1

Field Trip to Kyngsang Province

Summer 2016

Co-organized by Sun Joo Kim (Harvard University) and

Chng Chae-hun (Kyungpook National University)

Daily Schedule

June 9 (Thursday)

8:30 Meet at the Seoul Train Station and travel to DongDaegu via KTX /

KTX

11:00 Arrive in DongDaegu Station and meet with Kyungpook National University team;

Travel to Pungsan via rental bus / ,

12:00 Lunch in Pungsan /

13:30 Andong traditional paper-making company /

14:50 Pyngsan Private Academy where Ryu Sng-nyong is enshrined /

16:00 Hahoe Village, permanent residence of Pungsan Ryu family and Puyong Terrace /

,

18:00 Dinner /

Lodging at Hahoe Village /

June 10 (Friday)

1:002:00 Observe ancestral ritual for Ryu Sng-nyong, whose ancestral tablet is permanently

preserved /

8:00 Breakfast /

9:00 Travel to Sunhng /

10:00 Tomb murals in Sunhng, funerary culture of Silla and Kogury / ,

10:30 Pusksa Buddhist Temple, a Kory architecture Muryangsujn / ,

12:00 Lunch in Sunhng /

2

13:30 Sosu Private Academy, first private academy of the Chosn dynasty / ,

16:10 Talsil Village: Chungjae ancestral home, permanent home of Andong Kwn family,

Chngam Pavilion, archive / : , , ,

18:00 Arrive in Chukssa Buddhist Temple for a temple stay experience and dinner /

,

19:30 Evening Buddhist ritual /

20:30 Conversation with a Buddhist monk and wrap-up seminar /

June 11 (Saturday)

3:30 Early morning Buddhist ritual / (optional)

6:00 Breakfast /

7:00 Sweeping temple courtyard, tour of the temple, and meditation at the pine forest /

, ,

9:00 Depart Chukssa /

10:00 Kakhwasa Buddhist Temple, Taebaek Mt. Chosn Depository / ,

13:00 Lunch /

14:00 Tosan Private Academy /

16:00 Kukhak chinhngwn: museum and archive / : ,

19:00 Arrive in Taegu and wrap-up seminar over dinner / ,

21:00 Lodging at an early 20th century Japanese-style home /

June 12 (Sunday)

8:00 Breakfast /

9:00 Taegu city tour: Kyngsang Provincial Governors Office, Modern Korean History

Museum / :

3

12:00 Lunch /

13:00 Taegu city tour: Missionary homes, Cheil Church, Kyesan Catholic Church, traditional

herbal medicine market, Taegu walls / : , ,

,,

16:00 Depart to Seoul from DongDaegu Station /

17:00 Dinner /

4

Study Material

Hanji

Helen Jin Kim, Harvard University

Hanji means Korean paper (han = Korean, ji = paper). Hanji can be as thin as tissue paper and as thick

and tough as leather, and while one side is smooth the side for writing, painting and printing the other

side is usually rougher.1 It is made from the inner bark of a species of mulberry tree called Broussonetia

kazinoki or chamdak (true tak) in Korean.2 Because it is primarily made from tak (or dak), hanji is also

nicknamed takchongi.3 Hanji is created through a complex and laborious technique called woebal tteugi

(single-screen scooping), which includes drying, steaming, peeling, smashing, squeezing and rinsing dak,

and straining its fibers through a bamboo screen to create a pulp that is dried in the sun.4 There are at least

three hundred names for the diverse kinds of hanji, distinguished by the raw materials, methods of

formation, colors, additives, and so on: paekchi (for books), hawsnji (for calligraphy), changpanji (for

flooring), changhoji (for latticed windows), saekchi (colored paper), etc.5 Hanji can be used for a range

of artistic endeavors, including texturing, cording, weaving, cutouts, and paper-mache.6

To provide a brief historical overview, hanji has been made for over fifteen hundred years, and

experienced a golden age in the Kory period (9181392), with the rise in quality and use of hanji,

especially as it was used for Buddhist texts and medical and history books.7 During the Chosn period

(13921910), hanji began to permeate the everyday lives of Koreans from its use for calligraphy,

wallpaper, kites, lanterns, maps, and a variety of art.8 Yet, from 1910 to 2009, the number of hanji mills

declined from eight thousand to twenty-six. In the Japanese colonial period (19101945), hanji

production proved difficult as the Japanese imperial government largely dictated its production amount,

price, and use, and in the aftermath of the Korean War (19501953), and rapid industrialization in the late

twentieth century, hanji was largely replaced with western-style materials.9 Yet contemporary artists,

scholars, and activists continue to push for the use of hanji.

Paper maker Aimee Lee, an avid advocate of the contemporary use of hanji, observes: The most

remarkable attribute of hanji is its tenacity. It is strong, even when thin. Hanji retains its integrity over

time because its long fibers are flexible and bend rather than break, getting stronger for the wear. It also

filters pollutants and dust and insulates better than glass, which is why it was used for walls, window

and door coverings. Hanji has also historically played a large role in Korean spiritual life.10

Consider

paper researcher Dorothy Fields observation of a kut, or traditional shamanistic rite, where white paper

lotuses made of hanji symbolized the shamans spirit, open and pure, receptive to possession by the

1 Aimee Lee. Hanji Unfurled: One Journey into Korean Papermaking. Ann Arbor: Legacy Press. 5.

2 Ibid., 10.

3 Hanji: What is it? http://www.hanji1000.kr/story/about-hanji/about-hanji-01/. Accessed June 6, 2016.

4 The Story of Hanji. http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/CU/CU_EN_8_1_4_1.jsp. Accessed June 6, 2016. To see

the full process of making hanji, see chapter five Learning How to Make Hanji in Lee, Hanji Unfurled. 5 Lee 89. For a more extensive list, see Hanji: What is it? http://www.hanji1000.kr/story/about-hanji/about-

hanji-01/. Accessed 6.6.16. 6 Lee 10.

