Poljoprivreda 2000 Br.1 (en.)

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8 th International Symposium

ANIMAL SCIENCE DAYS

ANIMAL PRODUCTS AND HUMAN HEALTH

Organized by

JOSIP JURAJ STROSSMAYER UNIVERSITY OF OSIJEKFACULTY OF AGRICULTURE

ZOOTECHNICAL DEPARTMENT

in collaboration withUniversity of Zagreb, Faculty of Agronomy, Zagreb, Croatia

University of Kaposvar, Faculty of Animal Sciences, Kaposvár, HungaryUniversity of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Domàle, Slovenia

Agriculture 6 (2000) 1

Coordination Committee

Gordana KRALIK, Full Prof., President Antun PETRIÊVI], Prof. Emer., Deputy

Ivan JURI], Full Prof. Marija ÐIKI], Assoc. Prof.

Melinda ZOMBORSKY-KOVÁCS, Assoc. Prof.

János EMBER, Full Prof.Slavko ÊPIN, Full Prof. Franc HABE, Full Prof.

Organizing Committee

Gordana KRALIK, Full Prof., President Antun PETRIÊVI], Prof. Emer., Deputy @eljko BUKVI], Full Prof. Blaènka BERTI], Full Prof. Draènka JURKOVI], Full Prof.

Ivan KNE@EVI], Full Prof.Sonja JOVANOVAC, Full Prof.



Kazalo 2

The Review is published twice a year in 300 copies.“AGRICULTURE Scientific and Professional Review” is cited by the data:1. CAB International

2. Agricola3. National and University Library Croatian Bibliography



UDC 63 ISSN 1330-7142

A G R I C U L T U R E

Scientific and Professional Review

Published by

Faculty of Agriculture Osijek 31000 Osijek, Trg Sv.Trojstva 3

Republic of Croatia++385 31 224 200

Fax: ++385 31 207 017

Agricultural Institute of Osijek 31000 Osijek, Ju`no predgra|e 17

Republic of Croatia++385 31 500 685

Fax: ++385 31 503 404

Osijek, 2000

3 Kazalo



Kazalo 4



CONTENTS

PRELIMINARY REPORTS

Gordana Kralik, Jasmina Havranek-Luka~,A. Petri~evi}, I. Juri}:ANIMAL PRODUCTS IN NUTRITION OF HUMANPOPULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Melinda Zomborszky-Kovács, F. Kovács, P. Horn:TOXIC SUBSTANCES IN THE FOOD CHAIN - RISKASSESSMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

K. Salobir:THE ROLE OF MEAT IN BALANCED NUTRITION . . . 16

SHORT REPORTSA. Kirbiš, J. Marinšek, Stanka Grebenc:HEALTH SUITABILITY CRITERIA OF FOOD

OF ANIMAL ORIGIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

M. Gajster, J. Jeretina, S. êpin, M. Mravljak :TRACEABILITY OF BEEF MEAT FROM SLAUGHTER LINETO CONSUMERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

I. Juri}, Marija Ðiki}, A. Kolega:COMPARISON OF THE CONDITION OF ANIMALPRODUCTION BETWEEN CROATIA, HUNGARY

AND SLOVENIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30S. Kav~i~, E. Erjavec:INCOME AND WELFARE INDICATORS OF SLOVENIANLIVESTOCK PRODUCTION IN VIEW OF FUTUREACCESSION TO THE EU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

G. Kemény, Gy. Alpár:PLANUNGSPRAXIS IN DER AGRARUNTERNEHMEN 37

K. Ben~evi}, I. Katalini}, A. Petri~evi}, G. Kušec:ECONOMIC UNITY OF PRODUCTION AND TRADEOF SLAUGHTER ANIMALS AND MEAT (PATHS OF

INITIATION OF LONG TERM SOLUTIONS IN CROATIANANIMAL BREEDING). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

S. êpin, S. @gur:POSSIBILITIES FOR THE REDUCTION OF FAT ANDCHOLESTEROL LEVEL IN MEAT ANIMALS . . . . . 44

C. Varga, V. Strelec, M. Volk : POULTRY MEAT IN THEPRODUCTION OF MEAT PRODUCTS . . . . . . . . . 49

B. @lender, Antonija Holcman,Vekoslava Stibilj, T. Polak :FATTY ACIDS COMPOSITION OF POULTRY MEAT FROM

FREE RANGE REARING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53V. Strelec, M. Volk, C. Varga:INFLUENCE OF ADDED FAT ON THE QUALITY OFPOULTRY MEAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Cs. Szabo, A.J.M. Jansman, L. Babinszky, E. Kanis,M.W.A. Verstegen:ILEAL DIGESTIBILITY OF AMINO ACIDS IN PIG FEEDS

AND ITS USE IN DIET FORMULATIONS . . . . . . . . 61

J. Csapó, F. Húsvéth, Zsuzsanna Csapó-Kiss,Éva Varga-Visi, P. Horn:FATTY ACID COMPOSITION AND CHOLESTEROLCONTENT OF THE FAT OF PIGS OF VARIOUSGENOTYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

S. Szász, F. Bogenfürst, Lívia Kós:UNTERSUCHUNGEN ÜBER EINIGE SCHLACHTVERLUSTEBEI DEN ENTENRASSEN PEKING ENTE, FLUGENTEUND DEREN HYBRID MULARDE . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

D. Ter~i~, Jana Puhar, Antonija Holcman, R.

Vadnjal, B. @lender:THE INFLUENCE OF REARING SYSTEM ON SKINCOLOUR IN BROILERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Romana Marinšek-Logar, K. Salobir:OXIDATIVE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT DIETARY FATSON MOUSE DNA DETECTED BY COMET ASSAY . . 74

A. Szabo, H. Febel, R. Romvári, P. Bogner:EXAMINATION OF MUSCLE AND ERYTHROCYTEMEMBRANE LIPID COMPOSITION BY MEANS OF GASCHROMATOGRAPHY ON MEAT TYPE RABBITS . . . 77

M. Štruklec, B. @lender, Ajda Kermauner, MilenaKova~, Špela Malovrh:THE COMPARISON OF TREATMENT WITHFARMATAN® AND FLAVOMICIN ON FATTENINGAND SENSORY TRAITS IN RABBITS . . . . . . . . . . 79

L. Csató, A. Obornik, I. Nagy, Gyuléné Berzsán:NOTWENDIGKEIT UND MÖGLICHKEITEN DERVERBESSERUNG DER SCHLACHTKÖRPERQUALITÄTBEIM SCHWEIN IN UNGARN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Marija Ðiki}, I. Juri}, M. Gašparovi}, M. @ugaj:RELATION BETWEEN QUALITY TRAITS AND VALUEOF HALVES IN THE FATTENED PIGS PRODUCEDFROM DOMESTIC AND IMPORTED PIGLETS. . . . . 86

Špela Malovrh, Milena Kova~:GENETIC CHANGES FOR PERFORMANCE TRAITS INSLOVENIAN PIG NUCLEUS HERDS . . . . . . . . 90

Aleksandra Jug, Milena Kova~, Špela Malovrh:ON-FARM MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS INANIMAL PRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

I. Nagy, L. Csató, J. Farkas, L. Radnóczi:CONNECTION BETWEEN PERFORMANCE TESTINGMETHODS IN HUNGARIAN PIG BREEDING BASED ONGENETIC CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS . . . . 98




S. @gur, M. êpon:INFLUENCE OF BREED ON CARCASS CUTS

COMPOSITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

Irena Rogelj:

FERMENTED MILK AS A FUNCTIONAL FOOD . . 105Slavica Golc-Teger, Marta Berlec: EVALUATION OFMILK QUALITY ON THE BASIS OF TRUE PROTEINVALUE WITH FT-IR SPECTROMETRY. . . . . . . 108

A. Z. Kovács: THE MILK PRODUCTION OF HUNGARIANGREY CATTLE IN THE RESPECT OF THECOMPOSITION OF COLOSTRUM . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Vlasta Mandi}, Tatjana Tušek, D. Alagi}, J. Ljubeši}:SOME SLAUGHTER-HOUSE RATES OF HORSES . 114

Vlasta Mandi}, J. Ljubeši}, T. Rastija, @. Bošnjak,M. Sukali}: BREEDING AND UTILIZATION OF ARABIANHORSE TODAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

J. Ljubeši}, M. Sukali}, J. Seleš, Vlasta Mandi},Marija Meštrovi}:CROSSING OF HOLSTEIN HORSE BREED WITH SOMEOTHER BREEDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

I. Bogut, Elizabeta Has-Schön, R. Janson, Z. Antunovi},D. Bodakoš:CONCENTRATIONS OF Pb, Hg, Cd AND As IN MEAT

OF FISH-POND CARP (CYPRINUS CARPIO). . . . . 123

T. Molnár, Cs. Hancz, M. Molnár, Gabriella Stettner:INVESTIGATIONS ON TECHNOLOGICAL PARAMETERSIN INTENSIVE REARING OF PIKE-PERCH(STIZOSTEDION LUCIOPERKA) . . . . . . . . . . 126

Z. Tucak , A.Tucak, Z. Puškadija, Marijana Tucak :NUTRITIOUS-HEALING COMPOSITION OF SOMEKINDS OF HONEY IN EASTERN CROATIA. . . . . 129

J. Csapó, Zsuzsanna Csapó-Kiss, Éva Varga-Visi,L. Kametler, G. Pohn, P. Horn: THE D-AMINO ACIDCONTENT OF FOODSTUFFS SUBJECTED TO VARIOUS

TECHNOLOGICAL PROCEDURES. . . . . . . . . 132

Tünde Gyarmati, Zs. Szendrö, L. Maertens, EditBiró-Németh, I. Radnai, G. Milisits, Zs. Matics:NEW POSSIBILITIES OF RAISING RABBIT YOUNG BY

ALTERNATIVE NURSING METHODS . . . . . . . 136

A. Lévai, G. Milisits, Zs. Szendrö, I. Radnai,Edit Biró-Németh:EINFLUSS DES FETTGEHALTES IM ORGANISMUSVON MUTTERKANINCHEN AUF EINIGEVERMEHRUNGSBIOLOGISCHE EIGENSCHAFTEN . 140

Mónika Pandúr, F. Bogenfürst:INVESTIGATIONS ON THE NATURAL EGG LAYINGHABITS OF DOMESTIC GEESE . . . . . . . . . . 143

Gy. Toldi, A. Lengyel, D. Mezöszentgyörgyi,R. Romvári:

THE EFFECT OF CHAROLLAIS SHEEP ON THE MEATPRODUCTION AND THE SLAUGHTER VALUE OFTHE HUNGARIAN MERINO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

Á. Tóth, Melinda Zomborzsky-Kovács, G. Tornyos,N. Szalai, Krisztina Kübler:EFFECT OF LOW DOSES OF THE MYCOTOXINFUMONISIN B1 ON THE BODY MASS GAIN, FEEDINTAKE AND FEED CONVERSION RATE OF PIGS . 149

Z. Tucak, T. Florijan~i}, P. Dragi~evi},Tatjana Tušek :INCIDENCE OF TRICHINELLOSIS IN

WILD BOAR IN HUNTING AREASOF OSIJEK-BARANJA COUNTY . . . . . . . . . . 152

A. Petri~evi}, Gordana Kralik,Draènka Gutzmirtl, G. Kušec:SHARE AND QUALITY OF MUSCLE TISSUE INCARCASSES OF PIGS PRODUCEDON FAMILY FARM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

Ð. Sen~i}, Gordana Kralik, G. Kušec, V. Margeta:SLAUGHTERING QUALITY OF CROSSBREED PIGSWITH GERMAN LANDRACE AND PIETRAIN ASTERMINAL BREEDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

6 Agriculture 6 (2000)



ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 637.1/6:612.39

ANIMAL PRODUCTS IN NUTRITION OF HUMAN POPULATION

Gordana Kralik (1) , Jasmina Luka~ Havranek (2) , A. Petri~evi}(3) , I. Juri}(4)

Scientific reviewABSTRACT

In this paper, the significance of animal food (meat and milk) in human nutrition and satisfac-tion of life needs with special look on health is reviewed. Meat is excelent source of proteinswith high biological value.The proteins from meat are of high quality because they contain

high share of essencial amino acids which are necessary for human organism. Polyunsatu- rated fatty acids, esspecialy those from-3 group, became very importat to human nutritionists because they have significant role in prevention of stress induced deseases and of those induced by improper diets. New findings from western industrial countries point out the fact

that longer intake of LA ( -6) with relative “deficiency” of -3 is the main risk factor inoccurence of cancer, coronary deseases (CHD), cerebrovascular deseases (CVD) and alergic hyperactivity; not cholesterol as was considered till now. Therefore it is important to reducethe-6 / -3 acids ratio in meat and milk using some feedstufs in diets of animals. Dairy prod-ucts contribute to health throughout life. Epidemiological researches as well as studies in ani-

mals and humans indicate that dairy food and/or their components have a protective effect against cancer. The potential anticancer agents identified so far in dairy foods include conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), calcium, vitamin D, sphingomyelin,butyric acid, ether lipids, protein and lactic acid bacteria. Milk is exclusive source of nutrients for the young and it also represents a high grade source of dietary nitrogen and indispensable amino acids for adults. Con- sumers are increasing looking for animal products, which could prevent disease or illness.

Keywords: animal products, polyunsaturated fatty acids, meat, milk, nutrients

INTRODUCTIONHuman nutrition is up-to-date issue in developed

countries as well as in developing countries and countrieswhich are underdeveloped. Food is necessary prerequisiteofhumansurvivalandthemaintaskofhumansocietyistosecure enough food. According to FAO the nutrition ofabout 800 million people in the world is not satisfactory inquantitative and qualitative sence. The contradictionscontainted in the background of not having enough foodandspecial requests forbiological (nutritional) value of thefood should be overcame in near future (Roman declara-

tion, 1996).

Croatia has good conditions for production of signifi-cant amounts of food; for its own needs and for export. In

this paper, the significance of animal food (meat and milk)in human nutrition and satisfaction of life needs with spe-cial look on health is reviewed.

MEAT IN HUMAN NUTRITIONMeat is excelent source of proteins with high biologi-

cal value.The proteins from meat are of high quality be-cause they contain high share of essencial amino acidswhich are necessary for human organism. Meat is alsosignificant source of water soluble vitamines from B com-

plex; pork contain 5-10 times more tiamine than other meats. It contains significant amounts of riboflavine,niacine, folic and panthotenic acids, vitaminesB6 andB12which are also essential for humans. In smaller amounts it

contains vitamines A, C, D, E and K, and significant quantities of iron, zinc and phosphorus.

Although muscle tissue contains only 2-3% of fat,depending on the species of the animal and anatomical lo-cation, the composition of the fat i.e. content of some fattyacids and their influenceon healthhas becomethesubjectof study of many authors.

The consumption of fresh meat per member ofhousehold in 1998 (table 1) was 45.10 kg; processedmeat 15.88 kg (dried, smoked, cured as well as ccon-served and processed meat) The most consumed meatper member of the household is poultry meat (17.78 kg),

than follow pork (13.45 kg) and beef (11.59 kg).The com-parison of fresh meat consumption per household mem-ber in 1988 and 1998 shows that in 10 year period therewere 3.2 index points decrease in consumption of allkinds of meat: beef 12.2; pork 19; sheep, lamb and goat37; organs 3 index points, but poltry meat consumptionincreased for 26.1 index points. The decrease of standardin Croatia was factor influencing the increase ofconcumption of cheaper poultry meat.

In the nutrition structure of a household ni 1998,meat and processed meat take part with 13.66%, fish andprocessed fish 0.84%, milk, processed milk and eggs


(1) Gordana Kralik , Full Professor, Dr.h.c, (3) Antun Petri~evi}, Professor Emeritus - J. J. Strossmayer University of Osijek, Faculty of Agriculture, Trg sv.Trojstva 3, 31000 Osijek, Croatia, (2) Jasmina Havranek Luka~, Full Pro- fessor, (4) Ivan Juri}, Full Professor - University of Zagreb, Faculty of Agron-omy, Sveto{imunska cesta b.b., 10000 Zagreb, Croatia



9.43%, oils and fats 16.39% and weat products 34.07%.Daily energy consumption per household member is12,604.71 joule.

Analysis of biochemical composition of householdnutrition in 1998 shows that animalproteins make 49.08%

from total of daily consumed proteins (table 2).Market has great influence on producers; it forces

them to turn their orientation on complex technologicalprocesses. Technologies for production of so called “de-signed” food are investigated because they, beside al-ready known quality, suit better for human heatlth bystimulation od functional processes in organism. Tasteand juicyness are important properties of meat for con-sumers and they are in positive correlation with fat contentin meat. The demands of producers today go in the direc-

tion of lowering the fats with simultaneous modification ofsome fatty acids in meat.

Although chicken meat is considered as dieteticproduct, technologies which alter its nutritive compositionin direction of reducing the cholesterol level and increas-ing the content of essencial fatty acids are developing to-day which should give positive impact on human health.Polyunsaturated fatty acids, esspecialy those from 3group, became very importat to human nutritionists be-cause they have significant role in prevention of stress in-duced deseases and of those induced by improper diets(Barlow andPike, 1991; Albrecht andKlein, 1995).Unsat-urated 3 type fatty acids decrease the risk of heart

deseases and psoryasis; moreover, they are necessaryfor normal development of brain and nerve tissue (Leafand Weber, 1988; Barlow and Pike, 1991). Altering the fatcomposition in broiler diets by inclusion of some feedstufsresults in so called “designed” food, rich in 3 polyunsatu-

rated fatty acids such as a-linolenic (C 18:33),eicosapentaenic (C 20:53) and docosahexaenic (C22:63), stated Haumann (1993).

Plant sources of fats, rich in 3 fatty acids are addedinto diets for broilers in order to improve the fatty acidsprofile in the meat and eggs with satisfactory flavor of theproduct (Chanmugam et al. 1992; Ajuyah et al. 1993).

The possibilities of increasing the -linolenic fattyacid using the rape products have been acknowledged inresearches of Zollitsch et al. (1993), Lettner and Zollitsch(1993), Kraliket al. (1997) andLopez-Ferrer et al. (1997).

Linolic acid, LA (C 18:26) and a-linolenic (aLNA)

are not synthetised in higher animals but in plants. In metabolism of linolic acid, the chain is desaturated and elon-gated till m-linolenic acid and arachidonic acid, AA (C20:46), while aLNA is metabolised till eicosapentaenic(EPA) and docosahexaenic acid (DHA). The possibilitiesof alteration of acids from w-6 to -3 and vice versa doesnot exist. For this reason tissues with polyunsaturatedfatty acids vary a lot regarding the composition (-6 / -3ratio) depending on the selection of feedstufs in the diet.Omega-6 / -3 ratio in fatty tissue influencemany aspectsin physiology of animals including behaviour and health


Table 1. Meat and processed meat consumption in households 1988 and 1998 in Republic of Croatia - annual mean perhousehold member

Meat and meat products 1988 1998Index 1998/1988

kg % kg %

Fresh meat - Total 46.60 100.00 45.10 100.00 96.8

Beef 13.20 28.33 11.59 25.70 87.8

Pork 16.60 35.62 13.45 29.82 81.0

Sheep, lamb, goat meat 1.00 2.15 0.63 1.40 63.0

Poultry meat 14.10 30.26 17.78 39.42 126.1Other meats and organs 1.70 3.65 1.65 3.66 97.0

Source: SGH, 1989 and SLJH, 1999

Table 2. Biochemical composition of nutrition in households in 1998

Nutritional ingredient Daily consumption, g Structure of the composition, %

Carbohydrates

Fats

Proteins

- from this of animal origin

370.80

126.74

93.39

45.84

62.75

21.45

15.80

49.08Total 590.93 100.00

Source: SGH, 1989 and SLJH, 1999



status. Consequently, there is an influence on humanhealth as well. New findings from western industrial coun-

tries point out the fact that longer intake of LA (-6) withrelative “deficiency” of -3 is the main risk factor inoccurence of cancer, coronary deseases (CHD), cere-

brovascular deseases (CVD) andalergic hyperactivity; notcholesterol as was considered till now. Therefore it is im-portant to reduce the -6 / -3 acids ratio in meat andmilk using some feedstufs in diets (Okuyama andIkemoto, 1999).

THE IMPORTANCE OF DAIRY FOODS IN HEALTHAND DIET

Dairy products contribute to health throughout life.For children, according to the American Academy of Pae-diatrics (AAP), dairy food, in-between a wide variety offoods is nutrient dense food with good amounts of pro-

teins, vitamins and minerals necessary for growth and de-velopment.

Total milk and milk products consumption in ana-lysed period (Table 3) was increased for 3,1 index points;cheese andother products increased for 96,2 index pointsand fresh milk decreased for 2,1 index points.

Many studies indicate that intake of calcium richfoods such as all dairy products during childhood and ad-olescence is an important determinant of peak bone massand future risk of osteoporosis. Today osteoporosis is amajor public health problem in many countries. This dis-ease is responsible for millions and millions fractures a

year, including spine, hip, wrist and other sites. Moreover,many older patients with osteoporosis hip fractures fail toregain their former engineered for added value (Harlander,1998).

Dairy food can make a significant contribution to thenation’s supply of nutrients. In Home Economics Re-search Report by Gerrior and Bente (1997), dairy foods(excluding butter) contributed only 9% of the total caloriesavailable. Yet, these foods provides 73% of the calcium,31% of the riboflavin, 33% of the phosphorous, 19% of theproteins, 16% of the magnesium, 21% of the vitamin B12,17% of the vitamin A, 10% of vitamin B6 and 6% of the thi-

amine. Milk and dairy foods are therefore nutrient densefood, supplying a high concentration of much mobility.

Milk, particularly casein, has been demonstrated todecrease the adherence of carity cansing bacteria to the

teeth. Researchers have demonstrated an anti-cariogeniceffect of aged Cheddar, Swiss, Edam, Gouda, Mozzarella,Roquefort, Tilzit, Menster, Port Salut, Roman, Stilton,

Monterey Jack and American processed cheese (U. S.Department of Health and Human Service, 1996; Jenkins,1990; Bowen and Pearoon, 1993).

Adolescent period is characterised by rapid physicalgrowth as well as maturational changes. Fleming andHeimbach (1994) compared the nutrient profiles of teen-age girls who drank milk to those who did not. Milk drink-ers consumed 80% more calcium, 59% more vitaminB12, 56% more riboflavin, 38% more folate, 35% more vi-

tamin A, 24% more of each vitamin B6 and potassium and22% more magnesium than non-milk drinking teenagers.The main characteristic of that age is lack of knowledge,

eating away from home, soft drinks substituted for milk,body image / weight concerns.

Adults – the main characteristic of that age is stabil-ity, but a prolonged low calcium intake has been linked to

the development of several chronic diseases, includingosteoporosis, hypertension and cancer (Fleming andHeimbach, 1994; Heaney et al, 1994; McCarron et al,1990).

Number of risk factors for osteoporosis have beenidentified, but both genetics and environmental lifestylefactors influence developing of this disease (Christiansen,1993; Melton et al, 1992; Norris, 1992).

Gender, race, age, hormonal status and body fra-me/weight are other factors that influence bone mass and the development of osteoporosis. Women, because ofgenerally smaller, lighter bones, rapid loss of bone atmenopause and lower calcium intake are about four timesmore likely to develop osteoporosis than are men(Matkovic et al, 1993).

There are many research papers where authors sug-gest milk intake to postmenopausal women, because ofbeneficial effect on bone health (Laccy et al, 1991;Callegari, 1990; Hu, 1993).

In 1980, McCarron and colleagues hypothesised that

chronic calcium deficiency may lead to hypertension. Af- ter that many trials and papers presents explanation whathappened in restricted calcium intake. Two meta analysts


Table 3. Milk and milk products consumption in households 1988 and 1998 in Republic of Croatia - annual mean valueper household member

Milk and milk products Index 1998/1988kg or l % kg or l %

Total 110.6 100.0 114.0 100.0 103.1

Fresh milk 97.9 88.5 91.9 80.6 93.9

Butter 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 100.0Cheese and other products 12.3 11.1 21.7 19.0 196.2

Source: SGH - 1989 and SLJH, 1999

1988 1998



found calcium to be significantly effective in reducingblood pressure in normotensive and hypertensive individ-uals and in preventing induced hypertension andpreeclampsia (Sowers et al, 1991; Bucher et al, 1996;Bucher et al, 1996).

Colon cancer in susceptible persons may also be theunfortunate results of adaptation to a low calcium intake.On a high calcium diet much of the unabsorbed calcium(75–85 %) remains in the intestinal lumen where it formsinsoluble complex with thebile acids andunabsorbed fattyacids, and protects the mucosal lining of the colon from

their toxic effects.On low calcium diet, the body adapts by increasing

calcium absorption, leaning less unabsorbed calciumreaching the colon to complex with irritant acids. This in-creases the likelihood that the cells living the colon will bedamaged, proliferate and progress toward cancer. Epide-

miological researches as well as studies in animals andhumans indicate that dairy food and/or their componentshave a protective effect against cancer. The potentialanticancer agents identified so far in dairy foods includeconjugated linoleic acid (CLA), calcium, vitamin D,sphingomyelin, butyric acid, ether lipids, protein and lacticacid bacteria (National Dairy Council, 1997).

Halt et al. (1998) made a controlled trial to evaluatewhether increasing the intake of low-fat dairy foods in pa-

tients at high risk of colon cancer would normalisechanges in the colon believed to be pre-cancerous (Halt etal, 1998). The trial found out (established) that signifi-

cantly reduced cell proliferation of the colon mucosa, celldifferentiation and maturation was significantly return to-ward normal. The authors do not attribute these results tocalcium alone. Calcium or any of dairy food components,first mentioned, could have produced the positive effect.Since the sequel of calcium deficiency appear to rise ofseveral chronic disease, and several components of dairyfood are potentially protective, it makes sense for healthpractitioners to encourages a lifelong adequate intake ofmilk and milk products. There is a suggestive evidence

that intake of culture containing dairy foods such as yo-ghurt may protect against colon cancer also more re-

search is needed to confirm this finding as well as todelineate the potential anti-cancerogenic role of CLA.Dairy foods are an important source of calcium, vitamin D,and CLA and if cultured, bacterial cultures, all of whichhave been suggested to protect against colon cancer. In-dividuals, especially those at risk of colon cancer, shouldconsume the recommended number of servings from milk and other food groups each day.

There are some more information in research work about milk and milk products. One of those is very impor-

tant nutritional and physiological role of milk protein com-ponents.

Milk is exclusive source of nutrients for the youngand it also represents a high grade source of dietary nitro-gen and indispensable amino acids for adults. A physio-logical role has also been proposed for milk protein

component. Milk components including lactoferrin,vitamin B12 binding protein, folate binding protein,-lactoglobulin, -lactoalbumin and casein phos-phopeptides are assumed to interact with either mineralsand vitamins absorption.

Imunoglobulins, enzymes (lysozyme, lactoper-oxidase) and other proteins or derived peptides can alsocontribute to provide passive protection against infectionby a growth or inhibiting activity on bacterial strains andby an antiviral effect. Some casein derived peptides havebeen identified as angiotesin-converting enzyme (ACE) in-hibitors that could result in an anti-hypertensive effect.Peptides from -casein and human lactoferrin could haveanti-trombotic properties (Jolles et al, 1986).

Like a special subject interest can also be many other components of milk and milk products. Great interest canbe how milk components act on the immune system.

Detailed information on these is essential for devel-oping dairy ingredients or products with immuno-modulatory (immunoenhancing, immunosuppressive, or anti-inflam- matory) properties for human consumption(Gill et al, 1998). On the other hand “bioviability” in dairyproducts is very important for supporting normal growth,comparing with the other food sources. But not only ingrowth phases, also in adult life (Horowick et al, 1987).

CONCLUSIONConsumers are increasing looking for animal prod-

ucts, which could prevent disease or illness. Future pro-

duction of that type of products must have reliablescientific nutrition information, so that they do not misleadand that consumers can understand all of them. The placeof animal products will be still very important, and subjectof many scientific exploration to find real position of themin human well being, and future strategy of public healthno risk.

REFERENCES1. Albrecht, M., Klein, M. (1995): Oleum Lini: Portrait eines

pflanzlichen Oels. Pharmazie 7, 36-40.2. Ajuyah, A.O., Hardin, R.T., Sim, J.S. (1993): Studies on ca-

nola seed in turkey grower diet: Effects on 3 fatty acidcomposition of breast meat, breast skin and selected or-gans. Can. J. Anim.Sci. 73: 177-181.

3. Barlow, S., Pike, I.M. (1991): Humans, animals benefit fromomega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Feedstuffs 63 (19):18-26.

4. Bowen, W. H., Pearoon, S. K.(1993): Effect of milk oncariogenesis, Caries Res., 27:461.

5. Bucher, H. C., Cook, R. J., Guyatt, G. H., Lang, J. D., Cook,

D. J., Hatala, R., Hunt, D. L.(1996): Effects of dietary cal-cium supplementation on blood pressure, JAMA, 275(3):1016.




6. Bucher, H. C., Cook, R. J., Gnyatt, G. H., Lang, J. D.,, Cook,D. J., Hatal, R., Hunt, D. L.(1996): Effects of dietary cal-cium supplementation on blood pressure, JAMA, 275(14):1113.

7. Callegari, C., Lami, F., Levantesi, F., Andreacchio, A. M.,

Tatali, M., Miglioli, M., Gnuki, S., Barbari, L.(1990): Postmenopausal bone density, lactase deficiency and milk consumption, J. Hum. Nutr. Dietetics, 3: 159.

8. Chanmugam, P., Boudreau, M., Boutte, T., Park, R.S.,Hebert, J., Berrio, L., Hwang, D.W. (1992): Incorporationof different types of n-3 fatty acids into tissue lipids ofpoultry: Poultry Science. 71: 516-521.

9. Christiansen, C. (1993): Skeletal osteoporosis, J. BoneMiner Res., 8 (suppl. 2): 475.

10. Fleming, K. H., Heimbach, J. T. (1994): Consumption of Cal-cium in the U. S.: food sources and intake levels, J. Nutr.124: 1426.

11. Gerrior, S., Bente, L..(1997): Food Supply, 1909-1994, Nu- trient Content of the U. S. Home Economics Research Re-

port, No. 53, U. S. Department of Agriculture Centre for Nutrition Policy and Promotion.

12. Gualtiery M., Pali, B., Rapaccini (1993): Fatty acid composition of broilers meat as influenced by dietsupplementation with fishoil. In 11 th European Sympo-sium on the Quality of Poultry Meat. Tours, 4-8 October,Vol.1: 136-141.

13. Gill, H. S., Rutherfurd, K. J. (1998): Immunomodulatoryproperties of bovine milk, Bulletin of IDF 336.

14. Halt, P. R., Atillasay, E. O., Gilman, J., Guss, J., Mass, S. F.,Newmark, H., Fan, K., Yang, K. and Lipkin, M. (1998):Modulation of abnormal colonic epithelial cell proliferationand differentiation by low-fat dairy foods, JAMA, 28

(12):1074.15. Harlander, S. (1998): Food for 21st Century, Bulletin of theInternational Dairy Federation No. 336/1998.

16. Haumann, F.B. (1993): Deisgner eggs already on supermar-ket shelves.INFORM, 4 (4), 371-373.

17. Heaney, R. P., Barger-Lux, J. (1994): Low calcium intake, the culprit in many chronic disease, J. Dairy Sci. 77:1195.

18. Horowick, M., Wiskart, J., Mundy, L., Nardin, B. E. C.(1987): Lactose and calcium absorption in post-menopausal osteoporosis. Arch. Int. Med. 147: 534-536.

19. Hu, J. F., Zhao X-H., Jia, J. B., Parpia, B., Campbell, T. D.(1993): Dietary calcium and bone density among middleage and elderly women in China, Ane. J. Chin. Nutr. 58:219.

20. Jenkins, G. N. (1990): Cheese as a Protection against dentalcaries. Nutr. Q., 13.33.

21. Jolles, P., Lery-Toledono, S., Fiat, A. M., Soria, C., Gillesen,D., Thomaidis, A., Dunn, F. W., Caen, J. P. (1986): Anal-ogy between fibrinogen and casein. Effect of anundecapeptide isolated from -casein on platelet func-

tion. Eur. J. Biochem. 158: 379-382.22. Kralik, Gordana, Boì~kovi}, P., Galonja, Marica, Škrti}, Z.,

Canecki, Katica (1997): Mogu}nost pove}anja sadràjavišestruko nezasi}enih masnih kiselina u pile}em mesuputem hranidbe. Krmiva 39 (5): 223-231.

23. Laccy, J. M., Anderson, J. J., Fujita, T., Yoshimato, Y.,Fukase, M., Tsuchie, S. and Koch, G. G. (1991): Corre-lates of cortical bone mass among pre-menopausal and

post-menopausal Japanese women, J. Bone Miner. Res.,6:651.

24. Leaf, A., Weber, P.C. (1988): Cardiovascular effects of3-fatty acids.N.engl.J.med. 318:549.

25. Lettner, F. Zollitsch, W.(1993): Ersatz von Sojaoel durch

Rapsoel im Huehnermastfutter. Voerderungdienst 41 (3),69-72.26. Lopez-Ferrer,S., Baucells, M.D., Barroeta, A.C., Blanch, A.,

Grashorn, M.A. (1997): 3 Enrichment of Chicken Meat:Use of Fish, Rapeseed and Linseed Oils. Polutry MeatQuality. Proceedings of the XII European Symposium on

the Quality of Poultry Meat, September 21-26, Poznan,Poland, 74-82.

27. Matkovic, V., Ilich, J. and Hsich, L.(1993): Influence of age,sex and diet on bone mass and fracture rate, Osteop. Int.,Suppl. 1: 20.

28.McCarron,D.A.,Pingree,P.A.,Rubin,R.J.,Gancher,S.M.,Malitch, M., Krutzik, S.(1980): Enhanced parathyroid: ahomeostatic response to a urinary calcium leak, Hyper-

tension, 2: 162.29. McCarron, D. A., Lipkin, M., Rivlin, R. S., Haney, R. P.(1990:

Dietary calcium and chronic diseases, Med. Hypath., 31:265.

30. Melton, L. J., Chriscilles, E. A., Cooper, C., Lane, A. W.,Riggs, B. L.(1992): Pespectice. How many women haveosteoporosis? J. bone Miner. Res. 7 : 1005.

31. Norris, R. J. (1992): Medical costs of osteoporosis, Bone,13, S11.

32. Okuyama H., Ikemoto, A. (1999): Needs to modified the fattyacid of meats for human health. Proceedings of 45ICoMST, Yokohama, Japan, P. 638-639.

33. Petri~evi}, A., Boàc, R. (1991): Mogu}nosti i razvoj

proizvodnje tehnološki kvalitetnog i zdravog mesa.Poljoprivredne aktualnosti, 39(3-4):685-690.34. Sowers, J. R., Zemel, M. B., Zemel, P. C., Standley, R.

P.(1991): Calcium metabolism and dietary calcium in saltsensitive hypertension, J. Am. Hypertension, 4: 557.

35. Zollitsch, W., Wetscherek, W., Lettner, F. (1993): Einsatzvon Rapsoel im Huehnermastfutter. Archiv fuer Gefluegelkunde, 56 (4), 182-186.

36. ……....... Statisti~ki godišnjak Hrvatske, 1989. god.37. ……… U. S. Department of Agriculture and U. S. Depart-

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ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 636.085.19+613.2

TOXIC SUBSTANCES IN THE FOOD CHAIN – RISK ASSESSMENT

Melinda Zomborszky-Kovács(1) , F. Kovács(2) , P. Horn(3)

Original scientific paper

ABSTRACT

It seems to be impossible to keep toxic substances out of the food chain. Interaction of natural environmental toxins and other chemicals or residues in food may result in harmful synergis-tic effects. In order to protect human health against the deleterious effects of different toxic

substances it is imperative that tolerance levels be established. Tolerance levels can only beestablished on the basis of comprehensive risk assessment studies.

Keywords: cadmium, fumonisins, ochratoxin A, food chain

INTRODUCTIONScientific results support the presumption that ani-

mal- and human health problems in majority of cases canbe due to environmental pollution. According to some esti-mations the human health state is determined in 25% by

the environment. Among environmental factors food is asource of essential nutrients sustaining life and in someaspects ensuring life quality. Some constituents of foodhowever may decrease nutritional value, some of them –like heavy metals and mycotoxins – may be even harmful.So the food chain may contain natural environmental pol-lutants. Interaction of environmental toxins and other chemicals or residues in food may result in harmful syner-gistic effects. Assessment of whether a food is safe,should be based on its inherent toxicity and on what kindof a hazard is created.

CADMIUM MOVEMENT IN THE FOOD CHAINIn a series of experiments we examined the kinetics

of cadmium in the food chain in one region of Hungary.The aim of the study was to get more information about

the kinetics and cumulating of Cd in the soils, plants, ani-mal and human organisms and organs.

2.1. Methods appliedCd level of grains grown on different soils, in the

blood serum of cows before and after calving, incolostrumand milk, in pigmented hairs, in different organsof cows and in blood and milk of women was measured.Details of the analyses are published by Kovács et al.(1998).

2.2. ResultsBlood serum of cows fed corn grains grown on acid

soils contained 23 nmol/l Cd, measured 10-14 days be-fore calving. The Cd content of the colostrum was 30-32nmol/l and remained 16 nmol/l during lactation. Closesignificant correlation was found between the Cd content

of the soils and the Cd level of pigmented hairs of the ani-mals kept in this region.

Cd concentration of the blood, the milk and hair sam-ples were also in close correlation, the minimum lowestlevels were measured subsequently after calving. Accord-ing to the data of the National Institute for Food Control, thehighest amount of Cd (450-560 g/kg in case of cows)was detected in the kidneys of the slaughtered animals,less Cd was in the liver, muscles contained the leastamount. According to the preliminary examinations, Cd

was detectable in the blood and colostrum of woman inamount of 18-20 and 24-30 nmol/l, respectively.

2.3. ConclusionsCd is detectable in every elements of the food chain,

even in the colostrum of women, the first nutriment ofnewborns. Data show that Cd accumulates in the kidneyof the animals. The Cd content of pigmented hair of ani-mals may indicate the degree of Cd contamination ofsoils. Vegetables, cereal products and foods of animal ori-gin (meat, liver, kidneys) were considered as the most im-portant factors of Cd accumulation in human.

DETECTION OF OCHRATOXIN A IN HUMAN BLOODAND COLOSTRUM

Ochratoxin A (OA) is one of the commonest naturallyoccurring mycotoxins in Hungary, synthesised by numer-ous species of the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium. Itshigh prevalence and incidence can be attributed partly to

the higher resistance of the strains to environmental con-ditions (relative humidity, temperature). OA has nephro-

toxic and hepatotoxic effects. The long known humandisease designated 'Balkan endemic nephropathy’ has

been assumed to be caused by OA. Because of the high

12 Poljoprivreda 6 (2000)

(1) Melinda Zomborszky-Kovács, Associate Professor, (2) Ferenc Kovács, Full Professor, (3) Peter Horn, Full Professor - University of Kaposvár, Fa-culty of Animal Science,Guba S. str. 40, 7400 Kaposvár, Hungary



prevalence of OA in Hungary, the OA levels in humanblood and colostrum were determined.

3.1. Methods applied

Blood samples and mother’s colostrum sampleswere collected by a randomised method, in different partsof Hungary. The OA content of the blood samples was de-

termined by the method described by Sándor et al.(1991). The determination of OA in mother’s colostrumwas carried out by the method described by Gareis et al.(1988), the HPLC method applied in this study is de-scribed in detail by Kovács et al (1995).

3.2. ResultsAs had been expected OA could be detected in a rela-

tively high proportion (52%) of the human blood samples tested. 34% of the samples showed OA level below 1ng/ml, 16% between 1 and 5 ng/ml. In one sample theconcentration of OA was above 10 ng/ml. Ninety-twomother’s colostrum samples were collected fromparturient mothers within 24 hours after delivery, and 38of these were found to be positive. The average toxin con-centration was 1.4 ng/ml.

3.3. ConclusionsThe results obtained indicate that human exposure to

OA is a distinct possibility. This is a serious risk becauseof the teratogenic, mutagenic and carcinogenic propertiesof the toxin. Mycotoxins, which are also excreted in the

mother’s milk, pose a serious risk to the health of newborninfants, considering that susceptibility to theeffects of tox-ins is inversely related to age.

DETERMINATION OF TOLERANCE LIMIT VALUE OFFUMONISIN B1 IN PIGS

The metabolites of Fusarium moniliforme, the fumo-nisins (FB1, FB2, FB3 and FB4), constitute one of the fivemajor toxin groups which play a role proving detrimental

to human health. FB1 causes oesophageal cancer in hu-mans, pulmonary oedema in pigs, and encephalomalaciain horses (Riley et al., 1996). In Hungary almost 70% ofmouldy maize inspected since 1993 has shown FB1 con-

tamination (mean 2.6-8.65 mg/kg; maximum 9.8-75.1mg/kg), the degree of this contamination increasing fromyear to year Fazekas et al., 1997). There is no generallyaccepted, uniform system of standards with respect to

this toxin; thus the assessment, by means of determination of the tolerable limit values and the critical concentration, of the detrimental effect elicited in the humanorganism is unavoidable.

4.1. Methods appliedThree experiments were carried out with weaned pig-

lets, in order to study the dose and time dependent effectof FB1. Fungal culture of Fusariun moniliforme was added

to the diet so that the FB1 exposure was: 0, 10, 20 and 40

ppm for 4 weeks; 0, 1, 5 and 10 ppm for 8 weeks; 0, 1, 5,and 10 ppm for 5 months.

The piglets were subjected to computer tomography(CT) examination for the purpose of establishing diagno-sis of newly developing or progressive changes to the

lungs. Using the data referring the tissue density obtainedso-termed HU indices, referring the water content of thelung were determined. Magnetic resonance (MR) exami-nations were performed in order to examine any changesoccurring in the cerebral matter (e.g. oedema or encephalomalatia). Certain haematological (WBC, RBC,Htc, haemoglobin concentration), blood biochemical pa-rameters (total protein, albumin, cholesterol, AST, ALT,GGT, ALKP) and serum free sphinganine and sphingosineconcentrations were determined. At the end of the experi-ments the pigs were slaughtered, gross pathological andhistopathological examinations were carried out. Methods

applied are described in detail in Zomborszky-Kovács etal. (2000b).

4.2. ResultsIn none of the experiments and the periods examined

had FB1 any significant effect on feed consumption, bodyweight gain and feed conversion of weaned pigs (for fur-

ther data see Tóth et al., 2000). No clinical signs due to toxic effect was observed. However, in computer tomog-raphy examinations performed, the development of mildand severe pulmonary oedema could be detected. On ex-amination of the changes in the HU indices (referring to the

water content of the lung tissue) significant difference between the healthy and pathological lungs could be statisti-cally proven. In the images obtained from the magneticresonance (MR) examinations performed at the samepoints in time as the CT examinations none of the animalsshowed significant change in the cerebral tissue, indicat-ing, that no changes occurred that could be detected using

this technique. Of the biochemical parameters examined, the aspartate aminotransferase (AST) activities increaseddependent upon the dose administered. This finding indi-cated pathological change in the liver. It has recently beenshown that fumonisins are specific inhibitors of sphin-

golipid biosynthesis, reducing conversion of sphinganine(SA) to sphingosine (SO), with a consequent increase in the SA to SO ratio. The free SA to SO ratio in the blood se-rum is considered as the most sensitive biomarker offumonisin toxicoses (Rileyet al,1993). In ourexperimentsSA to SO ratio examined increased in proportion to thedose of the toxin administered.

By dissection the number of the animals showingpathological changes, and the severity of the alterationswere in accordance with the dose and time of exposure. In

the case of pulmonary oedema infiltration and widening of the septa between the lobules were observed. The lungs

were found to be slightly enlarged and stiff to the touch.Histopathological examination revealed mild intraalveolar andmilderormoreseverecasesof subpleural and interlob-ular pulmonary oedema. The septa between the lobules of




the lung were observed to be widened, the lymphatic ves-sels in thisarea were filled upwith lymph,and there was se-rious infiltration between the constituent parts of theconnective tissue.

4.3. ConclusionsNo clinical signs were observed although mild and

more severe pulmonary oedema had developed in the ex-perimental animals. The CT examination and the mathe-matical and statistical analyses performed were adequate

to diagnose pathological changes in the lung. This facilityfor for diagnosis can be used in the examinations to fol-low, for the detection of microscopic changes which donot give rise to the development of clinical symptoms.

The results obtained in the first experiment (10, 20,and 40 ppm FB1) prompted further experiments to be per-

formed using even smaller doses in order to determine theNo Observed Effect Level (NOEL) of the fumonisins. In theexperiments with lower doses (1, 5 and 10 ppm) at the 1ppm level only one animal showed slight pulmonary oe-dema at the end of the 2nd month. However when using 1ppmforlongtermperiod(5months)therewere2casesofoedema. As the SA/SO ratio in these animals did not differ significantly from the controls, we suggest that the limitvalue of tolerance for FB1 is bellow 1 ppm for pigs in caseof long term exposure. These findings may provide usefuldata for the recommendation of permissible levels ofmycotoxin contamination allowed in basic materials for animal feeds and in mixed diets.

EXAMINATION OF PERINATAL TOXICOSIS OFFUMONISIN B1 IN PREGNANT SOWS ANDNEWBORN PIGLETS

There are no literature data available concerningpossible harmful effect on pig foetuses of fumonisin B1. Itwas also not known whether FB1 is secreted in milk. Theobjective of the study was to establish whether FB1 or any

of its metabolites, can harm foetuses in utero when fed tosows in the advanced stage of pregnancy.

5.1. Methods applied

Three pregnant sows were fed a diet mixed withFusarium moniliforme fungal culture from the 107 th day ofpregnancy so that the daily FB1 intake was 300 mg FB1per sow. Two of the sows were given the toxin for a further 7 days after parturition, i.e. 14-16 days in total, while the

third sow was given this dosage only until parturition, i.e.for a period of 7 days. Directly following parturition and

before the first suckling two piglets from each sow wereslaughtered. Subsequently, after 24 hours two more pig-lets which had had access to colostrum were taken from

each sow, slaughtered and processed, followed by twomore per sow on the 7th day after parturition. Blood sam-ples of piglets were analysed for certain biochemical pa-rameters (total protein, albumin, cholesterol, AST, ALT,

GGT, ALKP) and serum free sphinganine and sphingosineconcentration. FB1concentration in sow’s milk was deter-mined. Analytical methods applied are described inZomborszky-Kovács et al. (2000a).

5.2. Results

The results obtained appear to corroborate that FB1 toxin fed to sows in the advanced stages of pregnancy canharm foetuses while still in the uterus. Of the disorderscharacteristically caused by this toxin, pulmonaryoedemaof particular severity was observed in the piglets slaugh-

tered immediately after parturition, before suckling could take place. Histopathological examination and increasesin the activities of the plasma aspartate aminotransferase(AST), gamma glutamyl transferase (GGT) and alkalinephosphatase (ALKP) indicated pathological changes in

the liver. The serum free SA/SO ratio varied in accordancewith thedegree of severity of thechanges which occurred.These disorders could still be observed in piglets slaugh-

tered 24 hours after parturition and on the 7 th day. On the7 th day no change indicating pulmonary oedema was ob-served in the lungs of the piglets of the third sow, which

was fed a toxin-free diet after parturition. In milk samples taken from sows on the 1st and 2nd day following parturition, FB1 could be detected in quantities of 18-27.5 ppb.FB1 was not present in detectable quantities in the milk of

that sow, to which no toxin was administered after parturition.

5.3. ConclusionsThis study has confirmed that FB1, when fed to sows

in the latter stage of pregnancy, exerted harmful effect on the foetuses in utero. The toxin was detectable in thesow’s milk in quantities of ppb.

The effects of fumonisins on the reproductive pro-cesses of domestic livestock andon foetal development isnot yet known. However further studies should primarilyfocus on the effects of the toxin ingested in low doses andcausing no apparent clinical symptoms to the mother ani-mal. The determination of the tolerable limit values for thefoetusdeveloping in theuterus is of particular importance.




REFERENCES1. Fazekas, B., Bajmóczy, E., Glávits, R., Fenyvesi, V. (1997):

Fumonisine mycotoxicoses in Hungary. Leucoence-phalomalatia in horses, fattening pulmonary oedema inpigs. Magyar Állatorvosok Lapja, 119: 137-139.

2. Gareis, M., Martbauer, M., Bauer, J., Gedek, B. (1988):Bestimmung von Ochratoxin A in Muttermilch. Z.Lebensmittel Unters. Forsch., 186: 114-117.

3. Kovács, F., Sándor, G., Ványi, A., Domány, S., Zom-borszky-Kovács, M. (1995): Detection of ochratoxin Ain human blood and colostrum. Acta Vet. Hung. 43(4):393-400.

4. Kovács, F., Brydl, E., Berta, E., Zomborszky-Kovács, M.,Sas, B., Tegzes, L., Sarudi, I. (1998): Cd movement in

the soil-plant-animal-man biological chain.Állattenyésztés és Takarmányozás, 47(4): 315-336.

5. Riley, R.T., Showker, N-K., Yoo, H-S., Norred, W.P., Cham-berlain, W.J., Wang, E., Merrill Jr., A.H., Motelin, G.,Beasley, V.R., Haschek, W.M. (1993): Alteration of tis-sue and serum sphinganine to sphingosine ratio: anearly biomarker to fumonisin-containing feeds in pigs.Toxicol. And Appl. Pharmacol., 118: 105-112.

6. Riley, R.T., Wang, E., Schroeder, J.J., Smith, E.R., Plattner,R.D., Abbas, H., Yoo, H-S., Merrill Jr., A.H. (1996): Evi-dence for disruption of sphingolipid metabolism as acontributing factor in the toxicity and carcinogenity offumonisins. Natural Toxins, 4: 3-15.

7. Sándor, G., Busch, A., Watzke, H., Reek, J., Ványi, A.(1991): Subacute toxicity testing of ochratoxin A andcitrinine on swine. Acta Vet. Hung., 39: 149-160.

8. Tóth, Á., Zomborzsky-Kovács, M., Tornyos, G., Szalai, N.,Kübler, K. (2000): Effect of fumonisin B1 produced byFusarium moniliforme on feed consumption and bodyweight gain of weaned pigs. 8th International Sympo-sium 'Animal Science Days’ , Osijek, Croatia (in press).

9. Zomborszky-Kovács, M., Vetési, F., Kovács, F., Bata, Á.,Tóth, Á., Tornyos, G. (2000a): Examination of the harm-ful effect to foetuses of fumonisin B1 in pregnant sows.Teratogenesis, Carcinogenesis and Mutagenesis (inpress).

10. Zomborszky-Kovács M., Vetési, F., Repa, I., Kovács, F.,

Bata, Á., Horn, P., Tóth, Á., Romvári, R. (2000b): Experi-ment to determine limits of tolerance for fumonisin B1 inweaned piglets. J. Vet. Med. B., 47: 277-286.




ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 637.5:613/614

THE ROLE OF MEAT IN BALANCED NUTRITION

K. Salobir

Scientific review

ABSTRACT

Meat is a rich source of nutrients which human nutrition often lacks. It is a rich and important source of essential amino acids, vitamins, minerals and also long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. Moderate intake of lean meat enables easier composition of balanced diet. On the other hand, excessive meat intake supersedes from the diet foodstuffs which supply dietary fibers,vitamins, andalso non-vitamin antioxidant active substances andminerals. Not meat itself but

imbalanced nutrition with too much fat and saturated fatty acids and deficient intake of -3

fatty acids, antioxidant vitamins and phytochemicals, minerals and dietary fiber present a risk for the development of cardiovascular disease and cancer. Because of its distinct and high nutritional value meat preserves its role in a rational human nutrition.

