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1. Buddhism: Discuss the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold
Path.
Siddhartha Guatamao Born to warrior casteo Clan of Shakyas (from Nepal)o Known as the Shakya muni (Sage of the Shakyas)o Married a princesso Spiritual conversion at 29
4 significant encounters in the course of a drivethrough Lumbini park
came upon an old man, sick man, a corpse,and an scetic monk
came to the realization of universal sufferingin this world and of the emptiness of all life
renounced princely life shaved hair life of an ascetic seeking the way of
deliverance
o search 6 years
sought instructionn under 2 religious masters unsatisfied, went to forest ( regime of extreme
mortification)
town of Gayao sat under a Bo tree outside the towno wont move until he attained light and
understandingo Buddha, the Enlightened One
Attained nirvana, the blowing out or extirpation ofall desire and the liberation from the cycle of
transmigration
35 years old
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o Benares 1st sermon
turning of the wheel of doctrine won 5 disciples
o disciples converts called arahats, the worthy ones
o died at 80 years old last words: all composite things are doomed to
extinction. Exert yourself in wakefulness
not about following his doctrineo Doctrine
Dharma Found in first sermon Contains 4 noble truths and 8 fold path Passed by oral tradition
Four Noble Truthso Universal fact of pain and suffering
Old age Illness Death Things we hate Separation from things we love Suffering is physical and emotional
o Origin of suffering Craving thirst causes suffering and cycle of
rebirths, the renewal of becomings
Seeking further satisfaction
Craving for gratification of senses, for existenceand annihilation
Life then is impelled by cravings and desires, andby shallow, illusory wants
One illusory goal to another and from one
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disappointment to another
2 borrowed beliefs from hinduism samsara
o belief in transmigrationo cycle of successive rebirths
karmao belief in retributiono law of universal causality, by which the
effects of good and bad deeds are
carried over to the succeeding life
o we reap what we sow it is the empty attachment and seeking for the self
that causes suffering
to liberate ourselves, we must renounce the self.We must die to the self
expatriate all cravings and greed, thereby putout the prolongations of karma
achieved by effort and discipline by individualo Cessation of suffering
Put an end to all cravings and thereby releaseourselves from the hold of desire and the empty
seeking for the self
Buddha denies the existence of human soul Human is part of this whole constant flux like
everything else
There is no self, no underlying personalidentity
What is usually considered the self is only anaggregate, a combination of 5 elements
body, feelings, impulses, perceptions and
consciousness
Metaphor: chariot made up of pieces,
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dismantled there is no chariot
Individual person then is a transitorycomposite that is bound to pass away like all
composite things
Root of all suffering is this illusion oroverweening attachment to the emtpy false
notion of the self
Moral task: to die to the self, renounce selfand all self-seeking, all desires and cravings
o Path leading to the cessation of suffering Take the way of the 8 fold path
Eightfold Patho Right view
Understand 4 noble truths Right viewpoint that pierces the illusion of vain self-
seeking
o Right resolve /aspiration Strive to observe what the right view and
understanding have shown us
Go beyond the seeking for the I and for what ismine
o Right speech Try to avoid all that desire and self-seeking in our
words
Refrain from gossip, idle talk, slander Our words must be marked by self0control,
consideration and thoughtfulnesso Right action
Practice the 5 percepts vingind on all monks andlaypeople
Thou shall not kill Thou shall not steal
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Thou shall not lie Thou shall not have illicit sexual relations Thou shall not take intoxicating or alcoholic
drinks
o Right livelihood Avoid any occupation that does violence or harm
life
Butcher, soldier Practice positive virtues like good will towards all
human beings and the forgiveness of injuries
o Right effort Strive to find our own pace and our own way in the
path toward emancipation and enlightenment
Engage only in mindful or thoughtful actiono Right concentration
Try to acquire a detached and calm attitude withregard to our emotions and passions
Try to see things as they are, free of all illusions andself-deceptions
Free ourselves from the enslaving fantasies of theimagination
o Right contemplation Quiet down all irrelevant thoughts until we come on
to the true knowledge, not by way of reason or
logic, but by intuition and by insight
At the point of the highest insight, all senseexperience ceases and the mind is finally released
At that point, there will be no more rebirth Enlightenment is attained. It is the point of nirvana
o Nirvana Ultimate goal of 8 fold path Means to extinguish
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No more karma Cessation of all desire for pleasure of things, for
life, or for self
Fullness of freedom and awareness andenlightenment
Not pure annihilation or nothingness State that is ineffable, nothing like any nature or
form in worldy existence
Transcendent stateo Ultimate joyo Heavenly bliss
Unthinkable Out of this world
o Buddhas nirvana Pari-nirvana
Ultimate nirvana Nirvana of no return
2. Confucian Ethics: Discuss the Three Main Virtues. Why does
Confucius hold that the ethical cannot be separated from the
political?