7 Ibid., 15. As Lee mentions, Korys landmarks in printmaking history were due to advances in paper

technology and Buddhism, including the carving of the Korean Tripitaka (Buddhist scriptures) and the printing of

Chikchi or Selected Teachings of Buddhist Sages and Zen Masters (1377). 8 Ibid., 16

9 Lee 18. For the use of hanji in the Japanese colonial period, see Dard Hunter. A Papermaking Pilgrimage to Japan,

Korea and China (New York: Pynson Printers, 1936). 10

Lee 6

5

gods.11

Hanjis virtues have been described as such: it does not melt in water or burn in fireit is not

simply paper, but spirit reincarnated.12

Given its tenacious texture and spiritual significance, perhaps

hanji will have another life as an influential medium in the contemporary world.

Pyngsan swn Hyeok Hweon Kang, Harvard University

Historical Sites No. 260 (designated in 1978)

Location: Pungchn-myn (), Andong-si (), North Kyngsang Province

Overview

Pyngsan swn was established in 1613 as a memorial shrine (chondksa ) for Yu Sng-nyong

(, 15421607; penname Sae ), a renowned Confucian scholar-official. Its roots go back to

Pungak Study Hall (), an educational institution from the Kory period (9181392), which relocated to its present location in 1575 upon Yus suggestion.

13 During the Imjin War of 15921598, the

academy was destroyed and only restored in 1607.14

In 1613, after Yu passed away, Chng Kyng-se

(, 15631633) and other local literati established a memorial shrine in the academy, and placed a

tablet (wipae ) for the deceased scholar-official. The following year, they also renamed academy Pyngsan swn, the present name. In 1863, it was formally recognized as a royal-chartered private

academy (saaek swn ), and five years later, escaped unscathed from Taewnguns order to close private academies. During the Japanese colonial period, the academy was repaired and rebuilt.

Today, the academy boasts more than 1,000 archival documents and 3,000 books,15

and still features

memorial ceremonies for Yu Sng-nyong and his third son, Yu Chin (, 15821635).16

Politics of Commemoration

Pyngsan swn was embroiled in power negotiation and ritual disputes between two groups of Neo-

Confucian scholars in the Yngnam region, namely the Sae group and the Hakpong group. The former

comprised Chng Kyng-se and other followers of Yu Sng-nyong, who organized around the Pyngsan

swn; and the latter comprised disciples and descendants of Kim Sng-il (, 15381593; penname

11

Dorothy Field. Paper and Threshold: The Paradox of Spiritual Connection in Asian Culture (Ann Arbor, MI: The

Legacy Press, 2007), 15; see also Laurel Kendall. Shamans, Housewives, and Other Restless Spirits: Women in

Korean Ritual life (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1985). 12

Lee 7. 13

Yu Sng-nyong reputedly moved the Pungak Study Hall because he deemed its original location in Pungsan (

) was too close to the roads and thus inappropriate for self-cultivation. Kwn Ki (, 15461624), Yngga chi

, f. 4 , as cited in Chng Ku-bok, Pyngsan swn komuns haeje, accessed May 8, 2016, http://archive.kostma.net/Family/T3/html

/sub1_2.aspx?fid=B011a. 14

Ibid. 15

For archival collection, see Sojang komuns, accessed May 8, 2016, http://archive.kostma.net

/Family/T3/html/sub1_3.aspx?fid=B011a. Also see Komuns chipsng , v.63 Pyngsan Swn pyn

chngsbon (Sngnam: Hanguk Chngsin Munhwa Ynguwn, 2002). 16

Introduction, Byeongsan Seowon, accessed May 8, 2016, http://www.byeongsan.net.

http://archive.kostma.net/Family/T3/html/sub1_2.aspx?fid=B011ahttp://archive.kostma.net/Family/T3/html/sub1_2.aspx?fid=B011ahttp://archive.kostma.net/Family/T3/html/sub1_3.aspx?fid=B011ahttp://archive.kostma.net/Family/T3/html/sub1_3.aspx?fid=B011ahttp://www.byeongsan.net/

6

Hakpong ), who organized around the Ygang swn (; later renamed Hogye

swn).

Known as the Pyng-Ho dispute (), the quarrel began in 1620 over the relative rank of

Yu Sng-nyong and Kim Sng-il, two disciples of the renowned scholar Yi Hwang (, 15011570; penname Toegye). At the time, the literati of Andong sought to foreground Ygang swn, a

commemorative academy for Yi Hwang, as the center of the so-called Toegye school. As such, they

enshrined in the academy tablets of his most prestigious disciplesYu and Kim. During the process,

dispute emerged around the relative placement of the disciples tablets: the Sae group argued for the

higher ranking (snwi ) of Yu, given his illustrious service as Chief State Councilor (Yngijng

), whereas the Hakpong group rebutted, highlighting Kims seniority and breadth of scholarship. In 1629, when the latter group supposedly grew dominant in the Ygang swn, the Sae group severed ties

and relocated Yus ceremonial tablet back to the Pyngsan swn. At the time, Yu Chins tablet was also

enshrined in the memorial shrine. The Pyng-Ho dispute perdured bitterly until the end of the dynasty.17

Educational Activities

Students of Pyngsan swn undertook various educational activities, as evidenced by archival

documents compiled in the Komuns chipsng.18

Contrary to the once prevalent view that private

academies of the late Chosn period lost their function as centers of learning (kanggak ), these documents (mostly from the late 18

th century) clarify that there were at least three types of educational

activities: 1) reading ceremony (tongdokhoe ), a gathering of several tens of scholars to read

classics such as the Great Learning (Taehak ) from cover to cover; 2) boarding school (kjae ), an intensive program for students and scholars based on age groups on a half-month rotational basis; and

3) examination (kogang ), a bi-annual review of students and their academic progress.19

Yu Sng-nyong Matthew Lauer, UCLA

Though Yu Sng-nyong (, 15421607; penname Sae ) may be known primarily as the man who selected Admiral Yi Sunsin against the protest of other ministers during the Imjin War, his list of

accomplishments and posts extend well beyond that specific wartime decision. His basic biographical

information reveals a man with a prominent family history and extensive connections in government. The

dates of his lifetime run between 1542 and 1607, enough to achieve a considerable career as a state

bureaucrat and scholar. His pongwan () is that of the Pungsan Yu, while his wife was a member of the Chnju Yi. His father, Yu Chung-yng, served as the Governor of Hwanghae Province.