Keywords: meat, balanced nutrition, health, proteins, fatty acids, vitamins, minerals, nutri-tional value

Ever since the ancestors of human species, about7.5 to 4.5 million years ago, gave up vegetarianism(mainly frutarianism) and started to consume more andmore meat, meat has obtained a special place throughout

the evolution of human history.It is believed that about 2 million years ago Homo

habilis started to produce stone tools and after that his fol-lower Homo erectus, about 1.8 to 1.6 million years agostarted to consume much more meat. However, Homoerectus and Homo sapiens (about 400.000 years ago)still consumed diet with more than half of the food of plantorigin. Nutrition reconstruction (Table 1), on the basis ofpaleonthological finds and the comparison of the sourcesof food of that time with contemporary human tribes, whostill today live of hunting and gathering food, showed that

the Paleolithic man of the modern human species ( Homo sapiens sapiens), 400.000 years ago, consumed dailyabout 913 g of meat and 1697 g of food of plant origins

(Eaton, 1992; Eaton and Konner, 1985; Eaton et al.,1997). In these, at least 4.5 million years long period ofmeat consumption, the human being has become omniv-orous. It means, he has developed a suitable structure andconstitution of digestion and metabolism. Human diges-

tive tract has a relatively small volume of which only relatively small part presents large intestine designed for thefermentative digestion of non-starch polysaccharides. For

that reason humans have to consume food with high di-gestibility and relatively high concentration of nutrients, inorder to provide proper balance of energy and nutrients.

Table 1 illustrates that Paleolithic nutrition was veryrich. It contained a big amount of proteins. This amountactually nearly exceeds theamount which is today consid-ered still tolerable. The proportion of energy provided by

the proteins is greater than the one found in modern nutri-

tion. The diet was poor in fats, however, the ratio betweenunsaturated and saturated fatty acids was very high.

Thiswasduetoabundanceoffoodofplantoriginandquality of game, which is rich in unsaturated fatty acids.Because of high meat consumption, the Paleolithic manconsumed also a great amount of cholesterol. His dietwas rich in dietary fibers, vitamins especially with antioxi-dants and minerals. All nutritional parameters exceedmodern nutritional recommendation.

It is because of the quality of nutrition that thePaleolithic man was of bigger build than his successor oflater period who turned to agriculture. It is only in the latestera, as man started to consume more meat again, that hisbody constitution is becoming bigger (Eaton and Konner,1985). The current meat consumption also shows its im-portance. Nowadays the average world consumption ofmeat per inhabitant is modest. However, the calculated to-

tal world consumption is much greater than the one in the

Paleolithic Age. Rosegrant et al. (1999) summarise theannual consumption of meat in different parts of the worldin 1993 and predicted consumption in 2020 (Rosegrant etal., 1999). It is clear from these data that the consumptionof meat in different parts of the world varies greatly. It islower in poor countries, higher in rich countries. A distinc-

tive trend of increase is visible. The increase is relativelygreater if the current consumption is lower. In countrieswith low consumption they strive to increase the con-sumption of meat to create a good diets with favourableeffects on thehealthof inhabitants. In contrary to developedcountries, the official Chinese nutritional recommendation

is consumption of lean meat (McNutt, 1999). Pensel


Karl Salobir, Full Professor - University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical faculty, Department of Animal Science, Institute of Nutrition, Groblje 3, 1230 Domàle, Slovenia



(1997), on the other hand, foresees that in countries witha high level of meat consumption the meat consumptionwill decrease to the benefits of more diverse nutrition. Thecountries with a low level of meat consumption will for the

same reason increase the level of meat consumption as the growth of economy increases. However, Rosegrant etal. (1999) calculated that such an increase of meat pro-ductiontocovertheneedsisnotpossibletoattain.Hepre-dicted a possible realisation of 65% of the calculatedincrease.

Also in Slovene diets less meat is consumed nowa-days compared to “Slovene Paleolithic” period. Koch(1997) assessed on the basis of a survey that Slovenesconsume an average of 114 g of meat a day. On the other hand, ~epin (1997) calculated, on the basis of data of theproduction, export and import of meat, that Slovenes con-

sume annually 67.7 kg (185 g/day) of meat (including fish),which by converting to edible part of meat presents 44.2 kgper year (120 g/day).

This raises the question what should be the recom-mended meat consumption. None of nutritionists advo-cate the amount consumed in The Stone Age. On thecontrary, it is advised to consume meat in moderateamounts. Proportionally small amountof meat meets sub-stantial part of requirements for proteins, essential aminoacids, vitamins and some mineral elements. The propor-

tion of requirements that can be met with a 100 g of leanbeef, pork or chicken is illustrated in Table 2.

The table 2 shows the nutritional characteristics ofmeat as part of requirements that can be met with a 100 gof meat. Thecharacteristics with thevalue greater than theproportion of energy supplied by the meat indicates that

the meat is according to these characteristic a supple-ment. It is evident that an appropriate daily intake of leanmeat meets only small part of energy requirements, sup-plies only small amount of fat, but provides a substantial

amount of crucial nutrients. Meat is the most valuable assource of proteins, essential amino acids, vitamins Bgroup, iron and zinc. The importance of meat as signifi-cant source of zinc has been established in recent years.Red meat in particular is an excellent source of zinc. Zinc,as theessential constituent of most enzymaticsystems, isinvolved in many cell functions, as for example in the im-mune mechanisms, and also in the protection of cellstructure against free radicals. Fortes et al. (1997) found

that in elderly population zinc supplementation reduces the concentration of plasma lipid peroxides. Conse-quently, an appropriate supplementation of zinc can play a

major role in the prevention and development of diseasesin the elderly population. This can also be applied to theyounger population. Golub et al. (1999) investigated theinfluence of iron and zinc deficient diets and the influenceof powdered beef supplementation on the haematologyparameters and behaviour of adolescent monkeys. Theyconcluded that the marginal iron-zinc supply in the earlier stage of growth leads to the behavioural and haematologi-cal disturbances, which can be prevented and some evenabolished by nutritional supplementation with beef.

Due to its rich composition and therefore its greatvalue as supplement, meat is very important in the nutri -

tion of the most sensitive groups of population: pregnantwomen, lactating mothers, children and elderly. Very interesting and also surprising are the results of the recentlypublished study by Campbell et al. (1999) in which the ef-


Table 1. Average nutritional value of Paleolithic nutrition and modern nutrition recommendation according to RDA(comparison according to Eaton et al., 1997)

Parameter of reconstruction Paleolithicnutrition Modern nutrition Parameter of reconstruction Paleolithic

nutrition Modern nutrition

Meat, g/day 913 Vitamins:

Food of plant origin, g/d 1697 Vitamin E, mg/day 32.8 8 - 10

Energy, kJ/day 12558 9200 - 12140 Tiamin, mg/day 3.9 1.1 – 1.5

kcal/day 3000 2200 - 2900 Riboflavin, mg/day 6.5 1.3 – 1.7

Proteins, g/day 123 50 - 63 Folic acid, mg/day 0.357 0.18 – 0.20

Proportion of energy: 37 10 - 15 Vitamin C, mg/day 604 60

in proteins, % Minerals:

in carbohydrates, % 41 55 - 70 Calcium, mg/day 1956 800 – 1200

in fats, % 22 15 - 30 Sodium, mg/day 768 500 - 2400Fatty acids ratio P/S 1.4 > 0.5 Potassium, mg/day 10500 3500

Ratio -6/ -3 1 1 to 4 1 4 1 to 10 1 Iron, mg/day 87 10 - 15

Cholesterol, mg/day 480 300 Zinc, mg/day 43 12 – 15

Dietary fibers, g/day 100 20 - 30



fects of a lactoovovegetarian and omnivorous diet onchanges of skeletal muscle mass in older men under 12week training conditions were compared. Both groupswere supplied with equal amount of proteins. Half of theproteins in the omnivorous diet were provided with meat(beef, poultry, pork and fish). The training increased mus-cle mass in the omnivorous diet group for 16.2% and in

the laktoovovegetarian diet for 7.3%. It is not possible toattribute favourable results in the omnivorous diet only todifferences in protein quality, since the quality of milk pro-

teins is equal or even superior. It is certain that the effect isa consequence of more complex way of complementing adiet. Meat adds up a different and wider spectrum of nutri-ents, which are needed as co-factors in the formation ofmuscle tissue, and which should not be deficient for theefficient amino acids utilisation in the muscle protein syn-

thesis (vitamins, trace elements).Meat is also a significant source of -3 polyunsatu-

rated fatty acids, especially long-chain fatty acids (C20 andlonger). To these fatty acids more and more importancehas been attributed due to their importance in the processof growth and development, and also in the prevention of

cardiovascular disease and cancerogenesis. Connor (1997) summarised positive effects of -3 fatty acids infish and fish oil as follows: prevents ventricular arrhyth-mias and cardiac arrest, have an antithrombotic effect;lower the level of plasma lipids,especiallyVLDL and triglyc-erides, and inhibit the growth of atherosclerotic plaques, in-hibit interleukin-and cytokins; promotes endothelialrelaxation, which is induced by nitric oxide. In the continen-

tal diet (exception diets for babies) which does not includefish, is meat apart from eggs, the only important source oflong-chain-3 fatty acids and cannot be ignored. For thosewho do not consume fish it is even more important.

In recent years meat has been exposed to great criti-cism because it contains fats, saturated fatty acids, cho-lesterol, purine and also carcinogenic substances. Meat isoften considerate as energy reach food. Because of the

above mentioned points of view, meat is often related todiseases of “civilisation” such as: overweight, increasedblood pressure, diabetes, gout, cardiovascular diseasesandcancerousdiseases. All these reproaches can be sup-ported only in the case that the excessive meat consump-

tion leads to an imbalanced diet.Excessive consumption of meat or any other food-

stuffs in a diet supersede other foodstuffs which wouldadd to the diet the nutrients missing in the excessivelyconsumed foodstuff. Meat, for example, does not contain

any dietary fibers, some of the vitamins and antioxidantactive substances.Most unfavourable influences on health, on the ac-

count of meat, holds true for the meat with a greater pro-portion of fats. Therefore, lean meat has a low energyvalue, which, in an appropriate diet, even lowers the con-centration of plasma lipids (stated for example by: Wattset al., 1988 and Wolmarans et al., 1999). Scott et al.(1994) assessed that lean beef and skinless chicken havesimilar effects on the plasma lipoproteins and that they aremutually exchangeable in diets for the reduction of choles-

terol level. In a similar research, Davidson et al. (1999)

compared the effect of lean red meat and lean white meat.In the 36 week long experiment they stated that in the se-lected population diets with either of the two kinds of meatreduced the level of LDL and increased the level ofHDL-cholesterol in plasma.

The use of meat in diets for the lowering of bloodcholesterol level holds true only for lean meat. Already in1990 O’Dea et al. discovered that a diet with a very lowproportion of fat (9%energy from fats) and containing 500g of lean beef per day decreased the concentration of cho-lesterol already after one week from 5.9 to 4.7 mmol/l. Af-

ter three weeks of experiment the diet was supplementedwith beef fat (19% energy from fat in week 4 and 29 % in

week 5) which led to the increased cholesterol concentration (5.45 mmol/l).Animal fats contain a great proportion of saturated

fatty acids, which is especially high in deposited fats of


Table 2. The part (%) of RDA (1989) that can be meet with a 100 g of meat in women aged between 25 and 50 (calculatedaccording to the data by Souci et al., 1994; Oster, 1994; Wenk and Leonhardt, 1996)

Criteria of allow. Beef, lean Pork, lean Chicken Criteria of allow. Beef, lean Pork, lean Chicken

Energy 4.9 4.8 7.5 Minerals: Fe 14.6 7.3 4.6Fats 2.7 2.7 13.7 Zn 35.8 16.6 8.0

Proteins 49.0 44.0 40.0 I 4.6 6.0 -

Essential amino a. > 100 > 100 > 100 Se 9.0 9.0 10.9

Vitamins:B1 21.0 81.8 7.3 Ca 0.4 0.3 1.5

B2 20.0 17.7 12.3 Mg 10.1 10.3 13.2

Niacin 51.0 33.3 45.3 K 20.9 23.2 17.9

B6 11.2 35.0 31.2 Na 13.2 7.8 16.5

B12 250.0 100.0 20.0



ruminants. However, only three of these unsaturatedfatty acids increase the level of cholesterol in the blood,namely: lauric (12:0), myristic (14:0) and palmitic(16:0), also stearic acid (18:0) is undesirable since it isconsidered to be thrombogenic (Ulbricht and Southgate,

1991). The effect of individual fatty acids on plasma cho-lesterol is very significant, the undesirable influence ofsaturated fatty acids on the total and LDL-cholesterol isreally high. Thus it is necessary to avoid the consump-

tion of fats with high proportion of these fatty acids, thisis, particularly animal fats. Proportion of fat in the diet isalso positively related to the frequency of cancer forma-

tion on different organs (Carol et al., cit. FAO/WHO,1994). Therefore, it is necessary to avoid fats in general,including animal fats. Addressing the undesirability offats in the meat through the use of animal selection andanimal nutrition has led to a considerable decrease in

carcass fats (Garrow et al., 2000).The nutrition of animals or rather the dietary fatty acid

composition has a great impact on the fatty acid composition of animal fats. By using specially adjusted animal nutrition it is possible to considerably increase the proportionof w-3 fatty acids in fats of various foods of animal originas well as in the meat. In monogastric animals it is possi-ble to change the fatty acid composition of animal fats(fats in the fat tissues as well as in the muscle tissues, andalso egg lipids) to a large extent by changing the quality ofdietary fats. In ruminants, on the other hand, the effect ofdietary fats, due to microbiological hydrogenation of dou-

ble bonds of fatty acids in the rumen, is less evident. How-ever, from many aspects even more important. Also our investigations show that for example in chicken meat, fol-lowing the addition of w-3 fatty acids in feed, the weightproportion of w-3 fatty acids of the total of fatty acids in-creases by 5 times (from 1.6 to 8.4%), whereas long-chainfatty acids up to even 9 times (from 0.79 to 6.83 %)(Peterka, 1998).

Much attention concerning fatty acid was recentlyprovoked by publications on the content and effects ofconjugated linoleic acid (CLA). CLA contain fats of rumi-nants, milk as well as body fats. Already in 1979, Pariza et

al. (cit. Pariza and Ha, 1990) discovered in the extracts ofroasted beef a substance inhibiting the activity ofmutagenicsubstances. Later on, it was demonstrated that

this substance was a conjugated dien derivate of linoleicacid, in other words, conjugated linoleic acid, which car -ries a very strong anticancerogenous properties (Parizaand Ha, 1990; Belury, 1995; Parodi, 1997). Conjugatedlinoleic acid shows its anticancerogenous activity alreadyin relatively small concentrations, that is in less than onepercent of food. The action does not depend on the pres-ence, or rather, the combination of other fatty acids in thefood. Conjugated linoleic acid functions antiathero-

genously. This was also proved in the investigation carriedout on rabbits (Li et al., 1994). It is interesting that amongother effects CLA also influences the metabolism of fatsand in experimental animals reduces the amount of body

fat (Park et al., 1997). The content of conjugated linoleicacid in milk and meat of ruminants is affected by the diet,especially by the content of polyunsaturated fatty acids init (Enser et al., 1999) and conditions in the rumen. DietaryCLA intake in our diet is practically completely dependent

on the intake of fats of ruminants, especially on the intakeof milk fats and meat.

Many researches have shown that there is a positiverelation between the intake of red meat and frequency ofcancer, especially cancer of the large intestine (Willett etal., 1990; Primic-"akelj, 1997; Bingham, 1999). However,

these relations are very weak and mostly linked to other accompanying risk factors, and not to consumption ofmeat alone. On the opinion of Hill (1999) the cohort stud-ies have not discovered any links between the consump-

tion of meat and colon-rectal cancer, yet protectivefactors, such as the consumption of vegetables andnon-refined cereal products are the main determinants to

trigger the formation of that type of cancer. Also Cox (1997) established that the consumption of meat andcan-cer of the large intestine are not related, yet the frequentconsumption of fruits and vegetables significantly re-duces the risk of its formation.

Cox and Whichelow (1997) investigated the effectof fruit consumption on the morbidity and mortality due

to coronary diseases. They established small amount ofrelative risk (rr) 1 in those who frequently consumedfruits in winter and summer, rr 1.3 in those who con-sumed moderate amount in winter andmore frequently insummer, rr 1.35 in those who rarely consumed fruits inwinter and frequently in summer, and rr 1.88 rarely in

winter and moderately to rarely in summer.In recent years, apart from studying fats, the re-

search was focussed also on other factors, which couldbe related to the frequency of cardiovascular diseases andcancer. In a cohort study on 73757 people in the healthservice, aged between 40 and 75 years, Ascherio et al.(1996) studied the relation between the consumption offats, fatty acids andcholesterol and frequency of coronarydiseases. A significant positive relation was found be-

tween the frequency of coronary diseases and consumption of some saturated fatty acids, cholesterol and trans-fatty acids, and also an independent negative rela-

tion between the consumption of a-linolenic acid and therisk for coronary diseases. Ascherio et al. (1996) recom-mends (according to their results and the results of other studies), for a rational prevention of coronary diseases, areduction in the intake of saturated fat, cholesterol and

trans-fatty acids, which should be accompanied by agreater consumption of food rich in fibers and should in-clude cereals, vegetables and fruits in the diet. Similarly,also Hu et al. (1999) established that an increase in con-sumption of a-linolenic acid reduces the incidents of coro-nary infarction.

The meat consumption is frequently being related to

the diseases of civilisation or diseases of abundance,such as: overweight, cancer, coronary artery diseases. All three are related to an excessive intake of calories and fat,disproportional relationship among fatty acids or quality of




fats and also to carcinogenic substances originating from the termal meat preparation. These diseases are relatedespecially to red meat and meat products (beef, muttonandpig). For these reasons, theDepartment of Health (De-partment of Health, 1998) in Great Britain recommends amoderate consumption of meat.

The importance of meat in the diet is evident from theresearch carried outby ElmstDhl et al. (1999) who investi-gated the dietary patterns in people with high and low meatconsumption. The increased consumption of red meat,expressed in quintiles and corrected to energy intake, is inboth sexes related to the reduced intake of poultry, fish,fruit, bread, cereal products and cheese. A negative corre-lation between the consumption of meat and consumptionof vitamin C and fibers was shown. Average consumptionof fats originating from meat was 13.6% in men and11.9% in women. However, no relation between the con-sumption of meat and consumption of some fatty acids(neither the blood cholesterol increasing fatty acids nor arachidonic and linolenic acid) was established. Also

these authors conclude that the high meat intake reduces the consumption of the group of foodstuffs, which are richin antioxidants and fibers. The positive relation between

the consumption of meat and frequency of cancer andcoronary diseases (which was found by some experts) isaccording to Elmstahl et al. (1999) most likely not related

to the composition of meat but to the fact that high meatintake supersedes from the diet already mentioned food-stuffs and protective substances.

The importance of the antioxidants for the protectionagainst atherosclerosis is illustrated in the research car-ried out by Sharma et al. (1999) on rhesus monkeysweighing 6-8 kg. The monkeys were consuming anatherogenic diet, daily containing one gram of cholesteroland 15 g of butter. Two groups of monkeys were supple-

mented daily with 25 and 50 mg of E vitamin per kg bodyweight, respectively. The vitamin E supplemented groupshad a much lower level of blood cholesterol, triglycerides

and smaller and less frequent atherosclerotic changes on the aorta.

One of the most interesting and most frequentlycited studies regarding the frequency of coronary dis-eases is most likely the one from Lyon reported by DeLorgeril et al. (1994, 1996, 1998 and 1999).Theobjectiveof the study was to found out the effects of a rich Mediter-ranean type of diet in patients, who had already once re-covered from myocardial infarction. The diet differed froman ordinary coronary diseases preventive diet in that that itcontained more bread, vegetables, legumes, fruits and

fish, margarine rich in -linolenic acid (rapeseed oil) andless red meat, butter and cream. The diet did not excludemeat but contained somewhat less calories, less fats andsaturated fatty acids, more oleic and -linolenic acids,and less linoleic acid and less cholesterol. Although thereis a rather small difference between the two diets, the ef-fect is surprising and is mainly seen in the changes of thecontent of fatty acids in plasma lipids and in the number offatal and non-fatal myocardial infarctions (Table 3).Withinfour years this experiment also showed distinct effect on

the rate of cancer cases, as illustrated in Table 3.

Trying to define the importance of meat in moderndiets on the basis of the refereed investigations, it could beconcluded that new researches actually establish a spe-cial place for meat of »modern« quality (lean meat) in a bal-anced diet as a nutrient rich and physiologically safe food-stuff. In one way or the other, meat complements diets with

the greater proportion of food of plant origin and assures asafe way of meeting dietary recommendations without de-manding daily diet calculations. In addition,meat adds up toa diet the needed diversity and taste Excessive meat intakesupersedes from thediet foodstuffs which supply dietary fi-

bers, vitamins, andalso non-vitamin antioxidant active sub-stances and minerals. Every one-sided diet, meat or vegetarian diet can present risk for health.


Table 3. Influence of diet with an increased proportion of -3 fatty acids and oleic acid on events in the5-year period after first myocardial infarction (De Longeril et al., 1998)

Parameters Control groupGroup on diet with

more -3 fattyacids

P

Number of patients 303 302

Cancers 17 7 0.05

Total deaths (including cancer deaths) 24 14 0.03

Cardiac death 19 6 0.01

Total deaths + nonfatal cancers 35 18 0.01

Total deaths + nonfatal cancers + nonfatal myocardialinfarctions 60 26 0.001



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ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 619:637.1+637.1+637.5

HEALTH SUITABILITY CRITERIA OF FOOD OF ANIMAL ORIGIN

A. Kirbiš(1) , J. Marinšek (2) , Stanka Grebenc(3)

Professional paper

ABSTRACT

Criteria of health suitability of food of animal origin are presence of causing agents of zoonosis and alimentary diseases, presence of environmental pollutants and substances,used in the veterinary treatments, radioactive contamination and senzoric changes. Hygienic

irrevocability is guaranteed by a conscientious veterinary-sanitary inspection, strict disci- pline of breeders of slaughter animals and producers of milk but also by well-informed consumers and especially those who are professionally involved in the preparation of food.

Keywords: meat, milk and milk products, hygienic irrevocability, criteria

INTRODUCTIONThere are several criteria available to evaluate the hy-

gienic flawlessness of food of animal origin. Such food ishygienically flawless when it is free of pathogenic bacteriaor viruses, agents of zoonoses and alimentary diseases,further, when it does not contain bacteriological toxins,ecological pollutens or veterinary drug substances above

the permissible quantities, and when, there are not radio-logically contaminated above the allowed level. Food of

animal origin can also be hygienically questionable due tochanged sensorial characteristics, mostly caused byspoilage micro-organisms.

Zoonoses and Alimentary DiseasesZoonoses are diseases transmitted from animals to

people and vice versa. The transmission from animals topeople can take different forms, but in any case food ofanimal origin plays an important role as far as the possibil-ities of infection are concerned. Many diseases are trans-mitted to people through people consuming raw milk fromsick animals or if milk is not heat-treated to a sufficient ex-

tent, or through meat which can only be a transmissionvector or the only source of infection of people.In consuming milk and milk products, infection is

practically impossible if milk and milk products are in linewith Statute (Ur. list RS, 1999) and if the following condi-

tions are fulfilled:• animals (cows) must be under ongoing veterinary sani-

tary control;• animals must be free of tuberculosis and brucellosis;• animals must not show any signs of infectious diseases

that could be transmitted to people through milk; and• animals must not have any diseases of the genital tract

with exudate, digestive inflammation with diarrhoea andincreased body temperature or clinical mastitis.The milk of healthy animals belonging to a flock

where tuberculosis has been detected can only be used in

the production of heat-treated milk or of milk products after heat treatment under the supervision of an authorisedveterinarian.The causes of alimentary diseases in humansare consumption of milk that has not been heat treated to asufficient extent, contamination of milk with pathogenicbacteria or subsequent contamination when manipulatingmilk (cooling, transport). According to the informationfound in the literature (Bryan, 1997), the most commoncauses of alimentary diseases are bacteria of the follow-

ing types: Salmonella, Campylobacter jejuni/coli , Listeria monocytogenes, Clostridium perfrigens/botulinum, Sta- phylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli O157 H7, Yersiniaenterocolitica and Bacillus cereus.

In the past, human diseases were frequently causedby bacteria Listeria monocytogenes and Escherichia coli O157 H7, and unfortunately these diseases often endedwith the patients dying. Therefore, our Institute has alsoconducted studies regarding the presence of these bacte-ria. The research on the presence of Listeria (Florjanc,1996) showed that Listeria monocytogenes. was notpresent in 249 samples of raw milk, while in researchdone in 1999 (Vauda, 2000) this bacteria was isolated in13 of the 178 samples of raw milk.

We also conducted research on the presence of E.coli O157 H7, and in the period 1996-1999 we did not ob-

tain a positive result among 307 samples of raw milk.Like in milk, in meat the probability of infection is

small if animals are under ongoing veterinary sanitarycontrol. Of course, the possibility of such infection never-

theless exists.Tuberculosis, brucellosis, anthrax, erysipelas, liste-

riosis, tularemia, rabies, Q-fever, chlamydia are the bestknown bacteria or viral zoonoses transmitted from ani-mals to people through the latter consumingcontaminated

(1) Andrej Kirbiš, Asisstant (2) Janez Marinšek, Full Professor (3) StankaGrebenc, Assistant Professor - University of Ljubljana, Veterinary Faculty,

Department of Food Hygiene and Bromatology, Gerbi~eva 60, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia



meat. The probability of people getting infected from theagents causing these zoonoses is very low, as hygieni-cally questionable meat is eliminated from public con-sumption on the basis of veterinary sanitary inspectionspre- and post-mortem.

Among parasitic diseases, the best known are trichi-

nosis and tapeworms, which can only cause disease inhumans if they consume meat infested with the nascentforms of the causal agent. Humans become ill with trichi-nosis if they consume meat that has not been treated ther-mally to a sufficient extent and contains live larvae ofTrichinellae spiralis. Most frequently, it is the meat of pigs(domestic or boars) and bears, more rarely horses, whichis infected by T. spiralis. Apart from T. spiralis, which is

the most dangerous, there are also T. nativa, T. britovi, T. nelsoni and T. psevdospiralis (Marinculi~ and Gašper,1999) In Slovenia, the disease is practically non-existent,

as all meat used for public consumption is inspected andremoved from publicconsumption in thecase of infection.Tapeworms in humans are most frequently caused

by Taenia saginata and Taenia solium. Infection with T. saginata is among the most widespread parasiticzoonoses in the world. The reason is mostly that in someareas people eat raw meat or meat that has not been

treated thermally to a sufficient extent, and thus get in-fected by a development form (Cisticercus bovis) of this

tapeworm. In domestic animals, the development formsare only found in beef, as cattle is the only interim host.Recently, there has been an increase in the number of ani-

mals infected by C. bovis. The reason is most probably that an increasing number of people are venturing into nature, where some people, due to poor hygienic habits, pol-lute animal food with excrement (in humans infested with

tapeworms, the eggs of T. saginata are in excrement), thus closing the human-food-cattle cycle.

During the technological processes of slaughteringand treating meat after slaughtering, meat can becomecontaminated. Consumption of contaminated meat cancause alimentary diseases in humans. The most frequent

causal agents of alimentary diseases are the same as those already mentioned for milk (Bryan, 1997; Leistner,1997). The so-called subsequent contamination of meatcan occur despite utterly scrupulous and strict veterinarysanitary control. For it is known that a relatively high num-ber of clinically completely healthy animals contain in their digestive organs various pathogenic bacteria which cancontaminate the meat surface during its technological

treatment. This is a technological fault that we simplymust accept as fact.

And how do we nevertheless provide people withsafe meat? It is necessary to prevent subsequent con-

tamination through regular veterinary sanitary controland a flawless hygienic regime of work in production,processing and handling of meat. With the procedure ofan uninterrupted cold chain, cooling of meat on the wayfrom the slaughterhouse to the kitchen, it is necessary toprevent the multiplication of bacteria that have contami-nated meat subsequently and prepare meat in an appro-priate culinary way.

Environment polluters and veterinary drugsubstances

Food of animal origin can also be hygienically inap-propriate if it contains environment pollutens like pesti-cides, heavy metals and non-metals, etc. or if it containsresidua of veterinary drug substances.


Table 1. Tolerances for bio-residua as per the Statute

Analysed substance

Raw milk Milk products

DDT 0.5 mg/kg as to the contents of fat 0.5 mg/kg as to the contents of fat

HCH 0.05 mg/kg as to the contents of fat 0.05 mg/kg as to the contents of fat

Lindan 0.1 mg/kg as to the contents of fat 0.1 mg/kg as to the contents of fat

PCB 1.0mg/kg as to the contents of fat 1.0 mg/kg as to the contents of fat

Pb 0.1 mg/kg 0.4 mg/kg

Cd 0.01 mg/kg 0.02 mg/kg

Hg 0.03 mg/kg 0.03 mg/kg

As 0.1 mg/kg 0.1 mg/kg

Sulphonamide 0.1 mg/kg 0.1 mg/kgAntibiotics zero tolerance*1 zero tolerance*1

*following the use of the prescribed or acknowledged methods. *1 since 11th may 2000 the directive EEC2377/90 is in effect

Foodstuff



TheTable no.1 presents the tolerances forcertain en-vironment pollutens and residua of veterinary drug sub-stances in milk and milk products as prescribed by Statute(Ur. list SFRJ, 1983; Ur. list SFRJ, 1987).

In 1997 and 1998 (Kova~ et al., 1999), we analysed78 samples of raw milk for the presence of pesticides andchlorinated hydrocarbons; the results did not exceed thelimit values in any case. Also as far as PBC is concerned,where we analysed 36 samples in the same period, the re-sults were appropriate. The results as to the content of Cd,Pb, As and Hg were also negative, i.e. below the tolerancelevel.

In the same period, we inspected 1,564 samples ofraw milk as to the content of antibiotics, and only obtainedpositive results in four cases, while among 218 samples

tested as to the content of sulphonamides, there were nopositive results. In the case of the antibiotics found, thereason was probably that the breeders did not respect thewithdrawal period.

The safety of meat regarding the content of environ-ment pollutens and veterinary drug substances is alsoprovided in Slovenia through performing systematic su-pervision.

Table No. 2 presents the tolerances for certain envi-ronment pollutens and residua of veterinary drug sub-stances in meat and organs prescribed by the Statute (Ur.

list SFRJ, 1983; Ur. list SFRJ, 1987).In terms of the hygienic flawlessness of meat, envi-

ronment polluters are not a special problem. The only in-formation worth mentioning here is the content of

cadmium found in the kidneys of game and older cattleand pigs (Kova~ et al., 1999) in amounts exceeding thoseprescribed in the Statute (Ur. list SFRJ, 1983; Ur. listSFRJ, 1987). To ensure safety, the Decree by the Veteri-nary Administration of the Republic of Slovenia stipulates

that kidneys of all older cattle and pigs as well as gamemust be regarded as being hygienically inappropriate.

Like with milk, meat canalso be hygienically inappro-priate due to the content of veterinary drug substancesused for preventive, therapeutic or nutritive purposes.Most frequently, the reason for this is not respecting thewithdrawal period for individual substances, rather than

the intentional use of prohibited substances.

CONCLUSIONThe results of research following the criteria of the

hygienic flawlessness of milk, milk products and meat inSlovenia show that these foodstuffs are hygienically pure.This is by all means due to the well-organised veterinaryservice, ensuring that these foodstuffs are hygienicallyflawless by performing veterinary sanitary control. Thiswas also largely contributed to by the increasing aware-ness of breeders who do not use the various prohibitedsubstances for nutritive purposes in feeding animals andalso (in most cases) the allowed substances for preven-

tive and curative purposes without veterinary supervision.Much more could be done in this direction by educat-

ing and advising consumers and training those who pro-fessionally prepare food.


Table 2. Tolerances for bio-residua as per the Statute

Analysedsubstances

Foodstuff:

Cattle Pigs Poultry Game

DDT 0.5 mg/kg as to the contents of fat

0.1 mg/kg as to the contents of fat



1.0 mg/kg as to thecontents of fat




HCH

Lindan

PCB

meat kidney meat kidney meat kidney liver meat kidney liver

Pb (mg/kg) 1.0 0.5 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0

Cd (mg/kg) 1.0 0.1 1.0 0.1 1.0 0.5 0.1 1.0 0.5

Hg (mg/kg) 0.1 0.03 0.1 0.03 0.1 0.1 0.03 0.1 0.1

As (mg/kg) 0.5 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.1 0.5 0.5

Sulphonamide (mg/kg) 0.1

Antibiotics zero tolerance*1

*following the use of the prescribed or acknowledged methods.1 since 11th may 2000 the directive EEC2377/ 90 is in effect



REFERENCES

1. Florjanc, P. (1996): Pogostnost in soodvisnost vrst Listeria monocytogenes in Listeria innocua v ìvilih ìvalskegaizvora v Sloveniji. Ljubljana: Veterinary faculty. Doctoral

thesis.2. Frank, L. Bryan (1997): Food of animal origin and risks for the

consumer. World congress of food hygiene. Den Haag,Proceedings, s.K-23 to K-37.

3. Kova~, Z., Boì~, P., Florjanc, P. (1999): Veterinary ResiduaMonitoring and Surveilance of Food of Animal Origin in theRepublic of Slovenia in 1997 and 1998. Veterinary Ad-ministration of the Republic of Slovenia.

4. Leistner, L. (1997): Microbial stability and safety of healthymeat, poultry and fish products. Advances in Meat

Resarch- Volume 11. Oregon state University, cowwallis,USA. 347-360.

5. Marinculi~, A., Gašper, A. (1999): Trihineloza svinja, novarazmišljanja o epizootiologiji bolesti. Praxis veterinaria 47(1-2): 59-61.

6. Vauda, M. (2000): Higienska kvaliteta surovega inpasteriziranega mleka v Sloveniji glede na vsebnostbakterij Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria mono-cytogenes in skupnega števila mikroorganizmov.Ljubljana: Veterinary faculty. Master deegree thesis.

7. ………. Ur. list SFRJ, no. 59/83 and 79/87.Statute on thequantity of pesticides and other patogenic substances,hormones, antibioticsand mycotoxins which are toleratedin foodstaffs.

8. ……….. Ur. list RS no. 100/99 Statute on the veterinary-san-itary control of food-processing plants, veterinary-sani-

tary check-ups and the conditions of sanitaryappropriateness of foodstaffs and primary materials ofanimal origin.







Figure 1. Function diagram of the process in slaughterhouse



are made on CD. The main reason for this is to avoid thepotential errors to be printed on labels. If it happens that

the code number of the farm and the original number of theanimal are not equal to those on CD, the record gets amark “Without origin”.

Weighing of live animalsWhen animals leave the collection place and go to

the place of stunning, they are stunned and lifted onslaughter line. In the project we also plan to collect liveweight (scanning of eartag, weighing and putting data intodatabase). Practically, this is very difficult to realise but itis a desired option for the needs of selection service.

Weighing and classification of carcassesThis is the most important point of the whole pro-

cess. In the course of the procedure the carcass is movedon the scale where the inspector identifies the number ofanimal by scanner. He removes tags from the carcass andclassifies carcass quality. All the data are entered into SD

except for the weight which is collected from the scale automatically.

Labelling of carcassesData from the supply order form, weights and classi-

fication of carcass quality are printed on labels (Figure 2).Four labels (or sixteen) in the dimension of 87 x 57 mm areprinted directly from database to minimise the possibility ofdisagreements.They aremade fromspecial robust material.

Checking of data with the central database of Agricul-tural Institute of Slovenia

The aim of this process is to make logical controls ofall data, entries of carcass weights, classification scoresand registration of culling of animals.Protocol of errors and correction methods

This protocol is necessary when checking of data isnot done immediately after entering of data from supplyorder into SD but later after the classification of carcassesfrom inspect. In this case carcasses with incorrect datahave to be found on labels and the label marked with “Noorigin”. The person who makes this correction must drawuptheminuteswhichhavetobearchivedfor12months.

Labelling of big pieces of meatIn the process of traceability of meat ID number of

the animal must be transmitted from carcass to big partsofmeatallthewaytotheendusers.Evenwhentheorgani-sation of work and meat distribution of slaughterhousesdiffer between them it is important that the consumersknow from which animal and breeder originates the meat

they had bought.

Traceabiality through the internetThe traceability of meat is completed on internet. In

the WEB the consumers can find out data of origin of meat

they had bought. This segment is the most important one,as the trust of consumers into goods represent the prelim-inary condition of commercial success.

REFERENCES

1. Gajster, M., êpin, S., Jeretina, J., Mravljak, M (1999)Sledljivost porekla govedi in govejega mesa : zaklju~noporo~ilo. (KIS - Poro~ila o raziskovalnih nalogah, 212).s.l.: s.n., 1 zv. (lo~. pag.), graf. prikazi. COBISS-ID860520.

2. ……….Council regultion (EC) no 820/97 of 21 april 1997 establishing a system for the identification and registrationof bovine animals and regarding the labelling of beef andbeef products.

3. ………. Odredba o ozna~evanju in registraciji govedi. Uradnilist republike Slovenije, št. 86 Ljubljana, 22.10.1999.


Figure 2. An example of a label



ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 636(497.13 439.1 497.12)

COMPARISON OF THE CONDITION OF ANIMAL PRODUCTION BETWEENCROATIA, HUNGARY AND SLOVENIA

I. Juri}(1) , Marija Ðiki}(2) , A. Kolega(3)


ABSTRACT

Development of animal production in Hungary and Slovenia, neighboring countries that are members of CEFTA is exceptionally important for Croatia because of possible small border traffic and markedly higher trade dueto lowtransport costs. As the animal products have a big

share in small border traffic, competitiveness of animal production between these three coun-tries is highly important forCroatia. Theanalysis of animal production in Croatia, Hungary and Slovenia shows that Croatia produces per capita: 132 kg of milk, 11.3 kg of eggs and 24.4 of

all kind of meat, Hungary produces 198; 17.7 and 117.8 kg of milk, eggs and meat, respec-tively; while Slovenia produces 309, 11.4 and 92.6 kg. Arable land in Croatia is 0.275 ha per capita, in Hungary 0.482 ha and in Slovenia 0.120 ha. Other types of land in Croatia are in

amount of 0.94 ha per capita, in Hungary 0.42 ha and in Slovenia 0.899 ha. Level of analyzed production and retail prices of animal products is in Croatia 10 to 35% higher than in Hungary and Slovenia. Per each 100 USD of exported live animals, Croatia imports 977 USD of live animals, Hungary only 9 USD and Slovenia 547 USD. Per each 100 USD of exported meat and meat products, Croatia imports 207 USD, Hungary 8 USD and Slovenia 96 USD. For milk, dairy products and eggs Croatia for each 100 USD of export imports 92 USD, Hungary 62 and Slovenia 35 USD. The main objective of strategy in animal production and processing in Hun-

gary and in Slovenia is the competitiveness in relation to the neighboring countries, while inCroatia “strategy of high prices” exists, as it is defined by the Croatian Employers’ Associa-tion as their interest. System of stimulating measures in theanimalproduction of Hungary and Slovenia is essentially different from that in Croatia. Newly formed associations of animal

producers in the field of animal breeding in Hungary and Slovenia became a factor of breeding politics, and in the same time in Croatia they should, according to the Law on Animal Pro-duction, carry out the breeding programs passed by the government and implemented by a

state institution.

Keywords: Croatia, Slovenia, Hungary, animal production

INTRODUCTION

Development of animal production in neighboringcountries, Hungary and Slovenia is exceptionally impor-

tant for Croatia because of small border traffic and low transportation cost in trade exchange. As the animal prod-ucts have a big share in small border traffic, competitive-ness of animal production between these three countriesis highly important for Croatia.

METHODS

Comparison is made between arable and total land per capita and volume of animal production: milk, eggsand meat. Each type of meat was analyzed separately:cattle, pig and poultry. Total meat production includeshorse and sheep meat, too.

Proportion between import and export was analyzedusing the value of export marked as 100 as a base.

Source of data were FAO publications up to year 1997 because the 1998 publication gives only preliminarydata for Croatia which would probably be changed be-cause they are not realistic, especially those for milk pro-duction.


(1) Ivan Juri}, Full Professor, (2) Marija Ðiki}, Associated Professor, (3) Ante Kolega, Full Professor - University of Zagreb, Faculty of Agriculture,Svetošimunska cesta 25, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia



RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONLand per capita is given in Table 1.

Croatia has the most land in total and considerablearable areas per capita, so fodder cannot be the reason for

lower production. Animal production per capita is shownin Table 2.

Volume of production analyzed per capita is a lot be-hind the production of Hungary and Slovenia. Compared

to the period from 1988-91 Croatia has decreased it’s pro-duction markedly, as given in Table 3.

Regarding the situation illustrated in Table 2 and 3 itis to be expected that Croatian trade exchange, compared

to Hungarian and Slovenian becomes more unfavorable,as shown in Table 4.

Insufficient volume of animal production and higher prices had to result not only in strong interest for importing


Table 1. Land per capita (ha)

L a n darable other total

Croatia 0,275 0,940 1,216

Hungary 0,482 0,420 0,902

Slovenia 0,120 0,899 1,019

Source: FAO

Table 2. Animal production per capita (kg)

Milk Eggs M e a t

cattle pig poultry total*Croatia 132 11,3 4,4 9,8 8,4 24,4Hungary 198 17,7 6,3 72,2 36,9 117,8Slovenia 309 11,4 25,5 32,3 34,9 92,6

*Horse and s heep meat added Source: FAO

Table 3. Agricultural production 1989-91=100

1995 1996 1997

Cropproduction

Animalproduction

Cropproduction

Animalproduction

Cropproduction

Animalproduction

Croatia 56,7 62,2 59,6 64,3 59,7 51,6

Hungary 70,9 67,9 80,1 74,7 80,8 74,3

Slovenia 98,0 98,4 102,2 99,5 102,5 99,9Source: FAO

Table 4. Value of import and export of animal products (export = 100)

Food + animals Live animals Meat +poultry Milk + eggs

Croatia 217 977 207 92

Hungary 33 9 8 62Slovenia 241 547 96 35

Source: FAO 1997



those products by private entrepreneurs, but among citi-zens to buy them in neighboring countries, too.

“Marketing Information System in Agriculture” (Cro-atian: “Tr išni informacijski sustav u poljoprivredi” -TISUP) compares prices of pigs and cattle in Hungary andCroatia on regular basis. Prices in Hungary are regularlylower, what is illustrated with December 1999 pricesgiven in Table 5.

Level of production per capita in Croatia is signifi-cantly lower than in Hungary. Situation in animal produc-

tion, relation between export and import in Croatia is moreunfavorable than in Hungary and Slovenia.

Law on animal production (NN 70/97) did not changeprevious relations in animal production in Croatia and didnot enable free association of producers in the sense ofselection improvement of animal production. Planning andproblem analysis connected to the market liberalization isdone more thoroughly in theanimal production of Sloveniaand Hungary. High pressure made by Croatian Associa-

tion of Employers in Food Industry, Agriculture and For-

estry successfully resulted in higher prices. The Associa- tion is the author of formulation: In creation of price policyit has to be taken into account that all of the previous ex-perimenting in agriculture has to be paid through theprices of agricultural products or state funds. Money thatcould cover all the bad moves in Croatian agriculture doesnot exist, nor will exist in some short period. Therefore,prices remain as a sole source of paying for the pastmisses and lower prices in agriculture could be expectedafter the present situation is solved and the production isstabilized. This can not be expected until the period of 6 –10 years passes and the period such in which would dif-

ferent moves in agriculture without a backup in prices or inexisting money be paid for”. Cited formulation also definesa strategy in the Croatian agriculture which is an importantfactor for unstableness of animal production on the mar-ket that becomes more and more free under the influenceof globalization of world relations.

CONCLUSION1. Volume of animal production in Croatia is getting

behind the production of Hungary and Slovenia.2. Getting behind Hungary and Slovenia for Croatian

animal production is not a result of natural resources

(amount of land), but subjective factors, i.e. wrong devel-opment strategy.

REFERENCES1. êpin, S.,Osterc, J. Juri}, I. (1993): Komparativne prednosti i

konkurentnost sto~arske proizvodnje izme|u Slovenije iHrvatske. Slovenski potencijali proizvodnje, mogu}nostuvoza i izvoza u Hrvatsku. Poljoprivredne aktualnosti29(3-4): 507-512.

2. Ember, J., Stefler, J. (2000): Kako iskoristiti kapacitete sto~nehrane u Ma|arskoj? Me|unarodno savjetovanje Krmiva

2000. Opatija 7-9. lipanj, 2000. Zbornik radova, 77-82.3. Horn P., Stefler, J. (1999): Strategie zur Entwicklung der Tierproduktion in Ungarn. Acta Agraria Kaposváriensis.Vol. 3(2): 7.

4. Juri}, I., Kolega, A., Ðiki}, Marija (1992): Ograni~avaju}ifaktori obnove i razvoja sto~arstva u Hrvatskoj.Poljoprivredne aktualnosti, 40, 141-147.

5. Juri} I., êpin, S., Petri~evi}, A., Ðiki}, Marija, Kolega, A.(1993): Komparativne prednosti i konkurentnoststo~arske proizvodnje izmedu Slovenije i Hrvatske.Hrvatski potencijali proizvodnje, mogu}nost uvoza iizvoza u Sloveniju. Poljoprivredne aktualnosti 29, 1-2.

6. Maceljski, M. (1994). Prilog strategiji dugoro~nog razvitkahrvatskog poljodjelstva. Savjetovanje: Strategija dugo-

ro~nog razvitka hrvatske poljoprivrede. Zagreb, 21-22. travnja 1993.

7. Politiek, R.D., Bakker, J.J. (1982): Livestockproduction in Eu-rope. Perspectives and prospects. Elsevier scientific pub-lishing company.

8. ………. FAO Production – razna godišta.9. ………. FAO Trade – razna godišta.

10. ………. Strategija razvoja slovenskega kmetijstva (1992).MKG. Ljubljana, 88.

11. .………. Hrvatske udruge poslodavaca (Udrugaposlodavaca prehrambene industrije, poljoprivrede išumarstva Hrvatske). Prilozi za strategiju razvoja poljo-privrede i prehrambene industrije Republike Hrvatske.

Pismo Vladi Republike Hrvatske, predsjedniku mr. ZlatkuMateši od 13. listopada 1998.12. .………. Tr išni informacijski sustav u poljoprivredi (1999):

br. 72.13. .………. Zakon o sto~arstvu. Narodne novine br. 70/97.


Table 5. Prices in Croatia and Hungary, December 1999 (kn/kg)

CROATIA HUNGARY

Pigs 9,43 6,58

Bulls 13,08 7,04Cows 7,09 4,57



ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 631(497.12)

INCOME AND WELFARE INDICATORS OF SLOVENIAN LIVESTOCKPRODUCTION IN VIEW OF FUTURE ACCESSION TO THE EU

S. Kav~i~(1) , E. Erjavec(2)


ABSTRACT

Slovenian livestock production is facing different agricultural policy and economic environment as is the case in EU. Despite modest reforms of national agricultural policy it is still in-comparable with common market organisations of CAP. Different levels of market-price

support for major livestock commodities is another aggravating circumstance for efficient adjustment. Therefore different policy measures have to be taken into account simultaneously for policy relevant analysis (income effects, welfare efficiency). Applying APAS-PAM agricul-tural sector model for Slovenian agriculture the most important income and welfare effects of Slovenian EU accession on producers, consumers and taxpayers as well as net welfare ef-

fects for baseline and three accession scenarios have been simulated. Results obtained show potential improvement of incomes in dairy farming and cattle fattening only for most optimis-tic accession scenario (complete adoption of Agenda 2000 CAP), while deterioration is fore-

seen in pig and poultry farming irrespective of accession conditions. Producer surplus indicates similar trends, while consumers are expected to be beneficiaries due to lower market-price support. Main part of producer income support burden will be transferred to taxpay-ers. Irrespective of accession scenario net welfare effects for pork and poultry are

favourable, while opposite could happen in milk and beef sectors.

Keywords: livestock production, income, economic welfare, agricultural policy, modelling,Slovenia

INTRODUCTIONBy the final decision of the Berlin Summit of EU lead-

ers in March 1999 on the scope and contents of the CAPin the 2000-06 financial perspective, the EU withdraws eli-gibility for compensation payments to thecandidate coun-

tries. The reason should lay on the lower current pricelevel as well as on thenegative social andmacroeconomiceffects in candidate countries (European Commission,1996). Higher prices are also expected to be a stimulus to

the growth of agricultural production within the new mem-bers, and this could consequently contribute to seriousadditional budget pressures on CAP. The estimated costsof enlargement could be made mainly by the direct pay-ments. They are estimated to be relatively high, which ob-viously alludes to the need for a thorough reform of theexisting CAP or, at least, to a special status of the newcandidates after accession (Tangermann and Josling,1994; Baldwin et all, 1997). Therefore, it can be expected

that the questions about compensation payments will beon the top of the political agenda in the negotiation pro-cess of the next enlargement of the EU.

There are some reports that Slovenian agricultureshould be treated differently than the general picture ofCEEC (Bojnec and Swinnen, 1997; European Commission,1995). In difference with the other applicant countries, the

producer prices are almost at the level of the EU and due to the natural and structural conditions, Slovenia is a net im-porter of food items with a smaller potential for productiongrowth. In addition, the Slovenian agricultural policy frame-work (objectives and measures) is rather closeto thatof theCAP. In case of Slovenia, therefore, the enlargement shouldbe less expensive for the EU, and the adjustment of the pol-icy proposed in Agenda 2000 less dramatic than in case ofother candidates. This question has only been discussedrather generally in literature and some detailed analysis of

the impactof economic integration on Slovenian agriculturecould be of a broader interest.

The objective of the paper is, therefore, to contribute to the discussion on the EU enlargement with the estimation of the possible income and welfare consequences for the livestock sector in Slovenia by the use of empirical tools. One of the main objectives of the paper is to deter-mine the real financial and policy dimension of the “directpayments issue” for Slovenian livestock production. In

this way, a hypothesis emphasising the substantial de-pendence of the livestock sector in Slovenia on the level ofEU direct payments after the accession is going to be

tested.


(1) Stane Kav~i~, MSc, (2) Emil Erjavec, Associate Professor - University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Animal Science, Groblje 3,1230 Domàle, Slovenia



METHODOLOGYIn order to get some quantitative estimates of likely ef-

fects of different policy scenarios APAS and PAM modelsfor Slovenian agriculture have beendeveloped. The APAS isdesigned as econometric multi-commodity model, takinginto account specific features of Slovenian agro-industryand recent policy changes. It is a partial equilibrium, dy-namic, multi-market, synthetic, policy oriented simulationmodel, suitable to conduct sensitivity analysis and in thissimple way incorporates different policy scenarios. On theother hand PAM has been used for analysing income, pro-

tection and competitive issues of the same policy options.Some results of APAS simulation are directly incorporatedin PAM calculations both at individual producer as well asaggregate level, relaxing static nature of the original PAM.Also PAM results are fed back in APAS to perform simpli-fied welfare analysis. APAS and PAM spreadsheet modelfor Slovenian agriculture is prepared to cover a period until2010. For validation purposes the historical simulationmethodwas used, comparing results for thepast. Originally

the model was used to compare pure price effects of differ-ent EU accession policy scenarios, but it has also the ability

to simulate technological progress, incentive policy mea-sures and production quotas.