Confuciouso Born to poor family, but of noble descento From state of Sung, but moved to Shantungo Family name: Kung ; name: Chiuo Later known as kung tse, Master Kungo
Father died when he was 3o Had many menial jobs, then became a private tutoro Appointed as minister of justice or police commissioner
for the state of Lu at 50
o Resigned because ruler of the state was not willing tofollow his reform measures
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o Travelled to other states, but feudal lords were notappreciative of his advice
o Went back to Lu to devote his life to teachingo Saddened by his sons death and his most promising
disciple, Yen Hui He
o Died without seeing any effect or influence of his moraland social ideas on the community affairs of his time
o Lived during Chou dynasty Country split into warring feudal states, each one
ruled by a hereditary feudal lord who goes to war at
whim, overtax people, and impose heavy labor
o Confucious saw that to relieve the common people ofsuffering, there was a need for social and political
reforms
o Return to the source of old chinese tradition, withemphasis on moral education and obserance of
traditional rites and ceremonies
Sees himself as a reformer rather than an innovatoro Early Han dynasty
Confucian philosophers and confucian classicswere established as the official ideology of the
Chinese empire
Made the core of educational system and of thecivil service exams
Tao and Teo Confucious teaching contained in Lun Yu / Analects of
Confucious Small book with 20 chapters
o Thoughts may be viewed as a reprise of two ancientideas of chinese tradition
Tao (The Way) Similar to western notion of Logos
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Signifies nature of which all things are made Also means the standard to which all things
must conform
Common to all things, that of which all thingsare made
Kind of a transcendental principle The way, truth, and being of all things
Te (virtue) Signifies some human trait considered as a
gift from Heaven
When Tao acts upon man, it becomes Te,constituting mans attitude of mind and hischaracter
o Te as composed of Chih and Wen Only one worthwhile purpose man can have
To be a good man, a man of virtue, to be acomplete full man
2 things needed for this attainmento Chih
Basic natural stuff / substance Material substance of morality
signifies the basic inclination to do
what is right
Endowment from heaven Moral virtue or character is
in part is a gift from heaven
oWen Nurturing, formative process Original endowment is like a seed
that needs to be nurtured and
brought to fullness by man, by
way of a long process of
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education and application
Education for confuciousconsists mainly of the study
of 5 books of ancient
chinese literature, which
confucious believed to be
the repository of human
wisdom and moral insight,
especially suited to draw out
and bring into actuality the
original endownment and
potential of man. Thus, theyare called The Confucian
Classics
o Moral man is one who has 2 mainelements
Natural endowment and formativeprocess composed of the
grounding in the Confucian
Classics and the life-long effort of
self-overcoming
* Gentleman someone who has acquired 3 main virtues; man of
humaneness never worries, man of wisdom never of two minds,
man of courage never afrad
3 Main Virtueso
Humaneness (Jen) Sense of connaturality or respect, love and good
will toward fellowman
Most important moral quality Flows over to the 2 other virtues Overcoming oneself, ones self-interest, desire for
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gain
(Li) Return of the rites Other side of o overcoming our egotistic
tendencies
Rites are the traditional body rules andceremonies governing all aspects of life from
birth to death
Must be examined from time to time in viewof what is right
Method of humaneness confucious recommends Rule of theshu
o Using oneself as an analogy for arrivingat what others like and dislike
o Do not impose on others what youyourself do not desire
o Recommended the use of as a tool forputting into action the positive element,
chung, doing ones best in the love of
fellowmen
o Wisdom (Chih) Never of two minds Distinguish wrong from right Not deceived by what is false Does not mistake it for what is true and valid Possession of 2 combined elements of learning
(hsueh) and thinking (ssu)
Together with learning, there must also bethought
Improve what we have learnedo Reflection on the past
o Courage (Yung) Never afraid
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Overcoming of fear in the pursuit of what is right Must be based on something other than itself,
namely what is right
Rightness (yi) then is a standard of courage Also standard for learning Also norm for rites
o What is rightness? Tien Ming
o Heavens decree Emperor ruled by heavens decree, by this virtue it
is emperors duty to rule for the good of his people
Heaven could withdraw its decree and pass it on toanother more worthy of power and position
In confucious Duty not only emperor, but everyone Universal moral imperative incumbent on
every one
Transcendental principle Tien Ming and Tao
o Confucious not clear whether heavens decree isdifferent from Tao (the way)
o Gentleman stands in awe of 3 things Heavens decree Great men Words of the sages
o Fundamental nature, ground and source of morality
Confucianismo Striving to make the Way and heavens decree concerete
and actual by way of the exercise of moral virtue and the
performance of the rites and practices of daily life
Ethical cannot be separated from political
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3. Rachels: Discuss the main claims of Cultural Relativism. Why
does Rachels hold that morality cannot be reduced to ones cultural
belief system? How can we assess the objective moral validity of
cultural practices in a world composed of various (and oftentimes
clashing) belief systems?