Yu studied under Yi Hwang and was especially discouraged from the study of

simhak () at that time, though influences from that latter school of thought likely remained with him.

In the factional disputes of that time, he began as a member of the Easterners (Tongin ) but, upon

their split, became a formative member of the Southerners (Namin ). Perhaps the most significant period in Yus official career occurred during the Hideyoshi Invasions, where he was appointed Supreme

17

Sl Sk-kyu, Toegye-hakpa i punhwa wa Pyng-Ho sibi [The Split of the Toegye School and the Pyng-Ho

Dispute], Toegye Studies and Korean Culture 45 (2009): 311371. 18

See footnote 3. 19

Pak Chong-bae, Pyngsan swn kyoyuk kwangye charyo kmto [A review on the records of education of

Byungsanseowon in Late Chosn Dynasty], Kyoyuk sahak yngu 18, No. 2 (2008): 3160.

7

Wartime Commander (Tochechalsa ) and oversaw the affairs of the military, issues in diplomacy, and domestic politics. Under

Yus oversight, various projects related to the defense of Chosn were undertaken, including military

training and construction of fortresses. Perhaps most importantly, it was under the leadership of Yu, the

Military Training Command (Hullyn togam ), which oversaw a wide range of military affairs from logistics to training, was created. Lastly, Yu also chose Yi Sunsin and Kwn Yul as generals to

oversee the defense against Hideyoshi. He was strongly criticized for those decisions by his contemporary

ministers, though perhaps history judges him differently with the benefit of hindsight.

Among the various writings of Yu Sng-nyong, his Chingbirok () undoubtedly holds pride of place. This text, completed in 1604, details the events of the Japanese Invasions of Korea between

1592 and 1598. In his introduction, Yu describes his text as a warning to future generations about the ill

effects of poor policy-making. That particular tone reflects the very name of the text, which draws from a

verse in the Book of Poetry concerning warnings about and preparations for future disasters

(). In old age, Yu began speaking of three regrets that he felt about his life and official

accomplishments. First, he regretted his inability to repay the King for his wisdom and grace. Second, he

regretted having so many official posts at such high levels of power but never actually withdrawing from

them on his own. Finally, he regretted that, despite dedicating himself to the study of daoxue (), he never really achieved anything worthwhile in that area. These self-assessments sounds very much like the

self-effacing gestures so common in writing from this period, but nonetheless may reflect something of

the political and military tumult in which Yu lived and operated.

Pulchnwi / Permanent Tablet in an Ancestral Shrine

Ancestral shrines in the Chosn Dynasty carried memorial tablets (sinju ) for the purposes of chesa

() rites for a specified number of generations (determined by the status of individuals concerned: 5 generations for the royal house, 4 generations for yangban, after which those tablets were buried and a

new generation of tablets was ushered in. However, there were often a set of tablets that never made it to

burialthese tablets, called pulchnwi or Permanent

Tablets, were constructed in honor of persons who rendered a great service to the state or society. These

tablets became enduring fixtures of the shrines and allowed for the perpetual memorialization of the

enshrined persons.

Two types of permanent tablets existed. The first, called kuk pulchnwi () or

National Permanent Tablets, were intended primarily for the state shrine munmyo (). The second,

called yurim pulchnwi () / sa pulchnwi () or Private Permanent Tablets, were chosen for the private shrines of prominent families. Of the former, there are 18 persons in total given

Permanent Tablets in munmyo. These persons draw from the various kingdoms and dynasties that

comprise the history of the Korean peninsula (e.g. Sl Chong and Choe Chiwn of Silla, An Yu and

Chng Mong-ju of Kory, as well as Yi Hwang and Song Si- yl of Chosn). All of these are considered

kuk pulchnwi.

Many tablets of the kings of Chosn, currently contained in the Royal Ancestor Hall of

Chognmyo () are also considered kuk pulchnwi. The rules for permanent tablets here worked as follows. Five generations of kings could be displayed in Chongmyo, requiring that one generation of

kings be removed upon the entry of a new generation. The expiration of a particular generation of tablets

was referred to as chinjin (). On the other hand, kings who were thought to have performed works of considerable merit and virtue, were also kept permanently in the hall as pulchnwi, otherwise referred to

as sesil (). From time to time, glitches emerged in the decision of which tablets to maintain and which to remove. For example, during the reign of Ynsangun (r. 14941506), a problem emerged when

attempting to install the tablet of his predecessor, Sngjong (r. 14691494). Skipping over the dynastic

8

founder, Taejo (r. 13921398), the plan was to remove the tablets of the second-generation kings

Chngjong (r. 1394140) and Taejong (r 14001418). Though Chngjongs tablets presented no

problem for accomplishing chinjin, Taejong had already been designated as sesil because of his

particular contributions to the state, making it impossible to remove that particular generation from

Chongmyo. The basic point here is that, as a matter of principle, pulchnwi should normally have been

decided when a particular generation was slated to meet chinjin; however, in practice, Kings often

designated permanent tablets well before that specific moment in time, causing occasional problems for

future kings.

Private Permanent Tablets were maintained by private families, especially those whose members

with noteworthy accomplishments in scholarship or politics. These tablets vastly outnumber the National

Permanent Tablets. The Andong region of Kyngsang Province was known for being a major generator of

successful passers of the munkwa () examination, trailing only Seoul and Chngju in Pyngan Province. Such prominent figures as Yi Hwang, Yu Sng-nyong, and Kim Sng-il are enshrined in this

region. In fact, Andong is known to have the largest number of Private Permanent Tablets in the country,

numbering 50.

