, however, the essence ofthe image or brand can easily become lost

in translation through ignorance or inten-tion. Tourism stakeholders taking on therole of interpreter may compromise culturalintegrity at the expense of communal truth;cultural webs of significance may be trod-den on in the pursuit of pecuniary interest;business elites within host communitiesmay be tempted to project an image, orbrand that effectively puts culture up forsale, regardless of whether the images orbrand projected are authe

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PASOS21 2010 Las Ciudades Como Espacio Creativo Para Turismo Special