In the model, net income is calculated as:

NI = VP - SS + Sb - Tx - Am - Nj - Int - Dp

where: NI net income (per hectare or head); Dp paid(hired) labour; VP value of production (at incentive prices); Am depreciation; SS intermediate consumption (»variablecosts«); Nj brents (accounted also for own land); Sb sub-sidies; Int interest (capital costs); Tx taxes.

Welfare effects are measured with producer andcon-sumer surplus, taxpayers’ and net welfare effects.

Different multipliers, shown in table 1, have beenused for policy analysis. Welfare equations used in themodel are:

PS = (P Mod - PW )*QSW +2 (P Mod - PW )*(QSD-QSW )CS = -(P D - PW )*Q DD +2 (P D - PW )*(Q DW -Q DD )T = -(P Mod - P D )*QSD - (P D - PW )*(Q DD-QSD ) NW = PS +CS +T where: PS change in producer surplus; PW (refer-

ence) world price;CS change in consumer surplus; QSW

domestic production at world price (PL scenario);T tax-payers’ effect; QSD actual domestic production (at modelprice); NW change in net economic welfare; Q DDdomes-

tic consumption (at producer price); P Mod model price;Q DW domestic consumption at world price (PL scenario); P D (domestic) producer price.

ScenariosTo simulate possible EU accession effects, three ba-

sic questions of possible EU CAP adoption have been sim-ulated: potential producer price level, eligibility to directpayments and structural support schemes with their im-pact on agricultural markets. Main features of investigatedscenarios are presented in table 2.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONIncome and welfare model results are summarised in

tables 3 to 5.Incomes of producers are extremely sensitive to dif-

ferent economic environment. Dairy farming is more prof-itable under EU+++ (income growth by 4%), whileunder EU—o there is 36 % income reduction in compari-


Table 1. Multipliers at different policy analysis levels

Indicator (policy level) Producer price

Directpayments

Structuralpayments

Income effects on the basis of incentive prices 1.0 0.9 0.6

Producer surplus ( PS) on the basis of incentive prices 1.0 0.9 0.6

Consumer surplus ( CS) on the basis of retail prices 1.0 0.0 0.0

Taxpayers’ effects (T) on the basis of agricultural policy’ costs(market costs only)

1.0 0.9 1.0

Table 2. Description of investigated policy scenarios*

Denotation Description (all scenarios include world price trends)

BS Baseline scenario - continuation of current national agricultural policy (NAP)

PL Complete price liberalisation - world price level

EU+++ Complete CAP adoption in accordance with Agenda 2000, higher producer price level, directpayments and whole package of structural payments

EU+-o Equal as EU+++, but without direct and only half structural paymentsEU—o Equal as EU+-o, but lower producer price levels

*BS scenario serves for comparison, while PL scenario makes it possible to simulate welfare effects.



son with BS. Relative effect is even more emphasised inbeef sector, with improvement of income situation by 26%or deterioration by 73% for the same comparisons. Theworst prospective is foreseen in poultry production, wherehigh losses are expected independently of accession sce-nario. Producer price in this sector is close to world price,with no accompanying support or protection measures,and effect of possible feed price reduction almost com-pletely exhausted already in BS. Intensive pig rearing atfamily farm level should not expect much better incomesituation than in poultry, taking into account comparablesize of production. To summarise, income situation of cat-

tle production could improve in the case of eligibility for di-rect payments (premiums per head), but dramatic incomedeterioration is expected in the case of incomplete CAPadoption in all sectors under investigation and independ-ently of accession conditions especially in poultry andpork sectors.

Measures of economic welfare show that pork andpoultry producers (each approx. 1 billion SIT), and despitehigher incomeper dairy cowalso dairy farmers (1.2 billionSIT) are losers even under EU+++ scenario, the latestdue to decrease in aggregate milk production in compari-son with BS. Under other accession scenarios reductionin producer surplus is even higher - in dairy farming de-crease could achieve as much as 7 billion SIT and in beef

production nearly 6.4 billion SIT. These negative effects ofaccession on producer side are almost completely com-pensated by consumers. Their losses for four markets,when summed up, are reduced for 8.5 billion SIT under EU+++ and EU+-o, and for nearly 19 billion SIT under EU—o, but still remains at the level of 22 billion SIT alsounder EU—o.

Budget costs of CAP implementation (EU+++) for 4 investigated commodities are the highest in beef(nearly 11 billion SIT) and milk production (8 billion SIT),and for 4 commodities together approx. 20 billion SIT (incomparison with less than 9 billion SIT under BS). Other accession scenarios are less expensive, since costs of

taxpayers at aggregate level are reduced (by 2.2 billionSIT under EU—o comparable to BS). Net economic wel-fare as aggregate measure of individual policy option’seconomic efficiency is deteriorated due to increasedbudget costs under EU+++ scenario (with dead--weight loss of nearly 20 billion SIT in comparison with13 billion SIT under BS), but remains on the level of BSunder EU+-o scenario and brings relatively small im-provement (approx. 3 billion SIT) under EU—o scenario.Favourable net welfare effects are achievable only on thecosts of producers (extreme income deterioration), whileconsumers benefit due to lower food prices irrespectiveof Slovenian EU accession conditions.


Table 3. Income effects of Slovenian EU accession in livestock - projection for 2003 (per head of cow and bull, per 100pig fatteners and 1000 broilers)

BS 2003 EU+++ EU+ - o EU - - o

Milk SIT/cow 143.894 149.930 122.549 92.722

Beef SIT/head 37.203 47.026 21.553 10.069

Pork SIT/100 fatteners 112.385 -4.009 -44.829 -142.791

Poultry SIT/1000 broilers 6.534 -23.787 -25.047 -41.803

Table 4. Producer and consumer surplus at aggregate level - projection for 2003 mio SIT

Pruducer surplus Consumer surplus

Milk Beef Pork Poulty Milk Beef Pork Poulty

BS 14.033 10.837 7.897 3.973 -13.640 -10.283 -13.258 -3.657

EU+++ 12.821 10.406 6.819 2.875 -11.307 -6.914 -11.431 -2.704EU+-o 11.503 7.036 6.750 2.859 -11.307 -6.914 -11.431 -2.704

EU—o 7.196 4.412 5.079 1.567 -7.184 -4.223 -8.760 -1.527

Table 5. Taxpayers’ and net welfare effects at aggregate level - projection for 2003 mio SIT

Budget costs Net welfare

Milk Beef Pork Poulty Milk Beef Pork Poulty

BS -4.641 -3.178 -318 -764 -4.248 -2.624 -5.679 -448

EU+++ -7.933 -10.739 -1.056 -532 -6.419 -7.248 -5.668 -361

EU+-o -3.970 -3.320 -532 -452 -3.774 -3.199 -5.213 -297

EU—o -2.809 -3.190 -518 -178 -2.796 -3.001 -4.199 -138



CONCLUSIONResults obtained show extreme sensitivity of

Slovenian livestock production on accession conditions,related with importance of pre-accession period and ne-gotiation process. Differences of accession effects be-

tween products are very distinctive, from almost neutraleffects in milk and beef sector under EU+++ to drasticdeterioration in pork and poultry irrespective of accessionscenario. In beef production the key question are directpayments. The future of meat production on pastures andgrassland (beef, also lamb and goat) is dependent also onstructural measures (foremost for less favoured areas),which could be of equal importance as direct payments(premiums per head). Measures of structural policy areeven more important for milk production. In short termdairy sector is threatened also by likely negative impact ofnon-competitive dairy industry. In longer term dispersedproduction structure could leave even more negative ef-fects than price adjustment (i.e. reduction), especially inmilk sector operating under the environment of individualproduction quotas. Pork and poultry sectors will be in sin-gle European market confronted with very competitive andless protected conditions. Outlook for dispersed Slovenianfamily farms’ production is not rewarding, and difficultfight for survival is expected also for relative well organ-ised large scale farm production, especially when taking

into account European trends and requirements in thefields of ecology and animal welfare.

REFERENCES1. Baldwin, R., Francois, J. F., Portes, R. (1997): The costs and

benefits of eastern enlargement: the impact on the EU andcentral Europe. Economic Policy, 24: 125-176

2. Bojnec, Š. and J. Swinnen (1997): The pattern of agriculturalprice distortion in Central and Eastern Europe. Food Pol-icy, 22(4): 289-306.

3. Kav~i~, S. (2000): Ocena ekonomskih u~inkov agrarno-politi~nih razmer v slovenskem kmetijstvu (Estimation ofeconomic effects of agricultural policy options inSlovenian agriculture). Ph.D. Thesis. Domàle, Bio-

technical Faculty, Dept. of Animal Science (v postopku)4. Tangermann, S., T.E. Josling (1994): Pre-accession Agricul-

tural Policies for Central Europe and the European Union.Final Report, European Commission, Phare Program,Brussels.

5. ………. European Commission (1995): AgriculturalSituationand Prospects in the Central and Eastern European Coun-

tries: Slovenia. Working Document, European Commis-sion DG VI, Brussels.

6. ………. European Commission (1996): The CAP and en-largement: economic effects of the compensatory pay-ments. Reports and studies, 2: 1-16




ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 631.1.016

PLANUNGSPRAXIS IN DER AGRARUNTERNEHMEN

G. Kemény (1) , Gy. Alpár (2)

Preliminary communication

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG

Wir veröffentlichen der Analyse und Bewertung der ersten 35 verarbeitenden Unternehmeneiner Umfrage. Eine gewisse Unberechenbarkeit der mit der landwirtschaftlichen Produktionverbundenen Bedingungen verursachen bei den Unternehmen (80%) eindeutigeUnsicherheit. Fast alle Unternehmen erstellen Produktions- und Finanzierungsplne. Es kann

als typisch angesehen werden, dass die Plne der Unternehmen sind meinst kurzfristig, Jahresplne sind (77%)

Schlüsselwörter: Planung, Unsicherheit, Finanzierungsplan, Produktionsplan

EINFÜHRUNGNach dem Systemwechsel vollzogen sich groe Vern-

derungen im ungarischen politischen und wirtschaftlichenLeben. Diese Vernderungen betrafen auch die ungarischeLandwirtschaft. Durch die Umgestaltung der Eigentum-verhltnisse gelangten 85% der landwirtschaftlichen Flchenim Privateigentum, die Zahl der Angestellten in der Land-wirtschaft verminderte sich auf ein Drittel. Neue Agrarun-

ternehmen wurden gegründet, vorhandene umstrukturiert.

Mit den Vernderungen in der Wirtschaftswelt, demStrkerwerden der Elemente der Marktwirtschaft verschrftesich auch die Konkurenz, was zur Aufwertung der Rolleder Managementfunktion und somit auch der Planungführte.

Wir möchten in dieser Arbeit darauf hinweisen, inwelcher Weise das Management der Agrarunternehmenplant und inwiefern diese Planungsarbeit den verndertenAnforderungen entspricht. Unsere Ziel ist es nicht, die ge-samte Planungspraxis und deren Zusammenhnge zu be-leuchten, sondern wir untersuchen nur einige uns wichtig

erscheinende Parameter.MATERIAL UND METHODE

Wir führten eine Umfrage in den Agrar-Gesellschafts-unternehmen mit unterschiedlichen Hauptttigkeiten in der südtransdanubischen Region Ungarns durch. Die Umfra-ge bezog sich auf die Grunddaten der Unternehmen, dasSammeln von für Entscheidungen notwendiger Informa-

tionen, die Unternehmensplanung und die Kontrollarbeit inden Unternehmen. Den Fragebogen lieen wir von den Un-

ternehmensleiter in Form eines Standardinterviews ausfül-len. In unserer Arbeit veröffentlichen wir der Analyse und

Bewertung der ersten 35 verarbeitenden Unternehmen der Umfrage. Die Zahl der Angestellte der Agrarunternehmenlag zwischen 4 und 145, der Jahreseinkommen zwischen80000 und 1141156 Tausend Forint.

EIGENE UNTERSUCHUNGEN a) Steigende Anforderungen an die Planung

In den folgenden Punkten fassen wir die Ursachender steigenden Anforderungen an diePlanung zusammen:

• Unternehmungen sind einer wachsenden Dynamik der Umwelt ausgesetzt.

• Im Zuge der Mrkte und infolge technologischen Fort-schritts macht sich ein Innovationsdruck bemerkbar.

• Die Komplexitt der Probleme nimmt allgemein zu.• Die Kapitalintenzitt der Agrarproduktion nimmt zu.• Die stndige Bewertung der Produktions-, Wirtschafts-

und Finanzierungsprozesse ist unerllich.

b) Unsicherheit der ProduktionDie Unsicheheit der mit der landwirtschaftlichen Pro-

duktion verbundenen Bedingungen steigt. Das belegenauch die Ergebnisse der Umfrage. Den Unter- nehmenslei-

ter stellten wir folgende Frage: “Halten Sie die heutigen

Produktionsbedingungen für sicher?”. Die Antwort muss- te auf einer Skala von 0-6 eintragen werden. 0 bedeutetvöllige Unsicherheit, 6 völlige Sicherheit. Der folgendenAbbildung ist die Verteilung der Punkt- bewertung zu ent-nehmen:


(1) Gabor Kemeny, Ph.D Student, (2) Gyorgy Alpar, Dozent - Kaposvárer Universität, Fakultät für Tierproduktion, Guba S. u. 40, 7400 Kaposvár,Ungarn



Abbildung 1. Bewertung der Produktionssicherheit

Die Unternehmen insgesamt bewerten die Produk- tionsbedingungen als sehr unsicher. 11 Unternehmen be-wertete die Produktionssicherheit mit 0, 5 mit 1, 12 mit 2(das sind 80%der Befragten). Dergewichtete aritmetische

Durchschnitt der angegebenen Punkte liegt bei 1,485, dassind nur 25% des erreichbaren Maximums.

c) Faktoren der unsicherheit

Die Unsiherheit und das Risiko können von innerbe- triebliche Faktoren (zB. Technologie) und die auerbetriebli-chen Faktoren (natürliche Gegebenheiten, Markt, Preiseusw.) bestimmt werden. Die Unternehmen sehen die Ur-sachen der Unsicherheit und des Risikos in folgendenFaktoren:

Als gröten Unsicherheits- und Risikofaktor gaben dieUnternehmer die unsichere Marktlage an. Von den 35

Befragten setzten 15 diesen Faktor an erste Stelle. Vieleder Unternehmen (ebenfalls 15), diediesen Faktornicht anerster Stelle genannt haben, gaben ihn als 2. Faktor an. Bei12 Unternehmen sind die unberechenbare Preise der 2.Unsicherheitsfaktor. 5 Stimmen gaben die Vernderungenim Subventionssystem als 3. Faktor an. Es ist interessant,dass die sich aus den Produktionsfaktoren ergebendeUnsicherheit von den Unternehmen als nicht so bedeutendeingestuft wurde wie die aueren Wirtschaftswirkungen,z.B. die Auswirkungen des Marktes.

d) Möglichkeiten der Verminderung der Unsicherheit

Für die Verminderung der Unsicherheit und desRisikos sind mehrere Möglichkeiten bekannt. Diese sind:Diversifikation (1.), Versicherungen (2.), Schaffug vonReserven (3.), Vernderungen in der Rechtsform (5.),

Abschluss von Vertrgen (6.) und hierher gehört auch diePlanung (4.).

Wir stellten den Unternehmern die Frage: “Mitwelchen Methoden erhöhen Sie die Sicherheit desProduktions?”. Das Gewichtigkeit der angegebenen

Methoden maen wir auf eine 7-Stufen-Skala. DieMethode, die gar nicht angewandt wurde, bewerteten wir mit 0, jene, die bei der Senkung der Unsicherheit und desRisikos eine groe Rolle spielte, mit 6 Punkten.

Bei der Senkung der Unsicherheit wurde den Vertrag-abschlüssen die gröte Bedeutung (77%) beigemessen, anzweiter Stelle lag die Diversifikation mit 71% und an dritter die Versicherungabschlüsse mit 58%. Beachtenswert istdie Streuung der angegebenen Punktzahl bei der Bewer-

tung der einzelnen Methoden.

Die drei wichtigste Methode zeigten die kleinsteStreuung, übereinstimmend mit der Reinfolge. Die Beur-

teulung der drei für weniger wichtig gehaltenen Methodenist nicht mehr so einheitlich wie die der ersten drei. Nach-denklich stimmt die Beurteulung der Planung. Sie liegt mit


11

5

12

5

2

0 0

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Punkte

U n

t e r n e h m e n

Tabelle 1. Faktoren der Unsicherheit und des Risikos ReichenfolgeFaktorenI. II. III.

1. Produktions- und Witterungsfaktoren 2 2 72. Mangel an außerbetrieblichen Informationen 1 0 13. Unsichere Marktlage 15 15 34. Unberechenbare Absatzpreise 12 14 55. Ver änderungen im Subventionssystem 5 3 12

4,285714

3,457143

2,457143 2,542857

1,714286

4,6

0

1

2

3

4

5

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Methode

P u n k t e d u r c h s c h n i t t

Abbildung 2. Verwendete Methoden zur Steigerung der Sicherheit

Tabelle 2. Die Streuung bei der Beurteilung derMethoden zu Steigerung der Sicherheit

Methode Streuung

Diverzifikation 1,506289

Versicherungen 1,975480

Reserven 2,392917

Planalternativen 2,091198Rechtsform 2,108407

Verträge 1,310590



einem Durschnitt von nur 2,54 (42%) an vierter Stelle. Diemit der Planerstellung verbundene Beurteulung wird vonweiteren Fragen ergnzt.

e) Planungspraxis

Die Umfrage ersteckte sich auch darauf, welche Plnevon den Agrarunternehmen erstellt werden, mit wievielPlanalternativen und für welchen Zeitraum.

Von 35 Unternehmen erstellten 34 (97%) Finanzie-rungsplne mit nur 42 Alternativen. 32 Unter- nehmen(91%) erstellten einen Produktionsplan mit 39 Alternati-ven. Der Prozentsatz der anderen Teilplne ist sehr niedrig.Ein integrierter Unternehmensplan wird nur von 13 Unter-nehmen (37%) angefertigt.

Die Unsicherheit der ueren Faktoren erschwert einePlanung, da die Zukunft schwer überschaubar ist. Das

beweist die folgende Abbildung (3. Abb.), die das von denUnternehmen in Betracht gezogene Zeitintervall bzw. dieDauer der angefertigten Plne veranschaulicht.

Auf der Abbildung ist gut sichtbar, dass die meistenUnternehmen (27, 77% der Unternehmen) nur Plne für einJahr erstellen. Ein viel lngeres Zeitintervall umfasst dieVorstudie, ein Rückblick in die Verganganheit. Das hufigs-

te Intervall liegt bei 3 Jahren, das für 15 Unternehmen

(42,8%) bezeichnend ist. Die Unternehmen sind bemüht,die Sicherheit der Planung durch die Analyse eines bereitsabgeschlossenen Zeitraums zu erhöhen.

SCHLUSSFOLGERUNGEN

Die in der südtransdanubischen Region ttigen Agrar-unternehmen müssen erkennen, dass die dynamischeUmwelt, die Vernderung der Anforderungen des Marktes,

der Innovationsdruck, die Komlexitt der Wirtschaftspro-bleme die tgliche Bewertung der Produktions- und Fi-nanzierungsprozesse unerlsslich machen. Eine gewis-se Unberechenbarkeit der mit der landwirtschaftlichenProduktion verbundenen Be- dingungen verursachenbei den Unternehmen (80%) eindeutige Unsicherheit.Die Ursache der Verunsicherung wird von den Unter-nehmen mit zwei Faktoren bezeichnet: mit der Unsi-cherheit des Marktes und die damit verbundenen unbe-rechenbaren Absatzpreise.

Sicherheit für die Produktion sehen sie in erster Li-nie im vorhandensein von Absatzvertrgen. Der Umfragenach halten die Befragten noch die Diversifikation für wichtig.

Die bewusste Unternehmensführung, die bei der Problemlösung helfende Planung wird von den Unter-nehmensleitern als vierter Faktor anerkannt.Trotzdem


Tabelle 3. Von den Unternehmen erstellte Pläne und Anzahl der Alternativen

Pläne Unternehmen Alternativen Durchschnitt der Alternativen

Finanzierung 34 42 1,23

Produktion 32 39 1,21

Investition 4 6 1

Personal 1 1 1

Absatz 1 1 1

Integrierte 13 14 1,07

-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6

1

5

9

13

17

21

25

29

33

Jahre

Abbildung 3. Das von den Unternehmen in Betracht gezogene Zeitintervall



erstellen fast alle Unternehmen Produktions-und Finanz-ierungsplne. Es kann als typisch angesehen werden, dassdie Plne der Unternehmen sind meist kurzfristig, Jahres-plne sind (77%). Der Grund ihrer Vorsicht liegt wahrchein-lich in der lngere Zeit anhaltenden Unberechenbarkeit der

wirtschaftlichen Umwelt sowie im Mangel langfristiger Prognosen von Seiten der Wirtschaftsforschungsinstitu-

ten.

LITERATUR1. Hanyecz L.: Tervezés és stratégia. JPTE Kiadó, Pécs, 19952. Hanyecz L.: Tervezés és controlling a vezetési, irányítási

folyamatokban. Vezetéstudomány. XXX. évf. 1999 7-8.szám, p. 30-37.

3. Wild, J.: Grundlagen der Unternehmensplanung. Rowolt

Verlag, Hamburg, 1974

PLANNINGPRACTICE OF AGRICULTURALENTERPRISES

ABSTRACT In the operation of agricultural enterprises, cha-

nges should cause an increase in the demand on planning. But, practically just a contrary tendence appears.35 managers was asked in a standard interview, who found the circumstances quite uncertain for produc-tion. Decreasing the risc and uncertainty, the apply different methods - but the rank of planning is still only at the 4th place. 97% of enterprises prepare financial plans, 91% fix production plans. Other partial plans are made in quite a low rate. 77% of enterprises examined are fixing only short term, annual plans.

Keywords: planning, uncertainty, financial plan, production plan






is not defined as well as their process and market relation to animal and meat production.

Expert organisations which should deal with all thequestions of managing and developing of this kind ofprodution do not exist. Within slaughter plants and people

involved there is no interest in colaboration with animalproduction unities becuase import of meat created addic-

tion on import licences and group of powerfull peoplewhich rule the import of the meat from all EU and other surces. This hurts “unities”.

Every subject in sluahgter business works in the wayimport of the meat and terms of payment enable.

A lot of people open slaughterhouses quick, but stateslaughterhouses and big meat industry are going down inbusiness.

CONDITIONS FOR FUTURE OF THE “UNITY”

The future of Croatia is in joining EU, WTO andCEFTA. This means that Croatia should accept all ways indoing business, development and competetiveness. Inagriculture of EU countries, like in every part of economicunity, everything is precisely organized and dinamicalymonitoredaccording to programme, laws and regulations.They are synchronised with organized subjects, well de-fined and dynamicaly interelated with development.

What is happening in Croatia now is that disorga-nized parts of unity search the means for survival and ex-clusively from theMinistry of agriculture and forestry. Thisis because framework and definitions of subjects whichshould and could initiate systematic solotion to the prob-lems are not given so every answer is looked for in Minis-

try which lacks the unit for oraganization of the unities.Our efforts in aplying the european regulations and

norms produce difficulties to existing subjects. Becauseof disorganisation of subjects and unities the EUregulatioshavebeenimposedbyforce,butthisisnotpos-sible without basic organisation of subjects into unity andwithout ordered market and means so there is no moveforeward.

The relation of the unity to slaughtering, agricultural

and other productions have to be comprehencivelyconcieced and defined. Without this, like now, trade ofslaughter animals, meat and meat products become“barging” and creates grey economy.

This is certainly not the way of dealing with pro-cesses and relations within unity and remove the condi-

tions which destroy agriculture of Croatia.

ABOUT TERMS AND THEIR MEANINGSBeforeprogramming and organizing the development

of economic unities it is necessary to clear out the termsand roles of unities and subjects.After that, roles of sub-

jects should be binded in economic unities in EU manner.Processes of producing the goods for market should bedivided and function and processes according to whichsubjects and contents of unity together with activities take

part in production and market as organised economyshould be followed.

Often changes of social and economic systems ofproduction in Croatia borught some terms which are notclearly defined and by this their usage in organizational

and market sence is not fully clear.A lot of terms and expressions appeared by

inpropriate translations from more languages rich withcomplex words as well as from contradictory economicsystems of socialism and capitalim.

First of all we should start with terms of agriculturaleconomy, agriculture, economic unity and other basic

terms for organization of agriculture and bring them to themarket or other purposes with all activ explanations. Ele-ments for development of agriculture should be reached.

POSITION AND SIGNIFICANCE OF ANIMAL

PRODUCTION ECONOMIC UNITIES FORAGRICULTURE AND ECONOMY

Animal production as branch of agriculture, with eco-nomic unities and process directions of market goods is

the biggest buyer and consumer in agricultural activity.Animal production spends about 70% of overrall agricul-

tural production. For this reason intensity and magnitudeof agricultural production in EU conditions are influencedgreat deal by animal production.Withoutdeveloped animalproduction agriculture becomes extensive and suffers sig-nificant economic consequences. This is very obvious inCroatia: animal production in past 10 years is cut in two

and agriculture is colapsing.Animal production by its composition, magnitude

and directions determine the the magnitude and structureof agriculture in general.This count in all elements of agri-culture: soil utilisation intensity, selection of theplants, theways of production, turns in plant production, total devel-opment, employment and main incomes of agriculturaleconomies per acre and in total. Sustainning the fertilityand biogenity of soils is hardly possible without animalproduction.

AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY

Agricultural economies in our conditions and for our way of development we tried to define in 1999 as:Mulidisciplinary production units which manage agricul-

tural land as nacional good in the way which secure hu-man nutrition, protection of land and environment, socialstability and profit. Term “family economy” suits better tosociological thoughts than to process and market organi-sation.The term family economy is used with this meaningin EU agriculture.

On the type of agricultural economies regarding themagnitude and structure, a lot of following economic ac-

tivities depend: manufacture, industry, merchandise,

turism, social and scientific activities and other.Multidisciplinary family economy lives and acts in in-

teraction of natural resources ad soil with society andmarket. With regard to the land surface, modern develop-




ment of society with hyperproduction of food, agriculturaleconomies by techic and biotechnology seek optimalways for classic products such as meat, milk, weats andnew structural additional products and changes for in-come, conditions and way of life.

ABOUT PRODUCTION OF SLAUGHTER ANIMALSAND MEAT

Meat production is defined as: “Biological processwhich starts by production of plant mass and renewableenergy on the land of agricultural economy, by selection ofanimals for reproduction according to purpose, by rearingand fattening of bred animals , ending by slaughtering,processing and chilling the meat in slaughterhouses”. Inslaughterhouses as end point of economic unity from tis-sues of animals made by transformations of mass and en-ergy of plants, slughter yields meat as good for market.Meat is transported from the slagterhouse asfresh, prepared for consuming and as raw material for fur -

ther processing.Unity which in organized processes till market moves

the chain of processes to the selling goods for sale is keyunity for strategic and market oriented view on agriculturaleconomies. In a whole, in phases of production, startingwith renewable mass of energy from plant production,

than by digestion and matabolism of matter in selected an-imals, animal tissues are produced, which after slaughter become meat and goods.

Processes organised for purpose in a whole ensure

optimal management of energy up to quantity and qualityof meat for market and to organic-biologic manure for sustaining the biogenity of soil. Such organized “unity” isimportantbase for managing,bilancing,sinchronization ofquantity, quality, dynamics and costs of production.Theese “unities” should be systemeticaly organized bygoverment. Goverment should create and implement theconcept of “unities” as a line of goods with legislativeneeded and means of encouragement and development.

Main points in “unity”, for acting of the system andinstruments of the Goverment-Ministry of agriculture andforestry, when it implements the concept of purpose uni-

ties in agricultural economy are:

1. point of animal food-plant production- betweenplant and animal production including one between soiland plant production,

2. point of meat production between animal andmeatproduction and slaughterhouses where amount and qual-ity of meat is determined,

3. point of trade of meat between slaughterhouse andmeat market.

In these points of the system “unities”, relations between plant and meat production, slaughterhouses andmeat market are determined by bilance and contracts.Inoverall organized unity, by application of instruments ofeconomic policy, it is possible to ensure the path to qualityand production price capable to compete the developedcountries in EU.

Basic work is in real bilancing and contracts, i.e. ful-

fillment of contracts in “unity” and with market. Market iscleared by specific Law on trading the slaughter animals,meat and meat products with regard to state of organiza-

tion in meat production of Croatia. The form of organization and the way of implementation of market competitionis regulated by the law.

MEAT PROCESSING AND “UNITY”Meat processing or “production of meat products” is

activity which produced meat forms into market and con-suming forms. In relation to unity it is a buyer of final prod-uct or good from the unity on the market, at position of thefinal phase in slaughterhouse.

Meat processing processes and preparation for con-suming are directed at preparation and processing in dif-ferent meals in the best suitable way. Meat processing isin fact bigger or smaller scale manufacture or industry“kitchens” and food preparation plants on market. Theyare placed before consumer and behind meat producer.For this reason, meat processing is processing activityplaced in food mannufacture or food industry, and it devel-ops in domain of food trade, while slaughterhouses be-long in “unities” i.e. agricultural (animal production)

development unities.




ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 637.5.04/.07

POSSIBILITIES FOR THE REDUCTION OF FAT AND CHOLESTEROL LEVEL INMEAT ANIMALS

S. êpin(1) , S. @gur (2)

Scientific review

ABSTRACT

The majority of consumers refuse meat with higher levels of fat, because of possible associa-tion between high levels of saturated fat, cholesterol and heart disease. The meat productiontries to fit consumers preferences with lowering fat content of meat. Such meat should alsocontain less cholesterol. In the following contribution the possibilities for reducing fat and cholesterol content and altering fatty acid composition of meat are discussed. In meat ani -

mals the estimated heritability for fat content is relatively high (between 0.3 and 0.6). This means that selection represents a powerful tool for fat reduction. Even better possibility for reducing fat and altering fatty acid composition is adequate nutrition. The decrease of animal age and weight at slaughter can also reduce carcass fat content. Also the use of transgenic animals and different growth stimulators represents a wide range of possibilities to reduce fat content in farm animals.

Keywords: meat, carcass quality, fat, cholesterol

INTRODUCTIONThe current consumer opposition to fatty meat is in-

creasing especially in Europe, and is rising also in other

countries of the world. The first reason for refusal is highenergy value of fatty meat, the second, more importantreason is the warning of health professionals who state

that too high level of fat in human nutrition, specially satu-rated fat and cholesterol, increase the risk of coronaryheart disease. Meat production therefore has to adapt to

the current market requirements on one hand, and has toconsider the present as well as the future consumer atti-

tudes towards fat in meat on the other (Boss et al., 1990),for the change of carcass composition is a time consum-ing process. The main objective of this paper is to analysegenetic and environmental effects that influence fat and

cholesterol level in meat.

GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON FATDEPOSITS IN CARCASS OF MEAT ANIMALS

In animals fat is deposited in different parts of thebody and according to different priority, often different toourexpectations. Hence, fat in animals is deposited first ofall in the body cavities, mainly in the abdominal and pelviccavity, followed by intermascular fats, subcutane, andlastly intramuscular fats, which causes marbling of meat.From the carcass and meat quality point of view, opposite

priority would be much better, because intramuscular fatincreases sensory meat traits and is therefore most de-sired. To a certain extent we also desire subcutane fat, for it prevents carcass from excessive chilling losses during

cooling process and storage of meat. The other fats listedabove are not welcome. Genetic and environmental ef-fects are different for separate kinds of fat. Bass et al.

(1990) reports of different heritabilities for fat in cattle. Thelowest is reported for marbled meat (h2 = 0.42), and thehighest for kidney fat (h2 = 0.72), which indicates thatmarbled meat is the least influenced by selection, al-

though this heritability rate is still rather high. Even higher heritability estimates are reported by Schwerer andRebsamen (1990) regarding intramuscular fat in differentpig breeds (0.48-0.56).

Ollivier and Sellier (1982) also write about high andnumerous heritabilities, between 0.4 to 0.6 and higher for back fat thickness, and for fat percentage in carcass.Schwerdtfeger et al.(1990) state genetic correlation be-

tween intramuscular fat and meat rate, back fat thickness,side fat thickness, and meat/fat rate 0.60, 0.15, 0.53, and0.47, respectively.

Similar heritabilities are reported for sheep by Bass etal. (1990) for different locations of deposited fat at theconstant body mass and age. Nort and Bell (1990) reportof rather high heritabilities for fat content in chicken car-cass (h2 = 0.5). Even higher heritability is stated byChambers (1990), according to Lewis (1990). Fat quan-

tity in carcass of meat animals or in meat is apart from ge-netic influence, equally or even strongly influenced by theage of animals at slaughter, and by nutrition.


(1) Slavko êpin, Full Professor, (2) Silvester @gur, Assistant Professor –University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Zootechnical Department,Groblje 3, 1230 Domàle, Slovenia



THE EFFECT OF AGE AT SLAUGHTERBermann (1994) according to Dikemann (1997) re-

ports that in meat animals the increase of muscle tissuemass and protein content in carcass is almost linear withbirth to slaughter maturity. Fat increase in this period isfaster than the growth of muscle, and at the end of fatten-ing period it exceeds the intensity of muscle growth for al-most 200%. Thus the most effective solution for fatdecrease in carcasses is slaughter of young animals atlighter slaughter weight. With this precaution the intra-muscular fat can be greatly reduced, yet it is the intramus-cular fat that is most desired.

Similar results are reported also by numerous other authors. TheSlovene research results are identical (Cepin,1980, Kempster et al., 1982, Bass et al., 1990).

There is a problem of objective estimation for fat levelat slaughter (Bass et al., 1990), because the subjectiveestimation is not reliable, and the objective estimationgained by instruments and based on ultrasound presents

too high expenses for practical use.

THE EFFECT OF SEXNot castrated male animals are in comparison to fe-

males of the same breed, fed by similar diet, liable not toget fat, and have therefore much less fat content in car-cass than the female animals. Castrated males have meanvalues for fatness as a rule. The so called dimorphism isspecially pronounced in cattle. As reported by Cepin(1980) castrates had 29%, and heifers 73% more fat (tal-low) than the bulls at almost the same diet and within thesame breed. Research also proved greater differences be-

tween males and females in the case of meat and bonecontent. Steers had 3%, and heifers 7% less meat, and 2%and 4% less bones, respectively.

Similar results are reported by Berg et al. (1978), andBass et al. (1990) for cattle and sheep.

Sexual dimorphism is also expressed in pigs (John-ston, 1993). But it is not possible to use less fatty youngboars. They have to be castrated because of the unpleas-ant odour. In most countries it is not allowed to trade withpork of not castrated males (Seideman et al., 1982). Un-fortunately young castrates have much more depositedfat, compared to young sows, which is opposite to rumi-nants, even though they were fed with a very similar diet.

Ozkon et al. (1997) and Puchajda et al. (1997) reportstatistically significant differences in the rate of abdominalfat of males and females in broilers and turkeys.

THE EFFECT OF BREEDDifferences between breeds in various meat animal

species are quite high in regard to fat percentage rate incarcasses. Several authors report very different heriat-bilities, from nearly 0.20 to 0.70 for fat quantity or fatpercentage rate in meat carcass (Bass et al., 1990). Rel-atively high genotype effect on fat content means that se-lection can effectively decrease fat content in carcasses,yet it has to be planned well in advance. Specially in ani-

mals like cattle, where due to the long duration of repro-ductive cycle, the effects of selection are not seen sosoon.

The rate of trimmed fat in carcass significantly dif-fers among cattle breeds at constant age or at constant fi-

nal weight. Koch et al. (1979) reports the lowest quantityof trimmed fat in the Italian beef breed Kianina (12.3%),and the highest one at Angus breed, as well as in cross-breeds Hereford x Angus (21.5 and 20.9%). French beefbreeds Limousin and Charollais have approximate 2%,and the dual purpose Simmental breed 3.6% higher levelof fat than Kianine breed.

Research of Slovene breeds and their crossbreedsfor fat content in carcass show similar defferences. (êpinet al., 1987, 1993, 1994a, êpin and @gur, 1993).

Significant differences are reported also by Kennedyet al. (1985) for separate pig breeds, i. e. Landrace 27.8%,

Large White 23.7, and Duroc 21.9%. Most often meat andalso fat content is measured with back fat thickness,either manually or with instruments.

In sheep, carcass fat percentage is even higher thanit is in pigs, and ranges from 20% in most meaty Texelbreed to 38.5% in most fatty Southdown breed.

Ozkon et al. (1997), and Edwin and Moran (1997)state statistically significant genotype effect on abdominalfat content in broilers.

NUTRITIONAL EFFECTNutrition is the most important influence on fat level

in carcasses or fat content in meat. By fattening for meatproduction, we wish to gain the highest possible quantityand the highest possible quality of meat with the suitablelevel of fat content. But we are not always successful in

the achievement of this goal, mainly due to incorrect nutrition. Very often the rations are energy rich (feeding ad libitum), mostly at the end of fattening period, causingexcessive fat deposits, which have negative influence onmeat quality and commercial value of carcasses (êpin,1980; êpin et al., 1994b; Mersman, 1987). Mersman(1987) cites numerous authors, who also report of thenegative effect of limited nutrition. Such nutrition causesaggression in animals and only lowers intramuscular fat(marbling). As a consequence sensory meat traits are

thus reduced as well.Increased nutrition intensity with a higher level of

concentrates in a ration, and forage ad libitum, causedan increased fatpercentage rate in carcass, from 10.8 to14.6% in bulls, and from 12.7 to 19.2% in heifers (êpin,1980; êpin et al., 1994b). These results indicate astrong dimorphism, which is not rare in intensive meatproduction. Similar results are reported by Fortin et al.(1980) for bulls and steers of Angus and Holstein breed,especially if fed ad libitum and at 70% reduced diet. If an-imals are fed ad libitum, fat content is significantlyhigher, the same as in Angus beef breed, which is knownfor high fat percentage rate. The same effect of feedingad libitum and for restrictive diet is noticed in sheep, but




here the sexual dimorphism is not so pronounced(James et al., 1983).

Campbell et al. (1983) report increased back fat thickness from 13.1 to 16.9 mm in boars, and from 13.3 to 20.3 in young sows, if energy intake was increased

from 14.5 to 34.2 MJ per day.Significant nutritional effect on fat content is also re-

ported for chickens, while sexual dimorphism is less ex-pressed compared to other animal species (Kubena et al.,1974, Jakson et al., 1982).

Marbling is closely related to the total quantity of fatin carcass. Great improvement of sensory traits in beefcan be noticed if intramuscular fat level is increased from1.8 to 2.5% (Wood, 1995). Later on the constant increaseof intramuscular fat does not change the sensory traits tosuch an extent any more. Similar is reported by Bejerholmand Barton-Gade (1986) for pork. It may thus be con-

cluded that good sensory traits can be reached at a relatively low fat content.

The same importance as for fat quantity applies for fat quality, expressed as fatty acid composition. There aregreat differences existing in fatty acid composition amongdifferent domestic animal species, and there are breed or genotype differences within the same species in fattyacid composition. These differences are reported bySchwertdgeger et al.(1990), Surman et al.(1990), Woodet al. (1996) for pigs, and Rule et al.(1997) for cattle. Quitean effect on fatty acid composition is shown in the car-cass structure, seen by phenotypic correlation that was

calculated for pigs. With increased meatiness, the satu-rated fatty acid content is reduced. This means that selec-

tion for better meat rate at the same time also changesfatty acid composition.

The most important effect on fatty acid compositionhas animal nutrition, especially in the case of non-rumi-nants, for they absorb fatty acids and then return them un-changed to the fat deposits in the body. As a result theaddition of rape seed to pig nutrition decreases stearic,and increases oleic, linoleic and linolenic fatty acids inback fat (Gill et al., 1995). Higher level of saturated fattyacids is characteristic for fatty tissue of ruminants, if

compared to non-ruminants, and is a consequence ofhydrogenisation in the rumen, where saturated becomeunsaturated fatty acids, with lower number of doublebounds. With suitable nutrition there is a possibility tochange fatty acid composition also in ruminants. Mandelet al. (1997) report of increased n-3 concentration, anddecreased n-6 concentration of fatty acids in the meat ofsteers, who received fish meal in the diet. Enser et al.(1998) report of increased saturated and n-3 concentra-

tion, and a decrease in n-6 concentration in beef.Decreased rate of saturated fatty acids in meat of ani-

mals fattened with grass is not appropriate from the hu-man nutrition point of view, because the proportion ofsaturated and unsaturated fatty acids should be at least0.4 according to the Food Advisory Committee (Enser etal., 1998). On the other hand the increase of n-3 fatty ac-

ids is better and more important than the P:S proportion.Ruminant fat contains also an important part of conju-gated linoleic acid, which has favourable effects on healthcondition. According to Enser et al. (1999) it protectsagainst malignant growth, arteriosclerose, has positive in-

fluence on immune system and energy distribution inmuscle and fatty tissue.

The influence of nutrition on the increase of this fattyacid in beef was proven if flax seed or fish oil, and thecombination of both were added to cattlenutrition. Thead-dition of unsaturated fatty acids two to three times in-creased the concentration of linoleic acid. But it is also

true that parallel to the increased concentration of unsatu-rated fatty acids there exists a danger of their oxidation,and thus formation of harmful substances. Therefore it isnecessary to think about the improved concentration ofantioxidants in meat, to reduce the harmful process.

One of the reasons for the rejection of fatty meat is the cholesterol content. Opinions on the effect of cholesterol in food on cholesterol in plasma are still not thesame, just as they are not regarding the cholesterol con-centration in meat. We could say that it mainly depends onfat concentration , specially in pork (Honikel and Seuss,1993). The results are much different for beef. According

to VanKoevering et al. (1995) the rise of cholesterol con-centration is linear to the rise of intramuscular fat, yet ac-cording to Berg et al. (1985) the highest cholesterol levelwas found in meat without marbling effect. Offsprings ofbulls with high genetic potential had lower cholesterol

concentration in carcass than offsprings of bulls withmean genetic growth potential. It may be the consequenceof lower fattiness of the first group.Cholesterol concentra-

tion increased with the age of animals within each group inregard to the beginning of fattening period. However, thecholesterol concentration in ML Dorsi was all the time un-changed and was not influenced neither by genotype, nor by the age.

Clarke (1997) presents various possibilities for thereduction of cholesterol level in meat. Thepossibilities thatmay change cholesterol concentration in meat are: thechoice of suitable animal breed or genotype, suitable nu-

trition, mainly the right fatty acid and mineral content, us-

age of different pharmaceuticals, mostly those that influ-ence growth rate and chemical composition of carcass,

the choice of the right time for slaughter, and last but notleast, the cooking or the preparation of meat. High choles-

terol content is also caused by copper deficiency (Bakalliet al., 1995). However, the most important factor to beconsidered in the reduction of cholesterol level in all thesemethods, is low fat concentration. It is reduced fat con-centration that is at the moment presenting the only realpossibility to reduce cholesterol content in meat.

CONCLUSION

To meet the consumer requirements for less fattymeat and lower cholesterol level, the following conclu-sions are drown from the analysed possibilities to reducefat percentage rate in carcass and in meat:




• Genotype (breed) has relatively strong effect on fatcontent in studied animals, for the heritability (h2)ranges from 0.30 to 0.60 and indicates that selectioncan effectively influence the level of fat in carcass andin meat. The lowest heritability is reported for intramus-

cular fat. Yet, heritability does not effect the quality offat or in other words the fatty acid composition to suchan extent.

• Relatively strong is the effect of sex. Female animalshave a predisposition to get fat, but it is castrated males

that get fatter in the case of pigs and sheep.• Slaughter of younger and lighter animals can signifi-

cantly influence fat content and indirectly cholesterollevel in carcass and in muscle tissue.

• Nutrition has the most important influence on the quantity, as well as on the composition of fats, and accord-ing to the majority of authors also on cholesterol level in

meat.• Apart from the listed effects, we can reduce cholesterol

concentration in meat also by means of the addition ofcopper if deficiency occurs, with the use of variousgrowth promoters and with genetic manipulation, andwith correct preparation of meat (trimming of fat, cook-ing methods etc.).

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10. êpin, S., Škorjanc, D., @gur, S. (1994a): Klavna kakovost inlastnosti mesa mladih bikov treh naših pasem. Znanost inpraksa v govedoreji, 18. zv., p. 105-112.

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26. Lewis, S. (1990): Genetics and evoluation of the domesticfowl. Cambridge university press. Cambridge.

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148-164.28. North, M.O., Bell, D.D. (1990): Commercial chicken Produc- tion mannual. Fourth edition. Published by Van NostrandReinhold, Ney York, 526.

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31. Rule, D.C. MacNeil, M.D., Short, R.E. (1997): Influence ofsire growth potential, time on feed, and growing-finishingstrategy on cholesterol and fatty acids of the ground car-

cass and longissimus muscle of beef steers. J. Anim.Sci., 75, p. 1525-1533.

32. Seideman, S.C., Cross, H.R., Oltjen, R.R., Schanbacher,B.D. (1982): Utilization of the intact male for red meat pro-duction. J. Animal Sci., 55, p. 826-40.

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hinsichtlich der chemischen Zusammen- setzung vonSchweinefleisch und Fettgewebe. V: Glodek, P, Lengere-ken, G. Pfeiffer, H. (edt.) Schweinefleischbeschaffenheitnach der Halo- tansanierung. 17.-18. 12. 1990, Nordhau-sen, p. 185-200.

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ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 636.5:637.5.05

POULTRY MEAT IN THE PRODUCTION OF MEAT PRODUCTS

C. Varga(1) , V. Strelec(2) , M. Volk (3)

Professional paper

ABSTRACT

The authors had studied the possibility of the use of various types of poultry meat, factorswhich could have and adverse impact upon the microbiological quality of the raw material,technology of meat products production and the quality of products.

Keywords: poultry meat, quality of raw materials, assortment, technology, and quality of prod-ucts

INTRODUCTIONDuring the last decades, we have witnessed the per-

manent rise in the feeding and the production of poultrymeat. The rise in the production of this sort of meat is theconsequence of new achievements in genetics, in the op-

timisation of feeding of poultry, in the development of transport logistics, in slaughtering and processing tech-nology, in the more efficacious health protection and par-

ticularly in the composition of the poultry meat (Kulier,1996; @ivkovi}, 1998). Owing to various reasons, e.g. nu-

tritional value, fatty acid composition (Wissebach, 1969;

Niewiarowicz and Grabowski, 1971; Swern, 1971; Baltes,1975; Pardun, 1975) great possibilities of use, lower pricein comparison to other types of meat, consumers demandpoultry meat and poultry meat products ever more.

According to Agenda 2000 (1999) of the EuropeanCommission, as to agriculture, the following growth ofpoultry meat production is planned during the following 5years (Table 1).

Of the total quantity of poultry meat, hens and turkeymeat are consumed the most (95.7%), whereas adultchicken, goose and duck meat represent a smaller part in

the entire consumption (3.3%).

The producers of poultry meat had been forced, al-ready by 1970, to expand the offer - assortment of poultrymeat. Thus, beside the ever greater sales of the basic

parts of the body (legs, wings, breasts et sim.), besidesnew packaging, they also attempted by the sales of meatproducts.

In 1973 in Slovenia we began to produce chickenmeat sausages. After the first attempts and after master-ing technological problems, the production of these prod-ucts grew steadily and at present 17 200 t of variouspoultry meat products are produced annually.

Some European producers began to produce theseproducts on a regular basis in 1982 (Richardson, 1995).Presently, of the entire amount of produced poultry meat

already 33.0% are marketed by way of these products.Thus, in Great Britain over 50% of the produced turkeymeat is marketed by way of various products (Richard-son, 1995).

THE ASSORTMENT OF POULTRY MEAT PRODUCTSThe growth of production of these products came

about under the impact of a better technology of bone sep-aration, as well as under the impact of intentional feedingandslaughtering of poultry directed towards meat produc-

tion for further processing.In the USA, in 1970 (Kang and Sams, 1999), the pro-

duction of various planned products was begun. Fillet was


Table 1. Planned growth of poultry meat production during the following 5 years (in 000 t)

Year 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Production 8900 9050 9200 9425 9700

Consumption* 8250 8375 8500 8700 8900

Import 300 300 300 300 300

Export 950 975 1000 1025 1050

* Consumption of meat and meat products

(1) Ciril Varga, Assistant Professor, (3) Marko Volk, Assistant Professor -University of Maribor, Faculty of Agriculture, Vrbanska 30, 2000 Maribor,Slovenia , (2) Vlado Strelec, Ph.D - Perutnina Ptuj d.d., Potr}eva c 10, 2250

Ptuj, Slovenia



used as the basic raw material, together with boneless legmeat and wing meat (turkey).

For more than 80 years, smoked poultry productssuch as smoked legs, breasts and half-bodies have beenknown. These products have been mostly demanded by

customers - consumers who do not, due to various rea-sons (e.g. dietary habits), consume pork. Producers ofpoultry meat products developed mostly products similar

to pork, beef and mutton products, as were mostly pro-duced by the then existing meat industry. These were inparticular different kinds of sausages and tinned products.

After few years, by when the consumers had, to acertain extent, accepted the mentioned products, the meatprocessing industry broadened the assortment and pres-ently it produces numerous so called formed andcrumb-fried products, as well as a variety of semi-prod-ucts (e.g., barbecue chunks, kebab, marinated meat).

As to the modes of production and the technologyprocess, poultry meat products can be classified by anumber of ways:

a) according to type of raw material (e.g., chicken, turkey, goose)

b) according to the technological process of production (sausages, semi-permanent, permanent tins, smokedproducts et simile)

c)productsmadeofbody partsand small meatchunks.It needs to be mentioned that bacon and other kinds

of meat (pork, beef) are used in the production of someproducts.

In Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia andSlovenia the assortment of these products is regulated(Official Gazette of the SFRY, 1991) and they are classifiedinto the followingcategories: products made of main bodyparts, meat chunks or minced meat, sausages, tins,smoked meat, poultry fat.

QUALITY OF MEAT USED FOR PRODUCTIONIt is known that many factors influence the quality of

a crammed animal and thus the quality of meat. In cram-ming poultry, special care needs to be devoted to thecramming technology, optimal housing for the animals

needs to be provided for. In the facilities, a high quality ofwork, food, light, circulation of air, veterinary supervision,hygiene, maintenance and competent management need

to be provided for, as well (Blass, 1992).There are numerous investigations and cognitions on

the impact of transport (Knowles and Broom, 1990;Kettlewell andMitchel, 1994; Mitchel and Ketlewell, 1998)and hunting methods upon the bodies of the slaughteredpoultry. The EU Council Directive regulates animal protec-

tion before slaughter: thus, better transport, slaughter and

keeping of animals are demanded by regulations as wellas modes of stunning.

The quality of meat is highly influenced by the modesof stunning (Veerkamp and de Vries, 1983; Gregory andWotton, 1990; Ruis-Heutinck et al., 1998). The conse-

quences of improper loading, transport and various stressupon animals, as well as the improper modes of stunningare demonstrated by haemorrhages which significantlyreduce the quality of meat (Gregory et al., 1989a, 1989b;Kranen et al., 1996; Lambooij et al.,1999).

The meat that has been altered in such a way - mainparts cannot be used in production of the highest qualityproducts and need to be processed into lower marketprice products. Comparative research of stunning ofcrammed poultry by electricity and CO2 have demon-strated certain advantages and minor disadvantages of

tunnel CO2 stunning (Kang in Sams, 1999).