Sunhng pnae-ri Mural Tomb

SangJae Lee, Seoul National University

Sunng pnae-ri Mural Tomb, or Sunhng-ri Tomb, now at San 29-1 pnae-ri, Sunhng-myn, Yngju-

si, North Kyngsang Province, was built in 539, the 26th year of King Pphng ( r. 514540) of Silla (57 BCE935). The Museum of Taegu University in collaboration with the National Research

Institute of Cultural Heritage investigated the tomb in 1985. The tomb was designated as historic site

No.313. This tomb offers a rare window to better understand such subjects as ancient painting, religious

view, afterlife, and other cultural exchanges with Kogury (37 BCE668) during the Three Kingdoms

Period.

The tomb is a horizontally-buried stone chamber tomb (hoenghylsik sksilbun ),

which consists of a burial chamber (hynsil ) and a dromos (yndo ). The burial chamber is square shaped, and the dromos is shorter than the conventional tomb. There is a support for corpse

(sisangdae ) in the chamber, and around the corpse a few human bone fragments and some pieces of earthenware were found. Each of the four walls of the tomb has murals painted in all four directions of

the burial chamber, as well as on the left and right walls of the dromos. The walls were covered with lime

before the murals were painted. The objects painted on each walls are as follows:

Burial

Chamber

North wall Three mountains, Lotus, Clouds

South wall Inscription (myngmun ) of 9 letters, Part of a portrait

East wall Birds head

West wall Tree, House, Gatekeeper

Dromos Left wall A man grasping a snake

Right wall A brawny man with bulging eyes

According to the studies, it is assumed that two men painted on the left and right walls of the dromos

were painted in order to protect the corpse buried in the tomb. The most noticeable mural is the one

9

painted on the south wall of the chamber, which bears the 9 letters of inscription as following:

. With this inscription, researchers were able to date the approximate construction year at 539

CE (kimi nyn ). Interpretations about the time and origin of the buried diverge. Based on the pointing style of the

mural, some researchers argue that the tomb originated from Kogury. However, another tomb in

Sunhng with the same horizontally-buried stone chamber was recently excavated, and excavators

discovered accessories for a saddle and a decorated harness in the style of Silla. This excavation supports

the hypothesis that local elites in Sunhng had a close relationship with Silla since the middle of fifth

century. Sunhng, located in the southern part of Sobaek Mountains, was the territory of Silla then. On

the basis of this recent findings, most scholars have agreed that the Sunhng pnae-ri Tomb is closely

related to Silla rather than Kogury.

This mural tomb is a siginificant relic not only for its scarcity considering that only five mural

tombs have been discovered in South Korea, but for its excellent condition in comparison to other

excavated mural tombs in South Korea thus far.

Sosu swn Hyeok Hweon Kang, Harvard University

Sosu Private Academy Lecture Hall (National Treasure No. 1403)

Location: Sunhng-myn (), Yngju (), North Kyngsang Province

Overview

Nestled at the foot of the Sobaek Mountain, Sosu swn was established in 1542 as a memorial shrine for

An Hyang (, 12431306; penname Hoehn), a renowned Kory scholar and a native of

Sunhng. This was at the initiative of his admirer Chu Se-bung (, 14951554; penname Sinjae

), magistrate of Punggi () who ordered it to be built at the old site of Ans study. In 1543, under Chus guidance, the shrine developed as an educational institution, taking the title of Paegundong swn

() and an inaugurating class of three students. In 1549, under the auspices of a new magistrate,

the famous Yi Hwang (, 15011570; penname Toegye), the emerging academy requested a royal

charter (saaek ). The following year, King Myngjong (, r. 15451567) bestowed the title of

Sosu (, lit. continuing cultivation), along with books, land and slaves. From 1543 to 1888, more than 4,000 students were trained in the academy, many of whom belonged to the Toegye School and

proceeded to illustrious political careers in the central bureaucracy.20

Historiography

Conventional historiography has it that private academies were the harbinger of a broad shift in the

dynastys educational system from a centrally administered model based on state schools, official learning

(kwanhak ) and examination studies (kwap ) to a locally devolved one based on private

academies, private learning (sahak ), and Tao studies (tohak ). According to this paradigm, the state schools that early Chosn established as centers for training potential bureaucrats had declined by

the mid-16th century while private academies grew dominant in the locale, becoming cultural bulwarks of

20

Yksajk ii, Sosu swn Management Office, accessed May 8, 2016, http://www.seonbi

chon.or.kr/?c=2/16.

http://www.seonbichon.or.kr/?c=2/16http://www.seonbichon.or.kr/?c=2/16

10

the so-called sarim scholars. In this paradigm, Sosu swn, Chosns first royal-chartered private

academy (saaek swn ), was understood as the chief center of Tao studies led by the sarim scholars.

21

Recent historiography has proposed a subtler model for understanding Sosu swn as a official-

private hybrid (kwansa happyn ) to show the co-evolution of government initiatives and the local literatis contributions, as well as a mixture of official and private characteristics, in the private

academies.22

For instance, rather than the epitome of a sarim-led private academy, Sosu swn first

reached fame in the 16th century through the support of centrally-appointed statesmen such as Chu Se-

bung and thanks to its successful curriculum for examination studies. Allegedly, by 1545, a saying had it

that all [students] who study in this academy [i.e., Sosu swn], pass the exams within a matter of five

years.23

In fact, among 473 students who joined the academy during the 16th century, as many as 184

(39%) passed either the higher or lower exam. The education was so heavily focused on exam preparation

that in 1558, Kim Sng-il (, 15381593; penname Hakpong ) left the academy on the pretext that if a man born into the world solely studied for the exam and did not realize erudition for the self, this

is utterly shameful (, , , ). Starting in the early 17th century, the academys focus on exam preparation was critiqued in a dispute about terminating student

eligibility requirements (pagyk nonjaeng ). By the late 18th century, Sosu swn came to espouse Tao learning while retaining elements of examination studies. While the former grew dominant,

students at the academy continued to study for the exam: of 1,805 students admitted during the years of

1790 to 1888, 204 (11%) of them passed either the higher of the lower exam.24

As late as the 19th century,

the academy made efforts to invite the support of magistrates and other officials to bolster its fisc and

reputation. As such, recent studies uncovered the significance of Sosu swn, the once-prototypical

private academy, as a dynamically evolving entity, holding different blends of official and private

elements over time.