Main claimso Different cultures, different moral codeso So there is no objective right or wrongo Right and wrong are only matters of opinion, and
opinions vary in every culture
Unsound argument Premise about peoples knowledge of
morality
Conclusion about the nature of morality Ex: world is flat
We could no longer say that customs of othersocieties are morally inferior to our own
nazis Decide whether actions are right or wrong just by
consulting the standards of society
Society not perfect, room for improvement No more UN
Idea of moral progress is called into doubt Morality cannot be reduced to ones cultural belief system Objective moral validity of cultural practices in a world
composed of various belief systemso Seemingly different on the surfaceo In actuality, just different form of expressions of common
values
Ex: honoring the dead Callatians eat them
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Greeks cremate themo Moral worth of a practice is contingent upon how it
contributes to the society in which it is practiced
Standard: human flourishingo Common values for survival
Caring of young / welfare of people Truth telling No murder
Learnings from cultural relativismo Open-mindednesso Tolerance of diversityo Mutual criticism without thinking that we are morally
superior
4. Plato: Discuss the Allegory of the Cave. How was Plato able to
show that there is a rational and objective standard for morality
beyond the world of appearances and opinion? What is the role of
anamnesis in forging a harmonious soul and society?
Allegory of the Caveo Inside the cave
Prisoners chained and held immobile Fixed necks, can only look at wall in front of them Behind the prisoners is a raised walkway/ parapet,
along which puppeteers can walk
Prisoners cannot see walkway or people, but watchtheir shadows not knowing they are shadows
There are also echoes off the wall from the noiseproduced from the walkway
Shadows and echoes are real for prisoners,instead of reflections of reality, since they are
all they have seen/heard
Prisoner who can guess the next shadow is
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applauded
So when the prisoners talk, what are they talkingabout? If an object (a book, let us say) is carried
past behind them, and it casts a shadow on the
wall, and a prisoner says I see a book, what is he
talking about?
He thinks he is talking about a book, but he is reallytalking about a shadow. But he uses the word
book. What does that refer to?
Platos point is that the prisoners would bemistaken. For they would be taking the terms in
their language to refer to the shadows that passbefore their eyes, rather than (as is correct, in
Platos view) to the real things that cast the
shadows.
If a prisoner says Thats a book he thinks that theword book refers to the very thing he is looking
at. But he would be wrong. Hes only looking at a
shadow. The real referent of the word book he
cannot see. To see it, he would have to turn his
head around.
The prisoners may learn what a book is by theirexperience with shadows of books. But they would
be mistaken if they thought that the word book
refers to something that any of them has ever seen.