The possibility of contamination of poultry meat bydifferent kinds of bacteria (Mulder, 1999): Salmonella,Campylobacter jejeni, Listeria monocytogenes, haemor-rhage E. Colli O 15H7 - always represents a potential dan-ger to the quality and health regularity of these kinds ofmeat. From the research results by @ivkovi} (1971) andassociates, it is discernible that the number of positivefindings of Salmonella in meat and guts amounts to guts= 23,1 % (n=212); confectioned meat 11,5 % (n=26);body 3,9 % (n=672); total meat 8,6 % (n=910). Contam-inations of meat by different kinds of Listeria (Kerr, et al.,1988; Jonson et al., 1990) and bacteria Campylobacter (Tauxe, 1992; de Boer, 1997) which are found on feathersor in the digestive tract of poultry are common.

During slaughter, eviscerations, the cooling of meat,confecting - slicing of body into its main parts an infectionof meat and guts can occur. Beside this, the alreadyknown possibilities of poisoning which are caused by Sal-monella contaminated meat, as well as Listeria infections(Russel, 1999)whichmay causeMeningitis, septicaemia,neonatal infections and common diarrhoeas, have known

to come about often during the past years. Campylobacter bacteria cause most of the diarrhoea cases in the US(Russel, 1999), but fortunately the mortality is very low(one person per thousand infected).

The meat for processing is prepared by hand or ma-chine separation from the bones. Manual separation maybe applied for larger body pieces (e.g., breasts, legs),whereas machine separation may be applied to separate

the meat from the bodies, as well as from all the mainparts. Due to the process modes, and a high risk of con -

tamination, the machine-separated meat (also called sep-arated meat) presents a high risk factor in production. Thefollowing parameters are recommended at for estimating

the bacteriological quality in separated meat:


Kind of separated

meat

Total No. of bacteria Enterococa Entero bacteriaceal

m n m n m n

Red meat 5x105 5x106 5x103 5x104 5x103 5x104

Poultry meat 5x105 5x106 5x103 5x104 5x104 5x105



After production, the separated meat needs to bekept up to 4°C and used in the production process withinin 12 hours at the latest or it should be deep-frozen. In thisway the bacteria dissemination is suppressed. The ma-chine-separated meat is the basic raw material in the

prouction for a series of products. The chemical composition depends on the raw material from which it is pro-duced. Today, in production, whole bodies, legs, breastsare used - due to different reasons they could not be soldin the market (e.g., decreased demand, customer prefer-ences). An opinion was prevalent for a long time, that thiskind of meat is chemically less valuable than the other cat-egories of meat, but I want to emphasize the fact that qual-ity separated meat can be produced with quality rawmaterial, which can then be used in the production of dif-ferent products (e.g., chops et simile).

TECHNOLOGY OF PRODUCTIONThe technology of poultry meat production is similar

to the technology of pork and beef products production.The difference in technology depends on the raw materialused and on the expected quality of the finalised product. Itis very important to stress the importance of HACCP con-

trol in the production process and the control of the final-ised products. The determination of critical control pointsin the technological process can greatly reduce produc-

tion risks and secure a high quality product - which is alsohygienically faultless. Beside stressing the control of tech-nological process and of certain technological parame-

ters, it is important that the processes be defined asexactly as possible.

In the technological processes of production, wemust reduce the number of bacteria through certain pro-cesses (pasteurisation, sterilisation, freezing, boiling) andproduce a quality product which has an adequate compo-sition and sensory characteristics that are expected by thefinal customer. It needs to be stressed that it does not suf-fice that these products be only hygienically faultless (notharmful as to health), but they also need to, with regard toquality, in a wider sense, meet the expectations of the finalcustomer. Various additives are used in the production.

Therefore, nitrate salt, ascorbic acid (and its salts)(French, 1998), various sugars, polyphosphates andother additives are used for sousing.

PRODUCT QUALITYThe consumer of our product expects that the prod-

ucts are not health harmful and do not contain any patho-genic microorganisms; the products have definitecomposition; theproducts have expected sensory charac-

teristics.The maximum number of different microorgan-isms is regulated in Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina,Macedonia, Yugoslavia (Official Gazette of the SFRY,

1983; Official Gazette of the Republic of Croatia, 1992).For certain products, there is also a regulated chemicalcomposition which, beside other criteria, regulates themaximum content of fat and water, the minimum content

of proteins and maximum content of sodium nitrates andpolyphosphates in certain products. Sensory characteris-

tics - characteristics of certain products - are the characteristics (external appearance, colour, smell, taste,consistency) which are determined by the producer ac-

cording for his products. Demands of different marketsand consumers must be carefully taken into consider-ation.

CONCLUSIONThe poultry meat is a quality raw material in the pro-

duction of numerous products.During the feeding of poultry, slaughter, processing and during the technologicalprocess of production, it is necessary to reduce possibilityof microorganism contamination of meat by adequate

technological prevention measures.Increased production and demand of meat products

makes it possible to increase poultry meat production.The development of meat technology and the need for ascientific and professional knowledge has a strong impactupon the expansion of assortment.

REFERENCES1. Baltes J. (1975): Gewinnung und Verarbeitung von Nah-

rungsfetten. Berlin-Hamburg: Paul Parey, p.108-110.2. Blass, D. (1998): Food Safetyand thePoultry Industry,Poul-

try Processing, September.

3. De Boer, E. (1997): Raw meat and poultry as vectors ofpathogenic bacteria in the kitchen. World Congress onFood Hygiene. WAVFH. The Hague, August 24-29,1997.Proceedings.Wageningen Pers. Wageningen. 1997;p.323.

4. French, J.(1998): Preserving meat products, Meat Pro-cessing, Sept. – okt. 1998, p.18 – 22.

5. Gregory, N. G., Wilkins, L. J. (1989a): Effect of stunning cur-rent on carcase quality in chickens. Vet. Rec. 124,p.530-532.

6. Gregory, N. G., Wotton, S. B. (1990): Effect of stunning onspontaneous physical activity and evoked activity in thebrain. Br. Poult. Sci. 31, p.215-220.

7. Gregory, N.G., Wilkins, L. J. (1989b): Effect of slaughter method on bleeding efficiency in chickens. J. Sci. FoodAgric. 47, p.13-20.

8. Johnson, J.L., Doyle, M.P., Cassens, R.G. (1990): Listeriamonocytogenes and other Listeria spp. in meat products.,J. food Prot. 53; p.81-91.

9. Kang, I. S., Sams, A.S. (1999): Bleedout Efficiency and Car-cass Damage, Poultry Sci. 78, p.139-143.

10. Kerr, K.G., Dealer, S.F., Lacely, R.W. (1988): Listeria incook-chill food. Lancet, (8601), p.37-38.

11. Kettlewell, P. J., Mitchel, M.A. (1994): Catching, handlingand loading of poultry for road transportation. World’sPoultry Sci. J. 50, p.55-57.

12. Knowles, T.G., Broom, D.M. (1990): The handling and

transport of broilers and spent hens. Appl. Anim. Behav.Sci. 28, p.75-91.

13. Kranen, R.W., Veerkamp, C.H., Lambooy, E., Kuppevelt,T.H., van Veerkamp, J. H. (1996): Hemorrhages in mus-




cles of broiler chickens: The relationships among bloodvariables at various rearing temperature regimens. PoultrySci. 75, p.570-576.

14.Kulier, I. (1996): Nutritional tables, Zagreb, Hrvatski farmer.15. Lacy, M. P., Czarick, M. (1998): Mechanical harvesting of

broilers. Poultry Sci. 77, p.1794-1797.16. Lambooij, E., Pieterse, C., Hillebrand, S.J., Dijksterhuis, W.(1999): The effects of captive bolt and electrical stunningand restraining methods on broiler meat quality. PoultrySci. 78, p.600-607.

17. Mitchel, M.A., Ketlewell, P.J. (1998): Physiological stressand welfare of broiler chickens in transit: solutions notproblems. Poultry Sci. 77, p.1803-1814.

18. Mulder, R.W. (1999): Safe poultry meat production and foodHygiene regulations for the European poultry industry 13European Symposium, Verona, p.509-513.

19. Niewiarowicz, A., Grabowski, T. (1971): Evaluation of thequality of poultry fats. Przemysl Spozywczy 1969; 23,96-7. quoted in: CA 1971; 75, p.139468a.

20. Pardun, H. (1975): Analyse der Nahrungsfette. Berlin-Ham-burg: Paul Parey, p. 283-400 Richardson, R. I. (1995):Poultry Meat for Further Processing, XIIEuropean Sympo-sium on the Quality of Poultry Meat, Zaragoza, p.351-359.

21. Russel, S. (1999): Foodborne Pathogens: An emerging pub-lic specter, Broiler Industry, June, p.29-30.

22. Ruis-Heutinck, L.F.M., Savenije, B., Postema, F., Voorst, A.van, Lambooij, E., Korf, J. (1998): Impedence recordings

to determine change in extracellular volume in the brainfollowing cardiac arrest in broiler chickens. Poultry Sci.77:1422-1427.

23. Swern, D. (1979): Bailey’s industrial oil and fat products I. 4.

New York: John Wiley & Sons, 294, p.336, 343.

24. Tauxe, R.V. (1992): Epidemiology of Campylobacter jejuniinfections in the United States and other industrialised na-

tions. In: Nackamkin I, Blaser MJ and Tompkins LS (eds.).Campylobacter jejuni current status and future trends.American society for Microbiology, Washington, p.9-19.

25. Veerkamp, C.H., de Vries, A.W. (1983). Influence of electri-cal stunning on quality of broilers. in: G. Eikelenboom(ed.) Stunning of Animals for Slaughter. Martinus NijhoffPublishers, The Hague, The Netherlands. p.197-207.

26. Wissebach, H. (1969): Pflanzen – und Tierfette. U:Schormüller J., urd. Handbuch der Lebensmittelchemie.vol. IV. Fette und Lipoide. Berlin-Heidelberg-New York.Springer Verlag, p.120-200.

27. @ivkovi}, J., Jakši}, S., Miokovi}, B. (1971): Salmonellaserovaus in chicken mean and chicken meat products inZagreb, Croatia, Vet. Arhiv 67:167-175.

28. @ivkovi}, R. (1998): Eggs and poultry in the nutrition ofhealthy persons and in dietetics, Akademija medicinskih

znanosti Hrvatske, p.9–16.29. …………. Official Gazette of the SFRY (1983): Rules on theconditions, which must be met as to marketable foods,with regard to microbiological faultlessnes, 45,p.1309-1313.

30.…………. Official Gazette of the SFRY (1991): Rules on thequality of poultry meat products, , 47, no. 55, p. 840-848,

31. …………. Official Gazette of the Republic of Croatia(1992): Rules on microbiological standards for food,60/92, p.152-158.

32. …………. Council Directive on the protection of animals at the time of slaughter or killing (1993): Official J. Eur.Comm. No 1.340/21.

33. …………. Agenda 2000 (1999): European Commission,Brussels, p.22-24.




ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 637.5.047’65:636.084.416

FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF POULTRY MEAT FROM FREE RANGEREARING

B. @lender (1) , Antonija Holcman(2) , Vekoslava Stibilj (3) , T. Polak (4)


ABSTRACT

Two provenances of broiler chickens (Ross and Prelux-bro) were (50 males and 50 females)were subjected to an extensive indoorrearing followed by a free-range rearing fora half of the

population during the first 28 days. The age of chickens when slaughtered was 56 days. The fatty acid composition of breasts with skin (white meat) and legs with skin (dark meat) was analysed. Analyses of the fatty acid composition were performed with an in situtransesterification and a capilary column Gas -Liguid chromatography. Chickens reared out-doors have a more favourable fatty acid composition than those of the extensive indoor rear-

ing: the share of essential fatty acids (the linoleic a., the a-linolenic a.) as well as polyunsaturated omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids is greater. The Prelux-bro provenance has a favourable ratio of fatty acids in both types of rearing. Breasts have a better fatty acid composition than legs.

Keywords: broiler, free range, meat, fatty acid, in situ transesterification

INTRODUCTIONAs recommended by the WHO people should take in

fat which should represent less than 30% of the daily en-

ergy needed, but there can be no more than10% of satu-rated fatty acids (SFA) and 3% - 7% of polyunsaturatedfatty acids (PUFA). From these linoleic and -linolenic ac-ids are essential for people. (Salobir,1998). Animal feedenriched by nutritionally important various fatty acids canimprove the nutritive value of animal fat. Adding linseed oilrich in the -linolenic acid results in a significant influenceof this fatty acid on its amount in chicken lipids. Addingherring oil to chicken feed increases the shares ofeicosapentaenoic (EPA), docosapentaenoic (DPA) anddocosahexaenoic (DHA) acids (Chanmugam et all., 1992;Scaife, 1994; Ahn et all., 1995; Lopez-Ferrer et all., 1997).

Free-range chickens are more appreciated by consumers,mostly because of their opinion that their meat has a better smell , taste and texture. From the nutritionalpoint of view

the grass reached by free-range chickens has a favourablefatty acid composition, which probably should also be re-flected in the more favourable lipid composition of suchchickens. This study was conducted to evaluate the effectof the management system (total confinement versus freerange) and two provenances on the fatty acid compositionof broiler white (breasts) and dark (legs) meat.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Two provenances of broilers (Ross 208 andPrelux-bro) were included in the experiment. 50 birds (25males and 25 females) formed each provenance. All broil-ers were raised in a fixed chicken house of a deep litter

type up to 28 days of age and were fed ad libitum with astandard mixture containing the same amount and nutri-

tive value (12.98 MJ/kg and 23.44%CP). At the age of four

weeks chickens were divided into two groups. The firstgroup of broilers (free-range) had a continual 12-hour ac-cess to an open-air ground during the day. The groundwas mainly covered with vegetation. Broilers from thesecond group raised indoors in a deep litter house did nothaveanaccesstothegrass.From28daysofage allbroil-ers were fed ad libitum with finisher containing 70% cere-als (barley and maize). Protein concentration in thefinisher lay by 14.0 % , metabolic energy: 16.26 MJ/kg. At

the age of 56 days all broilers were slaughtered and pro-cessed in the same way. After the slaughter and the ele-mentary processing meat patterns together with the skin

(legs, breasts) were taken off the left sides of chickens,homogenized, packed into PE bags, frozen and kept until the analyses at -210C.

The fatty acid composition of breasts and legs (bothwith skin) was analysed by the method in situ transes-terification modified after Park and Goins (1994) and by

the capilary Gas-Liquid Chromatography. The data weresubjected to statistical analysis using the GLM procedurein the SAS statistical program (SAS /Stat, 1990). All fattyacids whose share was higher than 0,5% were includedinto thestatistical processing. The fatty acids 14:1 (-5),16:0 (anteiso), 17:0 (anteiso), 18:3 (-6), 20:5 (-3),


(1) Boìdar @lender, Associated Professor (2) Antonija Holcman, Assistant Professor (4) Toma` Polak, B.Food Sci., - University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Animal Science, Groblje 3, 1230 Domàle, (3) Vekoslava Stibilj, Assistant Professor - Institute Jozef Stefan,1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia



the groups of fatty acids (SFA, MUFA - monounsaturated,PUFA, EPA+DHA, -3 and -6 fatty acids) and somequotients (P/S – PUFA/SFA, IA – aterogenic index ,-6/ -3, -6/ -3 longchain) were included too.

The statistical model was as follows:

Y ijk = µ + Li + Rj + Kk + (L*R)ij + eijk

Y ijk = measured value; µ = population mean; LI= the effect of the provenance (Ross, Prelux-bro); Rj= the effect of rearing (free range, indoors); Kk = the ef-fect of the anatomical piece (breasts, legs); (L*R = theeffect of the interaction between the provenance and therearing; eijk = random error.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSources of variability of fatty acids

Different factors influence the fatty acid composition:

the provenance, the rearing, the anatomical piece andsome interactions of these factors (Table 1). The prove-nances Ross and Prelux-bro differ significantly in theshare of saturated fatty acids (SFA), polyunsaturated fattyacids (PUFA) and they also contain a different amount of-6 fatty acids, both essential fatty acids (EFA) and in thesome of their derivatives such as the arahidonic acid(20:4, -6), the eicosapentaenoic acid-EPA(20:5, -3)and the docosahexaenoic acid- DHA (22:6, -3).


Table 1. Sources of variability and statistical significants of their influences on the fatty acids composition

Sources of variability ( P )Fatty Acid Provenance Rearing Anatom. Piece Prve*Rearing

DF 1 1 1 1

14:0 0.1583 0.0809 0.0646 0.0224

14:1, -5 0.0493 0.4766 0.0220 0.0031

16:0 anteiso 0.4811 0.7053 0.0001 0.6266

16:0 0.0001 0.1663 0.3945 0.0001

16:1, -7 0.3107 0.0239 0.0778 0.0155

17:0 anteiso 0.0001 0.0001 0.3198 0.6722

18:0 0.0446 0.4033 0.8727 0.657818:1, -9 0.9216 0.0184 0.4263 0.7431

18:2, -6 0.0001 0.0001 0.6203 0.0002

18:3, -6 0.0808 0.0003 0.0314 0.0333

18:3, -3 0.0017 0.0001 0.5140 0.0203

20:4, -6 0.0439 0.1674 0.0001 0.0229

20:5, -3 0.0113 0.0828 0.0001 0.8621

22:4, -6 0.0281 0.0035 0.0003 0.0230

22:6, -3 0.4104 0.6106 0.0001 0.1709

SFA 0.0001 0.9134 0.0001 0.0044

MUFA 0.6111 0.0005 0.2973 0.2493

PUFA 0.0001 0.0009 0.0445 0.0014

-3 FA 0.0616 0.0015 0.0015 0.0448

-6 FA 0.0001 0.0010 0.0646 0.0011

P/S 0.0001 0.0115 0.0018 0.0003

IA 0.0001 0.9161 0.0001 0.0040

-6/ -3 0.1915 0.1752 0.0029 0.5251

-6/ -3 LC 0.4815 0.3202 0.0097 0.4682

EPA+DHA 0.7064 0.4451 0.0261 0.3473

P< 0.001 – highly statisticaly significant; P<0.01; P<0.05 – statisticaly significant: DF – degree of freedom



The rearing and conseqeuntly different nutrition in-fluence highly significant the amount of essential fatty ac-ids, but they have a statistically unsignificant influence on

the relation-6/ -3 and -6/ -3 of longchain (LC) fattyacids. The anatomical piece (breasts versus legs) influ-

ences highly significant the amount of LC fatty acids suchas 20:4 -6, 20:5 -3, 22:4 -6 and 22:6 -3.

The influence of the provenance

Provenance Ross differ significantly (P<0.001)from provenance Prelux-bro (Table 2.) in SFA, PUFA, -6fatty acids, P/S and IA. From the nutritional point of view

the provenance Prelux-bro had a better composition in all the mentioned parameters. Prelux-bro also containssignificanttly (P<0.001) lower share of the aterogenic


Table 2. The influence of the provenance on fatty acid composition (wt.% FA from all FA)

*** P 0.001 highly statisticaly significant; ** P 0.01 statisticaly significant; *P 0.05 statisticaly significant; FR – Free range; IN - Indor; R – Ross; PB – Prelux-bro; B – Breast; L - Leg



palmitic acid (16:0), but more linoleic (18:2, -6), oleic(18:1, -9), arahidonic (20:4, -6) and EPA fatty acids.

The influence of the rearingFree range chickens contain significantly (P<0.001)

higher share of linoleic and -linolenic acids, also influ-ences the decrease of monounsaturated fatty acids( oleic,palmitoleic) (Table 2). The share of PUFA (-3 and -6 )is significantly higher in the free-range chickens. It can beconcluded that the increased share above all of-linolenic acid in the free-range chicken nutrition (pas-

ture on a grassland) causes the decrease of mono-unsaturated fatty acids- predominantly the oleic acid and

the increase of essential fatty acids, especially the-linolenic acid. The share of the -linolenic acid in the

free-range chickens is 11% bigger than in chickens rearedindoors.The share of saturated fatty acids shows no statistical difference between rearing systems.The amount of the -6 and -3 fatty acids in the free-range rearing in-creases linearly, first of all the linoleic and the -linolenicacid, but there is no significant difference in their relation.From the nutritional viewpoint the free range chickenshave a better fatty acid composition than those reared in-doors.

The palmitic and stearic acid form 95% of all satu-rated fatty acids which is in agreement with the findings ofIgene and Pearson (1979) and Sahosrebedhe (1985).Ajuyah at al. (1991) and Chanmugam (1992) came tosimilar conclusions that the increased share of -3 fattyacids in nutrition significantly increased share of theseacids in chicken lipids. Feed rich with the -linolenic acidincreases the share of this acid in the chicken lipids and toa smaller extent influences the increase of the EPA and theDHA.-3 fatty acids hinder the metabolic way of -6 and-9 groups of fatty acids as well they decreases the shareof the arahidonic acid and the 20:1, -9 acid.

The influence of the anatomical pieceThe results show (Table 2) that more arahidonic fatty

acids, EPA and DHA are loaded in the breasts. Especially

longchain fatty acids are important for balanced humannutrition, because they are precursors of importanteicosanoids. The relation between -6 and -3 fatty ac-ids is also important. It is a bit more favourable in thebreast lipids. Breasts show significantly higher P/S and

lower (better) IA, what is favourable from nutritionalwiewpoint. This results are in agreement with findings ofMiller et all. (1969), Ajuyah et all.(1991) and Lopez-Ferrer et all. (1997).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTThis investigation is part of a research project funded

by research grants from the Ministry of Science and Tech-nology of Slovenia and Ministry of Agriculture, Forestryand Food of Slovenia.

REFERENCES1. Ahn, D.U., Wolfe, F.H., Sim, J.S. (1995): Dietary -Linolenic

Acid and Mixed Tocopherols, and Packaging Influenceson Lipid Stability in Broiler Chicken Breast and Leg Mus-cle. Journal of Food science, 60(5): 1013 - 1018.

2. Ajuyah, A. O., Lee, K.H., Hardin, R.T., Sim, J.S. (1991):

Changes in the Yield and in the Fatty Acid Composition ofWhole Carcass and Selected Meat Portions of Broiler Chicken Fed Full-Fat Oil Seed. Poultry Sccience, 70:2304-2314.

3. Chanmugam, P., Boudreau, M., Boutte, T., Park, R.S., Hebert,J., Berrio, L., Hwang, D.H. (1992): Incorporation of Differ-ent Types of n-3 Fatty Acids Ito Tissue Lipids of Poultry,Poultry Science, 71:516-521.

4. Lopez-Ferrer, S., Baucells, M.D., Barroeta, A.C., Blanch, A.,Grashorn, M.A. (1997): -3 Enrichment of Chicken Meat:Use of Fish, Rapeseed and Linseed oils. V: Poultry MeatQuoality, Proceedings of the XIII European Simposium on

the Quality of Poultry Meat, Polznan, 21-29.09. 1997,

Poznan. Pikul, 45 - 51.5. Miller,D., Leong, K.C., Smith,P. (1969): Effect of FeedingandWithdrawal of Medhaden Oil on the 3 and 6 Fatty AcidsContent of Broiler Tissue. Journal of Food Science, 34:136 - 141.

6. Park, P.W., Goins, R.E. (1994): In Situ Preparation of FattyAcid Methyl Esters for Analysis of Fatty Acid Compositionin Foods. Journal of Food Science, 59(6): 1262 - 1266.

7. Salobir, K. (1998): Vpliv sveè in konzervirane krme nakakovost ìvalskih proizvodov. V: Zbornik poreda- vanj 7.posvetovanjao prehrani doma~ih ìvali, Zadrav~evi - Erjav~evidnevi, Radenci, 26. in 27. oktober 1998. Murska Sobota,@ivinorejsko - veterinarski zavod za Pomurje,s. 1 - 4.

8. Scaife, J.R., Moyo, J., Galbraith, H., Michine, W., Campbell,V. (1994): Effect of Diffrent Dietary Supplemental Fats andOils on the Tissue Fatty Acid Composition and Growth ofFemale Broilers. British Poultry Science. 35: 107 - 118.

9. ………. SAS/STAS (1990): User’s guide. 4th ed., Cary, SASInstitute Inc., s. 891 - 1230.




ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 637.5.04/.07’65

INFLUENCE OF ADDED FAT ON THE QUALITY OF POULTRY MEAT

V. Strelec(1) , M. Volk (2) , C. Varga(3)


ABSTRACT

In testing conditions six groups of broiler chickens were tested for the effect of feed addition Bergafat and standardised fats added in the feed in the quantity of 3.9% in starter, 8.5% in grower, 8.6% in finisher, and 9.3% in endfinisher. Among testing groups no differences in the achieved production results were stated. The organoleptic evaluation of meat however showed considerable differences in the intensity of aroma, smell and taste.

Keywords: meat chickens, organoleptic evaluation of meat, poultry fat, added fat

INTRODUCTIONTo increase the energy value of poultry feed animal

fatsandvegeTablefatsareusedasthecheapestsourceofenergy. Fats are important elements of animal organism,

they take part in important physiological functions and are the best energy provider. In the process of metabolism infats only one third of energy is lost whereas in other nutritives loses are much higher (in starch 43% is lost, insugar 55% is lost) (Fuhrken et al, 1980). The efficiency offat addition in the feed is well known especially in poultry

and pig production and it improves also the metabolism ofproteins and increases the growth of animals (Hartel,1980). Added fat in poultry feed has been practically usedfor many decades and besides animal fats, vegeTablefats-oil and also industrial fats as well as pure fatty acidshave been used in recent period. What kind of fat is going

to be added in feed depends on the price and the technol-ogy of production. The standardised fats are used in poul-

try feed; they are composed mainly from vegeTable fattyacids and for balance also partly of animal fatty aides. Therelation between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids de-pends on added quantities and varies in different produc-

ers. Characteristic are high values of essential fatty acids.Besides them are possible additions of phosphatides (lec-ithin, stearins and tokopherols). This substances are themain source of energy for live functions in the animalorganism (Prabucki, 1968, 1971; Petersen, 1971; Kling,Wöhlbier, 1977, Hartifiel, 1978; Jung, 1978; Kirch-gessner, 1978; Lang, 1979; Timmann, 1988; Kali- voda,1990). On the testing farm for poultry in six groups ofbroiler chickens provenience Ross 308different standard-ised fats and Bergafat were tested and the production effi-ciency was stated.

MATERIAL AND METHODSThe experiment was carried out on the poultry testingstation of the Faculty of Agriculture in Maribor. Testedwere 100 chickens (50 masculine and 50 feminine gen-

der) in a box in three intervals. The control group (A) wasfed with standardised fat (100%) in the feed; group B wasfed with the testing feed contents Bergafat 20 (100%);group C with contents Berga fat 30 (100%); group D withcontents Bergafat 40 (100%); group E with contentsBergafat 20 (50%) and 50% standardised fat; group F withcontents Bergafat 30 (50%) and50% standardised fat. Weused four types of feed: starter (0.25 kg per chick), grower (1.25 kg per chick), finisher (1.80 kg per chick),Endfinisher (0.5 kg per chick). The technology of fattening

was carried out after the standards for chickens of pro-venience Ross 308.Compared were the live body weight, feed conver-

sion (for each box) and mortality on the 39 th day of feed-ing. Diets were fed ad libitum in mash form.

The aim of our experiment was to find out the influ-ence of added fat in the feed on quality and quantity of fatin slaughtered chickens. Fat was analysed by methodHadorn et al. (1967).

We also tested the influence of added fat on the sen-sory quality of chicken of breast muscle (m. pectoralis)and leg muscle. The results were evaluated on theprogramme SAS/STAT (1990).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONThe Table 1 shows that Bergafat contains a higher

percentage (15.1 – 15.6) of palmitic acid. Bergafat 40contains a heigher percentage (9.2 %)of myristic acid,which probably gives an unpleasant smell and taste. Itmust be considered the higher content of FFA 45 at B(Bergafat) 20, which should for normal use be muchlower, so that it would not affect the results of feeding.


(1) Vladimir Strelec, Assistant Professor, (3) Marko Volk, Assistant Profes- sor - Univesity of Maribor, Faculty of Agriculture, Vrbanska 30, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia, (2) Ciril Varga, PhD - Perutnina Ptuj, Potr~eva 9, 2250 Ptuj, Slovenia




Table 1. Comparison of contents of fatty acids added in the feed used in the test

Groups*

Added fat A B C D E F

FFA 2.15 45 47.5

dirties

water

Fatty acid.

Myristic C 14 0 2.2 2.4 9.2 9.2 7.3

Palmitic C 16:0 11.1 15.1 14.7 15.6 15.6 9.2

Palmitoleic C 16:1 0.2 1.2 2 3.3 3.3 4.2

Stearic C 18:0 4 19.2 8.2 4.8 4.8 9.3

Oleic C 18:1 24.5 28.9 31.9 19.8 19.8 22.1

Linoleic C 18:2 52.9 25.8 33.6 38.5 38.5 42.1

Linolenic C 18:3 7 2.5 3.3 0..7 0.7 5.2

C 20:0 0.2 0.8 0.6 0.3 0.3 0.2

C 20:1 0 0 0 0 0 0

C 22:0 0 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.3

Erucic C 22:1 0 0.9 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

C 24:0 0 0 0 0 0 0

* See Material and methods for legend

Table 2. Production results of fattening after 39 days

Group Box Consumption

Starter (kg)

Consumption

Grower (kg)

Consumption

Finisher (kg)

Average liveweight

(g)

Feedconversion

(kg)

Mortality

(%)A 1 25 154.90 205.40 2118 1.87 2A 7 25 144.10 207.40 2228 1.72 2A 13 25 150.80 217.70 2264 1.79 3 x 2203* 1.79 2.3B 2 25 143.20 218.30 2223 1.89 5B 8 25 151.90 220.80 2234 1.82 1B 14 25 150.90 225.80 2207 1.89 1 x 2221* 1.87 2.3C 3 25 153.60 202.50 2205 1.86 5C 9 25 157.10 217.40 2143 1.88 2

C 15 25 154.60 239.00 2298 1.80 - x 2215* 1.85 2.3D 4 25 150.00 210.20 2264 1.75 3D 10 25 137.30 211.20 2267 1.75 2D 16 25 155.70 210.50 2234 1.80 3 x 2255* 1.77 2.7E 5 25 140.30 220.50 2292 1.72 2E 11 25 145.20 228.40 2214 1.87 4E 17 25 164.10 225.10 2280 1.87 1 x 2262* 1.82 2.3F 6 25 138.20 207.80 2152 1.78 1F 12 215 139.70 206.30 2206 1.77 2

F 18 25 143.50 208.00 2216 1.72 - x 2191* 1.76 1

* See Material and methods for legend. Groups which are signed with the same letter, do not significantly differ (p<0.05)



In the Table 2 the results for the feed conversion areshown. The lowest was in the group F (with 1.76 kg) and

the highest in group B (with 1.80 kg); these results statisti-cally did not show great differences between themselves.The lowest percentage of mortality was observed in groupF with 1 %; in all other groups the morality was between2.3% and 2.7%.

The Table 3 shows the results of chemical analysesof abdominal fat, which was taken in the slaughterhouse.The results of the analyses show that abdominal chickenfat contains approximately similar content of fatty acids to

the content of fatty acids in the feed. This test confirmed the results, which were already found in literature, that thefat added in the feed influences the sensory quality ofpoultry meat. This was confirmed also with theorganoleptic test, which was carried out in the slaughter-house, were samples of muscles from chicken breastsandlegswereboiledandtested.GroupDhadanextremelyunpleasant smell and taste.

CONCLUSION1. Chemical analyses of feed were carried out before

the test and are corresponding the standards for the pro-venience Ross 308.

2. The final weight of chickens do not differ statisti-cally. The highest live body weight was reached ingroup E (2,26 kg – Bergafat 20 50 % + 50 % standard-ised fat). The lowest conversion was reached in groupD.1,76. The lowest live body weight was reached bygroup F 2.19 kg; the highest conversion was reached ingroup B with 1.87 kg.

3. At theorganoleptic test of chicken meat of different test groups of chickens, which was carried out with themethod of boiling, we found out at the group D an ex-

tremely unpleasant smell and taste, so that on ground of these findings we do not advise the use of Bergafat 40 inour conditions.

4. The high content of fats of different origin in thefeed of our testing groups did not influence the total mor-

tality of the chickens, as well as it did not show any specif-ically harmful influence on the animals. All stated causesof chicken deaths were due to usual pathology.

REFERENCES1. Fuhrken, E. et al. (1980): Einfluß von Futterfetten im

Geflügelmastfutter auf Wachstum und Geschmack vonMasthähnchen, Hamburg. Kraftfutter 4, p. 158 – 162.

2. Hadorn, H., Zürcher, K. (1967): Beitrag zur gaschroma- tographischen Untersuchung von Fetten un Oelen; DieFettsaeuren-Verteilung pflanzlicher Oele und Fette;

Mitteilungen aus dem Gebiete der Lebens- mittel-untersuchung und Hygiene, 58, p. 351-384.3. Härtel, H. (1980): Methoden zur indirekten Abschätzung des

Energiegehaltes von Mischfuttern für Geflügel, Hohen-heim. Kraftfutter 6, p. 296–298.

4. Hartfiel, W. (1978): Beeinflussen Futterfette mit unte-rschiedlich hohen Peroxid - und Säurezahlen dieFutteraufnahme und Futterverwertung bei legendenHennen? Kraftfutter 2, p. 58–62.

5. Jung, T. (1978): Zur Problematik der Bemusterung undLagerung von Futterfetten, Varel. Kraftfutter 4, p.184–188.

6. Kalivoda, M. (1990): Krmiva, Školska knjiga. Zagreb, p.78–80.

7. Kirchgessner, M. (1978): Tierernährung. DLG Verlag GMBH,Frankfurt am Maine, p. 56–69.

8. Kling M., Wöhlbier, W. (1977): Handels Futter Mittel. VerlagEvgen Ulmar, Stuttgart, p. 565–580.


Table 3. The results of analyses of abdominal fat of broiler chickens fed with tested fat added feed

Group A Group B Group C Group D Group E Group F

C 6 (%) 0 0 0 0 0 0

C 10 (%) 0 0 0 0 0 0

C 12 (%) 0.1 1.8 1.2 3.9 0.9 0.6

C 14 (%) 2.1 2.6 2.8 7.6 2.4 2.2

C 16 : 0 (%) 19.7 19.7 18.5 16.7 18.8 17.8

C 16 : 1 (%) 4.2 4.6 5.8 5.4 4.0 5.6

C 18 : 0 (%) 6.1 7.7 5.0 4.3 6.6 5.5

C 18 : 1 (%) 37.5 37.7 38.0 29.1 37.2 36.9

C 18 : 2 (%) 27.7 24.0 27.2 29.6 28.0 29.4

C 18 : 3 (%) 2.8 2.1 1.7 0.9 2.1 2.0

C 20 : 0 (%) 0 0 0 0 0 0

C 20 : 2 (%) 0 0 0 0 0 0C 20 : 3 (%) 0 0 0 0 0 0

C 22 : 0 (%) 0 0 0 0 0 0

C 22 : 1 (%) 0 0 0 0 0 0

* See Material and methods for legend



9. Lang, K. (1979): Biochemie der Ernhrung. Dr.DietrichSteinkopff Verlag, Darmstadt, p. 53–123.

10. Petersen, V. (1971): Untersuchungen über den Einfluß einer unzureichenden Energieversorgung auf die Zusammen-setzung und das Fettsäurenmuster der Lipide im Eidotter

von Legehennen, Disertation, Institut für Tierern-ährungskunde, der Universitt Kiel, Agrar- wissen-schaftlichen Fakultät der Christien - Albrechts -Universität, Kiel, p. 178

11. Prabucki, A.L. (1968): Der Einfuß der Ernährung auf Bildungund Umsatz von Krperfett beim LandwirtschaftlichenNutztieren. Zeitschrift fr Tierphysiologie, Tierernhrung undFuttermittelkunde, p.189–194.

12. Prabucki, A.L. et al (1971): Zur Absorbierbarkeit der

Fettsuren bei der Ratte. Zeitschrift für Tierphysiologie,Tierernährung und Futtermittelkunde, p.214.13. Timmann H. et al (1988): Qualittssicherung bei Futterfetten,

Hamburg, Kraftfutter 10, p. 370-37114. …………… SAS/STAT User’s Guide. Cary, SAS Institute

Inc., 1990.




ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 636.085:636.4

ILEAL DIGESTIBILITY OF AMINO ACIDS IN PIG FEEDS AND ITS USEIN DIET FORMULATIONS

Cs. Szabo(1) , A.J.M. Jansman(2) , L. Babinszky (3) , E. Kanis(4) , M.W.A. Verstegen(5)


ABSTRACT

The effects of four protein sources (soybean meal, sunflower meal, pea and fish meal as the main protein source) were investigated on fattening performance, carcass and meat quality traits and body composition of pigs. Eight animals per treatment received the diets from 30 to105 kg live weight at a level of 3.0 times maintenance requirement of energy. Diets were for-

mulated on the basis of ileal digestible protein and amino acid content of feedstuffs. Protein sources resulted similar fattening performance from 30-105 kg body weight. From 30 to 60 kg soybean treatment had lowest performance. The protein source treatments did not alter the body composition, lean meat percentage, liver weight and meat quality (intramuscular fat content, pH 45 min and 24 hours after slaughter, drip loss, meat lightness and hue measured

24 hours and 4 days after slaughter). It can be concluded that protein sources can be replaced without affecting overall fattening performance, carcass and meat quality and body composi-tion if diet formulation is based on the ileal digestible amino acid contents of feedstuffs. How-ever the lower performance of the soybean treatment in the first phase may indicate that ileal digestible Lyscontent of heat treated protein sources maynot characterise the feedstuffs well enough. It may be that young pigs are more sensitive to unavailable lysine by the way.

Keywords: protein source, performance, meat quality, pigs

INTRODUCTIONProtein sources are one of the most expensive com-

ponents of animal diets. Soybean meal is used in highestextent as major protein source in pig feeds. Many coun-

tries have to import soybean meal, which further increase the price of pig diets. For that reason researchers andfarmers are interested in alternative sources of protein.Substitution based on proportion in the diet or crude pro-

tein content fail with regard to fattening performance andfinal quality of carcasses. In the past the diet formulationwas based on the crude protein and total amino acid con-

tents of the ingredients. The digestibility of the nutrientswas not accounted for. Numerous studies have shown that the faecal digestible amino acid content can not char-acterise well enough the feedstuffs - especially proteinsources - for the optimal growth performance when com-ponents are substituted. This was introduced as the effectof protein sources. The studies wherediets were based onileal digestible amino acids showed, that the fattening per-formance does not change when different protein sourcesare used (Tanksley and Knabe,1984). However, there isno information in the literature with regard to meat qualityand body composition. Therefore, the goal of this trial was

to study the effect of ileal digestible amino acid based sub-stitution of soybean meal with fishmeal, pea and sun-flower meal on fattening performance, meat quality andbody composition.

MATERIAL AND METHODS Animals, housing and allotment

32 Dutch Landrace pigs (equal number of barrowsand gilts) were used in this experiment. The pigs werehoused individually in a half slatted floor pen. At the initiallive weight (29.2±1.62 kg) each pig was allotted to one of

the four dietary treatments (eight animals per treatment).

Diets and feedingThe experimental diets consisted of the combination

of basic components (tapioca, barley, wheat, soybean oil,molasses) and one of four different protein sources as themain protein source (soybean meal, sunflower meal, peasmeal and fish meal). Each diet contained 14.6 MJ DE,10.4% ileal digestible protein, 0.63 % ileal digestible Lys,0.75% Ca, 0.28% digestible P and 0.16% Na in the firstphase and 14.6 MJ DE, 9.3% ileal digestible protein, 0.53% ileal digestible Lys, 0.60% Ca, 0.20% digestible P and0.16% Na. The amount of the following amino acids wereset to the same ratio relative to ileal digestible Lysine byusing crystalline amino acids: M+C = at least 59%,Threonine = at least 59% , Tryptophan = at least 21%,


(1) CszabaSzabo, Ph.D. student, (3)Laszlo Babinszky, Full Professor- Uni-versity of Kaposvár, Faculty of Animal Science, Guba S. u. 40., 7400 Kaposvár, Hungary, (2) A.J.M. Jansman, Ph.D. Professor, Leystad, Nether- lands, (4) E. Kanis, Ph.D., Professor, (5) M.W.A. Verstegen, Ph.D., Profes- sor - Wageningen Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen, Netherlands



Valine = at least 80%, Histidine = at least 40%. The fattening period was divided into two phases: 30-60 kg(phase 1) and 60-105 kg (phase 2).

The pigs were fed twice daily at 8.00 a.m. and 3.30p.m. Feed was supplied at a level of 3.0 times the daily

maintenance requirement of energy (0.42 MJ ME/ kg0.75).The pigs were weighed weekly and based on theseweights the amounts of feed for each animal was calcu-lated for the next week.

Sampling procedureThe pigs were slaughtered at 105±2 kg. At slaughter

the pigs were classified according to the SEUROP classifi-cation system. The pH and temperature in the musculus longissimus dorsi at the grading site (between the 3rd and4 th rib, 6 cm off of the midline) were measured 45 minutesand 24 hours after slaughter. 24 hours after slaughter muscle samples were taken from the musculus longissimus dorsi (25 cm cranial from the last rib, a 10cm long piece) to determine water-loss, intramuscular fatcontent and meat colour (24 hours and 4 days after slaughter).

Chemical body analysesAfter electrical stunning the pigs was exsanguinated

and the blood was collected. In the next step the bodieswere scalded, but collection of hair was not possible. Theinternal organs and the GI-tract were removed and thebody was split symmetrically along the backbones. The

tail remained on the left carcass half. The weights of car-

casses, blood, internal organs, full and empty GI-tract(stomach, intestines, gall-bladder) were recorded. For chemical analyses two fractions were made: the left car-cass half and the organs (blood, internal organs, emptyGI-tract). The two fractions were stored deep frozen inplastic bags. The preparation of samples for chemicalbody analyses was carried out according to the method ofKotarbinska (1971). The following determinations weremade from the samples: dry matter (DM), crude protein(CP), crude fat (CF) and crude ash (CA). Based on theanalysed values and the weight of the fractions the totalnutrient mass and proportions were calculated in empty

body (EB), carcasses (C) and organs (O).

Statistical analysesStatistical analyses were performed using the GLM

procedure of SAS (1989) for randomized complete block designs according to the following general model: Y ij = µ+ Pi + eij Where: Y ij = measurements, µ = overall mean;P = protein source (i=1,2,3,4); eij = residual error.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONNo effect of protein source was observed on the

overall and second phase fattening performance. Thisshows that the origin of the amino acids has no influenceon performance when diets are formulated on the basis ofileal digestible amino acid contents. This result is in closeagreement with the observations of Tanksley and Knabe(1984). However, soybean treatment in the first phasehad significantly lower performance than the other treat-ments. It has been demonstrated that inappropriate heat

treatment applied to protein concentrates may render lysine in a form that is apparently absorbed but nutrition-ally unavailable to the animal (van Barneveld et al.,1994 ).Consequently, ileal digestibility values for lysine inheat-processed meals in such a case are unsuitable for diet formulations. However, in this experiment it was notpossible to identify whether this was the real reason.

The lean meat % of carcasses of the four treatments(Table 2) are similar. All group means fall into the U classof the SEUROP classification system.

Intramuscular fat content influences tenderness andjuiciness. Devol et al. (1988) reported that intramuscular fat content has the highest correlation with tenderness,however the correlation was low (r = 0.32). The authorspostulated that there was a minimum level of intramuscu-lar fat - approximately 2.5% - needed for sufficient pork

tenderness. According to that result none of the experi-mental treatments meet this value. The protein source hadno significant effect on intramuscular fat level. The driploss is a major measure of PSE type meat. The measuredvalues have a normal variance and statistical differencescould not be detected.

The pH is an important measure of meat quality postmortem. All group means are falling into the normal range

(pH5.8-6.2and5.4-6.0forpH45 andpH24 respectively).


Table 1. ADG and FCR by treatment group

Average daily gain, g

Treatment 30-60 kg 60-105 kg 30-105 kg 30-60 kg 60-105 kg 30-105 kg

Soyabean meal 546a 725 638 2.70a 3.16 2.98

Sunflower meal 606b 741 680 2.41b 3.13 2.84

Peas meal 609b 722 667 2.40b 3.20 2.88

Fishmeal 596b 774 689 2.48b 3.06 2.82

RMSE 29.8 77.4 48.4 0.12 0.27 0.18

Means in a column with same superscript are not significantly different RMSE=Root mean square error

Feed conversion ratio, kg/kg



The appropriate lightness and colour of lean meat isan important demand of the customer. Neither the light-ness nor the hue value were affected 24 hours or 4 daysafter slaughter by treatment and all group means fell into

the normal range.The experimental diets formulated on thebasis of ileal digestible amino acid content resulted in sim-ilar chemical composition of empty body (Table 3). Thechemical body composition data were all within the widerange of published data (De Greef et al., 1994; Friesen etal., 1996; Tuitoek et al., 1997).

CONCLUSIONSPig diets should be formulated on the basis of ileal

digestible amino acid content to achieve similar fattening

performance when dietary components are substituted.Substitution of protein sources in such a way has no sig-nificant effect on body composition, lean meat percentageand meat quality parameters.

Acknowledgement. The research program werefinanced by the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sci-ence, the Netherlands and by the NWO (the Nether-lands). We gratefully acknowledge the substantialcontribution of the following persons in the experiment:Johan de Jong (TNO-ILOB), Tamme Zandstra (WIAS),Ildiko Tamási (UoK).

REFERENCES

1. De Greef, K.H., Verstegen, M.W.A., Kemp, B., van der Togt,P.L. (1994): The effect of body weight and energy intakeon the composition of deposited tissue in pigs. Anim.Prod. 58:263-270.

2. Devol, D.L., McKeith, F.K., Betchel, P.J., Novakofski, J.,Shanks, R.D., Carr, T.R. (1988): Variation in compositionand palatability traits and relationships between musclecharacteristics and palatability in random sample of pork carcasses. J. Anim. Sci. 66:385-395.

3. Friesen, K.G., Nelssen, J.L., Goodband, R.D., Tokach, M.D.,Schinckel, A.P., Einstein, M. (1996): The use ofcompositional growth curves for assessing the response

to dietary lysine by high-lean growth gilts. Anim. Sci.62:159-169.

4. Grala,W. (1998): Nitrogen utilization in pigs as affected by di-etary induced losses of ileal endogenous nitrogen, PhD

thesis, Animal Nutrition Group, Wageningen Institute ofAnimal Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen,Netherlands

5. Kotarbinska, M. (1971): The chemical composition of thebody in growing pigs. Roczniki Nauk Rolniczych ser. B9:129-135.

6. Tanksley, T.D. Jr., Knabe D.A. (1984): Ileal digestibilities ofaminoacids in pig feeds and their use in formulating diets.In: W. Haresign and D.J.A. Cole (Editors), Recent Ad-vances in AnimalNutrition. Butterworths, London, 75-94.

7. Tuitoek, K., Young, L.G., de Lange, C.F.M., Kerr, B.J. (1997):The effect of reducing excess dietary amino acids ongrowing-finishing pig performance: An evaluation of theideal protein concept. J. Anim. Sci. 75:1575-1583.

8. Van Barneveld, R. J., Batterham, E. S., Norton, B.W. (1994):The effect of heat on amino acids for growing pigs. 2. Uti-lization of ileal-digestible lysine from heat-treated fieldpeas (Pisum sativum cultivar Dundale). Br. J. Nutr.72:243-256

9. ………. SAS Institute Inc. (1989): SAS/STAT User’s Guide.Version 6, Fourth Edition, Volume 2, 846pp.


Table 2. Lean meat% and meat quality parameters by treatment group

Lean

meat, %

IMF,

%

Drip

loss, g pH45 pH24 L24 Hue24 L4 Hue4

Soyabean meal 54.1 1.09 112 6.00 5.54 55.9 47.6 57.1 53.0

Sunflower meal 53.4 1.23 140 6.08 5.57 59.1 50.8 61.3 57.5

Pea 53.8 1.21 137 5.99 5.63 60.1 50.9 61.2 57.2

Fishmeal 52.5 1.29 125 6.05 5.60 58.9 50.0 60.9 56.0

RMSE 1.89 0.46 28 0.26 0.09 3.47 3.62 3.78 5.36

Means in a column were not significantly different. RMSE: Root mean square error IMF = intramuscular fat, pH 45 and pH 24 = pH in musculus longissimus dorsi (mld) at last rib 45 min and 24 hours after slaughter, L 24 and L4 = lightness of mld 24 hours and 4 day after slaughter, Hue 24 and Hue 4 = hue value of mld 24 hours and 4 day after slaughte.

Table 3. Empty body composition by treatment group g/kg

Treatment Dry matter Protein Fat Ash

Soyabean meal 403 143 229 27.4

Sunflower meal 413 148 231 29.5

Peas meal 421 147 245 27.1

Fishmeal 409 142 235 28.1

RMSE 18.8 6.8 20.9 3.1

Means in a column were not significantly different. RMSE : Root mean square error



ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 636.4:636.081.52’081.21

FATTY ACID COMPOSITION AND CHOLESTEROL CONTENT OF THE FAT OFPIGS OF VARIOUS GENOTYPES

J. Csapó(1) , F. Húsvéth(2) , Zsuzsana Csapó-Kiss(3) , Éva Varga-Visi (4) , P. Horn(5)


ABSTRACT

The authors determined the fatty acid composition and the fat cholesterol content of the fat of Mangalica, Hungarian Large White x Hungarian Landrace and Mangalica x Duroc pigs. It wasestablished that no significant difference among the three genotypes could be detected with

respect to saturated, unsaturated, or the essential fatty acids, nor in regard to cholesterol content. The findings of these investigations indicate that in the three pig genotypes studied

fat cholesterol content varies between 71 and 109 mg/100 g. Attention is also drawn to the high oleic acid content (relative %age 43.57-44.81) and linoleic acid content (relative %age10.63-11.47) of pig fat.

Keywords: fatty acids, cholesterol content, fat, pig, various genotypes

INTRODUCTIONThe future of the Mangalica breed, indigenous to

Hungary, is largely dependent on how its products can beutilised and how long-term market opportunities for thesecan be ensured. The Mangalica pig is now enjoying a re-naissance in Hungary: this is due on the one hand toendeavours to return to the traditional breeds, and on theother hand to the new market opportunities presented by

the production of Serrano type ham processed by meansof specialised Spanish technology. The ham of theMangalica pig is extremely suitable for the processing ofproducts of this kind, as due to its meat:fat ratio and thedistribution of the fat between its muscle fibres the hamdoes not dry out even during the long-term maturing pro-cess. The meat of this breed is of outstanding quality; ithas a high dry matter content and its red colour corre-sponds to current requirements. Itspalatable flavour is de-

rived from the fat surrounding the muscle tissue.It is a generally known fact that not only the quantityof fat consumed is of significance from the aspect of nutri-

tion, but also the ratio with respect to each other of the var-ious fatty acids within the quantity of fat consumed. Thelipid theory attributes the now widespread incidence of ar-

teriosclerosis, together with high blood pressure or car-diac infarction developing in consequence of this, on theone hand to the cholesterol content and on the other hand

to the lower unsaturated fatty acid content of fats of animalorigin. According to this theory lower cholesterol intakeand the consumption of higher quantities of unsaturatedfatty acids can lead to a reduction of approximately 10% in

the cholesterol level of the blood plasma. A positive relation has been ascertained between the cholesterol level of the blood and arteriosclerosis in the majority of individuals

examined. The cholesterol level of the blood plasma isnow regarded as an indicator of arteriosclerosis.