Pusksa () Yung Hian Ng, Harvard University

Pusksa in Yngju, North Kyngsang Province, was built in 676 under the order of Silla King Munmu

(?681, r. 661681).25

According to the Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms (Samguk yusa), Pusksa was

built by the Buddhist monk isang (, 625702)who was studing Buddhism in Tang China (618

21

Chng Man-jo, Chosn sidae swn yngu (Seoul: Chimmundang, 1997), as discussed in Kim Cha-n, Chosn

sidae swn kyoyuk i kongjk kiban pynhwa wa k taeng: Sosu swn saryerl chungsim-ro [Changes in

Swn Education and Its Public Foothold During the Chosn Dynasty - Focused on the Case of Sosu Swn],

Chibangsa wa chibang munhwa 18, No. 2 (2005), 97-8. Also see Yi Sngmu, The influence of Neo-Confucianism

on education and the Civil Service examination system in fourteenth- and fifteenth-century Korea, in The Rise of

Neo-Confucianism in Korea, edited by De Bary, William Theodore and Haboush, JaHyun Kim (New York:

Columbia University Press, 1985). 22

Kim Cha-n, 95-121. Also see Kim Cha-n, 16 segi Sosu swn kyoyuk i sngkyk, Yugyo sasang munhwa

yngu 58 (December 2014), 331-358. 23

Ibid. 24

This statistic came from analyzing registries of admitted students at Sosu swn (). Song Chng-suk, 18-19 segi Sosu swn-i wnsaeng yngu [An Analysis of Students of Sosu swn in the 18th and 19th

Centuries], Sjihak yngu 41 (December 2008): 265-287. 25

King Munmu was the 30th

King of the Silla Kingdom. Under his reign, Silla defeated Paekche, Kogury and later

Tang China and successfully unified the Korean peninsula, which was the beginning of the Unified Silla period.

11

907).26

He had heard that the Chinese Emperor was planning to invade the Korean peninsula on his

journey back home from the Tang, thus he urged King Munmu to build the temple in order to ward off

national disaster.27

There are two stories behind the name of the temple, Pusk (), which translates to floating rock. The first is simply that a large rock near the Muryangsujn Hall of the temple appears to be

floating above the other rocks underneath it.28

The other story maintains that while isang was studying

in Tang China, he met his lover, Snmyo, who he had thought was dead. However, isang could not

betray his monastic vows and decided to return home. Snmyo then drowned herself and turned into a

dragon, protecting isang all the way back to Silla. When isang met with angry villagers obstructing the

construction of the temple, Snmyo brought up rocks in the air, which scared the villagers into complying.

This rock is said to be the one next to the Muryangsujn Hall now.29

The temple was one of the important bases from which the Hwam ( Ch: Hua yan) school of Buddhism flourished during the Unified Silla period under isang and his disciples. Pusksa received

much royal patronage from the Silla rulers to expand its grounds and even housed the portraits of Silla

kings. Many stupas and stone lanterns were erected along with new halls. In the late Unified Silla period,

Pusksa as the head temple of the Hwam school became a famous place for many would-be monks to

take the tonsure.30

Pusksa continued to play an important role into the Kory dynasty, taking charge of carving

woodblocks for the printing of the Avatamsaka Sutra ( Kr: Hwam kyng; Ch: Hua Yan Jing)31 in the early period of the dynasty. Even during the Chosn period, there were many instances of the temple

receiving repairs. Kwanghaegun (15751641, r. 16081623), known for his patronage of Buddhism,

ordered for the Muryangsujn Hall to be embellished with multi-colored decorative painting after some

reconstruction works. King Yngjo (16941776, r. 17241776) too ordered the reconstruction of various

halls after they were destroyed by fire. He also ordered for the Amitabha Buddha statue to be repainted in

gold.32

26

According to the Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms (Samguk yusa), Monk isang took the tonsure at the age of

29 and left to China to study Buddhism soon after. He is credited for transmitting the Hwam school of Buddhism

from China to the Korean peninsula, not only founding the Pusksa, but also many other temples of the Hwam

school across the southern part of the peninsula such as the Pimarasa () in Wnju, Haeinsa () on

Kaya Mountain, Okchnsa () on Pisl Mountain, Pmsa () on Kmchng Mountain, Hwamsa (

) in Namak and more. 27

Samkuk Yusa [Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms], accessed May 23rd

, 2016,

http://www.histopia.net/yusa/viewDocument.php?ori=yusa_05_008&til=%E7%BE%A9%E6%B9%98%E5%82%B

3%E6%95%8E&R=0 28

Francis D.K. Ching, Mark Jarzombek, and Vikramaditya Prakash, Korean Buddhism, in A Global History of

Architecture, 2nd

ed. (New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2011). 29

Buseoksa Temple, Korea Tourism Organization, accessed May 23rd

, 2016

http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/ATR/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=264145; Colonial Korea: Buseoksa Temple

(Yeongju, Gyeongsangbuk-do), Korea Bridge, January 27th

, 2016, accessed May 23rd

, 2016

http://koreabridge.net/post/colonial-korea-buseoksa-temple-%E2%80%93-

%EB%B6%80%EC%84%9D%EC%82%AC-yeongju-gyeongsangbuk-do-dostoevsky2181 30

Yksa sok e Pusksa; Chungchang [Puksksa in History: Rebuilding], Haedong Hwam Head Temple Pusksa,

accessed May 23rd

, 2016, http://www.pusoksa.org/ 31

The Hwam school is considered one of the most influential in Korean Buddhism, and the Avatamsaka Sutra (Kr:

Hwam kyng; Ch: Hua Yan Jing) is the center of study of the Hwam school. See Choe Yeonshik, Huayan

Studies in Korea, in Reflecting Mirrors: Perspectives on Huayan Buddhism, ed. Imre Hamar (Wiesbaden: Otto