Likewise, we may acquire concepts by ourperceptual experience of physical objects. But wewould be mistaken if we thought that the concepts
that we grasp were on the same level as the things
we perceive.
o Release from the cave A prisoner freed
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Show him things that cast the shadows Not recognize them Shadows more real than actual thing
Look at the fire Struck blind Look back at shadow, which he can see
clearly
Dragged out of the cave Blinded by sunlight Eventually be used to the light
o See things more clearlyo Return to the cave
Remember his fellow prisoners and pity them Bad at guessing shadows, no longer accustomed
to the dark
Fellow prisoners will think that his eyes has beencorrupted, and that it is not worth to go up
Afraid of anything but what they already know Kill the freed man if they have a chance
Problem of greek thinkerso Multiplicity and unity of thingso Things are different and constantly change, yet they also
have similarities
o Belief in Logos or Reason as an all-encompassinggoverning principle of all reality
Ex: kosmos
One ordered universe Platos theory of ideas or forms
o Human knowledge Possible only with a stable form and structure
amidst the ever changing world
Aside from the changing sensible world we are in,
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there must be some other world where resides the
permanent forms, which are the proper object sof
human knowledge
Fact of human knowledge is proof of existence ofanother world, the world of permanent and
immutable forms, aside from this changing sensible
world we are familiar with
o World of ideal forms Source and foundation of material world Material world only exhibits gradients of
imperfection
More or less good / beautiful Never the good / beautiful in itself Pale copies of the ideal world, participation In
and of the ideal world
Ground and exemplar of all things in sensible world The Good
Ascending order of fundamental ideas All things subsumed under Movement and
Stillness Being and Non Being The
Good
All are imitations of the Good Idea of ideas Source of all ideas and hings The absolute Everything is a participation of the Good
oHow does man manage to take hold of these ideal formswhile he remains rooted in the sensible world? / without
going to the sensible world
Man composed of body and soul Body
o Composed of 4 traditional elements fire,
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water, earth, air
Soulo 3 distinct faculties, 3 levels of
knowledge and of desire
sensation (aesthesis) cloudy images of ideal forms sensuous desire (epithumia)
endless frustation in seeking
satisfaction in ever changing
material world
opinion (doxa) for practical matters
hypothetical sciences and
governance of communal
life
spirit desire (thumos)spontaneous tendency
otoward everything beautiful
and good
mind (nous) immortal part of the soul,
with the capacity for truth
and wisdom
will desire (boule) soulstendency toward the good
explained thru myth
man was purely soul residing in spiritualworld with all ideal form
due to some fall of man because ofcommission of evil deed by ancestors, soul
was exiled to material world and imprisoned
in the body
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exiled, forget about the world of ideas Theory of Reminiscence
o since material world is a copy of idealworld, it serves as a constant reminder
of ideal forms
o when man comes upon an object, hismemory is joggled and reminded of
original dog/flower
o encounters in this world as recollectionof sould of original forms/ideas
o Fall of Man Tendency toward a life of sense and physical
pleasure, and tendency to go back to the Good
Tendency of soul to go back to the good is amanifestation of souls connaturality with the Good
and mans original pre-existence in the world of
forms and ideas
Moral task: Go back to the Good where he originally
came from
o Man must then die into himself,restraining his passions, gaining control
of himself, thereby liberating the soul
from the hold of the body and world of
material world
o Life in material world like spiritualvoyage to return to the Good Spiritual voyage leads man on a
gradually ascending path in life
Starts from eroso Desire for physical
beauty
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o Coincides withsensation (aesthesis)
Search for spiritual beautyo Spiritual offsprings
Poetic works,hypothetical
sciences, social
and legal
institutions
o Corresponds toopinion (doxa)
Union with the Goodo Soul joins with the
Good by way of souls
highest faculty, nous
or mind
o Mystical,transcendent, beyon
comprehension
o Only expressed interms of Goods
external
manifestations
Truth,proportion,
beauty
oLiberated from almutation and
tribulation and thus
attains immortality,
which has been the
goal in pursuit of all
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that desiring for
physical and spiritual
procreation by eros
and thumos
o Philosopher-king Those who attain wisdom and union with the Good
even while they are still living in this world
Best people to lead the polis/community since theyhave found the true end and purpose of life
Function Maintenance of basic moral virtues within the
communal lifeo Temperence
Rein in human desire for sensepleasures
o Courage Overcome fear in defense of city-
state
o Justice Keep everyone in proper place Maintain unity and order
o Wisdom Familiarization and contemplation
of the Good
Purpose of politics is essentially moral Political responsibility of leading the
community in a life of moral virtue andwisdom one the way to the Good
o Those who are at the end of their life but still mired inphysical desires and pleasures
Led to judgement Reincarnated either as animal or man, depending
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upon their misdeeds of past life
Reincarnated until they are able to purifythemselves of material desires
5. Aristotle: For Aristotle, eudaimonia is the ultimate goal (telos)
of all human activities. One can only be truly happy through being
virtuous (arte) and being virtuous involves the proper combination
of practical wisdom (phronesis) and habituation (ethismos) in ones
pursuit of the golden mean (mesotes) in every situation.