Researchers report that a total of 20% of the dailycholesterol requirement is derived from food, the remain-ing 80% being produced by the organism. The reason for

the proportion of cholesterol ingested with the food being

so low is that only about half of the cholesterol consumedwith food is absorbed, the remainder being excreted undi-gested from the body of the organism. A number of fac-

tors have been found possibly to influence changes in thecholesterol level of the blood plasma, apart from the cho-lesterol content of the foodstuffs consumed. High bloodplasma cholesterol level may also develop by the effectof

the intake of large quantities of saccharose. Other as-pects which may be significant in changes in cholesterollevel are various hereditary factors, lifestyle, level of foodconsumption and the state of health of the individual.

A number of authors maintain that the fatty acid com-

position of dietary fats is ideal where saturated (SAFA),monounsaturated (MUFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acids(PUFA) occur in equal proportions. Other authors consider such proportions of PUFA too high due to the risk of lipidperoxidation. They suggest that the proportion of PUFA indietary fats should not exceed 10-15% where MUFA con-

tent is between 30 and 35% and SAFA content between 50and 60%. A composition of similar ratio has also been es-

tablished for hypothetically ideal fatty acid composition(HIF).

A quantity of information has been published recentlyin connection with the fatty acid composition and choles-


(1) János Csapó, Full Professor, (3) Zsuzsanna Csapó-Kiss, DSc, (4) ÉvaVarga-Visi, BCh, (5) Péter Horn, Full Professor - University of Kaposvár,

Faculty of Animal Science,Guba S. u. 40., 7400 Kaposvár, Hungary (2) Ferenc Húsvéth, Full Professor - University of Veszprém, Georgikon Faculty of Agricultural Science, Keszthely, Hungary



terol content of the back fat and other fat of the Mangalicapig. It has been claimed that the fat of the Mangalica pig issofter and more easily digestible than that of modern pigs.Its softer, granular consistency is attributable to its differ-ent, and also healthier, fatty acid composition. Another

view expressed is that the cholesterol content of the fat of the Mangalica pig is substantially lower than that of the fatof the new, intensive genotypes. At present the validity of

this view can be neither corroborated nor refuted, since,as far as the authors are aware, there are no precise rele-vant experimental data available. The investigations out-lined in this paper were performed for the purpose ofproviding scientific substantiation or disproval of theabove assertions; this study involved the determination of

the fatty acid composition and cholesterol content of thefat of Mangalica, Mangalica x Duroc F1 and HungarianLarge White x Hungarian Landrace F1 (MNF x ML) pigs.

The MNF x ML genotype is one of the most extensivelyused crosses in Hungary, and was therefore quite suitable

to act as the control.

MATERIAL AND METHODSThese investigations were performed with the collab-

oration of the Hungapig Co. Ltd. and the Animal Breedingand Nutrition Research Institute in Herceghalom, at thenew performance testing station established in 1997. Theexperimental livestock were all housed in the same indoor area,with6pigstoacageand2.5m2 ground area per ani-mal. Throughout the study both the Mangalica pigs and

those of the other genotype constructions were fed ad libitum diets of identical composition, provided fromself-feeders.

At live weight between 120 and 130 kg the pigs wereslaughtered and their meat classified at the slaughter-house of the Animal Breeding and Nutrition Research In-stitute in Herceghalom. After narcosis and slaughter,hanging to drain off the blood, boiling at 60-64 oC andmanual singeing away of the hair the carcasses were di-vided into parts. During the routine splitting and cuttinginto pieces of the carcasses 100g back fat samples were

taken from the region of the withers. These samples were

stored in a freezer prior to laboratory analysis.

EXAMINATION OF FATTY ACID COMPOSITION ANDCHOLESTEROL CONTENT DETERMINATION OFFATTY ACID COMPOSITION

A 1 g quantity of adequately homogenised back fatwasmeasuredintoa100cm3 Erlenmeyer flask, to which 8cm3 concentrated hydrochloric acid was added; the flask was then covered and heated on a steam bath for 60-90

minutes. After cooling 7 cm3 ethanol and 25 cm3 ether were added and the flask was shaken for 1 minute. Theether phase was then poured off into a flask, and 25 cm3

petrol ether of boiling point 40-60 oC was added to the re-mainder of the sample; this was shaken for 1 minute, andafter separation the petrol ether phase was poured into theether phase, followed by homogenisation. A quantity of

the resultant extract known to contain 150-200 mg fat was then transferred to a round-bottomed flask with a groundglass neck. Subsequent to evaporation the extract wasboiled for 3 minutes with 4 cm3 of a solution of boron tri-fluoride in methanol, and after cooling mixed with satu-rated aqueous saline solution. The organic phase wasdried on sodium sulphate and then injected into the gaschromatograph. The following simplified procedure wasused for the fat: 0.1-0.2 g fat was dissolved in 2 cm3

n-heptane, a small quantity of sodium sulphate wasadded, and 500 ml was measured from the dehydrated or-

ganic phase into a vial; 500 ml sodium methylate reagentwas added to this, after which the liquid was heated at 60oC for 1 hour, mixing by shaking every 10 minutes. Follow-ing cooling 1 cm3 n-heptane and 1 cm3 water were added,and after shaking for 1-2 minutes fluid was injected from

the upper organic phase into the gas chromatograph.Conditions applied for gas chromatography:

Equipment: Chrompack CP 9000gas chromatograph

Column: 50 m x 0.25 mm quartz capillary,humidifying phase CP Sil-88 (FAME)

Detector: FIDInjector: splitter Gases: carrier gas helium, 150 kPa, rate

of flow 30 cm3 /min.; at the detector:air 250 cm3 /min.,hydrogen 30 cm3 /min.

Temperatures: injector 220 0C, detector 220 0C,column initially 100 0C, then increasingby 6 0C/min. to 210 0C, and subse-quently isothermal until the processwas completed

Volume injected: 0.5-2 l.

CHOLESTEROL DETERMINATIONThe pure fat contained by 5 g back fat was extracted

in Soxhlet extraction equipment with n-hexane; the fattyextract was evaporated, and 10 cm? 60% potassium hy-droxide and 40 cm3 methanol were added to the residue.The flask was heated for 30 minutes ona water bathwith areflux condenser.Aftersaponification had been completed

the flask was cooled, its contents were washed into a sep-arating funnel with 3 x 40 cm3 water, and the cholesterolwas extracted with 3 x 40 cm3 ether. The unified ether

phase was evaporated, after which the residue was dis-solvedin4cm3hexaneand0.5cm3 methanol and then in-jected into the gas chromatograph.






REFERENCES1. Bee, G., Wenk, C. (1994): Effect of soybean oil and beef tal -

low supplementation to pigdiets on the fatty acid profileofbody lipids. J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr., 71: 277-288.

2. Burr, M.L., Fehily, A.M., Gilbert, J.F., Rogers, S., Hollidax,R.M., Sweetnam, P.M., Elwood, P.C., Deadman, N.M.(1989): Effects of changes in fat, fish, and fibre intakes ondeath and myocardial reinfarction: Diet and reinfarction

trial (DART). Lancet, 2: 757-761.3. Hrboticky, N., Weber, P. (1993): Dietary habits and cardio-

vascular risk. The role of fatty acids, cholesterol and anti-oxidant vitamins in the prevention and treatment ofcardiovascular diseases. In Atherosclerosis, Inflamma-

tion and Thrombosis. Neri Serneri Gensini, G.G., Abbate,G.F., Prisco D. (Ed.), Scientific Press, Florence, 131-152.

4. Klingenberg, I.L., Knabe D.A., Smith, S.B. (1995): Lipid metabolism in pigs fed beef tallow or high-oleic acid sun-flower oil. Comp. Biochem. Phys. B., 110: 277-292.

5. May, S.G., Savell, J.W., Lunt, D.K., Wilson, J.J., Laurenz,J.C., Smith, S.B. (1994): Evidence for preadipocyte prolif-eration during culture of subcutaneous and intramuscular adipose tissues from Angus and Wagyu crossbred steers.J. Anim. Sci., 72: 178-183.

6. Nurnberg, K., Kuhn, G., Ender, K., Nurnberg, G. (1994): Effectof porcine somatotropin (pst) on carcass quality and adi-pose tissue composition in genetically different pigs.Arch. Tierzucht, 37: 265-278.

7. Overland, M., Taugbol, O., Haug, A., Sundstole, E. (1996): Ef-

fect of fish-oil on growthperformance, carcass character-istics, sensory parameters, and fatty acid composition inpigs. Acta Agr. Scand., A-An. 46: 11-17.

8. Reidy, T.R., Atkinson, J.L., Leeson, S. (1994): Strain compar-ison on turkey egg components. Poultry. Sci., 73:388-395.

9. Sather, A.P., Jones, S.D.M., Robertson, W.M., Zawadski, S.(1996): Sex effects of fat hardness meter readings ofmarket weight pigs. Can. J. Anim. Sci., 75: 509-515.

10. Simopoulus, A.P. (1991): Omega-3 fatty acids in health anddisease and in growth and development. Am. J. Cli. Nutr.,54: 438-463.

11. Weber,P.C., Sellmayer, A., Hrboticky, N. (1993): Fatty acidsand their diverse functions: A challenge to future food pro-duction. Proceeding, Minisymp., 44 th Ann. Meeting EAAP,Copenhagen, 19-27.

12. Willett, W.C. (1994): Diet and health - What should we eat?Science, 265: 532-537.




ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 637.5.513.12:636.597

UNTERSUCHUNGEN ÜBER EINIGE SCHLACHTVERLUSTE BEI DENENTENRASSEN PEKING ENTE, FLUGENTE UND

DEREN HYBRID MULARDE

S. Szász (1) , F. Bogenfürst (2) , Lívia Kós(3)


ZUSAMMENFASSUNG

Das Ziel dieses Versuches war einige Daten über die Schlachtverluste bei den drei Enten-Genotypen zu vergleichen. Untersuchungsmaterial waren die Endprodukte von 200 Pe- king Enten, 200 Flugenten und 200 Mularden, die unter kommerziellen Mastbedingungen

aufgezogen wurden..Wegen der unterschiede im Körpergewicht der drei Genotypen wurdendie gemessenen Schlachtverluste ins Verhältnis zum gegebenen Körpergewicht gesetzt und

so in den Ergebnissen dargestellt.

Schlüsselwörter: Ente(n), Schlachverluste

EINLEITUNGEs ist interessant einige Daten über die Schlacht-

verluste bei den obigen drei Genotypen zu vergleichen, umdie Unterschiede besser darlegen zu können. Zu erwähnenwäre noch, daß verschiedene Körperteile die bei uns zumSchlachtabfall gehören, in verschiedenen O-Asiatischen

Ländern eine Delikatesse sind. Zum Beispiel dienen diePaddeln einmal als Lebensmitteln bzw. werden teilweiseauch zu Uhrarmbänden verarbeitet, vom Kopf wirddagegen nur die Zunge exportiert. Die Federn werden auchin Ungarn zu industriellen zwecken verarbeitet.

MATERIAL UND METHODEUntersuchungsmaterial waren die Endprodukte von

200 Peking Enten, 200 Flugenten und 200 Mularden.Die Enten wurden nach Geschlechtern getrennt

aufgezogen, und es wurde auf eine gleiche Bestandszahl

pro Versuchsgruppe geachtet. Jede Ente erhielt einFlügelzeichen,um die individuellen Parameter verfolgen zukönnen.

Ort des Versuches war die Versuchsanlage der Uni-versität Kaposvár, wo die Enten in 6 Käfigen untergebrachtwaren, getrennt nach Genotyp und Geschlecht. Die Boxenhatten eine Grundfläche von 14m2. Die anfängliche Be-satzdichte von 14 Stück/m2 wurde kontinuierlich auf 2,8Stück/m2 verringert. Die Beleuchtungsdauer betrug in der ersten Woche 23 Stunden, in der zweiten Woche 18 Stun-den und ab der dritten Woche 12 Stunden. Die Lichtinten-sität wurde von anfangs 18-20 Lux auf 6-7 Lux verminert.

Das war besonders wegen des heftigen Temperamentsder Flugenten wichtig.Untersucht wurde am lebenden Tier: wöchentliche

Veränderung des Lebendgewichtes , Futterverbrauch und

-verwertung Durch Probeschlachtungen wurde unter-sucht: Lebendgewicht, Blutgewicht, Federgewicht, Kopf-gewicht, Paddelngewicht, Gedärmgewicht

Wegen der unterschiede im Körpergewicht der dreiGenotypen werden die gemessenen Schlachtverluste insVerhältnis zum gegebenen Körpergewicht gesetzt und so

in den Ergebnissen dargestellt. Deshlab ist es notwendigzuerst einige Überlegungen und Daten über die Zunahmender verschiedenen Ententypen anzustellen.

ERGEBNISSE UND DISKUSSIONEntwicklung des Körpergewichts bei den Erpeln

Bei den CV war die Entwicklung bis zur 7. Wochekontinuierlich, dann war ein kurzer Rückfall zu beobach-

ten, dem aber erneut eine starke Wachstums- phasefolgte, die bis zum Versuchsende anhielt.

Von den Flugenten-Erpeln wurden eigentlich dashöchste Lebendgewicht erwartet, was allerdings bei unsnicht eintraf, da sie sehr stark auf den Derzsy-Impfstoffreagierten, was ihre Zunahmen sehr beeinträchtigte. In der 12. Woche betrug ihr maximales Lebendgewicht 3566 g.

Die Entwicklung der Mulard-Erpel war kontinuierlich.Sie holten gewichtsmäßig in der 12. Woche die CV-Erpelmit 4181 g Lebendgewicht ein.

Entwicklung des Körpergewichts bei den Enten

Bei den CV hatten die Enten - ebenso wie die Erpel -ebenfalls in der 7. Woche einen Entwicklungsstop. Bei die-sem Genotyp beträgt das Schlachtgewicht ca. 3000 g,was auch allgemein in der 7. Woche erreicht wird. Unter-

sucht man jedoch - wie hier - eine größere Bestandszahl,


(1) Sandor Szász, Assistent, (2) Ferenc Bogenfürst, Full Professor, (3) Lívia Kós, Student - Kaposvárer Universität , Fakultät für Tierproduktion, Guba S.u. 40, 7400 Kaposvár, Ungarn



kann man auch nicht von einem Geschlechtsdimorphis-mus sprechen.

Die Flugenten hatten die geringsten Zunahmen, wasmit dem hochgradigen Geschlechtsdimorphismus zuerklären ist.

Bei den Mularden verlief die Entwicklung unge-brochen. Mit einem Geschlechtsdimorphismus mussman

nicht rechnen, da sie als Hybride genau in der Mitte der beiden elterlichen Genotypen stehen.

Gedärmanteil:Bei der Auswertung der Daten wird sichtbar, dass die

Flugentenerpel während der ganzen Versuchsperiodeimmer von den anderen Typen abweichen, öfters auchsignifikant, und dass sie immer einen höheren Wert


Tabelle 1. Zusammenfassende Ergebnisse

Lebens-woche

Geno- typ Gedärmanteil Kopfanteil Paddelnanteil Federanteil Blutanteil

7

pg:bgpg:mgbg:mgpt:btpt:mtbt:mt

6,386,386,945,235,235,8

6,946,356,355,85,015,01

NSNSNSNSNS*

4,934,935,564,64,65,5

5,56555,54,844,84

NSNSNS*NSNS

2,812,814,892,642,644,43

4,893,593,594,433,673,67

******

5,485,482,292,892,893,74

2,294,294,293,742,542,54

*NSNSNSNSNS

4,254,256,624,224,224,67

6,624,664,664,674,114,11

*NS*NSNSNS

8


4,594,596,614,914,916,4

6,614,734,596,45,015,01

*NS**NS*

4,44,44,554,544,545,01

4,554,754,755,014,734,73

NSNSNSNSNSNS

2,522,5242,482,483,65

43,663,663,653,233,23

**NS***

4,994,995,385,215,216,29

5,384,864,866,294,94,9

NSNSNS*NS*

5,485,486,425,385,386,69

6,426,526,526,695,065,06

NSNSNSNSNS*

9

pg:bgpg:mg

bg:mgpt:btpt:mtbt:mt

5,035,03

7,465,175,175,61

7,464,96

4,965,614,534,53

*NS

*NSNS*

55

5,344,574,574,09

5,345,81

5,814,094,454,45

NS*

NSNSNSNS

2,742,74

3,172,362,362,85

3,173,18

3,182,853,023,02

NS*

NS**NS

3,33,3

4,922,972,974,47

4,924,67

4,674,472,932,93

**

NS*NS*

4,024,02

4,253,673,674,4

4,254,31

4,314,44,214,21

NSNS

NSNSNSNS

10


5,845,846,575,915,916,31

6,575,575,576,315,465,46

NSNS*NSNS*

4,184,183,874,544,544,27

3,874,124,122,274,514,51

NSNSNSNSNSNS

2,592,593,332,522,523,22

3,333,193,193,223,343,34

**NS**NS

2,252,252,782,52,54,26

2,783,043,044,262,872,87

NSNSNS*NS*

4,744,747,264,974,975,2

7,265,925,925,25,865,86

*NS*NSNSNS

11


5,55,56,646,126,126,49

6,644,644,646,494,634,63

***NS**

4,274,273,124,454,454,25

3,123,963,964,253,963,96

*NS*NS**

2,52,532,412,413,13

32,952,953,132,952,95

**NS**NS

3,933,934,42,632,633,24

4,43,273,273,241,981,98

NSNSNSNSNS*

4,954,956,754,864,865,84

6,756,176,175,846,256,25

**NS**NS

12


5,945,946,466,596,596,85

6,644,074,076,855,065,06

NS**NS**

4,634,633,354,584,583,38

3,354,094,093,884,354,35

***NS**

2,442,442,952,352,352,66

2,952,682,682,662,742,74

*NSNS**NS

3,023,025,084,224,224,25

5,083,453,454,252,582,58

*NS*NS**

4,374,375,795,445,445,19

5,795,785,785,195,85,8

NSNSNSNSNSNS

*P<0,05; mg=Mulard männlich; pg=Peking Ente männlich; mt=Mulard weiblich; pt= Peking Ente weiblich; bg=Flugente männlich: bt=Flugente weiblich



haben. Die Peking- und die Mularderpel haben sowohlähnliche Werte als auch einen übereinstimmenden Verlaufder Daten mit Ausnahme der letzten zwei Proben, wo diePeking Enten signifikant die höchsten und die Mulardensignifikant die niedrigsten Werte zeigen.

Bei den Enten wurden andere Tendenzen und Unter-schiede gefunden als bei den Erpeln. Hier produziertenzwar ebenfalls die Flugenten die höchste Werte, aber siehaben zu den Peking Enten haben im Verlauf der Dateneher statistisch gesicherte Ähnlichkeiten, als zu den Mu-larden.

Kopfanteil:Das Kopfgewicht hat bei der Erpeln aller Genotypen

einen parallelen Verlauf. Nach einem anfänglichen Rück-gang unter 5% steigen die Werte in der 9. Lebenswochewieder an. Danach ein Absinken bis fast 3% bei den Flu-

genten, wo sie bis zumEnde der Versuchsperiode blieben.Es ist also festzustellen, dass im jeweilig besten Schlacht-intervall dieser Körperteil den niedrigsten Wert bei allenGenotypen aufweist. Die Enten zeigen hinsichtlich desKopfanteils während der Versuchsperiode einen harmoni-scheren Verlauf.

Die Werte liegen anfangs nahe bei denen der Erpel -nur Peking- und Flugenten weichen signifikant voneinan-der ab -, wobei bei allen Genotypen eine leicht abfallendeTendenz auftrat. Hier konnte man nur in der 11.-12. Le-benswoche signifikante Unterschiede zwischen PekingEnten und Mularden sowie Flugenten und Mularden fest-

stellen.

Paddelnanteil:Dieses Merkmal verläuft bei den Erpeln paralell und

hateine leicht abfallende Tendenz, wobei die Unterschiedezwischen den Genotypen nahezu in jedem Alters signifi-kant sind.

Bei den Enten ist Ähnliches zu beobachten, obwohlsich dort die Penking Ente immer signifikant von den ande-ren Genotypen unterscheidet.

Federanteil:

Am Anfang wurde hier ein signifikanter Unterschiedzwischen Flugerpeln und Peking Erpeln gefunden, wassich nochmals in der 9. und 11. Woche wiederholte. In der 9. Woche wurden auch zwischen Peking Erpeln und Mu-lard Erpeln gesicherte Unterschiede gefunden sowie in der 12. Woche zwischen Flugerpeln und Mulard Erpeln. Der Verlauf des Federanteils während der Schlachtungen kannbei den Erpeln sehr deutlich ihrer generellen Entwicklungbzw. ihren Mauserzeiten zugeordnet werden.

Die Enten zeigen vorerst eine steigende Tendenz imFederanteil, aber danach sinkt dieser Anteil bei der Flugen-

ten und Mularden bis zur 11. Lebenswoche ab, in der sich

auch keine signifikanten Unterschied zeigen. Bei der Pe-king Ente ist in dieser Zeit schon eine Erhöhung des Feder-anteils zu beobachten, d.h. dieser Genotyp hat die Mauser schon hinter sich.

Blutanteil:Bei diesem Merkmal ist der Verlauf der Werte bei Er-

pel und Enten sehr ähnlich. Bei jedem Genotyp und Ge-schlecht erreichten die Tiere in der 7. und9. LebenswocheMinimalwerte. Danach begann bei jedem Genotyp eine an-steigende Phase, die nach kurzer Zeit wieder eine fallendeTendenz annahm, ausgenommen davon sind die PekingErpel.

Über die Hintergründe dieses Phänomens wissen wir nichts Genaues. Wir nehmen einen Zusammenhang zwi-schen dem schwankenden Blutanteil und der Körperent-wicklung bzw. dem Federwachstum und den Mauserzei-

ten an.

LITERATUR1. Abdelsamie, R.E., Farell, D.J. (1985): Carcass composition

and carcass characteristics of ducks, Duck productionscience and world practice, New England, 83-112.

2. Bogenfürst, F., Szász, S., Széchenyi, Rita (1993): Evaluationof growth rate and carcass characteristics of mule duck according to the sex and feeding. Proceedings of 11 th Eu-ropean Symp. on Qual. of Poultry Meat, Tours.

STUDY ON SLAUGHTERING WASTE IN PEKIN,MUSCOVY AND MULE DUCKS

ABSTRACT

In this study, which was part of a complex duck experiment, domestic (Pekin type), muscovy and muleducks were used to determine the slaughtering waste from 7 to 12 weeks of age. The animals were kept un-der intensive conditions until 6 weeks of age and under semi-intensive conditions thereafter. Their were fed ad libitum, with a commercial pelleted feed for Pekin duck during the whole experimental period. Eight birds of each genotype and sex were slaughtered weekly during the period. During the slaughter procedure the different slaughtering waste were calculated.

Keywords: duck, slaughtering waste




ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 636.5:636.084.5

THE INFLUENCE OF REARING SYSTEM ON SKIN COLOUR IN BROILERS

D. Ter~i~(1) , Jana Puhar (2) , Antonija Holcman(3) , R. Vadnjal (4) , B. @lender (5)


ABSTRACT

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of different rearing systems on the skincolour of commercial broilers. Research was carried out on 100 broilers of two different provenances (ross 208 and prelux-bro) up to 56 days of age. In the first half of the experiment the broilers were fed according to standard technology with bro starter which con-tained 23.44 % crude protein and 12.98 MJ/kg metabolizable energy. On the 28th day broilers were divided into two groups and fed with bro finisher which contained 70 % ce-

reals, 14.0 % crude protein and 16.26 MJ/kg metabolizable energy. Half of the broilerswere kept indoors without access to the grassland, while the other half had free accessduring the day (12 hours). Free range broilers showed a higher degree of pigmentation in skin colour than the broilers in confinement. The differences were statistically significant for the L* (lightness) and b* (yellowness) values.

Keywords: broilers, skin colour, free range, deep litter

INTRODUCTIONColour is one of the first impressions we have of a

meat product. In modern markets, consumers still tend tofavour skin colours which are traditionally available and

which are based on local feeding practices as well as ge-netic stock (Fletcher, 1999). Because of its market im-pact, much is known about the factors affecting skinpigmentation. Pigmentation, or the deposition of pigmentsin the skin of the bird, depends on the genetic capability of

the bird, dietary pigments, health of the bird and process-ing (Fletcher, 1999). Many consumers belive that broilerswhich have access to fresh grass every day, and also re-ceive antibiotic-free, non-commercial grain rations havebetter meat quality with better sensory properties thanbroilers raised in closed poultry houses. This study wasconducted to evaluate the effect of the management sys-

tem (total confinement versus free range) on broiler breastskin colour.

MATERIAL AND METHODSThe research was carried out with two provenances

of broilers. 50 broilers (25 females and 25 males) werefrom commercial provenance ross 208 and 50 broilers(25 females and 25 males) were from commercial prove-nance prelux-bro. All broilers were raised in the fixed poul-

try house of deep litter type up to 4 weeks of age and werefed ad libitum with standard mixture of the same contentand nutritional value. The levels of metabolizable energy

and crude protein up to 4 weeks of age were 12.98 MJ/kgand 23.44% CP, respectively.At the age of 4 weeks the chickens were divided into

two groups. The first group was composed of 15 ross fe-

males, 10 ross males, 12 prelux-bro females and 12prelux-bro males. The second one was formed from 12ross females, 13 ross males, 13 prelux-bro females and13 prelux-bro males. Broilers from the first group hadcon-

tinuous daytime (12 hours) access to open-air run. Theground to which the broilers had access was mainly cov-ered with vegetation. The stocking density on the grass-landwasonebirdpertwosquaremeters.Broilersfromthesecond group were raised in deep litter house where thefloor area was covered with wood shavings. They did nothave access to the outdoors. From 4 weeks of age aheadall b roilers were fed ad libitum with finisher contained 70% cereals (barley and maize). Protein concentration in fin-isher was 14.0 %, metabolizable energy 16.26 MJ per kg.At the age of 8 weeks all broilers were slaughtered andprocessed at the same way.

The slaughtering scheme was as follows: stunning

with electrical current, bleeding by cutting jugular vein,scalding and plucking by machine and eviscerating byhand. The skin colour measurments were taken on thebreast surfaces 24 h post mortem using a porTableMinolta Chroma Meter CR 300. Colour values (L*-light-ness, a*-redness and b*-yellowness) were recorded on

three randomly chosen points of chilled breast surfaces in triplicate. The data were subjected to statistical analysisusing the GLM procedure in the SAS statistical program(SAS/STAT, 1990). The model was as follows:


(1) Dušan Ter~i~, Assistant Professor, (3) Antonija Holcman, Ph.D., (4) Robert Vadnjal, BAg - University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Zootechnical Department, Groblje 3, 1230 Domàle, Slovenia, (2) Jana Puhar, BAg – Celovška 108, 1107 Ljubljana, Slovenia, (5) Boìdar @lender, Associated Professor - University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Food Technology Department, Jamnikarjeva 101, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia



Y ijkl = + Pi + Rj + Sk + eijkl

Y ijkl = measured value; = population meanPi = effect of provenance iRj = effect of keeping system j

Sk = effect of sex k eijkl = random error

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONColour perception by humans can be defined by a

minimum of three dimensions, consisting of a lightnessattribute (luminosity, distinguishing light from dark colour)and two chromatic attributes called hue (or dominantwavelength, colour perception of theobject as red, yellow,green…), and chroma (saturationor depth or purity of thecolour, the difference between grey and pure colour).Standardisation of colour quantification has been per-formed by the CIE (Commission international del’Eclairage, 1976). The CIE L*a*b* system, the scale ofwhich correlates with the colour perception by humansdefines a three-dimensional colour space with opponentcolours scale, a* (red positive-green negative), b* (yel-low-blue) and L* (lightness, black to white reflectance,0-100). The major advantages of reflectance colorimetryare its objectivity, accuracy and reproducibility. Major dis-advantage is the abstract nature of colour description sys-

tems. On the basis of many experiments (e.g. Twining etal., 1986) which provided evidence that the MinoltaChroma Meter may be used as a reliable instrument for

measuring pigmentation in broilers we used it in our studyfor reading breast skin colour. In Table 1 are shown the av-erage values for broiler breast skin colours and variabilitywithin the groups.

The results given above show the lighter skin colour in ross males from confinement and the darker skin colour in prelux-bro females from free range. The higher meanredness value was observed in ross males from free rangewhereas the lower mean redness value was detected inross females from free range.

The mean yellowness value was the highest inprelux-bro females from free range and the lowest in

prelux-bro males which were raised indoors. The data inTable 2 represent the effects of the provenance, sex andkeeping system on the breast skin colour values.

Analysis of variance showed that the provenance of the trial animals had no significant effect on lightness, red-ness and yellowness of the skin (Table 2). The keepingsystem had effect on breast skin yellowness and lightnesswhile it did not have any effect on skin redness (Table 2).

On the contrary to keeping system the sex influenced theredness of the breast skin colour but it did not exhibit anyinfluence on skin lightness and yellowness (Table 2). Skincolour differences and their statistical significance aresummarized in Table 3.

The b* values (yellowness) were significantly higher in broilers from free range when compared with thosefrom confinement (Table 3).

Broilers reared on the pasture also showed lower lightness (L*) and lower redness (a*), but only values for lightness were significantly different from those measuredin broilers reared indoors. These data are in conflict with

the findings of Garcia et al. (1995) in which lower light-ness and redness values of chicken thigh surfaces werefound in indoor raised label chickens.

Studies performed by Ricard et al. (1986) andBastiaens et al. (1991) cited by Remignon and Culioli(1995) also reported that the chemical or sensory charac-

teristics of the meat are not affected by the growing conditions.

The differences in redness values between twosexes were confirmed statistically. Males hadsignificantlyhigher redness values than females. The opposite situa-

tion was observed for the L* and b* values although in thiscase the differences were not statistically different.

Regarding breast skin colour we determined ahigher L*, a* and b* values in ross broilers in comparisonwith the prelux-bro broilers but the differences between

two provenances were not statistically reliable.

CONCLUSIONSA comparison of breast skin colour of broilers from

two keeping systems (indoors vs free range) turned out that the pastured birds had significantly higher pigmentation degree in yellowness. This may be connected with theraising under grass pasture conditions. There was a ten-dency that broilers kept indoors shown greater breast skinbrightness than broilers raised on the pasture. Results of

our study do not agree with the ones published by Garciaet al. (1995), Ricard (1986) and Bastiaens et al. (1991)cited by Remignon and Culioli (1995).


Table 1. Initial mean lightness (L*), redness (a*) and yellowness (b*) values of broiler breast skins

Breast skincolour

Free range broilers Broilers raised indoors

Ross 208 Prelux-bro Ross 208 Prelux-bro

females males females males females males females males

L* 73.19

± 1.8

71.39

± 2.1

71.26

± 2.2

72.04

± 2.3

73.47

± 2.2

74.32

± 1.1

72.95

± 1.8

73.14

± 3.2

a* 1.13

± 1.1

2.75

±1.5

1.46

± 1.1

1.50

±1.5

1.59

± 1.0

1.69

± 1.7

1.31

± 1.0

2.28

± 1.3

b* 15.62

± 3.3

14.84

± 4.1

16.39

± 2.5

14.08

± 4.4

12.67

± 3.1

11.59

± 3.1

10.82

± 2.7

10.50

± 1.8



ACKNOWLEDGEMENTThis investigation is part of a research project

funded by research grants from the Ministry of Scienceand Technology of Slovenia and Ministry of Agriculture,Forestry and Food of Slovenia.

REFERENCES1. Fletcher, D. L. (1999): Poultry meat colour. In: Richardson, R.

I./ Mead, G. C. Poultry meat science, Poultry sciencesymposium series, CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK, vol.25: 159-175

2. Garcia, M. E., Cepero, R., Campo, M. M., Lafuente, R.,Sañudo, C., Canti, M. (1995): Effects of production sys-

tem on the meat quality of label chickens and capons. In:Briz, R. C. Poultry meat quality, Proceedings of the XII eu-ropean symposium on the quality of poultry meat,Zaragoza, Spain, 1995, 9(25/29): 207-217

3. Remignon, H., Culioli, J. (1995): Meat quality traits of french»label« chickens. In: Briz, R. C. Poultry meat quality, Pro-ceedings of the XII european symposium on the quality ofpoultry meat, Zaragoza, Spain, 1995, 9(25/29):145-150

4. Twining, P. V., Quarles, C. L., Schwartz, J. H. (1986): The

evaluation of the Minolta Chroma Meter for reading shank pigmentation of live broilers. Poultry Science 65(1): 196

5. ………. SAS/STAT (1990) User’s Guide, Version 6, Volume2, GLM-VARCOMP. Carry, SAS Institute, 1135-1194.


Table 2. The effects of provenance, sex and keeping system on the breast skin colour values

P- values

Effect L* value (lightness) a* value (redness) B* value (yellowness)

Provenance 0.0741 0.6891 0.3848Keeping system 0.0072 0.7082 0.0001

Sex 0.9403 0.0086 0.0730

Table 3. Differences in skin colour between sexes, provenances and keeping systems

LSM Estimated difference

SEE P-values

L* (lightness)

Sex Females 72.82

0.04 0.49 0.9403Males 72.79

Provenance Ross 73.25

0.88 0.49 0.0741Prelux-bro 72.36

Keeping system Free range 72.13

1.34 0.49 0.0072Indoors 73.48

a* (redness)

Sex Females 1.30

0.79 0.29 0.0086Males 2.09


0.12 0.29 0.6891Prelux-bro 1.64


0.11 0.29 0.7082Indoors 1.75

b* (yellowness)

Sex Females 13.94

1.24 0.68 0.0730Males 12.71


0.59 0.68 0.3848Prelux-bro 13.03


3.73 0.68 0.0001Indoors 11.46

P 0.05= non significant ; P 0.05 = statistically significant; P 0.01 = statistically significant; P 0.001 = highly statistically signifi-cant

P 0.05= non significant; P 0.05 = statistically significant ; P 0.01 = statistically significant; P 0.001 = highly statistically significant; LSM = least square mean; SEE = standard error of the estimation



ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 576.3

OXIDATIVE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT DIETARY FATS ON MOUSE DNADETECTED BY COMET ASSAY

Romana Marinšek Logar (1) , K. Salobir (2)


ABSTRACT

Here we report on the introduction of the Comet assay for the in vivo testing of oxidativeeffects of different polyunsaturated dietary fats on mouse nuclear DNA. Five groups of mice were fed with the diet of the same composition but with different fat supplementation: 1 st group - oleic acid rich sunflower oil, 2 nd group - sunflower oil, 3 rd

gruop - rape oil, 4th group - lard, 5th group - control group. Fats with different degrees of unsaturation have caused different degrees of mice DNA damage. The highest degree of DNA damage (2.72) was found in the group fed with oleic acid rich sunflower oil. The low-est degree of DNA damage was found in the control group. The results obtained indicatethat Comet assay is sensitive enough to differentiate the quality of nutritional fats fromthe view of free radicals formation.

Keywords: nutrition, fats, antioxidants, oxidative stress, DNA, comet assay

INTRODUCTIONBeside positive effects on human health unsaturated

fatty acids increase the proxidative load of the organismand thus take part in oxidative stress of the cells resulting

in different types of cell damages (RDA, 1989). Relativeperoxidation potential of unsaturated fatty acids increaseswith the number of double bonds. The products of lipidperoxidation promote the distruction of cell membranesand cause the damage of nuclear DNA leading finally to

the evolution of chronical diseases (like cancer) or celldeath.The increased food intakeof unsaturated fatty acidsincreases the demand of the organism for antioxidativeprotection (Esterbauer, 1996). Antioxidants protect cellsagainst free radicals and take part in repair mechanismswhich help the cells to neutralise partially the effects offree radicals (WHO/FAO, 1994; Šuput and Kamari~,

1998).In spite of the presence of antioxidants some freeradicals allways escape the neutralisation and thus causecell damages in human or animal body. DNA is for exam-ple continuously exposed to oxidative damages. There aresome direct methods available to follow these damages:chromosomal abberations test, sister chromatids ex-change test and micronucleus test (Fu~i}, 1997). DNAdamages could be evaluated also indirectly by analysing

the oxidative products (like 8-hydroxy guanin and8-hydroxydeoxy guanozin) using HPLC methods(Halliwell and Aruoma, 1997). Comet assay (Single Cell

Gel Electrophoresis-SCGE, Singh et al., 1988) is a newsensitive method for a reliable quantification of nuclear DNA damages. Cells are incorporated into agarose gels onmicroscopic slides andexposed to alkali lysis and electro-

phoresis at ph >13. During the electrophoresis the brokenDNA migrates toward the catode and forms an image of acomet tail after staining with ethidium bromide andvisuali-sation under the fluorescent microscope.

Theaimofthepresentstudywastotestthesuitabilityof the comet assay for determination of the degree of oxi-dative stress caused by differently unsaturated fats in anutrition investigation model. Similar studies with thecomet assay analysis areusually performed in vitro oncellcultures (Duthie and Dobson, 1999) and rarely in vivo onanimal models (Turley et al., 1998). Animal models areprefered because of including the complete interactionsspectrum of the animal with the test substance.

MATERIAL AND METHODSWhite laboratory mice (male sex, 8 weeks old, line

Hsd Hn: NMRI) were selected as model experimental ani-mals and their leucocytes were selected as test cells. Theanimals were devided into five experimental groups (fiveanimals in each group). The basic diet of all groups was

the same but each experimental group received differentdietary fat supplementation: 1st group – 10% of oleic acidrich sunflower oil, 2nd group – 10% of sunflower oil, 3rd

group - 10% of rape oil, 4 th group - 10% of lard, 5 th group(control group) – 2% of oleic acid rich sunflower oil.

The mice were sacrificed on the 17 th, 23rd, 29 th, 31st

and 42nd day of the experiment. The blood was extractedby the aid of K3EDTA as anticoagulant. The leucocytes

were isolated from whole blood under sterile conditions


(1) Romana Marinšek Logar, Assistant Professor, (1) Karl Salobir, Full Pro- fessor - University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Zootechnical Depart- ment, Groblje 3, 1230 Dom ale, Slovenia



following the method of Johnston and Thorpe (1990). Theexposure of the samples to daylight was limited as muchas possible. The proportion of damaged leucocytes waschecked by Trypan blue (0,6%) staining (Wilson, 1986).

Isolated leucocytes were incorporated into aga-rose gel (0.6% low metling point agarose, LMP) andoverlayed on microscopic slides covered with a thinlayer of 1% normal melting point agarose (NMP) andanother layer of 0.6% LMP agarose. The cell layer wascovered with additional two layers of agarose. Therewere positive and negative controls included in each se-ries of comet assays: minigels were incubated 5 mi-nutes in 500 µM H2O2 for positive controls and the cellsof the control group were taken as negative controls.Minigels were then exposed to alkaline cell lysis (1%Triton X-100, 0.03M NaOH, 1.2 M NaCl, 10%dimethylsulfoxide and 0.5% N–laurylsarcosine) andfurther on to electrophoresis in 30mM NaOH and 2mMEDTA (20 min., 25V, 300mA). Minigels were neutral-ised in 400mM Tris-HCl buffer (pH=7.5) and stainedwith ethidium bromide (2µg/ml). The protocols of Ticeet al. (1998) and Pool-Zobel et al.(1997) were followedfor the comet assay.

The results were visualised with epifluorescent mi-croscope under 200 X magnification (excitation wave-length: 515-560 nm, emission filter 590 nm). Theevaluation of damage degrees was done visualy, classify-

ing the nuclei into five damage categories with numericvalues from 1 to 5, 1 meaning an undamaged nuclus and5 the highest degree of damage (Miyame et al., 1998).100 randomly chosen nuclei were evaluated for eachsample and the mean values of damage degrees calcu-lated (Figures 1 and 2).

Figure 1. A comet driven from a mouse leucocyte nucleus as a result of H 2O 2 (100 µg/l) treatment and electrophoresis

The data were statistically evaluated using GLM(General linear models) procedure in a program packageSAS/STAT (1990).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONAfter five repeats of the comet assay for each experi-mental group of mice the highest mean degree of DNAdamage (2.72) was found in the 1st group fed with oleicacid rich sunflower oil and decreased as follows: 3rd group(rape seed oil), 4 th group (lard), 2nd group (sunflower oil).The lowest degree of DNA damage was found in the con-

trol group (see Table 1). The mean degree of DNA damagefor the 1st experimental group differed signifficantly from

the 2nd group, 4 th group and the control group. The 3rd

group did not differ signifficantly from any of the experi-mental groups.

The comet assay in the present nutritional investi-gation model with diets supplemented with fats of differ-ent saturation resulted in different degrees of DNAdamage which are not in correspondence with the ex-pected results.

We can conclude that the DNA damages were notonly the consequence of different free radicals generationpotential of dietary fats present in the feed and so the re-sults need to be carefully interpreted. According to theper-oxide number of individual dietary fats it was expected thatin the 1st group of mice (oleic acid rich sunflower oil)lower DNA damage would be detected and the higher one

in 2nd group (sunflower oil). The results show a vice-versaposition. It should be pointed out that the dietary fats withdefined (analysed) fatty acid composition and no antioxi-dants added were used in the experiment, but there wereno data about their own antioxidants contents. Thehighestmean degree of DNA damage (2.72) was found in the 1st

group fed with oleic acid rich sunflower oil and we cancomment that this is not a high degree of DNA damage ac-cording to the highest value possible, which was 5. Theresult could be the consequence of some other unknownor unmeasured influences in the experiment like physicalactivity of experimental animals, antioxidant contents of

dietary fats, stess situations and hormonal and healt status. It was noticed that the physical activity of experimental animals was the highest in the 1st group and as aconsequence there was probably a higher oxidative load


Figure 2. Intact mouse leucocyte nucleus after electrophoresis



present, too. It would be better to keep the experimentalanimals in individual cages in future experiments.

CONCLUSION

The results showed that supplementing fats ofdiffent degrees of unsaturationcaused differentdegrees ofmouse DNA damage. We can conclude that the comet as-say enables the differentiation of nutritional fats quality on

the basis of free radicals formation. The introduction of thecomet assay in a nutrition investigation model means anew analytical quality in our nutritional research.

Comet assay hasa biomarkers character – it reflects the real biological effects of a selected dietary compoundon a cell level. The results of the comet assay in nutritionalexperiments allways show the difference between the ef-fects of dietary load with proxidative compounds and theeffects of antioxidative substances present in food and re-pair mechanisms (Gedik te al., 1992). This enables us tofollow the effects of prooxidative substances in food when

the prooxidative/antioxidative ratio is moved towardprooxidative substances. On the other side we can follow

the effects of antioxidants in food on reduction of oxidativestress and genotoxicity.

The optimisation of the experimental procedure isstill needed and the reliability of the results will surely bebetter with the use of the automatic image analysis sys-

tem for the quatification of the comet results. For better re-liability of the nutrition experimental model we have toexclude the factors taht contributed to the additional,uncontroled oxidative load of experimental animals.

REFERENCES1. Duthie, S.J., Dobson, V.L. (1999): Dietary flavonoids protect

human colonocyte DNA from oxidative attack in vitro. Eur.J. Nutr., 38: 28-34.

2. Esterbauer, H. (1996): Estimation of peroxidative damage.

Path. Biol., 44:25-28.3. Fu}i~, A. (1997): Metoda komete: novi pristup genotok-sikološkim iztraìvanjima. Arh. hig. rada toksikol. 48:413-419.

4. Gedik, C.M., Ewen, S.W.B. CollinsAR. (1992): Single cell gelectrophoresis applied to theanalysis of UV-C damage anditsrepairinhumancells.Int.J.Radiat.Biol.,62:313-320.

5. Halliwell, B., Aruoma, O.I. (1977): Free radicals and antioxi-dants: The need for in vivo markers of oxidative stress. In:Antioxidant methodology – In vivo and in vitro concepts(Eds.: Aruoma, O.I., Cuppett, S.L.) Champain, Illinois,USA, AOCS Press, 1-23.

6. Johnstone, A., Thorpe, R. (1990): Immunochemistry inPractice. 2nd ed. Oxford. Blackwell Scientific Publica-

tions, 306 p.7. Miyame, Y., Yamamoto, M., Sasaki, Y.F., Kobayashi, H.,

Igarashi-Soga, M., Shimoi, K., Hayashi, M. (1998): Evalu-ation of tissue homogenization technique that isolates nu-clei for the in vivo single cell gel electrophoresis (comet)assay: a collaborative study by five laboratories. Mutat.Res., 418: 131-140.

8. Pool-Zobel, B.L., Bub, A., Rechkemmer, G. (1997): Applica- tion of the comet assay to study oxidative DNA damage inhuman cells. In: Antioxidant methodology - In vivo and invitro concepts (Eds: Auroma, O.I., Cuppett, S.L.).Champain, Illinois, USA, AOCS Press, 39-51.

9. Singh, N. P., McCoy, M.T., Tice, R.R., Schneider, E.L.

(1988): A simple technique for quantification of low levelsof DNA damage in individual cells. Exp. Cell Res., 175:184-191.

10. Šuput D., Kamari~ L. (1998): Prosti radikali. In: Izbranapoglavja iz patološke fiziologije. Ljubljana. Medicinskafakulteta, Inštitut za patološko fiziologijo, 23-43.

11. Tice, R., Vazquez, M. (1998): Protocol for the application of the pH>13 alkaline single cell gel (SCG) assay to the detection of DNA damage in mammalian cells.Http://www.kineticimaging.com/kidocs/kompetpro.doc.

12. Turley, E., Armstrong, N. C., Wallace, J.M.W., Gilmore,W.S., McKelvey-Martin, V.J., Allen, J.M., Strain, J.J.(1999): Effect of cholesterol feeding on DNA damage in

male and female Syrian hamsters. Ann. Nutr. Metab., 43:47-51.13.Wilson,A.P. (1986): Citoxicityand Viability Assay. V: Animal

cell culture (Ed.: Freshney, R. I.), Washington, IRL Press,183-215.

14. RDA. Recomended Dietary Allowances. 10th ed. (1989).Washington, National Academy Press, 44-49 and99-104.

15. ……….. SAS/STAT User‘’s Guide. Version 6. 4th Edit.(1990). Cary, SAS, Institute INC., 1600 p.

16. ………. WHO/FAO. (1994): Fats and oils in human nutrition. Non-glyceride constituents of fats. Rome, 99-102.


Table 1. Mean degrees of DNA damages and statisticallysignificant differences between test groups

Mean degree ofDNA damage

1st group (oleic acid rich sunflower oil) 2,27a ± 0,08

2nd group (sunflower oil) 1,78b ± 0,43

3rd group (rape seed oil) 1,92ab ± 0,23

4 th group (lard) 1,80b ± 0,36

5 th group (control) 1,56b ± 0,17

Values, labeled with different superscripts (a,b), differ significantly (P 0,05)



ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 636.92:636.06

EXAMINATION OF MUSCLE AND ERYTHROCYTE MEMBRANE LIPIDCOMPOSITION BY MEANS OF GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY ON MEAT TYPE

RABBITS

A. Szabó(1) , H. Fébel (2) , R. Romvári (3) , P. Bogner (4)


ABSTRACT

The goal of our investigations was to achieve basic data on muscle and erythrocyte membrane lipid composition. Pannon White meat type rabbits were investigated at the age of 8weeks when samples were taken from m. longissimus dorsi, m. quadriceps femoris and

blood. Muscle fat content was extracted, blood cell membrane was isolated first and the fatty acids were methyl-estherified. Gas chromatography measurements centred on fatty acids from the carbon chain length of C14:0 to C20:4. Gas chromatography was carried out using fatty acid standards and the results were given in percentage of the total fat content. The results (average values) obtained were C14:0=2.47; C14:1=1.13; C15:0=0,37; C16:0=24.51;C17:0=0.43; C18:0=6.03; C18:1=27.51; C18:2=18,1; C18:3=3.69; C20:0=0.25;C20:4=3.0 for m.L.D., and C14:0=1.98; C15:0=0,36; C16:0=26.2; C17:0=0.44;C18:0=6.79; C18:1=21.13; C18:2=22.81; C18:3=2.36 and C20:4=5.35 for m.Q.F., respec-tively. The ratio of unsaturated to saturated fatty acids was 1.85 in case of m.L.D., 1.71 by

m.Q.F and 0.983 by blood samples. The data obtained can be used in further examinations,where we plan to follow the changes caused by long term physical load.

Keywords: rabbit, fat content, fatty acid composition, USFA, SFA

INTRODUCTIONThe lipid content of rabbit muscles was investigated

even prior to our work. In former investigations Bernardini et al. (1996) measured changes caused by vitamin Esupplementation. Also Cavani et al. (1996) reported aboutmuscle total fat composition and its changes to wholesoybean addition. The unsaturated and saturated fattyacid complementation was although widely studied, e.g.by Kessler and Pallauf (1994), who reported alterations incomposition of the intramuscular fat. Fekete et al. (1990)

also studied the effects of different fat supplementationson blood parameters. Furthermore Pekiner and Pennock (1995) studied the blood cell membrane composition ofdiffreent species, including rabbit. In the above mentionedarticles in all cases not only the fat content, but the fattyacid composition was analysed, mostly by gas chroma-

tography.Our goal by analysing the fatty acids of rabbit mus-

cles and blood is based on a theory, that the physical loadcauses specific changes in rabbits. This changes seem tobe more characteristic in muscle tissue than is blood sam-ples, anyway, the alterations can be detected even in

blood, if the storage is proper and short. The opportunityof controlled physical load of rabbits has been assured, asa specific “treadmill” has been designed which promisesfacilities for a long term training. In addition, it is widely

knownthatthePorcineStressSyndromecanbe–inpart–explainedby an alteration in the fatty acid profile of skeletalmuscles in swine. Furthermore, a most important trigger-ing effect to form PSE (pale, soft and exudative) type pork is also physical exercise. One of our goals for the future is

to obtain comparable data on the lipid profile from rabbit –also after exercise – and porcine samples from the abovementioned tissues.


Twelve Pannon White rabbits in both sexes were in-vestigated at the age of 8 weeks. Trial animals were kept ina closed building in cages (800x500mm for four ani-mals), and fed ad libitum with a commercial pelletted diet(DE 10.3 MJ/kg, crude protein 17.5%, crude fat 3.6%,crude fibre 12.4%).

Slaughtering process was in accordance with theHungarian Animals Protection Act. Muscle samples were

taken from the m. longissimus dorsi and m. quadricepsfemoris, and kept frozen. Samples were homogenizedwith chloroform:methanol (2:1), and the fat content wasextracted.


(1) András Szabó, (3) Róbert Romváry, Ass. Professor - University of Kaposvár, Faculty of Animal Science, Guba S. u. 40., 7400 Kaposvár, Hun- gary (2) Hedvig Fébel, (4 ) Péter Bogner - Research Centre for Animal Breeding and Nutrition, Herceghalom



In the case of blood samples cells were first haemo-lysed using phosphate buffer at a pH of 7.4, and cell mem-branes (“ghost”) were washed three times in a hypotonicsolution. Fat content was extracted (chloroform:methanol

(2:1)). Prior to gas chromatography analysis – in bothcases – fatty acids were methyl-estherified, by means ofmethanol, benzene and sulphuric acid (75:25:4). Fattyacid methyle esters were solved in n-hexane and gaschromatography was carried out using fatty acid stan-dards (Sigma-Aldrich).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONThe results of the gas chromatography measure-

ments were given always in percentage of the total fatcontent. The fatty acids analysed show a specific profile in

the case of rabbits. The fatty acid pattern of the rabbit redblood cell can be characterized with relatively high C18:2,C18:3 and low C20:4 proportion when compared to swineand other species ( Fletcher, 1987 ), (Fig. 1.).