Harrassowitz GmbH & Co., 2007), 6971. 32

Yksa sok e Pusksa: Kory ihu [Puksksa in History: Kory and after], Haedong Hwam Head Temple

Pusksa, accessed May 23rd

, 2016, http://www.pusoksa.org/; Yksa sok e Pusksa: Chosn sidae [Puksksa in

History: Chosn period], Haedong Hwam Head Temple Pusksa, accessed May 23rd

, 2016,

http://www.pusoksa.org/

http://www.histopia.net/yusa/viewDocument.php?ori=yusa_05_008&til=%E7%BE%A9%E6%B9%98%E5%82%B3%E6%95%8E&R=0http://www.histopia.net/yusa/viewDocument.php?ori=yusa_05_008&til=%E7%BE%A9%E6%B9%98%E5%82%B3%E6%95%8E&R=0http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/ATR/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=264145http://koreabridge.net/post/colonial-korea-buseoksa-temple-%E2%80%93-%EB%B6%80%EC%84%9D%EC%82%AC-yeongju-gyeongsangbuk-do-dostoevsky2181http://koreabridge.net/post/colonial-korea-buseoksa-temple-%E2%80%93-%EB%B6%80%EC%84%9D%EC%82%AC-yeongju-gyeongsangbuk-do-dostoevsky2181http://www.pusoksa.org/http://www.pusoksa.org/http://www.pusoksa.org/

12

Pusksa houses the most number of National Treasures and Treasures in the country after the

Pulguksa in Kyngju. Muryangsujn Hall (National Treasure No. 18), the second oldest wooden building

in South Korea today, was first built as the main prayer hall of the temple and rebuilt during Korys

King Hynjongs (9921031, r. 10091031) reign. The Hall we see today was reconstructed in 1376 after

it was burnt down in 1358.33

It remains as an important relic of Kory Buddhist architecture especially

since many were destroyed during the Imjin War (15921598). The stone lantern found in front of the

Hall (National Treasure No. 17) erected during the reign of Sillas King Kyngmun (841875, r. 861874)

is also characteristic of Unified Silla relics.34

The Amitabha Buddha statue (National Treasure No. 45)

housed in the Muryangsujn Hall sits in the West facing the East, unlike the usual convention of placing

the Buddha statue in the center of the prayer hall. This is because the Amitabha is the Buddha of the

Western Paradise. The statue itself is also the oldest clay statue in Korea.35

The Chosadang Shrine

(National Treasure No. 19) built to honor isang contains the oldest temple mural paintings found in the

country (National Treasure No. 46), an important relic of Kory Buddhist art. The paintings are now

displayed in the Muryangsujn Hall.36

Talsil Village () Ivanna Yi, Harvard University

Talsil Village is a Korean traditional village located in North Kyngsang Province. It is the ancestral

home of a Andong Kwn family and is located in what is considered to be one of the most geomantically

auspicious sites in Kyngsang Province. Talsil () Village was originally called Talksil () Village because of the topographical features of the landscape. Talsil village, surrounded by low mountains, is

said to comprise the shape of a golden egg, which is enveloped by a female chicken to the north and a

male chicken to the south (kmgye poran ). Talsil Village currently maintains programs for both Koreans and foreigners to experience traditional Korean culture from the Chosn dynasty (1392

1910).

Following the third Literati Purge in 1519,37

Kwn Pl ( 14781548, penname Chungjae

), a scholar-official (sarim ), was dismissed from office during the reign of King Chungjong (r. 15061544).

38 Originally from Andong, Kwn Pl moved to Talsil Village, where his mothers grave was

located, in 1520. Kwn Pls descendants continue to live in the home he built (Chungjae chongtaek

), as well as in the village, and they are caretakers of relics and artifacts from the Chosn

33

Muryangsujeon Hall of Buseoksa Temple, Yeongju, Cultural Heritage Administration, accessed May 23rd

,

2016, http://jikimi.cha.go.kr/english/search_plaza_new/ECulresult_Db_View.jsp?VdkVgwKey=11,00180000,37 34

K-Places: Treasure in Buseoksa Temple - Muryangsujeon Hall & Stone Lantern, Korea Tourism Organization,

accessed May 23rd

, 2016, http://www.visitkorea.com.my/k-places/5471/treasure-in-buseoksa-temple-

muryangsujeon-hall-stone-lantern.html ; Puksksa in History: Rebuilding, Haedong Hwam Head Temple

Pusksa. 35

Muryangsujeon Hall of Buseoksa Temple, Yeongju, Cultural Heritage Administration; Pusoksa, Digital

International Buddhism Organization, accessed May 23rd

, 2016, http://pusoksa.buddhism.org/ 36

Pusksa yumul: sjo amitayrae chwasang [Relics of Pusksa: Seated statue of the Western Amitabha],

Haedong Hwam Head Temple Pusksa, accessed May 23rd

, 2016, http://www.pusoksa.org/ ; Mural Painting in

Josadang Shrine of Buseoksa Temple, Cultural Heritage Administration, accessed May 24th

, 2016,

http://jikimi.cha.go.kr/english/search_plaza_new/ECulresult_Db_View.jsp?VdkVgwKey=11,00460000,37 37

For a discussion of the literati purges in the late 15th

and 16th

centuries, see Edward Wagner, The Literati Purges:

Political Conflict in Early Yi Korea (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974). 38

Kwn Pls biography can be found in the online Encyclopedia of Korean Culture by the Academy of Korean

Studies at: http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/Index?contents_id=E0006915 .

http://jikimi.cha.go.kr/english/search_plaza_new/ECulresult_Db_View.jsp?VdkVgwKey=11,00180000,37http://www.visitkorea.com.my/k-places/5471/treasure-in-buseoksa-temple-muryangsujeon-hall-stone-lantern.htmlhttp://www.visitkorea.com.my/k-places/5471/treasure-in-buseoksa-temple-muryangsujeon-hall-stone-lantern.htmlhttp://pusoksa.buddhism.org/http://www.pusoksa.org/http://jikimi.cha.go.kr/english/search_plaza_new/ECulresult_Db_View.jsp?VdkVgwKey=11,00460000,37http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/Index?contents_id=E0006915