Aristotleo Most prominent student of Plato
Ethicso Not science (episteme) dealing with absolute truths but
art (techne) of living ones life well
o Characterized by comparative method Comparing different opinions regarding the good
and bad, and coming up with a set a set of rules on
how to live ones life
Goal (telos)o Inquired about mans end and goalso Men seeks many end
All men seek happiness but in different kinds Pleasure, wealth, power
o Aristotles query not what man seeks at the moment, butwhat his true end is
Ultimate end
End beyond which there would be no other Ergon (purpose of man)
o In search of ergon, asked what is mano Man composed of body and soul
Soul Animates and commands the body
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2 main partso rational
independent of the body further divided into
speculative intellect(theoretike dianoia)
practical intellect (praktikondianoetikon)
o irrational Vegetable part
characterized by nutrition,growth, reproduction
Desiring part Sense desires and
covetousness (epithumia)
Spontaneous impulses(thumos)
o Partly subject toreason
Desires and wishes(boulesis)
o Completely underdictates of reason
Fundamental activity of soul is logoso Different from Platos soul oriented
towards the Good
oLogos All-encompassing governing
principle over all reality
o Rational man = capacity for self-governing immanent activity
Act of intellection and act of virtue
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Self-initiated and self-motivated acts which ead
towards the end
Unlike animals whose activitiesare transitive, initiated from
without and terminating in some
end or external to the individual
Body Subordinate to soul
o Fulfillment of reason Mean 2 things
Higher levelo Act of contemplationo Activity of speculative reason
Lower levelo Life of moral virtue within the context of
the polis, which would be the proper
activity of the practical reason
Speculative intellecto Capable of most fundamental principle (nous)o Capable of science (episteme)o Demonstration, conclusion from first fundamental
principles
o Philosophia / sophia Highest capability Possession of most fundamental principles and
their derivations Maximum degree
Contemplation of most sublime thingsincluding the eternal heavenly bodies and
God
o God for Aristotle
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Not God of Abraham Most perfect being Pure act with no further potency Pure reason Pure thought that knows no one
but himself since if he were to
think of anything outside himself,
he would be in potency of that
external entity
Ultimate final cause of all things Towards whom all other beings
would tend In this sense, for aristotle, he
would be First Motor / Prime
Mover
o Contemplation Theoretical intellect is involved in dialogue with
itself, thereby approximating eternal activity of
aristotles god, pure intellect intellecting itself
As approximation of gods own proper activity,theoretical intellects act of contemplation would
constiture mans end and happiness
Capacity of man for contemplation indicatesomething other than his soul-body?
Something divine or immortalo Nous /mind
Immortality of man?
Reflection of Pure act reintegratedback to God in mans death?
Practical Reasono Life of moral virtue with poliso Virtue
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Action under reason Reason control over desires, following the
rule of mesotes, neither deficient nor
excessive
Habitual state acquired by constant repetition(ethismos)
After repeated practice becomes habit forindividual
Right intention Action is done for own sake, not for some
motive outsude the action itself
o Ex: friendship Goal: human relationship
Pronesiso Practical wisdomo Master virtueo Partly knowledge (theoretical reason), partly action
(practical reason)
o Knowledge Insight regarding the truth
o Practical reason Command ones desires Deciding properly when to act and selecting the
appropriate means as demanded by the situation in
view of the intended goal
o Different moral virtues as particular aspects of onemaster virtue, phronesis
Moral virtue as socialo Temperance
Hard work of workers of economic organizationsproviding for communitys self-sufficiency
Courage
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Virtue of military to defend community fromexternal threat and guarantee survival
o Friendship Virtue of community members reciprocally bearing
good will and love toward one another
o Education Assuring continuance of community
o Virtues of in charge of polis to assure overall governance,system of reward and punishment, distribution of goods,
harmony and peace
Wisdom (phronesis) Justice (to dikaion) Equitableness (epieikeia) Common sense (gnome)
o Ergon of man not simply moral virtues but the polis Polis
Concrete life of moral virtues Passed down from generation to generation Assuring continuance of human existence Shared communal life, the shared rational
activity immanent in every individual and has
the good of every individual as its proper end