Figure 1. Fatty acid pattern of rabbit erythrocyte membrane

Although there is a possible similarity in muscle fattyacid composition between the species mentioned, rabbitmuscles include more mono-unsaturated fatty acids thanswine. Figure 2 shows the results obtained from rabbit m.longissimus dorsi and m. quadriceps femoris. Specific to

the rabbit muscle is the high proportion of C16:1, C18:1

and also C18:3 fatty acids.

Figure 2. Fatty acid composition of m.L.D. and m.Q.F. of rabbit

CONCLUSIONThe results above agree with those from previous

studies and the fatty acids measured ensure us basic datafor further experiments. The ralatively high unsaturatedrate of the total fat can be clearly seen. The “fatty acid pro-files” obtained make it possible to compare the data either with those from the physically loaded rabbits, or even with

those from other species, e.g. pigs.

REFERENCES1. Cavani C., Zucchi, P., Minelli, G., Tolomelli, B., Cabrini, L.,

Bergami, L. (1996): Effects of whole soybeans on growthperformance and body fat composition in rabbits. 6thWorld Rabbit Congress, Toulouse 1, 127-133.

2. Bernardini, M., Dal Bosco, A., Castellini, C., Miggiano, G.(1996): Dietary vitamin E supplementation in rabbit: anti-

oxidant capacity and meat quality. 6th World Rabbit Con-gress, Toulouse 3, 137-140.3. Kessler, von B., Pallauf, J. (1994): Fettsäurezusamne-

setzung und Cholestringehalt des Musculus longissimusdorsi von Mastkaninchen bei alimentärer Zulage vonKokosfett, Rapsöl oder Sojaöl. Züchtungskunde,66(3):242-251.

4. Fekete, S., Hullár, I. Fébel, H., Bokori, J. (1990): The effect ofanimal fat and vegetable oil supplementation of feeds ofdifferent energy concentration upon the digestibility of nu-

trients and some blood parameters in rabbits. ActaVeterinaria Hungarica, 38:163-175.

5. Pekiner B., Pennock, J.F.(1995): Fatty acids in plasma andred blood cell membranes in humans, rats, rabbits anddogs. Biochem-Mol-Biol-Int., 37(2): 221-229.

6. Fletcher J.E., Rosenberg, H., Michaux, K. (1988): Lipid analy-sis of skeletal muscle from pigs susceptible to malignanthyperthermia. Biochem. Cell Biol., 66:917-921.


p e r c e n t o f t o t a l [ % ]

0

10

20

30

14 14:1 15 16 16:1 17 17:1 18 18:1 18:2 18:3 20 20:4

carbon chain length

0

10

20

30

1 4

1 4 : 1

1 5

1 6

1 6 : 1

1 7

1 8

1 8 : 1

1 8 : 2

1 8 : 3

2 0

2 0 : 4

p e r c e n t o f t o t a l [ % ]

m.L.D.

m.Q.F.

carbon chain length



ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 636.92:636.084.5

THE COMPARISON OF TREATMENT WITH FARMATAN® AND FLAVOMICINON FATTENING AND SENSORY TRAITS IN RABBITS

M. Štruklec(1) , B. @lender (2) , Ajda Kermauner (3) , Milena Kova~(4) , Špela Malovrh(5)


ABSTRACT

The effects of feed additive Farmatan® (chestnut tannin) and antibiotic Flavomicin on fat-tening traits of 78 young rabbits were studied. Trial lasted from the age of 35 days to 54days of age (3 intervals: 1 st : 5 days, 2 nd and 3 rd 7 days) and weight gain, average daily weight gain (DWG) and average feed conversion efficiency (FCE) were recorded duringeach interval and entire trial period. For sensory quality rabbits were slaughtered on 81 st

day of age. In trial were two control groups, one with no additive (C) and the other with antibiotic Flavomicin (Fl, 40 mg/kg). Two trial groups were Farmatan® (Fa, 3.5 g/kg) group and combined treatment with Farmatan® and Flavomicin (FF, 40 mg Fl/kg + 3.5 g Fa/kg). Among treatments in trial were no statistical significant difference in DWG and FCE. Farmatan® did not improve growth rate and FCE of any of examined intervals. Sen- sory quality was performed on 32 randomly selected (11 from Fa and 7 from every other group) rabbits by 4 trained panelists, so 128 observations were collected for every sensory trait. Longissimus chops were sensory evaluated for smell, tenderness, juiciness, flavour intensity, bitter off-flavour and other off-flavours. Statistically significant influ-ence of treatment was in bitter off-flavour. The chops from Fa treatment had 0.41 and 0.42(p 0.05) point less bitteroff-flavour comparing to C and Fl chops, respectively. Oth-erwise, the use of Farmatan® had not important influence on sensory characteristics of

rabbit meat. Results obtained with Farmatan®

were comparable with Flavomicin; these findings together with beneficial effect of Fa on bitter off-flavor support the use of Farmatan® as feed additive in rabbits.

Key words: animal nutrition, rabbits, tannins, antibiotics, Farmatan® , Flavomicin, fattening traits, sensory traits

INTRODUCTIONThe influence of biotechnology in animal production

is of increasing interest. The consumers and public infor-mation services judge these new technologies through thequality of animal products, their impact on environmentetc. Hence, animal producers are forced to find new meth-ods, which have to be safer for the society (Lyons, 1998).Such biotechnologically produced feed additives can suc-cessfully replace growth promotors and nutritive antibiot-ics, used all over the world. The role of such probiotic addi-

tives is to sustain digestion processes and to improve healthof animal, what result in better production parameters.

In Slovenia and some other European countriesFarmatan® is used as feed additive to improve productionparameters in animals and for prevention of diarrhoea(Farmatan, 1998). It is natural product, produced by water extraction from sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.)wood. It is on the base of tannins, 85% are from group ofhydrolysible tannins and 15% from condensed tannins.Farmatan® contains about 55% of tannins, the rest arenatural sugars (40%) and water (5-7%).

The principle of Farmatan® activity is that tanninsbind proteins (Mangan, 1988; McLeod, 1974), so in con-

tact with intestinal mucous membrane thin layer ofnonsolvent proteins is formed. This layer protects brushborder from microbial colonisation, appeases peristalticsin the case of inflammation and prevents organism from

dehydration (Farmatan, 1998). Tannins in Farmatan® formmore or less stable complexes with proteins in digesta aswell. Their stability depend from environment’s acidity –when pH-value is about 7, these complexes are decom-posed again to protein and tannin.

Some experiences show that Farmatan® influencesmicrobial activity in caecum of rabbits (Štruklec et al..,1993) and improves production results in rabbits, such asgrowth rate and feed conversion (Štruklec and Ker-mauner, 1994).


(1) Miroslav Štruklec, Associate Professor, (3) Ajda Kermauner, MSc, (4) Milena Kova~, Associate Professor, (5) Špela Malovrh, BSc - University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Zootechnical Department, Groblje 3, 1230 Domàle, Slovenia, (2) Boìdar @lender, Associate Professor - University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Food Science and Technol-ogy, Jamnikarjeva 101, 1111 Ljubljana, Slovenia



The objective was to examine the possibility to protect rabbits from digestive disturbances with Farmatan®

instead off today still allowed nutritive antibiotics. At thesame time the influence of Farmatan® on fattening param-eters and sensory traits of rabbit meat was investigated.


Feed and feedingIn trial, there were four treatments: two control

groups, one with no additive (C), and the other (Fl) withantibiotic Flavomicin. Two other groups were Farmatan®

(Fa), and combined treatment (FF) with Farmatan® andFlavomicin. Control feed was standard feed for growingrabbits (Kun/stand) with 184 g of CP and 150 g of CF per kg. In Fl group 40 mg of Flavomicin/kg was added to thestandard feed. Farmatan® was added in 3.5 g/kg (group

Fa), and in combined group FF it was 40 mg of Flavomicin together with 3.5 g of Farmatan® /kg of feed. Given feed( ad libitum) was recorded individually every day. Rests offeed were weighted five times during trial.

Animals and measurementsRabbits were weaned at 311 day of age and were

uniformly distribute in 4 groups (20 rabbits in each) ac-cording to genotype, sex, mother of the litter and bodyweight. Purpose was to minimise differences amonggroups at the beginning and to make groups homogenousas possible. Rabbits originated from 15 litters and were of

two genotypes (Californian, New Zealand). Trial lastedfrom the age of 35 days to 54 days. During trial, rabbitswere weighted for four times: at the beginning of the trial(35 days), at 40 th, 47 th day and at the end of the trial (54days). During three intervals (1st for 5 days, 2nd and 3rd for

7 days) and entire trial period feed intake (FI) was re-corded, daily weight gain (DWG) and feed conversion effi-ciency (FCE) was calculated. For sensory quality rabbitswere slaughtered on 81st day of age: eleven rabbits from

treatment Fa and seven from every other treatment werechosen randomly for sensory analysis. The longissimusmuscle ( m. longissimus dorsi ) together with bones wascutout. Chops were packed and frozen till descriptive sen-sory analysis. Frozen chops were thawed for 24 hours at+2 C in a refrigerator prior to cooking. Thawed chopswere broiled at 180 C to the target end point temperatureof 75 C in the centre. After cooking, the hot chops were

sensory analysed.A group of four panelists scored samples by sensory

test. Samples were cubes of size 1x1x2 cm, which werecoded with three digit random numbers and presented inrandom order. Panelists evaluated sample of eachlongissimus muscle only once. Altogether, 128 observa-

tions were collected for every trait.In this descriptive analysis methodology, higher

score means more expressed trait. The scoring is basedon scale divided into 0.5 point increments with 1 indicat-ing absent effect and 7 indicating very intense effect. Six sensory characteristics were evaluated:


Table 1. Least square means with standard error of estimete for influence of treatment on live weight, DWG and FCE

Treatment P-value*C Fl Fa FF

Live weight (g)

At the beginning (35 days) 736 ± 5.34 739 ± 7.27 733 ± 5.50 734 ± 6.24 0.75

At 40 th day 1016 ± 8.91 1023 ± 9.11 1015 ± 8.91 1013 ± 9.11 0.88

At 47 th day 1343 ± 13.77 1348 ± 14.08 1363 ± 13.78 1336 ± 14.08 0.56

At the end (54 th days) 1652 ± 23.69 1671 ± 24.23 1676 ± 23.70 1653 ± 24.22 0.84

Daily weight gain (g/day)From 35 to 40 days 56.28 ± 1.80 57.14 ± 1.88 55.82 ± 1.79 55.27 ± 1.84 0.88

From 40 to 47 days 46.52 ± 1.80 46.61 ± 1.87 49.77 ± 1.79 46.32 ± 1.83 0.45

From 47 to 54 days 44.21 ± 2.22 46.01 ± 2.32 44.77 ± 2.21 45.10 ± 2.27 0.93

During the trial (35 th-54 th day) 48.23 ± 1.26 49.16 ± 1.32 49.52 ± 1.26 48.22 ± 1.29 0.84

FCE (kg of feed/kg of gain)

From 35 to 40 days 1.442 ± 0.048 1.446 ± 0.050 1.456 ± 0.048 1.464 ± 0.049 0.98

From 40 to 47 days 2.397 ± 0.106 2.530 ± 0.111 2.246 ± 0.106 2.421 ± 0.109 0.34

From 47 to 54 days 2.924 ± 0.111 2.947 ± 0.116 3.007 ± 0.110 2.865 ± 0.113 0.83

During the trial (35 th

-54 th

day) 2.237 ± 0.046 2.271 ± 0.048 2.213 ± 0.046 2.259 ± 0.047 0.87

*P>0.1 = non significant; P£0.05 = statistically significant; P£0.1 = statistically important



• smell (score 1 = without smell, absent, score 7 = veryintense, excellent smell)• tenderness (score 1 = tough, tenacious, score 4 =

margin of acceptability, score 7 = excellent tender-ness)

• juiciness (score 1 = dry meat, score 4 = margin of ac-ceptability, score 7 = especial juiciness)

• flavour intensity (score 1 = unexpressed, absent,score 4 = acceptable, score 7 = excellent, fine taste)

• bitter off-flavour (score 1 = absent (no) off-flavour,score 7 = expressed, unacceptable)

• other off-flavours (score 1 = no off-flavour, score 7 =

expressed, unacceptable)Statistics

Fattening traits: Statistical analysis was conductedon the data using statistical package SAS-STAT (SAS,1996). Analysis of variance for all traits was done using

the least square method in the general linear model proce-dure (GLM). In model, treatment, genotype and mother oflitter within genotype were treated as fixed effects, andbody weight at the beginning as covariate. Treatmentswere compared by Scheffe’s multiple comparison test.

Sensory quality: Due to the nature of data and

non-normal distributions Kruskal-Wallis test in nonpa-rametric procedure NPAR1WAY was used to test influ-ence of treatment and panelist. Data for four sensory

traits: tenderness, juiciness, flavour intensity and bitter off-flavour were analysed then using the least squaremethod in the general linear model procedure (GLM) with

treatment and panelist as fixed effects.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONThe purpose of most effect included in the model for

live weight, DWG and FCE was to eliminate variabilitycaused by differences in genotype, mother and body

weight at the beginning of the trial, so differences between treatments would become more visible. In spite of that, ef-fect of treatment in any of intervals did not show as statis-

tically significant in live weight, DWG and FCE. Least

square means of treatments together with significance for influence of the treatment are shown in Table 1.Influence of treatment was not significant in any of

studied fattening parameters. There is only a tendency ofbetter FCE in Fa group.

Analysis of variance (GLM procedure) showed thatpanelist had statistically significant influence on scores of

tenderness, juiciness and flavour intensity. The treatmentsignificantly influenced bitter off-flavour (Table 2), and in

tenderness, trend of influence of treatment appeared whenGLM procedure was performed (p = 0.075).

The score in bitter off-flavour of meat samples of rab-

bits fed with addition of Farmatan®

was for 0.41 and 0.42point lower than the score of control group and group withFlavomicin, respectively (P 0.05). Differences betweencombined group (FF) and both control groups or Fa groupwere not statistically significant.

In tendency tenderness of rabbit meat in Fa group isbetter than in other groups, but differences were not sig-nificant.

CONCLUSION• For any of eight examined fattening traits in analysis,

differences between treatments with Farmatan® and

control groups did not show as statistical significant.• Daily gain did not increase, as well as feed conversionefficiency did not improve in rabbits treated with tanninpreparation Farmatan® in this trial.

• Among six flavour attributes, the influence of treatmentexhibited statistically significance only in bitter off-flavor. Trend for influence of treatment was shownin tenderness.

• The samples of meat of rabbits treated with Farmatan®

(Fa group) had for 0.40 and 0.42 scores less bitter off-flavour comparing to thecontrol group without addi-

tive (C) and control group with Flavomicin (Fl), respec-

tively.• Some trends are shown, that meat of Farmatan® groupis more tender comparing to meat of both controlgroups.


Table 2. The average scores for four treatments and statistical significance of influence of treatment on sensory traits(Kruskal-Wallis test)

Sensory trait Treatment

P-value*C Fl Fa FF

Smell 6.48 6.46 6.42 6.38 0.27

Tenderness 6.34 6.29 6.51 6.45 0.11

Juiciness 5.84 5.95 5.94 5.91 0.87

Flavour intensity 5.93 5.88 5.95 5.79 0.10

Bitter off-flavour 1.55 a 1.57 a 1.15 b 1.32 ab 0.0003

Other off-flavours 1.04 1.00 1.10 1.14 0.13

aValues with no equal superscript in the same row differ significantly (P 0.05); P>0.1= non significant;7 P 0.05 = statistically significant; P 0.1 = statistically important



• Otherwise, the use of Farmatan® did not changed sen-sory characteristics of rabbit meat and the findingssupport the use of Farmatan® as feed additive to thefood for rabbits.

REFERENCES1. Lyons, T.P. (1998): The feed industry under the microscope:

Strategies for improving our image with super-marketsand the consumers. Alltech Inc. Nicholasville, Kentucky,USA. Alltech’s European, Middle Eastern and African Lec-

ture Tour, 1998, 1-15.2. Mangan, J.L. (1988): Nutritional effects of tannins in animal

feeds. Nutr. Res. Rev., 1: 209-2313. McLeod, M.N. (1974): Plant tannins – their role in forage qual-

ity. Nutr. Abstr. Rev., 44(11):803-815.

4. Štruklec, M., Kermauner, A. (1994): Krmni dodatki v prehranikuncev. (Feed additives in rabbit nutrition.) In: Pos-vetovanje o prehrani doma~ih @ivali “Zadrav~evi-Erjav~evidnevi”, Radenci, 1994, 10 (27/28):159-167.

5. Štruklec, M., Kermauner, A., Kavar, T. (1993): Einfluß der

Kastanientannine auf pH-Wert, Bildung von FlüchtigenFettsäueren, NH3-Gehalt und auf die Gesamtacidität imBlinddarm der Kaninchen. In: 8. Arbetstagung über Haltung und Krankheiten der Kaninchen, Pelztiere undHeimtiere. Celle, 1993, 10(20/21), Giessen, DVG,148-154.

6. ………. Farmatan. (1998): Dodatek h krmi za prepre~evanjedrisk pri ìvalih. Informative material. Sevnica, Tanin,kemi~na industrija, 4 p.

7. ……….. SAS/STAT User’s Guide. (1990): Caryn, NorthCarolina, SAS Institute inc.




ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 636.4:637.5.04/.072(439.1)

NOTWENDIGKEIT UND MÖGLICHKEITEN DER VERBESSERUNG DERSCHLACHTKÖRPERQUALITÄT BEIM SCHWEIN IN UNGARN

L. Csató(1) , A. Obornik (2) , I. Nagy (3) , Gyuléné Berzsán(4)


ZUSAMMENFASSUNG

Die Verfasser analysierten die Klassifizierungsergebnisse der Schlachtschweine in Un- garn. Es wurde der Zusammenhang zwischen dem Aufkaufpreis der Schlachtschweineund dem Anteil der Schlachttiere in den einzelnen Klassifikationsklassen untersucht. Die Berechnungen werden seit Juni 1997, dem Beginn der Einführung des EUROP-Handels- klasseneinordnungsystems bei Schlachtschweinen durchgeführt. Es wurde festgestellt,dass der Aufkaufpreis in den verschiedenen Qualifikationsklassen zu Beginn der Einfüh- rung des EUROP-Systems durchschnittlich um 6-7% voneinander abwichen (P-Klasse =100%, E-Klasse = 133%). Als Auswirkung der Einführung der Klassifikation stieg der An-teil der Schlachtschweine in der E-Klasse in einem Jahr von 18% auf 27%, in der U-Klassevon 37% auf 44%. Der prozentuale Anteil der Schlachttiere in den R, O und P-Klassen sank demgemäß um 16%. Diese prozentualen Anteile sind seit fast zwei Jahren unverän-dert, das heißt, dass die weitere Qualitätsverbesserung stagniert. Die Gründe dieser un- günstigen Tendenz suchend wurde nachgewiesen, dass der Unterschied im Aufkaufpreisder einzelnen Handelsklassen im Vergleich mit den Anfangspreisen von 6-7% auf 4-5% abnahm. Diese Tendenz ist gefährlich, denn die Wertverhältnisse der Aufkaufpreise für Schlachtschweine haben sich noch verschlechtert. So wird 1 kg Magerfleisch schlechte-

rer Handelsklassen von den Verarbeitungsunternehmen zu einem relativ höheren Preis aufgekauft, als das einer besseren Schlachtschweineklasse. Es wurde ferner festgestellt, dass die Verbesserung der Schlachtqualität der Endprodukte eine wichtige Anfor-derung in Ungarn ist. In den EU-Ländern ist nähmlich fast der gesamte Anteil der Schlachtschweine in die E und U-Klassen eingestuft. Dieser Anteil ist in Ungarn erst ca.65-70%. Deshalb ist es unbedingt nötig die Aufkaufintervalle unter den Handelsklassen zu erweitern und zu verbessern, damit die Konkurrenzfähigkeit der ungarischenSchlachtschweine nicht sinkt.

Schlüsselwörter: Schweinezucht, Schlachtqualität, EUROP-Handelsklassen

EINLEITUNG

Der Gedanke der sog. objektiven Klassifizierung der Schlachtschweine tauchte schon am Ende der 60-er Jah-re auf. 1976 begann man - nach Anordnung des Landwirt-schaftsministeriums (MÉM Ért., 1975) - mit der Qualifizierung der aus den Grossbetrieben stammendenSchlachttiere. Die Schlachtschweine wurden aufgrund ih-rer Fettanteile in Handelsklassen eingestuft. Zu diesenQualitätsklassen - die sich auf die Schlachttiere mitSchlachthälften zwischen 75-110 kg bezogen - gehörtenvorher angekündigte, fixe Aufkaufpreise.

Ab Mitte der 80-er Jahre verlor dieses Klassifizie-rungssystem an Bedeutung, denn der Aufkaufpreis mach-

te sich fortwährend von den Qualitätsklassen unabhängig(Magy. Mez. Mell., 1994). Parallel mit den politisch-wirt-schaftlichen Veränderungen in Ungarn wurde dieses Klas-

sifikationssystem 1988 abgeschafft. Inzwischen ist in der Europäischen Union (EU) ein neues Handelsklassenver-

ordnungssystem entwickelt worden. Dieses sog. EU-ROP-System wurde 1984 in den EU-Ländern einheitlicheingeführt. Die Einführung des EUROP-Systems in Ungarnwurde wegen der Exportorientierung der Schweinepro-duktion unvermeidlich (Rafai et al., 1995).

Es ist eindeutig geworden, dass der Mangel an quali- tätsproportionellen Aufkaufpreisen ein sehr bedeutendesHindernis bei der internationalen Wettbewerbsfähigkeitdes ungarischen Schweinesektors sein kann. Wenn dieAufkaufpreise nämlich die Mehraufwände für eine bessereQualität der Schlachttiere nicht anspornen, so kann keine


(1) László Csató, Dr., Dozent, Lehrstuhlleiter, (2) András Obornik,(Assistent), (3) István Nagy, Dr., Wiss. Mitarbeiter, (4) Gyuléné Berzsán(Techniker) - Kaposvarer Universität, Fakultät für Tierwissenschaften, GubaS. u. 40, 7400 Kaposvar, Ungarn



anspruchvolle Produktion zustande kommen (Straub,1998).

Im Interesse der Beschleunigung des qualitativen Fort-schritts in der ungarischen Schweinezucht erschien 1994 dieAnordnung des Landwirtschaftsmininisteriums, die alleSchlachthöfe,unabhängig von ihrer Kapazität, zur Einstufungder Schlachtschweine nach der neuen EUROP-Handelsklas-sen verpflichtete. Diese Klassifizie- rung wurde jedoch erst1997 allgemein angewandt, nachdem das an einen “Richt-preis” gebundene Subventionssystem in Kraft getreten war ( Csató et al., 1999).

MATERIAL UND METHODE

Die ungarischen Klassifizierungsergebnisse beiSchlachtschweinen haben wir seit Juni 1997, Beginn der Einführung des EUROP-Handelsklassensystems analy-siert. Die Daten stammen vomBüro der Agrar- verordnungund dem Produktionsrat für Schlachttiere und Fleisch. DieSchlachtergebnisse werden wöchentlich angegeben undin einer Fachzeitschrift offiziell ver- öffentlicht. Aus denGrunddaten haben wir Monat- sdurchschnitte berechnetund herkömmliche matema- tisch-statistischen Auswer-

tungen durchgeführt.

ERGEBNISSE UND DISKUSSIONAus der Datei ist hervorgegangen, dass in den regi-

strierten Schlachthöfen wöchentlich durchschnittlich

75-85.000 Schweine geschlachtet werden. Der Anteil anklassifizierten Schweinen in den Schlachthöfen wuchsvon anfangs 55% auf gegenwärtig ca. 80-85% an. DieseTendenz ist in Abbildung 1 zu sehen.

In Abbildung 2 stellten wir die Veränderung des Be-standszahlanteils von Schlachtschweinen in den einzel-nen EUROP-Klassen dar. Daraus ist zu ersehen, dass dieBestandszahl in den höheren Qualitätsklassen - im Ver-gleich zur Anfangszeit, insgesamt - angestiegen ist.

Damit parallel ist ein Absinken in den niedrigerenKlassen (R, O, P) zu beobachten. Insgesamt können wir feststellen, dass sich der Anteil der Schlachtschweine inder E-Klasse in den letzten zwei Jahren - obwohl mit be-deutenden Schwankungen - auf 25-26% stabilisiert hat.Parallel mit dem Anstieg der in die E-Klasse angehörendenSchweine ist auch in der U-Klasse eine Erhöhung zu ver-zeichnen (von 37% auf 44%). Danach hat sich auch hier der Anteil - nach einem Aufschwung von August 1998 biszum März 1999 - bei 40-42% stabilisiert.

Der Anteil der Schlachtschweine in der R-Klasse

sankinderAnfangszeitvon32%auf25%.DanngingdieseTendenz zurück und der Anteil der R-Klasse verblieb - mit2-3 prozentigen Schwankungen - bei 25%. Zur gleichenZeit konnten wir registrieren, dass in den untersuchtenersten anderthalb Jahren die Zahl der Schweine mitschwacher Schlachtqualität in den O- und P-Klassen stän-dig - von 14% auf 5% - zurückging. Dieser Anteil ist seitJanuar 1999 wieder angestiegen und heuzutage beträgt er ca. 7-8% der klassifizierten Schweine.

Zusammenfassend ist festzustellen, dass die prozentualen Anteile der Schlachtschweine in den einzelnen Qua-litätsklassen seit fast anderthalb-zwei Jahren - praktisch -

unverändert sind, das heisst, dass die weitere Qualitäts-verbesserung stagniert. Die Gründe dieser ungünstigenTendenz suchend wurde nachgewiesen, dass der Unter-schied der Aufkaufpreise zwischen den einzelnen Han-delsklassen im Vergleich zu den Anfangspreisen abnahm.Diese Veränderung stellten wir an den Anteilen der zu deneinzelnen Qualitätsklasse gehörenden durchschnittlichenAufkaufpreisen in Abbildung 3 dar.

Wir stellten fest, dass es anfangs zwischen den ein-zelnen Qualitätsstufen verhältnismässig grosse Abwei-chungen gab (P = 100%, E = 133%). Es bedeutete, dassder Aufkaufpreis in den verschiedenen Qualifikationsklas-

sen zu Beginn der Einführung des EUROP-Systems durch-schnittlich um 6-7% voneinander abwichen. Diese Abwei-chungen verringerten sich bis Ende 1997 um mehr als10% (P =100%, E = 120%). Diese Tendenz - mit Aus-nahme der Klasse E - verringerte sich weiter bis Mai 1998,dann begannen sich die Aufkaufpreisanteile wieder zu ver -zweigen. Auf dem Höhepunkt dieses Zeitraumes war der Aufkaufpreisanteil - im Mai1999 - für die Schweinemäster sehr günstig (P = 100%, E = 162%), aber gleichzeitigwar der nominale Aufkaufpreis so niedrig, dass diese Prei-se die Selbstkosten der Produzenten nicht einmal in der

E-Klasse deckten. Deshalb wurde in Ungarn ein amtlicher minimalerAufkaufpreis (P-Klasse 193 Ft/kg Lebendge-wicht) eingeführt. In dieser Lage verengten sich die früher voneinander günstig abweichenden Preisanteile drastisch


1. Abbildung

2. Abbildung



(P = 100%, E = 118%). Diese prozentualen Anteile sindseitdem fast unverändert (P = 100%, E = 120%) und der Unterschied im Aufkaufpreis der einzelnen Handelsklas-sen sank von den früheren 6-7% auf 4-5%.

3. Abbildung

Die Gründe der oben erwähnten ungünstigenTendenz weiter suchend haben wir Berechnungen imInteresse der Bestimmung des durchschnittlichenAufkaufpreises von 1 kg Magerfleisch in den einzelnenHandelsklassen angestellt. Wir haben festgestellt, dassder Aufkaufpreis von einer Einheit des Magerfleisches inden schlechteren Qualitätsklassen höher war, als in denbesseren Schlachtschweineklassen. Es ist eindeutig,dass die Aufkaufpreise während der Untersuchungszeitdie Herstellung der Schlachtschweine mit relativniedrigerem Fleischgehalt präferiert haben, denn dieProduzenten haben für 1 kg Magerfleisch bei diesenSchlachttieren einen höheren Preis erhalten.

SCHLUSSFOLGERUNGENAus der Analyseder Schlachtdaten von Schweinen in

den registrierten Schlachthöfen ist festzustellen, dass• seit Einführung der (S)EUROP-Handelsklassen (Juni

1997) sowohl die Anzahl als auch der Anteil der klassi-fizierten Schlachtschweine - obwohl mit Schwankun-gen - anstieg,

• die als Schweine ausgezeichneter Schlachtqualität(Klassen E und U) auf Kosten der niedrigeren Klassen

anfangs einen Anstieg zeigten, dann wich dieVerbesse-rung der Schlachtqualität zurück,• die Verarbeitungsindustrie die Schlachtqualität der

Schweine im Aufkaufpreis nicht konzequent honorierteund der Unterschied im Aufkaufpreisanteil der einzelnenHandelsklassen im Vergleich zu den Anfangspreisenvon 6-7% auf 4-5% abnahm. So verschlechterten sichdie Wertverhältnisse der Aufkaufpreise für Schlacht-schweine noch weiter,

• der Aufkaufpreis von 1 kg Magerfleisch in den bestenHandelsklassen am niedrigsten war und eine Mager-fleischeinheit schlechterer Handelsklassen von der Fleischindustrie zu einem relativ höheren Preis aufgekauftwurde. Diese Preispolitik der Fleischindustrie spornt die

Produzenten nicht an, Schlachtschweine bester Qualität -mit Mehrkosten - herzustellen,• es unbedingt nötig ist, die Aufkaufpreisanteile der

Schlachttiere zu verändern, um die Produktion der Schlachtschweine mit E- und U-Qualität voranzu- trei-

ben. Ansonsten werden die ungarischen Schlacht-schweine auf dem Weltmarkt nicht wettbewerbsfähigsein.

LITERATUR

1. Csató, L., Obornik, A., Farkas, J., Serbán, B. (1999):Gegenwart und Zukunft der ungarischen Schweinezucht.Acta Agr. Kaposvariensis, 2: 109-120.

2. Mezõgazdasági és Élelmezésügyi Értesítõ (1975):Tájékoztató a hasított súlyban átvételre kerülô sertések minôsítésének szabályairól 39: 892-893.

3. Rafai, P. et al. (1995): Az (S)EUROP húsminõsítés éskapcsolt rendszerei. Áll. és Tak. 5:453-464.

4. Straub, I. (1998): A sertéshús-elôállítás ellentmondásai I.Magyar Mezôgazdaság. 21. 15.

5. ………. Magyar Mezôgazdaság Melléklete (1994): Asertések vágás utáni minôsítése 03. 1-8.

THE IMPORTANCE AND POSSIBILITY OF CARCASSQUALITY IMPROVEMENT IN HUNGARIAN PORKPRODUCTION

ABSTRACT The slaughter data of the National pig database was ana-

lysed by the authors. The authors investigated the results of the(S)EUROP grade scheme, which showed the connection be-tween thepig proportions fell into the various grade classes and their prices. The analyses started when the introduction of the(S)EUROP grade scheme took place in 1997 and was based onthe official database published each week. For the sake of

better overview the results were summed up to monthly inter-vals. The authors found that in the first period (shortly after the

introduction of the grade scheme) the prices of the slaughtered pigs fell into the various grade classes differed from each other by 6-7 %. As a result of the (S)EUROP grade scheme’s introduc-tion the proportion of the slaughtered pigs fell in the gradeclasses E and U increased from 18% to 27% and from 37% to

44% respectively. The proportions in the R, O, and P classesconsequently decreased. Following the first period no changing

pattern was found concerning these proportions which meansthat the improvement of the graded slaughter pigs stopped. In-vestigating the possible explanations the authors realised that the price differences between the grade classes decreased

from 6-7% to 4-5%. Thus the meat processing industry in fact

was paying more for one unit lean content of slaughtered pigswhen fell into the worst categories than for those which can be

found in the best categories. This however does not provide any motivation for the producers for improving carcass quality,which can only be obtained through higher costs. It can be con-cluded that carcass quality improvement is an important re-quirement for Hungary. Concerning the EU members the graded

slaughter pigs can be found in the E and U categories almost ex-clusively. The same ratio is only 65% in Hungary. Therefore the

modification of slaughtered pig prices of the E and U gradeclasses is vital in order to motivate the production of slaugh-tered pigs falling into these categories. Unless this aim is ful-

filled the Hungarian slaughter pig sector loses itscompetitiveness.

Keywords: pig breeding, carcass quality, (S)EUROP-classification




ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 636.4:637.5.04/.07

RELATION BETWEEN QUALITY TRAITS AND VALUE OF HALVESIN THE FATTENED PIGS PRODUCED FROM DOMESTIC

AND IMPORTED PIGLETS

Marija Ðiki}(1) , I. Juri}(2) , M. Gašparovi}(3) , M. @ugaj (4)


ABSTRACT

The research has been carried out on the fattened pigs carcasses of the groups A (n=86) and B (n=127). The fattened pigs of the A group were produced from the domestic piglets, ac-quired by crossing various breeds and hybrid parental lines, bred in the Republic of Croatia.

The fattened pigs of the B group were produced from the piglets imported from Hungary. All individuals were fattened on one family farm, on the Prefect District County of Brod and Posavina territory. The carcasses’ quality traits were established by the “DT” method (NN 119/99). Various values of the DEM/kg carcass mass in the A group, in the amount of 3.26

DM/kg, and in the amount of 3.44 DEM/kg in the B group, were acquired as the result of the statistically significant differences of the muscle tissue share in the carcasses, differing from53.54% in the A to the 56.23% in the B group. Within the fattened pigs groups for the correla-tion coefficient and the regression coefficient established between the carcasses’ mass, thethickness of the back fat and the m.l.d. as well as the share of the muscle tissue and the

DEM/kg values of the carcass mass, was established with the following values in accordancewith the groups: A -0.43** and -0.015**; -0.88** and -0.035**; 0.20 and 0.011; 0.93** and 0.058**, while the B group showed -0.09 and 0.003; -0.92** and -0.047**; 0.22* and 0.011*;

and 0.95** and 0.057**.

Keywords: fattened pigs, carcasses, back fat thickness, m. longissimus dorsi, muscle tissue,carcass value, correlation, regression

INTRODUCTIONIn Croatia, the evaluation of the muscle tissue share

in the carcasses’ of pigs and the establishing of theclasses for trade in accordance with the S-EUROP sys-

tem, began in the year 1996, by the application of the RuleNN 79/95 and has been continued in accordance with thevalid Rule NN 119/99.

In our country, however, the carcass evaluation in

accordance with the classes, or the muscle tissue sharehas not been introduced until 1999, and is still not appliedby all slaughteringhouses. In most of thedeveloped coun-

tries the evaluation in accordance with the classes hasbeen applied for a longer period of time and has been fullyadapted to the stimulation, regarding the meat quality pro-duce, in accordance with the market demands Topel(1986) and Cöp (1997). The movement of the pork prices,carcass prices and live pigs prices on the European mar-ket is followed in ourcountry by MISA (Marketing Informa-

tion System in Agriculture). In accordance with MISA, for the year 1998 (January till December), the average prices

moved, in the slaughtering houses of some Europeancountries, from 7.08 till 10.01 Kn/kg for the carcasseswith the standard E class declaration. The lowest priceswere established for theNetherlands in theamountof 7.08

Kn/kg and in Denmark in the amount of 7.77 Kn/kg, pro-ducing the carcasses with the muscle tissue share of55.1% and 59.8% Daumas (1996) and Baldwin (1996). InCroatia was, at that time, the price for the live fattened pigsin the amount of 9.84 Kn/kg. The research on the muscle

tissue share in the carcasses of the fattened pigs of our populations show a certain lagging in relation to the devel-oped countries (Petri~evi} et al. 1994, Juri} et al. 1993,

Ðiki}et al. 1994, 1999).This paper aims to establish the connection between the quality traits and values of the fattened pigs carcassesproduced from the piglets of the domestic breed and pig-lets imported from Hungary and fattened on one familyfarm. The research is a contribution to the introduction of

the evaluation for the carcasses on the slaughtering line, inaccordance with the muscle share tissue, aiming to moti-vate the development of the pig breeding and pig produc-

tion, now at a standstill in our country.


(1) Marija Ðiki}, Associated Professor, (2) Ivan Juri}, Full Professor - Uni-versity of Zagreb, Faculty of Agriculture, Svetošimunska c. 25, 10000

Zagreb, Croatia, (3) Mijo Gašparovi}, MSc - Agricultural Counselling Ser-vice with the Prefect District County of Brod and Posavina, A Star~evi}a 1,35430 Oku~ani, Croatia, (4) Mijo @ugaj, MSc - Agricultural Counselling Ser-vice with the Prefect District County of Sisak and Moslavina, Municipality of Glina, 44400 Glina, Croatia



MATERIAL AND METHODSOn the slaughtering line were researched the quality

traits of the carcasses, for two groups of fattened pigswere produced; the A group of piglets from the domesticbreeding (n = 86) and the B group of piglets importedfrom Hungary (n = 127). The domestic piglets were pro-duced by pairing the boars and the sows of differentbreeds and hybrid parental lines, used as such in the pro-duce of piglets in the Republic of Croatia, Juri}et al.(1997). All individuals were fattened on one feedlot on afamily farm (the territory of the Brod and Posavina PrefectDistrict County) with watering “ad libitum” and feeding by

the mixtures ST1 16% c.p. (the I. fattening phase) and ST214% c.p. (the II. fattening phase).

The slaughtering of the fattened pigs was executed inone slaughter house, (Klas Ltd., N. Gradiška). By the “Two

Points’ Method” (DT, NN 119/99 Rule) the quality traitswere established.

The value of one carcass’ mass kilogramme hasbeen established at the base of percentage of muscle tis-sue in the carcass in accordance with the “Meat IndustryVajda” Ltd. âkovec (13).

Theonemeatunit(1%muscletissue)=0.19Knand the kuna values were calculated in DEM (1 DEM = 3.9027Kn of course CNB 4.10.1999.). The total value of the car-casses was calculated in DEM on the ground of the massand the DEM/kg carcass mass value.

The analysis of the researched traits has been exe-

cuted by the statistically-mathematics methods, (t-test)correlation and regression, Cameron (1997).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONTable 1 showed the carcasses’ quality traits and the

value per DEM/kg of the carcass mass as well as the totalvalue for the carcasses in DEM.

Tables 2 and 3 shows the connections between thecarcass' traits, and carcass' value.

Between the A and B fattened pigs (Table 1) no statistically significant differences for the warm carcassmasses on the slaughtering line were established.

A significantly smaller share of the muscle tissue in the A group with 53.54% (U) (P<0.01) when compared to the B group with 56.23% (E), is the consequence of thedifferences in the thickness of the back fat and the m.l.d.between the groups (P<0.01). By the evaluation of thecarcasses on the slaughtering line in accordance with themuscleshare tissue, thecarcasses produced from the im-ported piglets were more expensive, for an amount of 0.22DEM/kg or, in total, for 15.88 DEM per fattened pig, whencompared to the domestic ones.

The analysis of the results in Table 2 shows that with the fattened pigs of the A group the increase of the massresults in the increase of the back fat thickness and, to the

lesser extent, in the thickness of the m.l.d., than in the Bgroup. Within the fattened pigs of the groups the estab-lished correlation and regression coefficients (Table 2) for

the ratio of the carcass mass and back fat thickness, whencompared to the m.l.d. as well as the muscle tissue in thecarcasses, point to the fact (Ðiki}at al., 1999) that the fat-

tened pigs produced from the imported individuals were ofa better genetic basis for the muscle tissue : fat tissue ratioin the carcasses.

The correlation and regression coefficients (Table 3)for the DEM/kg mass values, in relation to the carcassmass, show a significant middling strong negative con-nection to the coefficients’ values, of -0.43 and -0.015 in

the A group, while these connections in the B group arevery negative, weak and insignificant. In the both groups,however a highly negative connection between the thick-ness of the back fat and the value, expressed in DEM/kg,has been established. In the A group no significant con-nection of the m.l.d. regarding the increase of the value asexpressed in DEM/kg for the carcass mass, has been es-

tablished, while in the B group the connection is significanton the 5% level.


Table 1. Carcass quality on the slaughtering line

Trait Group A (n=86) Group B (n=127)

x s min-max x s min-max

Carcass w. weight kg 73.43 8.77 59.0-107.0 74.03 6.11 57-93

Thickness

– fat mm 16.73B 7.62 5-35 13.14A 4.26 5-30

– m.l.d. mm 59.0B 5.23 46-71 62.19A 4.42 50-72

Muscle tissue % 53.54B 4.89 44.37-64.03 56.23A 3.62 45.83-66.30

Value

- per kg mass DM/kg 3.26B

0.30 2.68-3.92 3.44A

0.22 2.81-4.06- carcass DM 238.51B 27.08 170.8-300.7 254.39A 25.54 192.1-330.4

Class U E

A.B = P<0.01



Within the A and B group, highly positive connections for the value ratio of the carcasses, expressed inDEM and the carcass mass, m.l.d. thickness and the mus-cle tissue share, were established, while the connections,when compared to the back fat thickness, were negative,middling strong and significant only in the B group. Within

the A group the established correlation and regression co-efficientsoftheTable2betweenthemasscarcassandtheback fat thickness as well as the m.l.d. point to the fact

that a problem in the produce of the high quality carcassesfrom the domestic fattened pigs, if the carcasses are clas-sified for the market in accordance with the Art. 6, Item 3of the NN 119/99 Regulation, may arise. In accordancewith this Article, namely, the carcasses of 80-104 kg be-long to the group with the “optimal” marking I, those being

the ones in demand on the fresh meat market and the meatindustry, specially for the processing of semi-durable anddried meat products.

CONCLUSION

By doing research of the evaluation for the car-casses on the slaughtering line in accordance with themuscle tissue share, a higher value of the fattened pigscarcasses from the imported piglets, when compared to

the domestic ones, point towards our incompetitivenessin the produce of pork meat, owing to the unfavourable ra-

tio of the muscle and fat tissue in the carcasses.In Croatia, an evaluation of the carcasses on the

slaughtering line, in accordance with the carcass’ muscle tissue share, would be of influence regarding the breedingand selection of pigs and, when we talk about the familyfarms, on the production of pig technology as well.

REFERENCES

1. Baldwin, C.P.(1996): Prospect for theUK pig industry surviv-ing and thriving beyond the millenium. Pig News and In-formation, Vol. 17 No 1; 17-20.

2. Cameron, N.D. (1997): Selection Indices and Prediction ofGenetic Merit in Animal Breeding. CAB International.

3. Cöp, W.A.G. (1997): Pig meat production in theNetherlands.An Example for Central Europe. V. Me|unarodni simpozij“Sto~arski znanstveni dani”. Poseban otisak – Referati po

pozivu. Opatija 23-26. rujan, str. 1-8.4. Daumas, G. (1996): How Europeans rate on lean percent-

age. Pig International, No 8, vol. 26, 15-16.


Table 2. Correlation and regression coefficients between the carcass’ quality traits

Table 3. Correlation and regression coefficiuality traitsents between the q and carcass’ value

**P < 0.01; * P<0.05

**P < 0.01; * P<0.05



5. Ðiki}, M., Juri}, I., Petri~evi}, A., Grbeša, D. (1994): Odnosi tkiva u polovicama svinja kao problem proizvodnjesvinjskog mesa u Hrvatskoj. Znanstvena praksa polj. i

tehn. 24 (1) 66 59-66, Osijek.

6. Ðiki} M., Juri}, I., Gašparovi}, M. (1999): Kakvo}a ivrijednost polovica tovljenika proizvedenih od doma}e iuvezene prasadi. Agronomski glasnik, vol. 61, br. 1-2.

7. Juri}, I., Ðiki}, M., Mio~, B., Ben~evi}, K. (1993): Udio iodnosi miši}nog i masnog tkiva u polovicama razli~itoselekcioniranih svinja i njihovih kriànaca. Poljoprivrednaznanstvena smotra, 58, br. 1, str. 67-74.

8. Juri}, I., Kralik, G., Janeš, M., Uremovi}, M.,.Juri~, I.,Hrabak, V., Dominikovi}, Z. (1997): Plan i program uzgojasvinja u Republici Hrvatskoj, HSSC, Zagreb.

9. Petri~evi}, A., Kralik, G., Jovanovac, S., Maltar, Z. (1994):Povezanost udjela miši}nog i masnog tkiva u svinjskimpolovicama i pojedinim dijelovima. Poljoprivredneaktualnosti, Vol. 30, br. 5, str. 609-614.

10. Topel, G.D. (1986): Future meat animal composition, Indus-

try adaptation of new tehnologies. Journal of Animal Sci-ence, 63, 633-641.

11. Webb, A.J. (1996): Future challenges in pig genetics. PigNews and Information, vol. 17, No 11, 11-16.

12. … TISUP 1999 (sije~anj). Pregled cijena zaklanih svinja(svinjske polovicestandardneklase E) u Europi, 1998. god.

13. Pravilnik o utvr|ivanju trgova~kih kategorija i klasa svinjskih trupova i polovica NN 79/95, i NN 119/99.

14. … Predloàk za pla}anje svinja za klanje farmi“Agrome|imurje”, âkovec. “Mesna industrija Vajda”d.o.o. – âkovec, 5.10.1999.




ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 636.082:636.4(497.12)

GENETIC CHANGES FOR PERFORMANCE TRAITS IN SLOVENIAN PIGNUCLEUS HERDS

Špela Malovrh(1) , Milena Kova~(2)


ABSTRACT

In Slovenian pig nucleus herds, the genetic trends for performance traits in boars were inves-tigated using mixed model methodology. Altogether, data sets from four farms with test sta-tions consisted of 60709 records for five breeds: Swedish Landrace (SL), Large White (LW),

Duroc (D), Pietrain (P), and German Landrace (GL) boars from years 1975 to 1999. Separate analyses were performed for each farm using the PEST package. Breed, season, and weight on test within breed were fixed effects, while common litter environment and additive geneticeffect were treated as random. Genetic trends for days on test from 30 to 100 kg (DoT30100),

feed conversion efficiency from 30 to 100 kg (FCE30100), and ultrasonically measured backfat thickness (BF100) were expressed as linear regression of the averages of predicted breeding values on the year of birth. Estimates for genetic changes varied between farms and breeds from +0.0046 to –0.374 day, +0.0019 to –0.013, and +0.262 to –0.221 mm per year for DoT30100, FCE30100, and BF100, respectively.

Keywords: pigs, performance test, productive traits, genetic trend

INTRODUCTIONThe performance of animal is influenced by environ-

mental and genetic effects. Evaluating phenotypic, envi-ronmental, and genetic trends is very important for monitoring the selection efficacy as well as consequencesof management decisions in livestock populations. The

traditional approach to this problem were control populations which use had been largely restricted due to their large cost. Another approach has been Smith’s regressionmethod (1962) on the basis of field and progeny testingstation data which has been the basis of most early analy-ses in swine (Standal, 1979; Zarnecki, 1979; Šalehar etal., 1986).However, assumptions of this methodare oftenviolated: genetic trends are rarely linear, genetic, age, and

time groups are not connected enough because of a shortperiod of boar usage, sires and offspring are selected on the performance records. These problems can be avoidedby application of mixed model methodology (MMM). Ad-ditionally, MMM holds the promise of providing estimatesof genetic and environmental trends in populations under selection as a by-product of the prediction of breeding val-ues (Henderson, 1973). Genetic ties among animalsacross years permit to partition phenotypic trends into ge-netic end environmental components.

Different authors express genetic trends by a regres-sion of breeding values on time (Hudson and Kennedy,

1985; Kaplon et al., 1991; Groeneveld et al., 1996) or bydeviation between averages of breeding values for suc-cessive birth-year groups (Kova~, 1989; Kova~ andGroeneveld, 1990; Kaplon et al., 1991; Kennedy et al.,

1996). The last one is particularly useful for non-linear ge-netic trends. Different authors (Blair and Pollak, 1984;

Sorensen and Kennedy, 1984; Kova~, 1989) proved that the choice of the statistical model and parameters setswere crucial.

In Slovenia, selection was mainly based on data fromstation tests of boars. The four nucleus herds were ofclosed type and between them, there was little exchangeof animals or semen. Thus, genetic evaluation was per-formed only within herd. The aim of this study was to ana-lyse genetic and environmental trends in Slovenianpure-bred nucleus breeding herds.


Genetic changes were investigated in Swedish Land-race (SL) and Large White (LW) which present maternallines, as well as in Duroc (D), Pietrain (P), and GermanLandrace (GL) as terminal sire lines.

Traits of interest were days on test (DoT) and feedconversion efficiency (FCE) on two intervals as well as ul-

trasonic backfat thickness at the end of test (BF). Dataanalysed was obtained from the central database of theSlovenian national breeding program for pigs. Perfor -mance test records of boars were available from four teststations duringyears 1975-1999. The test was carried outin three stages. Boars were first subjectively scored be-

fore entering the test at approximately 30 kg. Then, they


(1) Špela Malovrh, BAg, (2) Milena Kova~, Associate Professor - University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Animal Science, Groblje 3,1230 Domàle, Slovenia



were measured and evaluated at 60 kg when between 40and 60% of boars were culled. Animals were finally se-lected according to an index including DoT, total feed con-

sumption, and BF at the end of test at 100 kg. Between three to 15% of tested boars were selected per year assires for the nucleus herd.

Test stations differed in capacity for tested boars an-nually as well as in year in which performance test began.There were no recent genetic ties between nucleus herds,

therefore, data were analysed separately within test station. Data contained 60709 records of individually testedboars (4377 - 28856 per test station). Altogether, 93473animals were included in pedigree file, among them, therewere 2975 sires and 23478 dams with 36445 litters. Be-

tween 3.60 and 11.29 % of animals had both parents un-

known.Thebasic statistics for traits measured in boars onfour test stations are given in Table 1.

The test stations differed in breed structure of tested boars. Between 38.74 (farm B) and 72.66%(farm C) were the SL boars and the LW boars had from10.53 to 31.18% of the test capacity. More than 60% of

tested boars belonged to maternal lines. Terminal sirebreeds (D, P, GL) had between 16.81 (farm C) and35.35% (farm B).

Prediction of breeding value.Breedingvaluesintheperformance tested boars were predicted applyingmulti-trait mixed model. Growth was expressed as age at

30 kg (Age30), days on test between 30 and 60 kg(DoT3060), and between 60 and 100 kg (DoT60100).Feed conversion was measured on two intervals between30 and 60 kg (FCE3060), and between 60 and 100 kg

(FCE60100). Intervals are consequence of stage selection. Model for Age30, DoT3060, DoT60100, FCE3060and FCE60100 included season described as month-year

interaction and breed as fixed effects. The random part of the model consisted of common litter environment andadditive genetic effect. In the model for backfat thickness(BF100), additionally weight on test was introduced ascovariate.

Prior to the introduction of MMM in the genetic evalu-ation, required covariance components of traits to be in-cluded were estimated for each nucleus farm with thesame statistical models (Malovrh and Kova~, 1999; un-published results). Prediction of breeding values wascomputed using the PEST package (Groeneveld et al.,1990) as a direct solution of mixed model equations.