13

dynasty related to the history of their family and the ancestral village. Around 10,000 artifacts are now

housed in the Chungjae Museum, which opened in 2007. The museum holds five National Treasures,

including Chungjaes diary (Chungjae ilgi , National Treasure No. 261).39

Located close to the Chungjae Museum, Chngamjng () is one of the most notable structures in Talsil Village. Constructed in 1526 in the shape of a turtle floating on water, the pavilion is

encircled by a moat filled with water and is accessible by a stone bridge. Three gates enclose the pavilion

on its east, south, and north sides, and the pavilion is surrounded by juniper and zelkova trees. Chungjae

is said to have found respite at Chngamjng, which he enjoyed with friends he welcomed from the

region. At the pavilion, Chungjae engaged in scholarly discussions with renowned literati such as Yi

Hyn-bo (, 14671555) Yi n-jk (, 14911553), and Yi Hwang (, 15021571).

The Sago () of the Chosn Dynasty (13921910) and Kakhwasa () Temple Wenjiao Cai, Harvard University

Sago, literarily historical depositories, were historical archives of the Chosn Dynasty, which housed

important historical documents, including Sillok ( Veritable Records of the Chosn Dynasty),

genealogies of the royal house, and various igwe ( Royal Protocols). In the early Chosn period, four historical depositories were inaugurated, including

Chunchugwan ( Bureau of State Records) in Seoul, and three others located at Chnju, Sngju,

and Chungju. Chunchugwan was also known as the inner historical depository (nae sago ),

while the archives at Chnju, Sngju, and Chungju were called outer historical depositories (oe sago

). During the Chosn Dynasty, Chnju, Sngju, and Chungju were large county seats, located at the conjunction of transport routes, thus making them easy to access. Once historical records, such as

Sillok, were drafted by sagwan , or history officials, at Chunchugwan in Seoul, copies were made and placed in the local depositories. Highly valued by the Chosn Dynasty, these historical archives were

given significant protection.

However, in 1538, a fire at the historical depository of Sngju destroyed all the documents

archived there. Copies were reproduced from documents remaining at the other depositories. During the

Imjin War (15921598), all the historical documents housed at Chunchugwan in Seoul, and the

historical depositories of Sngju and Chungju, were completely destroyed. Historical documents from

Chnju alone survived, mainly in part due to rescue work led by the local residents.

After the Imjin War, the Chosn Dynasty established four historical depositories in remote

mountain regions, including Mount Odae in Pyngchang, located in Kangwn Province, Mount

Taebaek in Ponghwa, located in North Kyngsang Province, Mount Chngjok on Kanghwa Island, and

Mount Chksang in Muju, located in North Chlla Province. It was hoped that, by moving deep in to the

mountains, these historical depositories would be protected from invasions, as well as the three

disasters fire, flood, and wind. A large temple was usually built nearby, and these local historical

depositories were entrusted to the temples for protection and maintenance. In return, the temples were

granted both land and monetary rewards.

Kakhwasa Temple is in Ponghwa County, within North Kyngsang Province. Initially built at

the foot of Mount Taebaek and named Namhwasa (), the temple was then moved half way up the mountain, and renamed Kakhwasa. This relocation, dated to 686, is generally considered to have

been instigated by Master Wnhyo ( 617686), one of the most eminent scholar-monks in Korean

39

For further information about Talsil Village and the Chungjae Museum, visit http://www.darsil.kr.

http://www.darsil.kr/

14

history. However, there is some debate concerning this issue, and other records suggest that the temple

may have been founded slightly earlier, during King Munmus reign (r. 661681).

During the Kory Dynasty, the renowned Monk Kyeng (), also known as Master Muaeji

(Muaeji kuksa ), resided in the temple, instructing thousands of practitioners on Hwam School of Buddhism daily. Master Muaeji was also known for rejecting multiple invitations from King

Sukchong (10541105; r.10951105) to reside in his palace, and earning himself the reputation of

Taebaek sanin . After the Imjin War, Kakhwasa was charged with the responsibility of protecting and managing

the historical depository of Mount Taebaek, and thereby becoming famous as one of the top three

temples of Chosn.

In 1908, Veritable Records of the Chosn Dynasty, housed at the historical depository of Mount

Taebaek, were transferred to the Japanese Government-General in Korea, and later to Kyngsng (or

Keij) Imperial University. The buildings from this depository were consequently deserted, and

eventually disappeared. The political importance of Kakwasa Temple declined in modern Korean history.

Today, several stone sculptures dating back to the Kory Dynasty (9181392) can still be seen in

the temple. Kakwasa Temple is also known for Chunyangmok , a species of highly valued pine trees indigenous to Korea.

Yi Hwang

Alison Stein, Don Kim, and Jared Cowan, Harvard College

Yi Hwang , known also by his penname Toegye , was born in 1501 in Andong. He was the eighth child in his family with both a scholarly and modestly aristocratic background (Peterson, Mark).

While Yi Hwang was young, others saw him as a child prodigy. After Yi Hwangs father passed away,

his uncle, Yi U, began to teach Toegye. As the official belief system of the Chosn dynasty, Neo-

Confucianism was predominant in Yi Hwangs studies with his uncle. Under Yi Us guidance, he began

the study of the Analects of Confucius at the age of twelve, in preparation for his civil service

examinations (New World Encyclopedia).

After passing his exams, Yi Hwang began his career of service in the Korean central government.

During his period of governmental service, Yi became infamous for his integrity, and his distaste for

political corruption (New World Encyclopedia). As was typical at the time, Yi rotated between periods in-

office in Seoul, and periods out-of-office in his country home (Peterson, Mark). Yi Hwangs true passion

was never for governance, and he liked to return often to his country home away from Seoul to escape the

corrupting influence of power and politics (Chosn Korea). In this sentiment can be seen the beginnings

of Yis philosophy of kyng (), or mindfulness. Yi believed that the inward cultivation of the spiritual self should be one of the highest priorities of any Confucian, and that study should always

remain rooted in self-cultivation, and not become an end in itself (Kalton, Michael).