Estimation of environmental and genetic trends.For this paper, genetic trends were estimated as the linear regression of averages of BLUPs on the year of birth for each trait within breeds. Environmental trends were takendirectly from BLUE solutions for the season effect andgiven as a deviation from the first season. The changes inphenotypic values of traits are presented as month aver-ages where first month (season) of test is set to zero.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONPhenotypic changes per year in DoT30100 were

negative for all breeds and farms (Table 2). On farm D,DoT30100 shortened on average from day to day and halfper year, while on farm A, annual phenotypic progresswas between -0.203 and -0.549 day. The largest


Table 1. Descriptive statistics for station test data

Trait Farm A Farm B

N x N x

Age at 30 kg (days) 28850 81.4 7.09 13715 84.0 9.56Days on test 30-60 kg (days) 28856 35.0 4.37 13718 43.6 8.46

Days on test 60-100 kg (days) 14767 43.4 5.90 7757 52.2 8.62

Feed conversion efficiency 30-60 kg 28838 2.41 0.373 13718 2.80 0.480


Backfat thickness at 100 kg (mm) 14767 18.2 4.50 7753 13.6 3.67

Weight on test (kg) 14768 99.4 2.69 7757 99.5 2.74

Farm C Farm D

N x N x

Age at 30 kg (days) 13753 83.9 7.25 4376 82.1 7.75

Days on test 30-60 kg (days) 13756 39.1 4.88 4377 38.3 5.92Days on test 60-100 kg (days) 7600 44.8 5.52 2567 49.8 8.02



Backfat thickness at 100 kg (mm) 7600 17.0 3.15 2567 11.5 2.86

Weight on test (kg) 7600 99.8 2.91 2567 98.8 2.96

N - number of records; x - mean; - standard deviation



phenotypic changes per year in FCE30100 were on farm B(-0.0444 in Swedish Landrace and -0.0468 in Large

White). Backfat thickness at 100 kg alterated between-0.0400 mm/year in Large White on farm B and-0.640 mm/year in Duroc on farm D.

Genetic trends for DoT30100, FCE30100, andBF100 were not linear over years and differed among pop-ulations. While number of years of testing differed amongherds and breeds, cumulative genetic changes may notbecomparable. Therefore, genetic improvements were cal-culated as the linear regression of averages of BLUPs on

the year of birth (Table 2). Most of genetic trends are of thesame sign as the phenotypic ones, but they differ in themagnitude. That shows that environmental componenthas important contribution to phenotypic progress.

Genetic changes for DoT30100 varied from unde-sired +0.0046 (GL, farm A) to -0.374 days per year (LWon farm D). Approximately equal was genetic improve-ment in P (-0.333, farm B), GL (-0.352, farm C) and D(-0.341 days/year, farm D). Small and non significant ge-netic trends for duration of fattening was reported from lit-erature (see Kaplon et al., 1991). Hudson and Kennedy(1985) in Canadian and Groeneveld et al. (1996) in Hun-garian pig populations found genetic changes between-0.55 and -1.11 days/year.

In FCE30100, there is between zero and -0.0133 kgof food less needed per kilogram gain every year, except inLW on farm A (+0.0019). There was practically no ge-

netic improvement for BF100 in terminal sire lines, while inSL changes were between +0.0112 on farm D and

-0.221 mm per year on farm C which is comparable to re-sults for backfat thickness reported by Hudson and Ken-nedy (1985) Kennedy et al. (1996) for Canadianperformance tested pigs.

CONCLUSIONThe genetic trends for fattening traits were mostly in

desired direction but mainly low. Farms had different suc-cess with genetic progress. Multi-trait genetic evaluationusing mixed model methodology, all the data available andrecently estimated covariance structure should result inimproved selection response.

Ultrasonic BF is not sufficient measurement for meatiness any more, since average phenotypic values for BF100 in boars for the last years is approximately 10-12mm and there is practically no variation in BF100 left. Infuture, substitution for measurement of BF100 should befound.

Selection practices need to be regularly monitored through genetic trends so that the progress is in the proper direction and in expected magnitude. The further analysisof realised selection intensity and generation interval maygive some clues why selection is not too efficient. Esti-

mates of genetic trends may be also underestimated be-cause there were no genetic groups of unknown parents in

the model. For this purpose, we plan to develop tools for regular analysis of changes over time.


Table 2. Phenotypic and genetic changes per year on nucleus farms in Slovenia

Farm Breed

Phenotypic trends Genetic trends

DoT30100

(day/year)

FCE30100

(per year )

BF100

(mm/year )

DoT30100

(day/year )

FCE30100

(per year)

BF100

(mm/year)

A

SL -0.549 -0.0348 -0.493 -0.132 -0.00679 -0.0716

LW -0.465 -0.0245 -0.477 -0.031 +0.0019 -0.0608

D -0.454 -0.0291 -0.0995 -0.036 +0.00036 +0.262

GL -0.203 -0.0204 -0.532 +0.0046 -0.0022 -0.0276

B

SL -0.767 -0.0444 -0.541 -0.115 -0.00820 -0.175

LW -1.473 -0.0468 -0.0400 -0.296 -0.00885 +0.129

P -1.225 -0.0310 -0.0605 -0.333 -0.00165 +0.0746

GL -1.284 -0.0370 -0.0542 -0.103 -0.000773 +0.0849

C

SL -0.665 -0.0290 -0.559 -0.00371 -0.00560 -0.221

LW -0.932 -0.0253 -0.233 -0.0333 -0.000454 -0.00120

GL -0.988 -0.0273 -0.137 -0.352 -0.00739 +0.0837

D

SL -1.157 -0.000091 -0.640 -0.0959 -0.00613 +0.0112

LW -1.636 -0.00498 -0.339 -0.374 -0.0133 +0.0459

D -1.523 -0.00217 -0.604 -0.341 -0.00824 -0.0448

DoT30100 - Days on test 30-100 kg; FCE30100 - Feed conversion efficiency 30-100 kg; BF100 - Backfat thickness at 100 kg



REFERENCES1. Blair, H.T., Pollak, E.J. (1984): Estimation of genetic trend in a

selected population with and without the use of a controlpopulation. J. Anim. Sci., 58, 878-886.

2. Groeneveld, E., Csato, L., Farkas, J., Radoczi, L. (1996): Joint

genetic evaluation of field and station test in theHungarianLarge White and Landrace populations. Arch. Tierz., 39,513-531.

3. Groeneveld, E., Kova~, M., Wang, T. (1990): PEST. A generalpurpose BLUP package for multivariate prediction and es-

timation. In: Proceedings of the 4th World Congress onGenetics Applied to Livestock Production, Edinburgh,1990-07-23/27, Edinburgh, University of Edinburg, XIII,488-491.

4. Henderson, C.R. (1973): Sire evaluation and genetic trends.In: Proceedings of the Animal Breeding and geneticsSymposium in Honor to Dr. Jay. L. Lush. ASAS andADSA, Champaign, Illinois, 10-41.

5. Hudson, G.F.S., Kennedy, B.W. (1985): Genetic trends ofgrowth rate and backfat thickness of swine in Ontario, J.Anim. Sci., 61, 92-97.

6. Kaplon M.J., Rothschild M.F., Berger, P.J., Healey, M.(1991): Genetic and phenotypic trends in Polish LargeWhite nucleus swine herds. J. Anim. Sci., 69, 551-558.

7. Kennedy, B.W., Quinton, V.M., Smith, C. (1996): Geneticchanges in Canadian performance-tested pigs for fatdepth and growth rate. Canad. J. Anim. Sci., 76, 41-48.

8. Kova~ M. (1989): Ocenjevanje genetskih trendov z BLUPmetodo. Magistrsko delo (Estimation of genetic trends

using BLUP procedure. Masterthesis), Ljubljana, 56 pp.9. Kova~, M., Groeneveld E. (1992): Genetic and environmental trends in German swine herdbook populations. J. Anim.Sci., 68, 3523-3535.

12. Smith, C. (1962): Estimation of genetic change in farm live-stock using field records. Anim. Prod., 40, 239-251.

13. Standal, N. (1979): Genetic change in the Norweigan Land-race pig population. Acta Agric. Scand., 29, 139-144.

14. Sorensen, D.A., Kennedy, B.W. (1984): Estimation of re-sponse to selection using least squares and mixed modelmethodology. J. Anim. Sci., 58, 1097-1106.

15. Šalehar, A., Kova~, M., Zagoèn, F. (1986): Pig improve-ment schemes for large state farms in Slovenia. In: 3rdWorld congress on genetics applied to livestock produc-

tion, Lincoln, 1986-6-16/22, Lincoln, University of Ne-braska, X, 120-129.

16. Zarnecki, A. (1979): Estimation of realized genetic change in the Swedish pig population. Acta Agric. Scand., 29,98-102.




ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 636.4:621.391

ON-FARM MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION

Aleksandra Jug(1) , Milena Kova~(2) , Špela Malovrh(3)


ABSTRACT

The on-farm management systems under development in order to insure data collection, reg-ular data processing needed on a farm as well as automatic data exchange between farm and computing centre. The core of information system presents relational database (RDBMS) ac-companied with tools developed in APIIS. A system analysis method has been done on two pig

industrial units, on national selection program for swine in Slovenia, and compared with examples from other countries and species. Public domain software like PostgreSQL, Perl and

Linux have been chosen for use on farms and can be replaced with commercial software likeOracle for more demanding central systems. The system contains at this stage applications for entering, managing, and viewing the data as well as transferring the information between local and central databases.

Keywords: pigs, information systems, data handling

INTRODUCTION Efforts to built an efficient information system for

pigs in Slovenia extend in early 1958 when prescribedforms for herd management were introduced for the first

time (Kova~, 1979). Between 1975 to 1980, field repro-

duction data and data from test stations were stored inpersonal computer Hewlett - Packard 9820 located in thecentre, therefore controlled data analysis were done for pig farms involved with the national breeding program.The data base changed over time due to exchange ofhardware and software as well as development of newapplications. Finally, a modern central relational data-base to support modules for reproduction, genetic im-provement and slaughter traits was developed to useadvantages of relational data base environment in Oraclein 1991 (Drobni~, 1992; Drobni~ and Kova~, 1993). Thesystem was introduced over national selection programand on two pig industrial units. At approximately thesame time, five other Slovenian pig farms began to usecommercial software written in C++. Information flowwithin central selection service, nucleus, industrial unitsand family farms send their records for the most part bye-mail, floppy disc or via Internet while some breedersare still continuing in the classical paper form (Tav~ar etal., 1994).

The idea to have system which use centrally controlled data analysis and the same calculation procedureson pig farms is not new. Employing more demanding soft-ware such as PEST (Groeneveld et al ., 1990) for predic-

tion of breeding value, together with rapid development ofInternet technology, lead to the upgrading an existing sys-

tems. The need to renovate database software for moreefficiently animal recording, has arrived in Slovenia andmany other countries (Groeneveld, 1999; Mogaeka et al.,

1999; Greally et al., 2000). Therefore, an internationalworkshop took place in May 1999 at the Institute of Ani-mal Science an Behaviour, Mariensee with participantsfrom four European countries and Republic South Africa(Groeneveld, 1999). The team started to develop Internetoriented modules in animal production using public do-main software and Internet connection via CVS (CurrentVersions System). The idea was, a system to be used insmall units as well as large computer centres, and is suit-able for EU as well as non EU countries. Database struc-

ture will be appropriate for different species, as well asdata and error handling.

The on-farm system for production control is a partof this joint development for which we are responsible. Asa pilot project, we chose the module reproduction trying toadopt it for various systems.

MATERIAL AND METHODSThe developed software was tested on data from a

small unit. Historic data contains 2464 animal records,11557 insemination records, 8001 cycle records, and1867 sale records for animals transferred from the herd.Simultaneously, programs are being tested on recordsoriginating from Slovenian pig farms (eight industrial unitsand 56 family farms). Data from pig farms are beingstored in single database and in common tables with nor-malised data structure, which prevented data from beingredundant.

To get a relational database, two methods were used.To define appropriate data structure, a mathematical


(1) Aleksandra Jug, BSc, (2) Milena Kova~, Associate Professor, (3) Špela Malovrh, BAg – University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Animal Science, Groblje, 1230 Domàle, Slovenia



method system analysis has been done over twoSlovenian pig farms and on national selection program for swine using Yourdon methodology (1989). Inputs andoutputs were determined, context and physical diagrams,data streams, and processes were described as well. Ad-

ditionally, data structures were compared with intuitivemethod between two pig farms and analysed over Slovenian pig breeding program. Table definitions fromfive countries and from Slovenian cattle breeding programwere also compared in order to generalise the data struc-

ture as much as possible.Two type of hardware and software are being on trial.

Forsmaller farms, PC with publicdomain software like op-erating system Linux and database management system,PostgreSQL will be suitable due to low cost as well as suf-ficient performance. The operating system Unix runningon SUN computers and a commercial database manage-

ment system (like Oracle) may be chosen for a centralsystem. The main programming language used is Perl,which is Internet oriented and enables objective program-ming and accessibility to any relational database. In fur-

ther development, Java can also be used. All the data areretrieved from database using standard structure querylanguage (SQL92). ToolKit (Tk/Tcl) was chosen forgraph-ical user interface to create input forms and browsers. Asa tool for formatting reports, LaTeX is used (Jesenšek et al., 1998) because it allows easy transformation betweenoutputs on paper and on the screen.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONDatabase structure and model file

As a result of system analysis, database structurewas defined and relational database (RDBMS) was cre-ated. The kernel of the system represents modelfile withdescription of relational database for modules production,genetic improvement, and health. While there is someavailable software for Least cost feed formulation model-ling programs on the market, software support for eco-nomic evaluation and environment management aremissing andsuggested to be developedby another group.

Model file includes, beside information about type ofdatabase, database server being in use and about it’s us-ers and privileges, description of items in all tables andcorresponding business rules for error checking. Everysingle attribute is hardcode within defined tables andcheck validation of data is determined on the level of data-base.

To define relational database corresponding to vari-ous pig organisations, system analysis has been done in

the central database for swine and on two Slovenian pigfarms. Some processes depend on organisation withinfarm and thus, may differ among them. Nevertheless data

structure could be the same because decisions are basedon the same production parameters. ComparingSlovenian and four foreign data definitions for pigs re-vealed similarities as well as differences. Model file was

created containing table definitions to insure a unique ani-mal identification within the database and allow changesof external number as it is usually practised in EU coun-

tries when animals are selected or moved to another herd.Tables for transferring animals between farms (Groene-veld, 1999) were adapted to empower transfer of the ani-mal among units and still maintain unique identification of

the animal in the database.The database structure for pigs includes identifica-

tion and location data, individual performance of animals to be selected, fattening and slaughter performance for fattening group, and reproduction data for sows andboars. Thestructure was designed so that additional mod-ules for health control, feeding regimes, economic issues,environmental control can be added without major changes. In the kernel tables like ANIMAL, TEST, FIELD,

SERVICE, LITTER, etc., the attributes may be described asobligatory, frequent, or optional. Necessary and frequentdata are almost identical for the five selection programsanalysed, though there is disparity between optional data.The obligatory data contains all the keys and thus, allow-ing common applications.

Animal attributes are stored in tables ENTRY,TRANSFER and ANIMAL. Table ENTRY is a list of active ani-mals translating external into unique database identificationwhile table TRANSFER accommodates any renumbering ofanimals, movement form one to another herd, and cullingdecisions. In ANIMAL, time independent attributes describ-ing animals are stored. There are also some additional ta-bles containing codes and their descriptions for partners(ADDRESS, SUPPLIER), for culling causes, breeds, etc. Thenext group of tables contain data on performance testingof animals and their relatives (TEST, FIELD) as well as theestimated breeding values (BLUP). Although breeding val-ues are evaluated and thus, treated as derived values, theyare kept in the database to be easily reached for frequentuse. Many farms want to keep records on fattening andslaughter performance (tables FATTENING and SLAUGHTER)of groups of fatteners. The animals within these groups

are usually unknown.Data from reproduction are stored in tables SERVICE,LITTER, WEANING2, and PREGCHECK. An extra table SEMEN isadded where data about semen collection and semenquality are stored. When analysing five different modelfiles for reproduction traits, it became obvious that basicdata among them are alike. For instance, inseminationdate, sow and boar identification are always in table ser-vice. Identification for sow, farrowing date, parity, number of born piglets (liveborn, stillborn, born) is found in tableLITTER. An additional data is collected in some countries,for example number of piglets distinguished by sex, num-

ber of piglets weaned, litter weight at birth and weaning,date of weaning, etc. On the other hand, tables WEANING2for sow which are foster mothers and table PREGCHECK,




where outcomes of pregnancy checks are stored, are in-cluded only in Slovenian modelfile.

Populating databaseNext step was populating database with historic and

new data. The historic data were extracted from the exist-ing central database as ASCII files. Files were loaded into a

temporary flat database without checking the consistencyof the data. Set of Perl programs were written to distributedata into a new tables, checking for an undesirable redun-dancy, inforcing business rules for error detection andhandling error data.

For inserting new data into database, the AdaptablePlatform Independent Information System(APIIS) con-

tains a form generator and forms are created again via de-scription file with user specific information (language,

order, position...). Handling and checking the data aredone by generic routines using user specifications in ei-

ther model or form description file. There is a possibility tocreate a fast default form to be conformed to the structureof each separate table. This can be used for inserting datainto some simple tables like ADDRESSES and tables for dif-ferent codes (BREEDS). However, the forms have to besuited for data streams on a farm and not for the datastructure in the database. In such cases, the default formsmay be used as a template to create complex formsmatched with data streams allowing updates or inserts to

be performed simultaneously in many tables, placing de-fault values, keeping values from the previous record,browsers for coded attributes and so on.

The forms also allow a simple applications based on the browsers. Thus, the database may be inspected andeven corrected. Additionally, the user may get some use-ful outputs used for herd management. This way, the listof sow needed to be checked for oestrus or pregnancymay be produced. The breeder may get desirable informa-

tion on the screen about individual animal as well. The listof sows with late or missing oestrus, with low fertility or

(semi)lethal genetic disorders may be easily identified.The another way to get data into the database is abatch data stream. This is the most usual way to get thedata into the central database, while on farm, forms aremore frequent. However, there are data coming from ge-netic labs, slaughter houses, the central data base viae-mail or other electronic carrier and are supposed to bepartoftheperipheraldatasystemaswell.Thedatamaybesent from a central data base at start or in case of cor-rupted local database. For this purposes, a generalisedsynchronisation procedure will be developed. The importdata will be checked for consistency the same way as in

the first two cases using business rules from the samemodelfile.

CONCLUSIONWith standardisation of computer software, conn-

ectedness and accessibility of any kind of independent in-stitution to central database shall be accomplished. Alsostability of the system, simplicity with maintenance ofcomputer support, functionality and cost acceptability for all animal breeders will be feasible. Public domain soft-ware and accessible prices of hardware enable familyfarms to have identical software support as central sys-

tems which relieve data flow among them.Most needed modules to start reprogramming with

were reproduction, slaughter traits and genetic improve-ment. Article describes mainly reproduction modulewhich is most needed on small family farms. At a begin-ning of year 2001 it is desired to distribute among breed-ers the stable version of the system.

In the future the main effort will be focused on soft-ware support that will completely incorporate all neces-sary business rules to enable correct data checking.Through system we intend to determine modules for nutri-

tion and feeding, health care and environment manage-ment. Resulting documents are going to be publishedmainly with Internet technology, perhaps in PHP, but canbe issued in classical paper form and can be convertedfrom LaTeX to PostScript, PDF, HTML.

REFERENCES1. Drobni~, M. (1992): An information system in pig production.

Master’s Thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana-Cham-paign.

2. Drobni~, M., Kova~, M. (1993): The genetic improvementmodule in an Information System for Animal Production.Zb. Biotehniške fak., Kmetijstvo (Zootehnika), 62:107-113.

3. Greally, G., Wickham, B., Shelly, J., McLoughlin, B., Enright,B., Carroll, J. (2000): Strategy used in the Procurement ofDatabase Software to support a National Centralised Da-

tabase for cattle breeding purposes. 32nd ICAR Sessionand Interbull Meeting, Bled-Slovenia, 2000-05-14/19: 4.

4. Groeneveld, E. (1999): Design of a Portable Platform Inde-pendent Pig Information System: An Internet Based De-velopment Project. EFITA 99, Second EuropeanConference of the European Federation for InformationTechnology in Agriculture, Food and Environment, Bonn,1999-09-27/30. Role and Potential of IT, Intranet andInternet for Advisory Services, 113-128.

5. Groeneveld, E., Kova~, M., Wang, T. (1990): PEST, a gen-eral purpose BLUP package for multivariate predictionand estimation. Proceedings of 4th World Congress onGenetic applied to Livestock Production, Edinburgh,1990-07-23/27. Edinburgh, The International Committeefor World Congress on Genetic Applied to Livestock Pro-duction, 13: 488-495.

6. Jesenšek,A., Drobni~, M., Kova~, M. (1998): Generating wellphrased reports automatically, 49th Annual Meeting of the




European Association for Animal Production, Warshaw,Book of abstracts of the 49th Annual Meeting of the Euro-pean Association for Animal Production Warsaw, Poland,1998-08-24/27, Wageningen : Wageningen Pers, 4: 115.

7. Kova~, M. (1979): Predlog vodenja rejskih opravil pri

razmnoèvanju praši~ev z uporabo ra~unalniške tehnike.Diploma, Domàle, BF, VTOZD za ìvino- rejo, 48.

8. Mogaeka, S., Helbig, R., Schiefer, G. (1999): Development ofExecutive Information System (EIS) for AgriculturalDevel-opment Projects: Principles and Case. EFITA 99, Second

European Conference of the European Federation for In-formation Technology in Agriculture, Food and Environ-ment, Bonn, 1999- -09-27/30. Role and Potential of IT,Intranet and Internet for Advisory Services, 113-128.

9. Tav~ar, J., Kova~, M., Šalehar, A., Drobni~, M., Krašovic, M.,

Maruši~, M., Ule, I., Pavlin, S. (1994): Rejska doku-mentacija v praši~ereji. Domàle, BF, Odd. za ìvinorejo,21.

10. Yourdon, E. (1989): Modern Structured Analysis,Prentice-Hall International, Inc., 132-307.






Statistical analysisThe heritability and genetic correlation coefficient

estimates for the above mentioned traits were obtained byusing the VCE 4 software developed by Groeneveld(1998), based on the REML method. In case of AGE, BF,

DOT, and VC the applied linear model was:y = Xb + Za + Wc + e

where y = vector of observations, b = vector of fixed ef-fects, a = vector of random animal effects, c = vector ofrandom litter effects, X, Z, and W incidence matrices relat-ing records to fixed and random animal and random litter (common environmental) effects, respectively. Regarding

the fixed effects the herd, sex, and year-month signifi-cantly influenced all the examined traits. The effect of theweight of the animals at the field test and at the end of thestation test was also taken into account by treating this

factoras a covariate. Regarding themodel, the distributionof y was assumed to be normal the traits were determinedby many additive genes of infinitesimal effects at infinitelymany unlinked loci.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONThe results of the REML analyses are presented in

Table 1.The heritability estimates of the examined traits were

not the main object of our interest. However, regarding theBF heritabilities they were reasonably lower than the aver-age value (0.49) of 13 references reviewed by Clutter and

Brascamp (1998) with pigs having ad libitum or semi-adlibitum access to feed. The estimated genetic correlation

coefficients between DOT and AGE were ranging betweenmoderately high and high and correspond with the results(0.49-0.62) of Groeneveld et al. (1996). Regarding thege-netic correlation between VC and BF however, the inter-pretation of the results was not straightforward. Theestimated genetic correlation coefficients were highlyvariable. As pointed out by Sellier (1998) heritability of BFestimated through a field test was substantially lower compared to that of a station test (0.36 vs. 0.49).Groeneveld and Peskovicova (1999) estimated only amoderately high genetic correlation (0.54) between BFmeasured at filed and station tests respectively. These re-sults suggest that field tests are generally much less reli-able than station test which phenomena (i.e. a relativelyimprecise measurement of BF at the filed test) could alsoexplain the highly variable genetic correlation coefficientsbetween BF and VC.

CONCLUSIONFrom the results obtained at the present investigation

it can be concluded that the traits measuring the growingintensity in the field test (AGE) and station test (DOT) wererelatively closely connected thus make efficient selectionpossible. Nevertheless, the high variability of the geneticcorrelation coefficients between BF (field test) and VC(station test) raises the demand for further examination of

this area. For the moment it can only be concluded that theconnection between VC and BF was highly dependent on

the breeds.


Table 1. Estimated heritabilities (diagonals) and genetic correlations (off-diagononals) of the examined traits. Standarderrors of estimates are given in brackets

Traits DOTa VCb AGEc BFd

Large White 0.44 (0.01) 0.00 (0.02) 0.52 (0.02) 0.15 (0.01)

0.60 (0.01) -.06 (0.02) -.13 (0.03)

0.23 (0.00) -.19 (0.01)

0.25 (0.01)

Landrace 0.35 (0.00) -.03 (0.01) 0.36 (0.02) -.02 (0.02)

0.56 (0.00) 0.12 (0.02) -.41 (0.02)

0.16 (0.00) -.23 (0.02)

0.21 (0.01)

Duroc 0.30 (0.01) -.13 (0.02) 0.43 (0.02) -.42 (0.01)

0.55 (0.00) -.49 (0.01) -.63 (0.02)

0.17 (0.00) -.01 (0.01)

0.14 (0.01)

Pietrain 0.46 (0.04) 0.68 (0.08) 0.80 (0.07) 0.50 (0.09)

0.81 (0.06) 0.36 (0.10) 0.13 (0.10)

0.22 (0.03) 0.18 (0.10)

0.26 (0.04) a DOT, days of test (station test); bVC, valuable cuts (station test); c AGE, age at thetime of the test (field test); d BF, average backfat depth(field test)



REFERENCES1. Groeneveld, E. (1993): Symposium on: Application of mixed

linear models in the prediction of genetic merit in pigs.May 27. Institute of Animal Husbandry and Animal Behav-iour Federal Research Centre, Neustadt.

2. Groeneveld, E. (1998): VCE4 Users’ Guide. Institute of AnimalHusbandry and Animal Behaviour Federal Research Cen- tre, Neustadt.

3. Groeneveld, E., Csató, L., Farkas, J., Radnóczi, L. (1996):Joint Genetic Evaluation of Field and Station Test in theHungarian Large White and Landrarce Populations. Arch.Tierz. 39: 513-531.

4. Groeneveld, E., Peskovicova, D. (1999): Simultaneous esti-mation of the covariance structure of field and station test

traits in the Slovakian pig populations. Chech J. Anim. Sci.44: 145-150.

5. Clutter, A. C., Brascamp, E. W. (1998): Genetics of Perfor-

mance Traits. In: Rothschild, M. F., Ruvinsky, A. (eds.)The Genetics of the Pig. CAB International, Cambridge,UK.

6. Sellier, P. (1998): Genetics of Meat and Carcass Traits. In:Rothschild, M. F., Ruvinsky, A. (eds.) The Genetics of thePig. CAB International, Cambridge, UK.




ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 636.2:636.081.21+637.04/.07

INFLUENCE OF BREED ON CARCASS CUTS COMPOSITION

S. @gur (1) , M. êpon(2)


ABSTRACT

Carcass from 260 Simmental and 159 Brown bulls were dissected first to different cuts(chuck, shoulder, front shank, rib roast, back, loin, tenderloin, brisket, rib, flank, leg and hind

shank) and then to lean, fat, tendon and bone. The comparison between two breeds was made at 12.5 % carcass fat. Simmental breed had statistically significantly higher share of leg and brisket with rib and lower share of chuck, front and hind shank, rib roast, tenderloin and flank,with higher lean and lower bone percentage, but the differences were relatively small com-

pared to Brown breed.

Keywords: cattle, carcass cuts, tissue composition

INTRODUCTIONThe amount and distribution of carcass tissue is im-

portant, because it affects the commercial value of a car-cass. Differences between breeds are supposed to becaused by different adult body weight and thus differentphysiological age at slaughter (Berg and Butterfield, 1976,Taylor, 1985). Selection and introduction of AmericanBrown Swiss genes into Slovenian Brown population has

changed carcass traits of Brown bulls (êpon, 1994). Wewanted to compare carcass traits of the two most impor-

tant dual-purposed cattle breeds in Slovenia at the samephysiological age, defined as carcass fat percentage.

MATERIAL AND METHODSSimmental (260) and Brown (159) bulls were bred

at progeny testing stations. Simmental bulls were fed withmaize silage and concentrates, Brown bulls with grassand maize silage and concentrates. They were slaugh-

tered at subjectively defined optimal fatness. The average

weight of the right carcass side of Simmental bulls was166 kg and of Brown bulls 158 kg. The average carcassfat percentage was 12.5% for Simmental and 13.1% for Brown bulls. After slaughter the right carcass side wasdissected to the following cuts: chuck, shoulder, frontshank, rib roast, back, loin, tenderloin, brisket, rib, flank,leg and hind shank. Then the cuts were further dissected

to lean, fat, tendon and bone. For statistical evaluationGLM procedure was used (SAS, 1989), where breed asfixed effect and carcass fat percentage within breed ascovariable, were included in the model. The comparisonbetween two breeds was made at 12.5% carcass fat. Thedifferences between breeds were tested with F-test and

the differences between regression coefficients for twobreeds with t-test for significance.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSimmental breed had at 12.5% carcass fat statisti-

cally significant higher share of leg and brisket with rib andlower share of chuck, front and hind shank, rib roast, ten-derloin and flank (Table 1). Brown and Simmental breedsare dual-purpose breeds in Slovenia, though Brown breedis a more pronounced dairy type. As a consequence, se-lection for milk ability also increases animal frame, so dif-

ferences in share of carcass cuts could be explained by those changes (Nieuwhof et al. 1992) Dairy type cattle has thinner but longer chuck in comparison with beef type.This characteristic results in higher share of chuck inBrown bulls. Percentage rate of other cuts did not differ statistically significantly. All the differences were relativelysmall, with leg cut percentage of around 0.5% being thehighest. The percentage of leg, hind and front shank,shoulder, rib roast in both breeds and tender loin in Sim-mental breed decreased with increased carcass fat, while

the percentage of brisket, rib and flank increased.The regression coefficients for the percentage of

back and loin did not differ statistically significantly fromzero, so the percentage of those cuts was not influencedby the carcass fat. The regression coefficients for chuck differed between the two breeds, being negative in Brownbreed and not statistically different from zero in Simmentalbreed.

In Table 2 LS means for lean percentage in carcasscuts are represented. Simmental bulls had higher lean per-centage in leg, back, tender loin, loin, brisket, rib and flank and lower percentage of lean in rib roast and chuck.

In Simmental bulls the regression coefficients of frontshank and shoulder, and in Brown bulls of front and hindshank were not statistically significantly different from zero.


(1) Silvester @gur, Assistant Professor, (2) Marko êpon, MSc – University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Zootechnical Department, Groblje 3,1230 Domàle, Slovenia





Except in rib roast and chuck, Simmental bulls hadlower percentage of bone in all other cuts. Regression co-efficients for bone percentage that statistically signifi-cantly differed from zero were negative and the mostoutstanding in back, loin, brisket and rib. In comparisonwith regression coefficients for lean and fat, regression

coefficients for bone were much smaller. So the share ofbone in different carcass cuts was less dependent on car-cass fatness than lean percentage. Regression coefficientdiffered significantly between breeds only for rib cut.

CONCLUSION

Differences between Simmental and Brown bulls in the share of carcass cuts were relatively small. Simmentalbulls had higher share of leg and brisket with rib and lower share of chuck, front and hind shank, rib roast, tenderloinand flank. Higher share of leg and brisket with rib in Sim-

mentalbulls was linked also with higher lean percentage in this cuts. The highest differences in tissue compositionwas found in tender loin and flank, where Brown bulls hadmuch higher fat content than Simmental bulls. Most of the


Table 4. LS means for bone percentage in carcass cuts and regression coefficients

Carcass cut LS MEANS ±SEE b ± SEE

Simmental Brown Simmental Brown

Leg 13.06a 0.07 14.01b 0.09 -0.04 0.03 -0.08 0.03

Hind shank 47.70a 0.22 48.66b 0.28 -0.39* 0.08 -0.19 0.10

Shoulder 13.86a 0.07 14.59b 0.09 -0.07* 0.03 -0.14* 0.03

Front shank 48.94 0.20 49.42 0.26 -0.23* 0.08 -0.11 0.10

Rib roast 16.98a 0.18 15.47b 0.24 0.05 0.07 0.11 0.09

Chuck 12.60a 0.13 12.10b 0.17 -0.06 0.05 0.00 0.06

Back 19.74a 0.18 20.44b 0.24 -0.25* 0.07 -0.35* 0.09

Loin 22.97a 0.24 25.88b .030 -0.32* 0.09 -0.41* 0.11

Brisket 17.43a

0.12 18.86b

0.15 -0.42* 0.05 -0.38*0.06Rib 15.96a 0.13 17.98b 0.17 -0.46*a 0.05 -0.64*b 0.06

* values differ statistically significantly (p<0.05) from zero; values marked with different letters differ statistically significantly (p<0.05) be-tween breeds

Table 3. LS means for fat percentage in carcass cuts and regression coefficients

Carcass cut LS MEANS ±SEE b ± SEE

Simmental Brown Simmental Brown

Leg 9.86a 0.06 10.30b 0.08 0.72* 0.02 0.73*0.03Hind shank 6.99a 0.18 5.73b 0.23 0.46* 0.07 0.26* 0.09

Shoulder 12.98a 0.11 12.34b 0.14 0.78* 0.04 0.85* 0.05

Front shank 3.93a 0.13 3.43b 0.16 0.14* 0.05 0.07 0.06

Rib roast 7.34a 0.11 6.87b 0.14 0.78* 0.04 0.74* 0.05

Chuck 7.33 0.14 6.86 0.18 0.66* 0.06 0.56* 0.07

Back 11.56a 0.17 12.64b 0.22 1.28* 0.07 1.12* 0.08

Tender loin 17.64a 0.30 23.11b 0.38 0.77* a 0.12 1.25*b 0.15

Loin 7.23a 0.14 6.70b 0.19 0.88* 0.06 0.89* 0.07

Brisket 23.02 0.17 22.55 0.22 1.58* 0.06 1.52* 0.08Rib 19.27a 0.20 17.95b 0.26 1.62* 0.08 1.75* 0.10

Flank 27.56a 0.26 29.11b 0.33 1.95* 0.10 1.92* 0.12

* values differ statistically significantly (p<0.05) from zero; values marked with different letters differ statistically significantly (p<0.05) be-tween breeds



regression coefficients did not differ between breeds, soalteration of carcass cuts composition due to carcass fat-ness was very similar in both breeds.

REFERENCES

1. Berg, R.T., Butterfield, R.M. (1976): New concepts of cattlegrowth. Sydney University Press, Sydney, 150 p.

2. êpon, M. (1994): Rastnost in klavna kakovost ter ocenagenetskih parametrov bikov oplemenjene rjave pasme v

Sloveniji. Master Thesis, Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana,128 p.

3. Nieuwhof, G.J., Van Arendonk, J.A.M., Vos, H., Korver, S.(1992): Genetic relationship between feed intake, effi-ciency and production traits in growing bulls, growing

heifers and lactating heifers. Livest. Prod. Sci., 32:189-202.

4. Taylor, C.S. (1985): Use of genetic size-scaling in evaluationof animal growth. J. Anim. Sci. 61: 118-1143.

5. ………. SAS (1989): SAS/ STAT User’s, Version 6. Cary,NC, USA, SAS Institute Inc.




ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 637.146:613/614

FERMENTED MILK AS A FUNCTIONAL FOOD

Irena Rogelj


ABSTRACT

Certain foods have been associated with health benefits for many years; fermented milks and yoghurt are typical examples. The health properties of these dairy products were a part of folklore until the concept of probiotics emerged, and the study of fermented milks and yoghurt containing probiotic bacteria has become more systematic. Functional foods have thus devel-oped as a food, or food ingredient, with positive effects on host health and/or well-being be-

yond their nutritional value, and fermented milk with probiotic bacteria has again become the

prominent representative of this new category of food. Milk alone is much more than the sumof its nutrients. It contains an array of bioactivities: modulating digestive and gastrointestinal functions, haemodynamics, controlling probiotic microbial growth, and immunoregulation.When fermented milk is enriched with probiotic bacteria and prebiotics it meets all the re-quirements of functional food. The possible positive effects of enriched fermented milk on

host health will be reviewed.

Keywords: fermented milk, probiotics, prebiotics, bioactive peptides, functional food

INTRODUCTION

Inappropriate nutrition is recognised as a primaryfactor in unachieved genetic potential, reduced mental and

physical performance, and increased susceptibility to dis-ease. In searching for effective dietary intervention strate-gies, a new class of food, functional food, has evolvedrapidly and many new terms such as probiotic, prebiotic,nutraceutical and FOSHU (Food for Specified Health Use)have emerged in response.

The term “functional food” originated in Japan in the1980s,whenitwasusedbytheindustrytodescribefoodsfortified with specific ingredients imparting certain healthbenefits (Hilliam, 1998). There are many possible defini-

tions for the term functional food; however, functional

food is usually described as food that promotes health be-yond the provision of basic nutrition. Head et al. (1996)stated that functional foods could be naturally occurringfoods and not just enriched and modified foods. Similarly,Roberfroid (1996) said that a food is functional if it con-

tains a food component that affects one or a limited num-ber of functions in the body in a positive way. However,Pariza (1999) recently proposed a new definition for func-

tional food: “a manufactured food for which scientificallyvalid health claims can be made”. He also explained that“manufactured” refers to a product of human intervention,

such as alteration via genetic engineering, as well as con-ventional food processing practices. He listed three possi-ble forms of functional food:

• A known food to which a functional ingredient from an-other food is added

• A known food to which a functional ingredient new to the food supply is added

• An entirely new food that contains one or more functional ingredients.

The first generation of functional foods involved thesupplementation of food with components like calcium,vitamins, carotenoids or antioxidants. In more recentyears the concept has moved towards the development ofdietary supplementation that may affect gut microbialcomposition and activity (Ziemer and Gibson, 1998). Inaddition, new components with putative anti-carcinogenicactivity or other specific physiological effects are studiedas possible adjuncts to functional foods.

FUNCTIONAL INGREDIENTS OF FERMENTED MILKPeople have consumed fermented milks for several

thousand years, and the belief that they are beneficial tohealth is probably as old. They contain all the nutrients ofmilk on its own; however, the components are modifiedduring fermentation by lactic acid bacteria (LAB), mainlyin a positive way as far as nutrition is concerned.

LACTOSELactose is fermented to lactic acid; this reduces pH,

influences the physical properties of casein and thus pro-motes digestibility, improves the utilisation of calcium and


Irena Rogelj, Full Professor - University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical faculty, Zootechnical Dept, Institute of Dairying, SI-Groblje 3, Rodica, Slovenia



other minerals, and inhibits thegrowth of potentially harm-ful bacteria. Because of its lower lactose content, fer-mented milk can be tolerated by people with a reducedability to digest lactose (Buttriss, 1997, McBean, 1999).

PROTEINSThe proteolytic activity of LAB gives rise to protein

degradation; the result is some free amino acids andbioactive peptides. Bioactive peptides are a frequent sup-plement to functional foods, and milk proteins are cur-rently the main source of a range of biologically activepeptides such as casomorphins, casokinins, immuno-peptides, lactoferrin, lactoferricin and phosphopeptides. Alot of milk protein-derived bioactive peptides are inactivewithin the sequence of the parent protein and can be re-leased by enzymatic proteolysis during gastrointestinal di-gestion or food processing, e.g. fermentation. The mainbiological activities of these peptides are immunomo-dulation, anti-microbial activity, anti-thrombotic activity,blood pressure regulation, and mineral or vitamin binding(Meisel, 1998, Schanbacher, 1998, Tomé and Ledoux,1998).

Fermented milks are also a rich source of whey proteins such as -lactalbumin, -lactoglobulin, lactoferrin,lactoperoxidase, immunoglobulins and variety of growthfactors. These proteins have demonstrated a number ofbiological effects ranging from anti-carcinogenic activity

to different effects on the digestive function (McIntosh et

al., 1998).FAT

The digestibility of fat is also improved during fer-mentation. Milk fat is known for its high proportion of satu-rated fatty acids; advice is frequently given to avoid itbecause it contributes to an atherogenic blood profile andincreased risk of coronary heart disease. However, onelook at the composition of milk fat reveals that of the manydifferent saturated fatty acids in milk only three (lauric,myristic and palmitic) have the property of raising blood

cholesterol, and that at least one-third of the fatty acids areunsaturated, with a cholesterol-lowering tendency (Gurr,1992). Furthermore, fermented milkscontain componentswith at least protective if not hypoholesterolemic effects;

these include calcium, linoleic acid, conjugated linoleicacid (CLA), antioxidants, and lactic acid bacteria or probiotic bacteria (Rogelj, 2000). Milk fat contains a num-ber of components, such as CLA, sphingomyelin, butyricacid, ether lipids, -carotene, and vitamins A and D, withanti-carcinogenic potential (Jahreis et al., 1999, Parodi,1999a). Numerous in vitro and animal studies have con-

firmed the anti-carcinogenic activity of CLA, as well as itsrole in preventing atherosclerosis and in modulating cer-

tain aspects of the immune system (Cook and Pariza,1998, MacDonald, 2000).

Fermented milk can be made even “more functional”by adding probiotic bacteria and prebiotics, the supple-ments that affect gut microbial composition and activity.

PROBIOTICS AND PREBIOTICSThe most common definitions used for probiotics

and prebiotics are as follows:

• Probiotics are live micro-organisms that have a benefi-cial effect on the host by improving its intestinal micro-bial balance.

• Prebiotics are non-digestible food ingredients that havea beneficial effect on the host by selectively stimulating

the growth and/or activity of one or a limited number ofbacteria in the colon; this can improve host health.

The human gastrointestinal tract possesses an extremely complex microbial ecosystem that can markedlyinfluence various physiological functions of the intestineand, as a consequence, human health. A number of bene-ficial roles played by probiotic strains have been reported,including: protection against gastrointestinal infections;re-establishment of balanced intestinal microflora; reduc-

tion of lactose intolerance; cholesterol reduction; stimulation of the immune system; suppression of allergicreactions in food hypersensitivity; and protection againstcancer (Buttriss, 1997, Saxelin, 1997, Parodi, 1999b,

Heyman, 2000).A further possibility in the microflora managementprocedure is the use of synbiotics, where probiotics andprebiotics can be used in combination. Prebiotics arenon-digestible food components, such as carbohydrates,some proteins and peptides found in milk, and certain re-sistant lipids. The major end-products of fermentation ofnon-digestible carbohydrates by colonic bacteria areshort-chain fatty acids. These acids, along with lactic acidproduced by lactic acid bacteria, reduce cancer-promot-ing factors such as colonic pH and concentrations of am-

monia (Gibson and Roberfroid, 1995).CONCLUSION

Fermented milk provides a wide range of importantnutrients and contains different components that affectone or a limited number of functions of the body in a posi-

tive way. Increasing scientific evidence confirms that therisk for many of chronic diseases such as cancer, osteo-porosis, coronary heart disease and hypertension can bediminished by the regular consumption of fermented milk and fermented milk supplemented with pro- and/or

prebiotics. Fermented milks therefore comply with the re-quirements of functional food.




REFERENCES1. Buttriss, J. (1997): Nutritional properties of fermented milk

products. Int. J. Dairy Technol., 50 (1): 21-27

2. Cook, M. E., Pariza, M. (1998): The Role of ConjugatedLinoleic Acid (CLA) in Health. Int. Dairy Journal, 8(5/6):459-462.

3. Gibson, G. R., Roberfroid, M. B. (1995): Dietary modulationof the human colonic microbiota: introducing the conceptof prebiotics. J. Nutr. 125: 1401-1412.

4. Gurr, M. I. (1992): Milk products: contribution to nutritionand health. J. Soc. Dairy Technol. 45: 61-67.

5. Head, R. J., Record, I. R., King, R. A. (1996): Functionalfoods: approaches to definition and substantiation. Nutri-

tion Reviews, 54(11): 17-20.6. Heyman, M. (2000): Effect of Lactic Acid Bacteria on Diar-

rhoeal Diseases. Journal of the American College of Nutri- tion, 19(2): 137-146.

7. Hilliam, M. (1998): The Market for Functional Foods. Int.Dairy Journal, 8: 349-353.

8. Jahreis, G., Fritsche, J., Möckel, P., Schöne, F., Möller, U.,Steinhart,H. (1999): The potential anti-carcinogenic conju-gated linoleic acid, cis-9, trans-11 C18:2, in milk of differ-ent species: cattle, goats, sheep, pigs, horses, humanbeings. Nutrition Research, 19(10): 1541-1549.

9. MacDonald, H. B. (2000): Conjugated Linoleic Acid andDisease Prevention: A Review of Current Knowledge.Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 19(2):111-118.

10. McBean, L. D. (1999): Emerging Dietary Benefits of Dairy

Foods. Nutr. Today, 34(4): 47-53.11. McIntosh, G. H., Royle, P. J., LeLeu, R. K., Regester, G. O.,Johnson, M. A.,Grinsted, R. L., Kenward, R. S., Smithers,

G. W. (1998): Whey Proteins as Functional Food Ingredi-ents. Int. Dairy Journal, 8(5/6): 425-434.

12. Meisel, H. (1998): Overview on Milk Protein-derived Pep- tides. Int. Dairy Journal, 8(5/6): 363-373.

13. Pariza, M. W. (1999): Functional Foods: Technology, Func-

tionality, and Health Benefits. Nutrition Today, 43(4):150-151.

14. Parodi, P. W. (1999a): Symposium: A Bold New Look atMilk Fat. Conjugated Linoleic Acid and Other Anticarcinogenic Agents of Bovine Milk Fat. J. Dairy Sci.82(6): 1339-1349.

15. Parodi, P. W. (1999b): The role of intestinal bacteria in thecausation and prevention of cancer: modulation by dietand probiotics. The Australian Journal of Dairy Technol-ogy, 54: 103-121.

16. Roberfroid, M. B. (1996): Functional affects of food compo-nents and the gastrointestinal system: chicoryfructooligosaccharides.Nutrition Reviews, 54: 538 - 551.

17. Rogelj, I. (2000): Milk, Dairy Products, Nutrition and Health.Food technol. Biotechnol. 38(2): 143-147.

18. Saxelin, M. (1997): Lactobacillus GG - A human probioticstrain with thorough clinical documentation. Food Rev.Int., 13(2): 293-313.

19. Schanbacher, F. L., Talhouk, R. S., Murray, F. A., Gherman,L. I., Willett, L. B. (1998): Milk-Borne Bioactive Peptides.Int. Dairy Journal, 8(5/6): 393-403.

20. Tomé, D., Ledoux, N. (1998): Nutritional and physiologicalrole of milk protein components. Bulletin of the IDF No.336/1998: 11-16.

21. Ziemer, C. J., Gibson, G. R. (1998): An Overview ofProbiotics, Prebiotics and Synbiotics in the FunctionalFood Concept: Perspectives and Future Strategies. Int.Dairy Journal, 8: 473-479.




ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 637.112

EVALUATION OF MILK QUALITY ON THE BASIS OF TRUE PROTEIN VALUEWITH FT-IR SPECTROMETRY

Slavica Golc Teger (1) , Marta Berlec(2)


ABSTRACT

For the evaluation of milk quality on the basis of true protein it is essential to use fast, but accurate and precise methods. On the basis of the results of classical analysis by reference methods, the reliability of FT-IR technique for proteins, casein and urea is described. The ratio between casein, whey proteins, non-protein nitrogen components and urea content has been set.

Keywords: milk, analyses, FT-IR spectrometry, proteins, casein, urea, Slovenia

INTRODUCTIONThe share of proteins in milk is the criteria of milk

quality according to which milk producers are paid for milk. What is also important is the share of total proteins,casein and non-protein nitrogen (mostly present as urea)in the milk processing industry, as the ratios between indi-vidual shares influence both the quality of products and

their quantity. Concerning this respects the use of fast, butaccurate determination methods are necessary.

The fastest method of establishing proteins in milk isIR spectrometry, which is an indirect method (Interna-

tional Standard ISO/FDIS 9622, 1999; ISO/FDIS 8196-1,2000). The instrument must be calibrated according toreferencevalues - to define proteins, the referencemethodis theKjeldahl’s method. This method also simultaneouslyevaluates non-protein nitrogen components (representedprimarily by the amount of urea), which however do nothave a biological value, nor they are valuable in industrialprocessing, therefore the so-called true proteins, com-posed of casein and whey proteins, should be evaluated,as otherwise milk producers are paid for technologicallyuseless nitrogen compounds. Non-protein nitrogen com-pounds are also a disturbing factor when analysing, as theinstruments of IR spectrometry do not measure them,while the reference method does. This can cause differ-ences between the two methods. Therefore, establishingindividual nitrogen compounds is also important in termsof analyses. Thepossibility of establishing individual nitro-gen compounds in milk is enabled through the use of theinstrument MilkoScan FT 120, functioning on the basis ofFourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) spectrometry.

The targets of the research were to:

• establish the accuracy and precision of the FT-IR spectrometry method of evaluating total proteins and caseincompared to the reference Kjeldahl’s method, as well

as urea compared to the enzymatic method using sam-ples of raw milk,

• establish the varying in the share of nitrogen (total proteins, casein and urea) in raw milk samples taken in dif-ferent areas, and

• find the ratios between different nitrogen components.

MATERIAL AND METHODSSampling:

Samples of raw milk of individual cows and the bulk milk were taken in the autumn period. The sampling wasconducted in line with the relevant international standard(SIST EN ISO 707:1999). The samples were not con-served and had been kept at the temperature of 4 C 2C for a maximum of 24h prior to analysis. Before analys-ing, we heated the samples to 40C and cooled them to the

temperatureprescribed for individual methods of analysing.

Methods of analysing:• The total proteins and non-protein nitrogen were evalu-

ated according to Kjeldahl (total nitrogen multiplying by6.38) in line with the international standard IDF20B:1993; caseins were evaluated by the Kjeldahl’smethod directly through non-casein nitrogen (total ni-

trogen - non-casein nitrogen multiplying by 6.38); in theprocedure, we respected the regulations described inMethodenbuch (VDLUFA, 1985).

• Urea was established with the use of photometry fol-lowing the enzymatic method with the test combinationaccording to Boehringer-Mannhaim. In line with thestandard requirements on quality assurance in enzy-matic analyses, we tested the accuracy and repeatabil-ity of the method (VDLUFA, 1985).