Yi Hwangs scholarship began in earnest only after his retirement from the government in 1549.

In the coming years he would rise to great acclaim for his philosophical writings and teachings. In 1559,

he left his mark on Neo-Confucian philosophical theory through his participation in the four-seven

debates, a correspondence with another scholar, Ki Tae-sng (, 1527 1572). In this correspondence the two scholars debate character of and the relationship between the Four Sprouts and

Seven Emotions (Ivanhoe, Philip). This debate would become the most celebrated and significant

controversy in Korean Neo-Confucianism, and would ultimately reorient Korean Neo-Confucian thought

onto questions relating to the interface of metaphysics and psychological theory (University of

Washington).

Yi Hwangs last great work, The Ten Diagrams on Sage Learning can be seen as expressing the

essence of all of his learning, a summary of what he felt was essential to understand. It presents the

15

essential framework and basic linkages of Neo-Confucian metaphysics, psychological theory, and

ascetical practice (Kalton, Michael). Yi Hwang wrote the Ten Diagrams in 1568 for King Snjo, who he

was instructing on his philosophies. As Yi Hwang grew old and ill, he could no longer instruct the King

in person, and so outlined his learning briefly in the Ten Diagrams. The central theme of the text is

kyng, which Yi Hwang finds to be essential for both the proper study and practice of Neo-Confucianism.

In 1574, four years after Yi Hwangs death in 1570, Dosan Seowon (or Tosan swn), a private

Korean Confucian academy, was founded in Andong, at the site of Yi Hwangs home during his

retirement. Dosan Seowon serves the dual purpose of educating students on the teachings of Yi Hwang,

and of commemorating his life and contributions.

Works cited

Kalton, Michael. Introduction to The Ten Diagrams on Sage Learning. Thesis. University of Washington.

Print.

Ivanhoe, Philip. The Historical Significance and Contemporary Relevance of the Four-Seven Debate.

Thesis. City University of Hong Kong, 2012. Print.

Peterson, Marke Master Toegye, Yi Hwang, Philosopher (15011570) - CHOSON ARCHIVES. Master

Toegye, Yi Hwang, Philosopher (1501 1570) - CHOSON ARCHIVES. Choson Korea, n.d. Web. 07

June 2016.

Yi Hwang. New World Encyclopedia. Web. 07 June 2016.

Yi Hwang (Toegye). University of Washington. Web. 07 June 2016.

Herbal Medicine Market in Taegu (Taegu Yangnyngsi / Daegu Yangneongsi)

Sora Yang, Harvard University

Daegu Yangneongsi is a herbal medicine market that dates back to 1658, the first of its kind, and is still a

thriving center for trade and wholesale of herbs used in oriental medicine today. In 2004, the Korean

government deemed this particular market as a Special Oriental Medicine Zone, and, thus, the market

retains its importance as a site of particular historical significance.40

Originally located near the backyard

of an inn around the North Gate of Taegu walled city, in the aftermath of the walls being torn down by the

Japanese in 1908, the market was moved to its current location. While the origins of this institution are

unclear, there have been several theories suggested, as summarized by the Daegu Yangneongsi Museum

of Oriental Medicine. According to the Large City Hypothesis, the market was established to serve as

a hub for efficient collection of oriental medicine ingredients due to the need of the central and the

provincial governments planning and monetary support; thus, the medicinal markets primary function

was to serve as a wholesale facilitator between producers and brokers. The markets significance as a

hub for herbal trade went beyond domestic markets; it has been argued that during the Chosn era, the

market was the center of the herbal medicine world, providing Oriental medicine to travelers from all

around the world including Japan, China, Russia, Manchuria and many other countries.41

In contrast, the

Chinese Tribute Hypothesis foregrounds the significance of the political context of the time, and argues

that it is likely that Yangnyeongsi was an ingredient collection center for tributes to be made to China.

In a similar vein, the Japanese Export Theory highlights the growing demand of oriental medicine

ingredients in Japan during this era, asserting that the market developed in response to this demand.

Finally, the Natural Establishment Theory takes into account the legal context of the time, thereby

suggesting that the market was a circumstantial response to the initiation of the Daedong Law, which

40

http://dgom.daegu.go.kr/eng/sub04/sub04_01.asp 41

http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/ATR/SI_EN_3_2_1.jsp?cid=697432

16

required all merchants to pay tribute to the Korean government in forms of products not

money.42

However, the historical significance of Daegu Yangneongsi goes beyond its antiquity: during

the Japanese occupation, the market served as a significant location for monetary supporters of the

Korean independence movement to communicate, and was thus suppressed. In 1941, the market was

closed down entirely, to be re-opened after the 1945 liberation, and closed down again during the Korean

War. It was only after the Korean War that the current iteration of the market, centered around Yakjeon

Medicine Alley (Namsung-ro), took its current form. Today, there exists not only annual Daegu

Yangneongsi Herb Medicine Culture Festival (this year May 48, hosted in its current form since

1978),43

but also home to the Yangneongsi Oriental Medicine Cultural Center, established in 1993.44

While it still functions as a market for herbs and medicines, the clear shift in the marketing of the locale

to cater to foreign tourists is clear, and will be worth looking into the different ways in which particular

narratives of Korea as a nation-state are being constructed and perpetuated to different audiences.

42

http://dgom.daegu.go.kr/eng/sub04/sub04_01.asp. Daedong Law refers to the Uniform Tax Reform

(taedongbp ), which replaced tribute tax in kind from household to additional tax on land. Scholars find this law spurred the expansion of commerce in Korea during the late Chosn period because tribute merchants were

required to procure numerous material goods that central and local governments needed. 43

http://www.koreansafari.com.au/content/experience-korean-traditional-medicine-daegu-yangnyeongsi-herbal-

medicine-festival 44

http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/ATR/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=1271232

http://dgom.daegu.go.kr/eng/sub04/sub04_01.asp