(1) Slavica Golc Teger, Assist.Prof. (2) Marta Berlec, MSc- Food Technolo- gist, University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Zootechnical Dept., Insti-tute of Dairying, Groblje 3, 1230 Domàle, Slovenia



• The total proteins, casein and urea were establishedwith the use of the instrument MilkoScan FT 120 (FossElectric, Denmark), functioning according to the princi-ple of Fourier Transformation Infrared spectrometry(Agnet, 1998).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONThe results are presented in Tables 1,2,3 and 4.On the basis of the results shown in Tables 1 and 2,

we are establishing good repeatability and comparability

of the instrumental method with regard to the guidance on the operation of IR instruments published in StandardISO/FDIS 9622: 1999 as well as compared to what hasbeen published by other authors (Foss Elec. Appl. NoteNo. 95, 1996; 99, 1996; 102, 1997; Kjr, 1997; Lefier,

1998; Hohmann, 1999). The values established for re-peatability are proteins sd = 0.0084 (CV = 0.224%); ca-sein sd = 0.0070 (CV = 0.257%) and urea sd = 0.0015(CV = 6.894%). The accuracy of the method expressed

through the standard deviation of the differences for pro-


Table 1. Repeatability for FT-IR method

Proteins Casein Urea

x avg. (%) 3.46 2.72 0.0218

sd 0.0084 0.0070 0.0015

CV (%) 0.224 0.257 6.894 Number of evaluations = 10; x avg = average value in %; sd = standard deviation of repeatability;CV = coefficient of variation in %

Table 2. Comparison of reference method and FT-IR calibration results

Proteins Casein Urea

x avg. (%) 3.410 2.654 0.0169

min (%) 2.887 2.223 0.0078

max (%) 3.802 2.963 0.0341

sd 0.0208 0.0342 0.0027CV (%) 0.610 1.290 15.990

d avg. -0.019 +0.006 +0.0029

Number of evaluations = 19; x avg = average value; sd = standard deviation of the differences; CV = coefficient of variation; min, max = minimum and maximum values (calibration range); d avg = average mean difference

Table 3. Correlation coefficients (R) for proteins, casein and urea

Equation of Regression R

Proteins Y = 1.0313x - 0.1259 0.998

Casein Y = 0.9927x + 0.0251 0.989

Urea Y = 0.8159x + 0.0006 0.915

Table 4. Results of non-protein nitrogen determined by the classical method and the ratio between nitrogencomponents

Non-proteinnitrogen (%)

*Caseinnumber

% Non-protein nitrogen/ Total nitrogen

% Urea nitrogen/ Non-protein nitrogen

avg 0.026 0.779 4.9 30.3

min 0.021 0.754 3.8 16.7max 0.034 0.800 5.7 49.2

Number of evaluations = 50; avg = average value; min, max = minimum and maximum values; *casein/protein ratio



teins is sd = 0.0208 (CV = 0,61%), for casein sd =0.0342 (CV = 1,29 %) and for urea sd = 0.0027 (CV =15,99%).

The results of regression analysis are given in Table3. How close the connection is between the reference

methods and the instrumental method using MilkoScan120 was assessed with correlation coefficients, which arefor proteins R = 0.998, for casein R = 0.989 and for ureaR = 0.915.

In Table 4 the ratio between nitrogen component for 50 test samples taken in different areas of Slovenia areshown. Composition of samples with average value for proteins is 3,36%, for casein 2,64% and for urea 0,0169%.The average casein number is 0,785 which corresponds73,1% to 80,4% of the casein to the total protein content.

The casein is often estimated by multiplying the totalprotein results by factor as the casein number which can

introduce large errors in the casein estimate. By using di-rect casein determination the accuracy of the casein re-sults may be improved by 22-42% (Kjr, 1997).

With regard to the total proteins, casein andnon-protein nitrogen (International Standard, IDF 20B:1993), we also established whey proteins, whose levelwas 17.2% on average.

CONCLUSIONOn the basis of testing the comparability of FT-IR

spectrometry and the classical reference methods, we

found that the accuracy (proteins sd = 0,02, casein sd =0,034,urea sd = 0,0027) andrepeatability (proteins sd =0,0084, casein sd = 0,007, urea sd = 0,0015) of the in-strumental method are good.

The instrument ensures good quality of work, whichenables accurate results. We found that the method is ap-propriate for evaluating individual nitrogen components:

total proteins, casein and urea in milk.Among individual nitrogen components, we found

77.9% of casein, 17.2% of whey proteins and 4.9% ofnon-protein nitrogen compounds. In non-protein nitrogen,urea nitrogen accounts for 30.3%.

REFERENCES1. Agnet,Y. (1998): Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometry a

New Concept for Milk and Milk Product Analysis. BulletinIDF 332, Brussels. 58-68.

2. Hohmann, H. (1999): FT-IR using attenuated total

reflectance. International Laboratory, 29(1A). 125.3. Kjær, L. (1997): Say cheese - and think of direct casein determination. Scandinavian Dairy Information, reprint,2/97. 4.

4. Lefier, D. (1998): Application of Fourier Transform InfraredSpectroscopy in Milk and Milk Product Analysis. BulletinIDF 332, Brussels. 54-57.

5. ………. Foss Electric, Aplication Note No. 95: 1996. P/N492280. Calibration for Urea Determination in Raw Cow’sMilk. 8.

6. ………. Foss Electric, Aplication Note No. 99: 1996. BasisCalibration for Milk. 8.

7. ………. Foss Electric, Aplication Note No. 102: 1997. P/N578377. Calibration for Casein in Cow’s Milk. 8.

8. ………. VDLUFA: Methodenbuch VI: Chemische,physikalische und mikrobiologische Unter- suchungs-verfaren für Milch, Milchprodukte und Molkereihilfsstoffe.Darmstadt, VDLUFA-Verlag, 1985, 1988.

9. ………. International Standard, IDF 20B: 1993. Milk - De- termination of nitrogen content - Kjeldahl method (Part 1),Determination of non-protein-nitrogen content (Part 4).12.

10. ………. International Standard, ISO/FDIS 9622: 1999.Whole milk - Determination of milk fat, protein and lactosecontent - Guidance on the operation of mid-infrared in-struments. 27.

11. ………. Slovenski standard, SIST EN ISO 707: 1999. Mleko

in mle~ni proizvodi - Navodila za vzor~enje. 36.12. ………. International Standard, ISO/FDIS 8196-1: 2000.

Milk - Definition and evaluation of the overall accuracy ofindirect methods of milk analysis - Part 1: Analytical at-

tributes of indirect methods. 9.




ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 636.273:637.1

THE MILK PRODUCTION OF HUNGARIAN GREY CATTLE IN THE RESPECTOF THE COMPOSITION OF COLOSTRUM

A. Z. Kovács


ABSTRACT

The ancient Hungarian Grey Cattle was famous in Europe for a thousand years until the 20th century. The fame is due to its meat of excellent flavour and mottling texture. How-ever, this cattle type did not meet the milk production requirements of the 20th century be-cause of its low milk yield, and therefore lost dominance from the beginning of the1900’s, playing only the role of gene bank since the sixties. Considering that its gene base is ideal if crossed with beef cattle and the lack of detailed information on its colostrum and milk composition because of contemporary laboratory techniques, the author tries to fill the gap in this respect in his researched work. The number of colostrum samples was n = 19. The dry matter (31.00%) the protein (20.90%) and the lactose content (4.49%) of the first milked colostrum is overdue surpasses those of all of the cattle types, whichwere cited in the professional literature by some authors. The only component of the first milked colostrum which the Hungarian Grey Cattle stay beyond of the other beef types isthe fat content (4.46%).

Keywords: Hungarian Grey Cattle, colostrum, milk composition

INTRODUCTION

One of the most important tasks of the breedingprogrammes in Hungary is to maintain the ancient breedswith regard to several characteristics related to toleranceand genetic diversity. For the successful realisation of thisand for incorporating these favourable traits into other breeds through breeding, gaining in-depth information on

the advantageous characteristics of these breeds is a pre-requisite.

Obtaining profound knowledge on the products of theold breeds carries importance for two reasons: via analys-ing the data a detailed body of information can be gainedabout the actual breed in terms of its genes (which are lost

or silent in breeds used today) and the interaction of geneslinked to production can be explored. The Hungarian Grey Cattle, which fulfils the criteria, depicted above, excel-lently serves this purpose. Furthermore, this can contrib-ute to discovering valuable traits in the breed, which are tobe incorporated into other breeds and to making the breedknown, and recognised even abroad. The gathered datacan help in answering the question at a satisfactory levelwhether the indigenous Grey Cattle represents any partic-ular value in terms of milk production.

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW

The Hungarian Cattle (the archaic name for the Hun- garian Grey Cattle) used to be a famous slaughter cattle inEurope. During the XVI.-XVII. th century the main routes ofexport delivering hundreds of thousands of the stock ani-

mals were spanning between Buda and Vienna,

Czech-Monrovia, and through Zagreb to Venice. It was at that time that the Hungarian plains became “the nest” for breeding the Grey Cattle. The drop in the export rate coin-cided with the introduction of more modern breeds, whichentailed the loss of significance of the Grey Cattle known

to be an extensious breed. As a result, the stock plum-meted to a critical level in the 1960s.

Since the 1970s the number of cows slowly in-creased (see figures on the 1st table depicting the figuresbetween the 1970s and the 1998s). Now, 2700 cows areregistered as pedigree animals and 80 bulls are cata-logued in the country.

OBJECTIVESBases on the above, the objective of the presented in-

vestigation are summarised below:• Analysing the compounds of the colostrum of the Grey

Cattle following calving,• Studying the qualitative parameters of the colostrum as

plotted against time passed from calving.

MATERIAL AND METHODSThe investigation was carried out in the “Kiskunság”

National Park at the “Bugacpuszta” ranch. The stock un-der study consisted of 193 cows and their offspring. For


Attila Zoltán Kovács, Ph.D. - University of Kaposvár, Faculty of Animal Sci-ence, Guba S. u. 40., 7400 Kaposvár, Hungary



sampling, hand milking was used. In order to determine the composition of the first milked colostrum, the sampleswere taken from 19 cows 3 hours after calving. Out of

these 19 animals, 4 were milked for three consecutivedays at 24, 48, 72 and 96 hours following calving.

The colostrum samples were analysed at the labora-

tory of the Performance Evaluating Ltd ., Gödöll, Hun-gary. The statistical analysis was implemented using theSPSS5.0 version software package, run under Windows.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONThe investigations were partly focused on the com-

positions of the colostrum hence attempting to fill the hia- tus existing in this field, and partly on providing data of thebreed so that a comparison could be made between myresults and the observations to be found in the relevant lit-erature (Figure 1.).

The dry matter content of the colostrum and its protein and sugar content exceeds that of the breeds referred to in the relevant publications. With respect to the dry matter content and protein content, the results I obtained dif-fered significantly when compared to the milkinggenotypes, however, only occasionally could significantdifferences be found between the Grey Cattle and other

beef cattle breed mentioned in the literature.In terms of the sugar content the first milkedcolostrum of the Hungarian Grey Cattle surpasses that ofall the other beef cattle mentioned in the relevant publica-

tions. The standard deviation was smaller than that re-ported elsewhere in similar studies, thus the conclusioncanbedrawnthattheresultsobtainedcantrulybeconsid-ered to be reliable.

The fat content of the first milked colostrum, how-ever, was found to be lower than that of beef cattle breeds

studied according to the literature.If the changes of the components of the colostrum or of the temporary milk are analysed as a function of timeelapsed from calving, the dry matter content show a pro-nounced difference (which increases plotted against timepassed from calving) compared to the data gained at thecorresponding time windows and published elsewhere.

Since the protein content has less importance as the time counted from calving passes (Table 2.), the higher dry matter content is not attributed to elevated proteincontent.

As it is shown in the previous table the tendency ofprotein change is in agreement with the curves drawn byother authors, namely it is hyperbolically dwindling.

The change of the fat content of the colostrum of the Hungarian Grey Cattle does not fit to any curve. In thiscontext, however, it is intriguing to note that, like in thebeef cattle breeds studied hitherto, there is an abrupt de-

creaseinthefatcontentofthecolostrumby24 th aftercalv-ing. Thus, it is confirmed that in the Grey Cattle too, the fatcontent of the colostrum gets to its lowest level by the 1st

day following calving (Table 2.).


Table 1. Number of the Hungarian Grey Cattle under the past thirty years (piece)

Year Cows Bulls Year Cows Bulls Year Cows Bulls

1970 500 19 1984 900 35 1992 1500 60

1975 550 20 1986 1000 40 1994 1600 701980 600 25 1988 1200 50 1996 2000 80

1982 800 30 1990 1200 55 1998 2500 100

Source: Supplement of the Hungarian Grey Cattle Breeding Association (1994)

Figure 1. The main content of the first milked colostrum of the Hungarian Grey Cattle and

comparision with similar components of the other cattle breeds

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

dry matter milk protein milk fat lactose

m a i n c o m p o n e n t s ( % )

Hung. Grey Cattle

Red Angus*

Black Angus*

Hung. Simmental*

Limousin*

Blonde d' Aq.*

vaters Holstein-f.**

vaters Jersey**

Data of literature by Kovács (1999)* and Csapó et al. (1984); Szentpéteri et al. (1986)**





ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 636.1:636.03

SOME SLAUGHTER-HOUSE RATES OF HORSES

Vlasta Mandi}(1) , Tatjana Tušek (2) , D. Alagi}(3) , J. Ljubeši}(4)


ABSTRACT

Nowdays horses are raised and used almost only for sport and recreation and, of course, for meat production. With the possibility of buying fresh horse meat and products based on horse meat, new eating habits have been acquired. The number of horses in the Republic of Croatia has been decreasing continually, which can result in import rather than in export of horse meat, unless a proper and a good breeding plan for horse meat production is made soon. Inexisting small private slaughter-houses, together with other animals, horses are slaughtered

but in a very small number (just to meet the needs of the market). As those horses are of differ-ent genetic bases, (mostly cold blooded and cross-bred) as well as of different age, sex and physical shape, the slaughter-house yield greatly varies. Due to some injuries, blindenss or lameness horses are killed coercively as to gain minimal profit. In distinction from other animals where the percentage of carcass yield is very high, sloughter-house yield of horse car-cass is not high due to a small number of killed animals.

Keywords: slaughter-house yield, horse meat

INTRODUCTIONAlthough the number of horses has been decreasing

continually because they are no more needed in agriculture and in transport and as there has been no stimulationfor their breeding so far, the interest for consuming horsemeat and horse meat products has constantly been grow-ing. This interest has been caused by reopening of slaugh-

ter-houses (where horses are killed), that dissapearedafter the World war II, as well as by a better supplying ofmarket and by acquring habits of consuming horse meatand horse meat products.

In comparison with other kinds of meat (pork, beef,mutton, poultry etc.), horse meat is not less nutritious be-cause its contents are 73% water, 22% proteins, 3% fat,1% minerals (Franceti}, 1970) ; besides, it has a specificsweetish flavour and a favourable dark red colour.

This work is meant to, in present conditions and with the “remains” of present population of horses (not takinginto account sport heads) estimate the level of slaughter house yields to find out the cause of their varying and topoint out other existing problems.

MATERIAL AND METHODSThe source of information and figures which are

met in this work are two small producers of horse meatproducts.

Horses of different age, uneven physical shape,mainlycold blooded andcross-bredare slaughtered. Theyalso vary in weight, from 400–600 rarely 700 kg. This re-sults in varying slaughterhouse yields. Horses are taken to

the slaughterhouse in trucks from different regions of

Croatia (Me|imurje, Zagorje, Podravina, Posavina), and the number of killed animals varies from three to fiveheads.

The world statistical data have shown a tendency of adecrease in the number of horses, approximately 3% ev-ery 20 years. This tendency is much more drastic inCroatia and amounts to 66% for the period between1967–1997 (Ljubeši} and Sukali}, unpublished).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONIn the Table 1 slaughterhouse yields of foals and full

grown horses is presented. The accompanying industries,such as leather trade, brush making, have not shown agreat interest, which, together with the fact that a smallnumber of heads has been killed, has resulted in incom-plete exploatation of horse carcass.

According to the above figures, the minimal liveweight of full grown heads was 480 kg; maximal weight ofcross bred cold blooded heads purchased on sale withoutfattening was 650 kg.

The rates of full-grown heads of cross-bred Lipicahorse vary from 355–485 kg after a period of two monthsof fattening and 104 days of restrained ration (Telebaši},1983).

Considering the small number of heads at the time ofobservations the results of our research should not be

taken for granted and further investigation is needed.


(1) VlastaMandi}, MSc, (2)Tatjana Tušek,Ph.D,(3) Damir Alagi}, DVM, (4) Josip Ljubeši}, Associate Professor – College of Agriculture at Kri evci, M. Demerca 1, 48260 Krièvci, Croatia





ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 636.11

BREEDING AND UTILIZATION OF ARABIAN HORSE TODAY

Vlasta Mandi}(1) , J. Ljubeši}(2) , T. Rastija(3) , @. Bošnjak (4) , M. Sukali}(5)

Professional paper

ABSTRACT

Arab horse raising has a hundred year old tradition. A real stud farm raising started by pur-chasing original reproductive material from Asia in 1895, 1897 and 1899. Apart from state

stud in Gora`de, Arab horse was also raised in several private stud farms, especially inSlavonia and Srijem region. By the end of the II World war Arab horse raising was restricted toonly 2-3 stud farms, regardless the above mentioned oldest Arab stud farm Gora`de. Accord-

ing to reports refering to end of 1940 in former Yugoslavia there were slightly more than 150

grown up thoroughbred Arab heads, stallions and mares in both private and public property. A number of well known stud farms was reduced, thus, Arab horse raising was limited only to stud farms Gora`de, Inocens Dvor and Kara|or|evo. Sires were mostly used in Bosnian-mountain horse breeding whereas in plain areas they were used for ceossing with heavy draft mares or raising of, in that time numerous represented, nonius breed. The year 1970 was characterized by Arab horses reduction, thereby raising stagnation. Horse raisingwas closed, so, 77 Sabich stallion, bought in Germany, started again Arab horse raising,

firstly in Gora`de. It was also attributed by raising establishment of agricultural economy Višnjica near Slatina. At the same time Arab horse raising increased slowly at individual rais-ers in Kutina, Vrbovsko, Istria, â|avica and Zagreb vicinity. According to available data from1999 there were approx. 132 stallions and mares due to horse raisers scattered throught Croatia. All male and female reproductive heads were mostly used as raising heads for thor-oughbred raising or for crossing with other breeds which is justified by the data from the pe-

riod 1930-1935. On the other hand one part of reproductive heads, especially males, wereused as sports heads for gallop races and distance riding as Arab horses were used by their

arrival to present areas and by Arab horse raising tradition.

Keywords: Arab blood horse, raising, sport

INTRODUCTIONArab horse raissing, with us, has a hundred year old

tradition. It started by purchasing of reproductive maresand stallions from Asia in 1895, 1897 and 1899.A studfarm Gora`de has provided 89 offsprings since its first im-port. The second purchase occured in 1900 and 1905,

both from native raising area. In 1895 and 1896 purcaseswere performed from Hungarian stud farm Babolnawhereas new 17 mares were bought from the stud farmRadutz.

It was initial material for stud farm stock foundationwith its all accompanying big problems. According to liter-ature data the biggest problem was poor fertility, a smallnumber of annual foalings and less ablacted foals. Theproblems of foresaid fertility and foals raising have beenpresent for a long time. As Arab horse raising often resultsin the closest blood, younger categories die. However,should this first stage overcome successfully animals of

long life and very strong constitution are obtained.Arab raising often relies on a “type”, i.e. empiric no- tion that has no foundation in terms of variation statisticalmethods. Thus phenomenon of new types in Arab raising

caused tempestuous discussions, due to tradition. A statefarm Gora`de gave a breeding tree from three sources:• First purchase of native mares and stallions was from

Asia• Second purchase originated from Babolne• Third source from a stud farm of Sangwiska prince in

SlavutiFirst purchase in 1895, 1897 and 1899 yielded 89

offsprings (35 male and 54 female heads) in 13 year pe-riod.

Second purchase in 1900 and 1905 comprised 9mares that gave 17 male and 26 female offsprings (43heads).

A purchase of reproductive material originated fromBabolne in 1895 and 1896 comprised 9 reproductivemares which gave 40 offsprings (20 male and 20 femalefoals)


(1) Vlasta Mandi}, MSc, (2) Josip Ljubeši}, Associated Professor - Collegeof Agriculture at Krièvci, M. Demerca 1, 48260 Krièvci, Croatia, (3) Tomo

Rastija, Full Professor - J.J.Strossmayer University of Osijek, Faculty of Ag- riculture, Trg Svetog Trojstva 3, 31000 Osijek, Croatia, (4) @ivko Bošnjak, MSc, Adviser, Ruìna 57, 31000 Osijek, Croatia



Further purchase from Babolne in 1909 and 1910comprised mares 37 Šagija and 38 Šagija as well asmare 36 Hamdani being elominated from the stud farm.

A purchase from the stud farm in Radautz com-prising 17 Arab mares via the stud farm Kalinovica were

productive only in the period 1923-1927. Thus, theywere transferred to Kara|or|evo due to their largeweight and shortage of spirit which was not typical for Arab breed.

Arab stallions were purchased in

-1897 -Kohejlan Abu ArgubMassud

-1898-1905 -Managhie SbaaliSimkanManagnie Sbaali

Simhan

Five basic types should be differed in Arab horsesraising including mare Kuhajl beng a base whereas acomplete offspring belongs to Kuhail type.

Today as well as few hundred years ago Arab siresare classified in five basic types:

Native types Offspring

I KuhajlanII SaklawiIII UbaiyanIV HamdaniV Hadban

55 lines9 lines

12 lines2 lines4 lines

It should be pointed out that regardless other horsebreeds, lines and types -i.e. male and female offspringhave been registered by father and mother. However,with Arab raising offsprings are registered by their mother’s side. There are numerous reasons for that.


There is very little data on Arab horse with us. Due to high reduction of Arab horse raising farms, monitor-ing of raising selection work was rather incomplete.

By theavailable data Arab horse raising occured in:

Inocenc dvor 1910-11 mar es1921-24 mares1935-28 mares1942–29 mares

Retfala 1832-26 mares

Tenja 1884-11 mares

Višnjevci 1895-12 mares

Vrbik 1922-41 mares

Zaravan 1846- 36 mares

Arab horse raising was significantly reduced in somestud farms or private farms immediately after II World war.Only few quality raisings left: Borik- Han Pijesak,Kara|or|evo, \akovo and maybe some individual raisersbut nowhere recorded.

A short history reviw the past is required for better ex-planation of today’s raising.

Purchase of reproductive stallions:

-1897 -Kohejlan Abu Argub

-1898-1905 -Managnie SbaaliSimhanO Bajan eš Šeraki

-1906-1914 - ŠehunMešhur GazalEl Hafi

-1915 - Ilderim

-1918 - Šagija X-13 (theoffspring was large andby that periodunderstanding andrequirements it did notsuit to a popular horseraising and was expelledfrom raising)

-1928 - Lenkoran (gave a verygood offspring, bony andvery strong, of largebody measures.

It is a raising basis through sires whereas female an-imals purchased in 1895, 1897 and 1899 till 1900 and1905 were used for raising (about 35 different mares,more or less known) of which some types dissapeared.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONToday’s position of Arab horse raising in the Repub-

lic of Croatia has been partially comprised by annualchecking. An official checking of Arab horse raising (ofstud farms) was conducted in 1999 in the stud farm“Šargo” â|avica and Višnjica in Slatina.

Individual raisings of the last ten years have beenconsiderably widened and even top quality stallions wereimported from overseas countries.




It is shown that there are no body measures’ high in-crease. Differences are insignificant but should be sub-jected to variational statistical process to get accurate

results. This is our forthcoming scientific goal.Let’s go back to, still divergent, today’s raising. It is

reflected in a raising incompletness or should be sepa-rated due to certain prejudices in terms of Arab Horse rais-ing. If only Beduins are adequate Arab horse raisers thenold Europe and New World with their quality raisingsshould knuckle down and look for new solutions. Arabhorse is a raising base whereas new raising areas, newclimates and new forage base give new usable types thathave appeared in Arab horse raising since 1918. That’swhy native Arab breed horses being affected more or lessby significant stallion Šagija X-13, are under the question

in Europe today. According to birth cerificate Šagija X is ablood stallion from the fifth generation of Koheil Siglavyand its son Šagi born in 1830. As for the mother side itemerged in the fifth generation in 1830.

In other words Stallion Šagija X-13 significantly af-fected Arab horse raising not only with us but in Europe

too. The question is risen: Why is Šagija not convenient for

Arab horse raising.With us, Arab horses utilization was reduced to a

small Bosnian-mountain horse breeding which mainlygave good results.

In other countries Šagija X-13 and its offsprings wereused for raising. Nobody rises a question: How and whydid Šagija originate? Bosnian-mountain horse has beenchanged in the last 30 years, Lipizzaner was grown due toits utilization, heavy draft horses reduced their weight andbecame more lively.

Due to increased amount of available roughageŠagija became taller, larger and heavier horse. However,

its breeding-the main purpose-resulted in certain achieve-ments due to great differences. Other countries took ad-vantage of this fact and use Šagija’s offsprings as validquality Arab horses.


Table 1. Numerical data of Arab horse in the Republic of Croatia

Stallions Mares Offspring Foals

M F M FVišnjica 3 10 1 2 2 1

â|avica 12 12 5 9 2 -

Lipik (1990) - 4 2 1 2 1

Jastrebarsko 4 5 - 2 - -

Kutina 3 8 - - - -

Virovitica 1 5 - - - -

Vrbovsko 1 1 - - - -

Umag 2 6 - - - -

Zlatar - 1 - - - -

êpin - 2 - - - -

Bo`jakovina - 1 - - - -

Table 2. Body measures of Arab raising in male and female heads

Male animals Female animals

n WH* CG** CBC*** n WH CG CBC

Gora`de (1930) 2 153,71 169,29 18,12 19 150,56 169,11 17,55

Borike (1970) 3 156,33 170,66 18,50 19 148,47 164,52 17,07Kara|or|evo(1970) 5 154,80 171,60 17,90 10 157,10 179,70 18,35

Višnjica (1989) 16 153,68 166,25 17,65 26 149,69 161,42 16,69

Šargo (1999) 4 155,00 171,50 18,62 10 151,50 165,40 17,19

*WH =Withers height, **CG=Chest girth, ***CBC=Canon bone circumference

In addition, Arab horse raising occured in Kara|or|evo with approximately 14 heads and Borikama 19 ones.




Thus I make appeals to VAMO organization to con-sider possibility of the offsprings use, especially femaleones, since they are able to provide a quality Arab off-spring in combination with other lines.

CONCLUSIONToday’s Arab horse raiing has some positive results.

It is a very good sign for Arab horse raising. Arab horse isslowly widespreading but with excellent qualities. Privateraisings are increasing. It is indicated by newly createdraisings in Kutina, Zagreb, Vrbovsko, Istria etc. We are sat-isfied with current situation comprising more than 150blood Arab heads.

Number of heads are increasing and new qualityheads import (Australia, Canada etc.) ensures raisingprogress. Unfortunately, apart from Višnjica- PodravskaSlatina there are no raisings in the state sector. Private

raising should work a lot to preserve and purchase new

genetics, which is traditionally in Arab raising. Private rais-ers cooperate with raisers in the neighbouring countriesand very soon they will be members of WAHO organiza-

tion that representing new quality.

REFERENCES1. Bartolovi}, T. (1965): O razvitku drebadi u prvoj godini

ìvota.2. Grkovi}, M. (1931): Naš arapski konj. Vet. Arhiv.3. Ogrizek, A., Hrasnica, F. (1952): Specijalno sto~arstvo,

Uzgoj konja, Zagreb.4. Romi}, S. (1948): Ergela Vrbik. Vet. Arhiv, Zagreb.5. Ilan~i}, D.: Nekadašnje ergele Slavonije i Srijema.

Sto~arstvo.6. Šurda, J.: Plamenna Kniha ~istokrvnych arapskych

koni. Dokumentacija ekonomike melioracija gornjePosavine - podru~je “Lonjsko polje”, Zagreb.



ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 636.1:636.082.13

CROSSING OF HOLSTEIN HORSE BREED WITH SOME OTHER BREEDS

J. Ljubeši}(1) , M. Sukali}(2) , J. Seleš(3) , Vlasta Mandi}(4) , Marija Meštrovi}(5)


ABSTRACT

An experiment of crossing a heavier-weight semi-breed horse (Holstein) with mares of Cro- atian Posavian type draft horse resulted in possibility of such further crossing. Attained prod-uct meets today’s market requirements: firstly as an export-meat category that meets Italian

market requirements, since other markets are not well known, secondly, it can be used as a sport-tourist-recreation horse. It must be pointed out that all produced hybrids did not meet the needs of these two basic criteria. In spite of being potential slaughtery head with good uti-

lization, each produced head can be, according to its exterial properties, used as a sport-tourist animal that showed certain usable values and results proven by the experiment.The hybrids showed some hereditory draft horse properties shown on enclosed photos. In ad-dition, exterier measures show that former knowledge on hybrids can respond the question of

a horse raising on non-utilized pastures which they got used to very well. Thus these horses are able to be estimated by their body development just as our native draft Posavian type horse including possibility of using them as a sport-tourist-recreation horse.

Keywords: Holstein breed, crossing, horse utilization

INTRODUCTIONWe tried to get certain values and results in a cross-

ing carried out between semi draft and draft horse ofPosavian type. Fifteen mares of Posavian type draft horsewere used with Holstein foals.

It is well known that today’s Holstein originated fromheavy agricultural horse via thoroughbred horse use toreach position of general purpose sport horse.

We conducted the crossing experiment between Hol-stein breed and inland Posavian type draft horse to getnew knowledge on hybrids usage, i.e. to respond thequestions: what are their meat -use properties or sport-

tourism-recreation ones.Namely, we aimed to find out their real value in a

horse breeding of the Republic of Croatia as well as their contribution to a horse breeding development.

Basic female population of Croatian Posavian typedraft horse with boundless number of female reproductivehorses and Holstein foals is able to provide valuable andwell usable hybrids.

MATERIAL AND METHODSA new breed of horse was tried to be introduced in a

horse stud breed of Croatian draft horse at an integratedplant Novska during the admission season 1987. On thebasis of literature data and foals use possibilities we de-cided to introduce a Holstein breed that, apart from other

properties, was used as a breeder. Foal Farmer 1 waschosen for, by its birth certificate, it is able to meet our de-mands in terms of anticipated offspring.

A stud farm Kony sto~arstvo Novska possessedapprox. 60 reproductive mares of Posavian type Croatiandraft horse. They were very heterogenous in terms of their

properties concerning their fathers. All of them originatedfrom native breeding of Lonjsko polje (Novska, Lipovljani,Jasenovac, Lonja, Drenov Bok etc.).

Fifteen mares of very diverse exterier and bodyweights were selected for the foresaid crossing (Croatiandraft horse x Holstein) by a random design. It should bepointed out that there were reproductive mares rangedfrom native old Posavian horse, hybrids with heavier draftfoals to heavier samples with emphasized draft horse ef-fect. Average body weight of reproductive mares ranged480-600kg.FiveyearoldfoalFarmer1usedinthiscross-ing weighed 580 kg.

In 1987 the admission was performed by hand in acontrolled way.Fifteen reproductive mares that spent aspring-fall period on Mokro polje pastures (an integratedpart of Lonjsko Polje) were admissioned. Fourteen mares(9 male and 5 female foals) foaled in spring 1988. Maresand two month old foals were on pastures again during thegrowing season i.e. till first frost emerged (mid October).

In a winter period of 1988/89 the foals were housedin a joint sTable together with mares in Raji} place and asablacted foals went back to Mokro polje pastures.


(1) Josip Ljubeši}, Associated Professor, (3) Josip Seleš, BAg, (4) Vlasta Mandi}, MSc, (5) Marija Meštrovi}, Eng, - College of Agriculture at Kri evci, M. Demerca 1, 48260 Krièvci, Croatia, (2) Miroslav Sukali}, Ph. D, Adviser, A. Mihanovi}a 15, 48260 Krièvci, Croatia



In 1989 animals were separated by sex, females (5heads) stayed with mares whereas 7 male heads were

transported to the Agricultural Institute Krièvci in 1990.Since the animals were on pastures without sTables

and special human care it was not possible to observe

their growth and development except regular visits andnoticing some importantchanges (diseases, injuries etc.).

In 1991 3 year old male heads were castrated and treated in the same conditions. Namely, female headswere on large bent pastures of Mokro polje and male oneson fenced pastures in Krièvci. Here, we have to point out

that spring-summer-autumn feeding was only pasturewithout added vigorous forage.

Winter rationwas composed of average meadow hay(3-5 kg), corn silage by 15 kg daily and vigorous part ofration (oat+corn ear) 2-3 kg on both places.

All heads were ready to work in a winter/spring pe-

riod of 1990/91. Thus, heads were trained to basic work atage of 3 years. Also, all the heads were trained to be sad-dled and teamed.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONIn 1991 all the heads at age of approx. 3 years (2

years, 10 months and 20 days) were measured prior tobeing trained to work. Fifteen basic measures includingbody weight were taken.

As there was total of 12 heads (7 males and 5 fe-males) which provides not sufficient data for individualanalysis per sex it was done for both sexes together.

Data processed by a common statistical methodsyielded the results as follows (Table 1).

Unfortunately, obtained data can not be compared tosimilar crossings since there are not any other or there arenot sufficient animals number at controlled crossings.There are few data related to hybrids between Holstein andLipizzaner in devastated stud farm Lipik. However, there is

a small number of hybrids between Lipizzaner and nativePosavian type draft horse in the area of Nova Gradiška anda part of Slavonski Brod. Those data have neither beencollected nor processed. Besides, as for Posavian drafthorse, Lipizzaner occured in fourth and further genera-

tions since it was used 30 and more years ago. Thiscrossing between heavier semi breed and light draft horseis better to compare with body measures of these hybrids’mothers.

According to literature data Posavian draft horsefrom 1940-42 was 155 cm in height measured by the

tape, light, with pronounced warm blooded effect-Li-

pizzaner and some nonius. Thus, it is agile and lively. It ischaracterized by a good appearance; deep, wide andcompact. Crupper is wide and cleft slightly higher thanwither, often diagonal but not long. Resistant and endur-ing, less food requirements and well adjusted to Posaviandamp and underwater pastures.

According to Romi} from the period 1950-52 and hisown data (Ljubeši}, 1985) Posavian draft horse pos-sessed body properties as follows in Table 2.:

The body measures from 1989 refer only to mothersof the observed 12 heads (7 males and 5 females).

Hybrids of Holstein x Posavian draft horse, although

very young, only 3 years old, are slightly higher compared to draft horse population and significantly larger com-


Table 1. Body measures of hybrids between Croatian draft horse and Holstein (n=12)

Indicators x s Cv sx M F M F

Min. Max.

WH by stick 146.33 4.53 3.09 1.30 139 143 152 152

Back height 140.16 4.25 3.03 1.22 133 137 147 145

Crupper height 148.58 3.60 2.42 1.04 142 144 151 153

Tail root height 136.25 2.76 2.02 0.79 130 135 140 139

Body length 151.83 3.61 2.37 1.04 147 145 157 155

Chest depth 60.83 3.15 5.17 0.91 57 57 65 63

Shoulders width 41.91 1.16 2.76 0.33 40 40 43 43

Hips width 48.58 2.06 4.24 0.59 46 45 51 52

Crupper length 49.91 2.64 5.28 0.76 47 46 56 51

Chest girth 181.83 8.96 4.92 2.58 173 167 189 190

Cannon bonecircumference

19.41 0.86 4.43 0.24 19 18.5 20 19

Body weight 425.91 40.11 9.41 11.59 410 318 495 445

Wither heightby a tape

158.41 4.18 2.63 1.20 152 152 166 161



pared to hybrids of Posavian type draft horse andLipizzaner.

Upper line is in most cases typical as well as at drafthorses. It also refers to crupper slantness-correlation be-

tween crupper height and tail root height-root setting.Body length is more or less identical.

Hips width and crupper length correlation at hybridsalso represents square, typical for draft horse.

Chest girth can not be compared since it depends ona season-taking time related to fitness or spring-sum-mer-autumn pasture amount.

Cannon bone circumference is with hybrids less thanwith parents. Thus it is possible to anticipate better utiliza-

tion for these animals since it is very interesting for themarket.

Obtained animals as well as their purpose and usagecan be seen from some photographs.

As all draft horses, they represent meat producerssince by introducing heavier semi breed horses they havenot lost anything relative to size and weight. The hybridsadjusted to pastures very well with neither winter rationlarge investments nor facilities.

Other possibility of hybrids utilization,proven in 1990

and partially 1992, referes to their use as sport recreationhorses. They are characterized by good and calm behav-iour, more lively and agile compared to draft ones and far cheaper in production than any other semi blood horse.These horses are produced on pastures without vigorousforages except a little amount in short winter period. Adraft horse female population as well as reasonably se-lected male sire is a basis for such heads production.

CONCLUSIONWe think that crossings provide new results. Thus, a

crossing trial carried out with Holstein breed and other

breeds provided certain results. A step speed and lengthwas achieved,being very significant from riding sport as-pect.

Other direction is achieving usable sport horse jump-ing sport. They are not top quality heads for obtainingpresticious results, but as usable sport horses they pro-vide satisfactory results.

Such hybrids are thought to be useful for police andarmy requirements as usable overhauls.

REFERENCES

1. Bari} Stana (1965): Statisti~ke metode primijenjene u

sto~arstvu. Agronomski glasnik, Zagreb.2. Hrasnica, F., Ogrizek, A. (1961): Sto~arstvo, op}i dio, Zagreb.3. Ljubeši}, J. i suradnici (1982): Današnja populacija hlad-

nokrvnog konja na podru~ju sjeverozapadne Hrvatske.Veterinarski glasnik, Beograd. Ljubeši}, J., Seleš, J.(1985): Korištenje holstein genoma u lipicanskom uzgoju.Krièvci – Lipik.

4. Majhen, B. (1985): Proizvodna svojstva današnje populacijehladnokrvnjaka bjelovarske op}ine. Sto~arstvo, Zagreb.

5. Rako, A. i suradnici (1958): Sto~arstvo gornje Posavine.Dokumentacija ekonomike melioracija gornje Posavine –podru~je “Lonjsko polje” – Zagreb.

6. Romi}, S. (1975): Kapacitet rasta i proizvodna svojstva

hrvatskog hladnokrvnjaka. Praxis veterinaria 2, Zagreb.7. Seleš, J. (1981): Prilog poznavanju hrvatskog hladnokrvnogkonja. Agronomski glasnik, Zagreb.

8. Sukali}, M. i suradnici (1990): Mogu}nosti proizvodnjekonjskog mesa na prirodnim travnja~kim površinama uSR Hrvatskoj. Sto~arstvo, Zagreb. Sukali} M. i suradnici(1985): Proizvodnja konja za meso u zemlji i za izvoz.Veterinarski glasnik, Beograd.


Table 2. Body measures of Posavian draft horse

Indicators Romi}

n = 32 (1950/52)Ljubeši}

n = 25 (1985)Ljubeši}

n = 12 (1989)

Withers height by a stick 137.14 143.68 144.12Body length 139.70 148.68 -

Chest depth 64.50 67.36 -

Hip width - 53.08 -

Crupper length - 48.84 -

Chest girth 167.10 193.56 194.25

Cannon bone circumference 17.50 21.64 21.21

Withers height by tape - 159.68 158.35

Body weight 342.60 519.48 -

Average age - 6.96 6.12



ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 639.215.2:546

CONCENTRATIONS OF Hg, Pb, Cd AND As IN MEAT OF FISH-PONDCARP (CYPRINUS CARPIO)

I. Bogut (1) , Elizabeta Has-Schön(2) , R. Janson(3) , Z. Antunovi}(4) , D. Bodakoš(5)


ABSTRACT

Heavy metals and metalloids are very frequent pollutants of surface waters. Due to hightoxicity heavy metals are dangerous for living organisms. Contamination chain is always in the following cycle: industry, atmosphere, soil, water, phytoplankton, fish and human beings. The aim of the research is to determine concentration of Pb, Hg, Cd and As in meat of two-year-old fish-pond carp. For lead and mercury determination electrothermal technique to AAS Perkin-Elmer 4100 ZL was applied whereas to determine concentrationof Hg and As we applied hydride technique to AAS Perkin-Elmer 2380 with MHS-10 sys-tem. In 17 analysed meat samples concentration of Pb ranged from 0,120 to 0,750 mg kg -1 , Hg from 0,024 to 0,308 mg kg-1 , Cd from 0,07 to 0,019mg kg-1 and As from 0,025 to 0,052 mg .kg-1 The research has proved positive correlation at high level of significance be-tween concentration of Pb and body weight (r=0,914; p 0,001) whereas correlation be-tween body weight and concentration of Hg (r=0,512, P 0,05) was significant. Determined concentrations of heavy metals in fish-pond carp meat are lower than those permitted by the Law on Foodstuffs of the Republic of Croatia.

Keywords: Pb, Hg, Cd, As, Cyprinus carpio

INTRODUCTIONDue to high level of toxicity, persistence and ten-dency to accumulate in surface waters, heavy metalsand metalloids are very dangerous for living organisms if

their concentration is higher than allowed. Decomposi- tion of heavy metals in water is a very slow process and they cannot be detoxicated by metabolic processes. Tox-icity of heavy metals for fish depends to a large degreeon pH value of water, concentration of oxygen dissolved,concentration of magnesium and potassium ions(Svobodova et al., 1991) as well as on feeding and fishage (Wiener and Griesy, 1979; Svobodova 1993). The

source of water pollution can be of geological origin as itis the case with As, but human activity causes muchhigher level of pollution . Contamination chain is alwaysin the following cycle: industry, atmosphere, soil, water,phytoplankton, zooplankton, fish and human beings or :soil, plant, animal and human beings. (Kadar et al.,2000) Problem of heavy metals concentration in fishmeat was analysed in more detail in the late 50’s andearly 60’s. In a small village near Minimata Bay in Japan,46 people died, 700 were left paralysed and 22 babieswere poisoned prenatally after they had eaten fish, shell-fish, and cephalopoda which were intoxicated by

methyl-mercury. Similar accident happened in Niagata in1970 where people had eaten sea fish with high concentration of methyl-mercury (Prpi}-Maji}, 1994). Almost at the same time, increased concentration of heavy metals

and metalloids was noticed in fresh water fish in the openwaters of Sweden and Canada. ( Ackefors, 1970)Toxic metals can enter human organism through

inhalation, ingestion and in skin contact. Poisoning canbe acute of chronic. The most frequent effects areneurotoxic, hemotoxic, nephrotoxic, effects on respira-

tory system and reproduction (Dreibach and Robert-son, 1987).

Taking into account the above mentioned facts, theaim of the research was to determine concentration of Pb,Hg, Cd and As in meat of two-year-old pond carp.

MATERIAL AND METHODSTo provide a continuos supply of the market withfresh fish, in some fish-ponds in Croatia carp are being

taken out ot the fish-pond by fishing-nets every summer.In July 1997, 17 carp weighing between 800 and 1500 gwere taken as samples for analysis. All 17 were taken outof the same fish-pond. From each carp scales and part of

the muscle below upper fin were taken off. Before beingprepared for determination of Pb, Hg, Cd and As meatsamples had been stored in refrigerator at -18C. Fish agewas determined by scales monitoring applying the


(1) Ivan Bogut, Ph.D, (5) Dragutin Bodakoš, Ph.D - Faculty of Food Technol-ogy,F. Kuha~a 18, 31000 Osijek,Croatia (2)Elizabeta Has-Schön, Assistant Professor, (3) Rahela Janson - Teacher Training College, L. Jagera 9, 31000Osijek, Croatia, (4) Zvonko Antunovi}, Assistant Professor - J.J. Stross-

mayer University of Osijek, Faculty of Agriculture, Trg Sv. Trojstva 3, 31000Osijek, Croatia



method of Hol~ik and Hensel (1972). Weight of the fishwas determined by precise balance.

For Hg and As determination a hydride technique toAAS Perkin-Elmer 2380 with MHS - 10 system (Mer-cury-Hydride Type 10) was applied whereas to determine

Cd and Pb we applied electrothermal technique to AAS PE4100 ZL.

Statistical data processing was accomplished by acomputer programme “Statistica for Windows 4.0” and itincluded computation of arithmetic mean, standard devia-

tion and correlation analyses.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONTable 1 shows that concentration of Pb in muscles

ranged from 0.170 to 0.750 mg kg -1. Similar Pb concentration was found in research done by Svobodova et al.(1993) whereas higher value was found in meat of

two-year-old carp grown in the fish-ponds near SlavonskiBrod (Martinovi} et al., 1994). Permitted Pb concentrationin the Republic of Croatia in fresh fish meat is 1 mg kg-1.Significantly lower concentration of Pb is allowed in Den-mark (0.3 mg kg-1) and Germany (0.5 mg kg-1).

Highly significant positive correlation (r= 0.914,P 0.001) was found when comparing individual bodywieght of carp and concentration of Pb in meat.

One possible cause of high Pb concentration in carpmeat is shooting allowed in fish-pond areas. For a number of years during hunting season, fish-pond areas havebeen hired to foreign hunters for duck shooting. It has

been estimated that one hunter during one shooting,leaves behind about 2 to 3 kg of lead in form of shot. Ashunting season lasts for several months, and every week-end 6 or 7 hunters hunt in the area, it is easy to calculate

the amount of Pb in the water. Besides, considerablequantity of shot accumulates in ponds through kill andwhen shooing away cormorants, which, since the year 1998 haven’t been protected species any more.

Acute intoxication of fish with Pb can be recognisedby damaged gills epithelium, erythrocytes, leucocytes andnervous system.

Pb is a cumulative toxin. In human beings, it binds

with SH group of proteins, apart from that, Pb damagesblood circulation, central nervous system, liver and kid-neys. (Dreibach and Robertson 1987)

Determined concentration of Hg in meat of two-year-old carp ranged from 0.024 to 0.308 mg kg-1.Lower concentration of Hg was discovered in researchdone by Svobodova (1993) in muscles of carp from openwaters in the Czech Republic, and even lower by Doganec

(1995) open waters in Slovenia. Very lowconcentration ofHg was discovered in meat, liver and kidneys of Califor-nian trout. Fish samples had been taken from 5 differentfish farms in the Czech Republic. Low values of Hg con-centration in tissues of analysed trout are the result of wa-

ter and food quality (Svobodova et al., 1996).Hygienic limit of Hg content fresh fish meat in the Re-

public of Croatia is 0.5 mg kg-1, except for tuna, sword-fish, cephalopoda, shellfish and crabs; the limit for thosespecies is 1 mg kg-1. In most European countries, hy-gienic limit of Hg content in fish meat ranges from 0.05mg kg-1 to 0.07 mg kg-1, except from the Czech Republic

where the limit is 0.1 mg kg-1 in the placid fish meat and0.6 mg kg-1 in meat of predatory fish. (Svobodova et al.,1993, 1996).

Concentration of Hg discovered by our research ishigh, but the source of water pollution is unknown and be-cause of that it is necessary to undertake a thorough in-vestigation of fish-pond water supply. It is known that Hgenters surface waters with industrial waste and throughatmosphere (Bogut et al., 1998) A part of Hg builds itselfinto a feeding chain, and then into fish. Except with food,Hg enters fish body directly through skin and gills.(Svobodova et al., 19991).

Table 1 shows that concentrations of Cd ranged from0.007 to 0.019 mg kg-1. According to Law on Foodstuffspermitted quantity of Cd in fresh fish is 0.1 mg kg-1. Sig-nificantly lower concentrations are allowed in the CzechRepublic and Great Britain (0.05 mg kg-1) and higher inRussia (0.2 mg kg-1)

Possible sources of contamination with Cd are shotand fertilisers used for fish-pond fertilisation or fertilizersfrom plugh-fields.

According to experts from the World Health Organi-zation (WHO/FAO) a tolerant quantity of Cd which is entershuman body with food shouldn’t be more than 400 to 500

micrograms.Concentrations of As determined in 17 samples of two-year-old fish-pond carp ranged from 0.025 mg kg-1 to


Table 1. Average values and variability of Pb, Hg, Cd, As in meat of fish-pond carp (mg kg -1)

Statistical

Marker Pb Hg Cd As

N 17 17 17 17

X 0.352 0.145 0.013 0.035

S 0.190 0.097 0.005 0.009

k Y 53.97 67.24 40.76 26.28Min 0.170 0.024 0.007 0.025

Max 0.750 0.308 0.019 0.052




0.052mg kg-1. Doganec (1995) discovered significantlylower concentrations of As in carp meat whereas analysesby Petrovi} (1981) showed significantly higher concen-

trations of As in carp meat. In our country, a toleratedquantity of As is 2 mg kg-1 for fresh water fish whereas

most of the countries have set the limit of 1mg kg-1.The main source of water pollution with As is indus-

trial waste from tanneries and paint producing factories.As accumulates in zooplankton organisms which are fishfood. People suffer poisoning through contaminated foodor water. Symptoms are: problems with digestion, cere-bral signs, skin, cardiovascular and hepatic changes andmutagen or carcinogen effect.

CONCLUSIONOn the basis of the research on the content of heavy

metals and metalloids in meat of two-year-old fish-pondcarp the following conclusions can be drawn:

Concentrations of heavy metals: Pb, Hg, Cd and ofmetalloid As in carp meat were not higher than those per-mitted by the Law on Foodstuffs.

Statistical analyses shows a highly significant corre-lation (r=0.914, P 0.001) between Pb concentration inmeat and body weight, and significant correlation(r=0.512,P 0.05) between body weightandHg content.

Determined concentrations of Pb andHg in some fishsamples are higher than those allowed in some Europeancountries.

REFERENCES1. Ackefors, H. (1970): A Survey of the Mercury Pollution Prob-

lem in Sweden With Special References to Fis. Oceanogr.Mar. Biol. 8, 203-2224.

2. Bogut, I., Bogut, S., Ivankovi}, S. (1998): Die Wasser-

verschmutzung durch Scwermetalle und DerenSchädliche Wirkung auf die Gesundheit der Fische undMenschen, Znanstveni glasnik, 5-6, 233-246.

3. Bogut, I., Has-Schön, E., Janson, R., Milakovi}, Z., Brki}, S.(2000): Lead and Mercury Content in Tissues of PondCarp (Cyprinus carpio) Acta Veterinaria Brno (in press).

4. Dreibach, R., Robertson, W. (1987): Handbook of Poisoning,Prevention, Diagnosis. Appleton Lange, Norwalk, LosAltos California.

5. Kadar, I., Koncz, J., Fekete, S. (2000): Experimental Study ofCd, Hg, Mo, Pb and Se Movement in Soil-Plant-AnimalSystem. International conference Proceedings 72-76.

6. Hol~ik, J., Hensel, K. (1972): Ichtiologycka priru~ka, Obzor Bratislava.

7. Martinovi}, Ð.,Koštrum, M., âuši},N. (1994): Koncentracije teških metala u tkivima ribnja~kog šarana. Zbornik radovaMetali u hrani i okolišu 247-252.

8. Prpi}-Maji}, D. (1994): Metali i metaloidi stalni pratioci~ovjeka. Zbornik radova Metali u hrani i okolišu 8-17.

9. Svobodova, Z., Vikusova, B., Machova, J. (1991): Diagnostic,Prevention and Therapy of Fish Diseases and Intoxica-

tions. VURH Vodnany 167-231.10. Svobodova, Z., Vikusova, B., Machova, J., Bastl, J.,

Hrbkova, M., Svobodnik, J. (1993): Monitoring of ForeignSubstances in Fishes from the Elbe River in theêlakovice Locality, Buletin VURH, Vodnany 29, 47-61.

11. Svobodova, Z., Vykusova, B., Pia~ka, V., Hejtmanek, M.,

Bastl, J. (1996): Checking the of Metals and of OrganicPollutants in Tissues of Marcetable Rainbow Trout, Bulle-

tin VURH Vodnany 32, 55-69.12. Wiener, J., Giesy, J. (1979): Concentrations of Cd, Cu, Mn,

Pb and Zn in fishes in Highly Organic Softwater Pond. J.Fish. Res. Board Can. 36, 270-279.



ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 639.31:639.216.4

INVESTIGATIONS ON TECHNOLOGICAL PARAMETERS IN INTENSIVEREARING OF PIKE-PERCH (STIZOSTEDION LUCIOPERCA)

T. Molnár (1) , Cs. Hancz(2) , M. Molnár (3) , Gabriella Stettner (4)


ABSTRACT

Market demands and competition force the production of high quality freshwater fish in European aquaculture. In Hungary pike-perch is the most „noble” and perhaps the most sensitive fish species. One of the constraints of the increasing its production in natural waters, reservoirs and ponds is the shortage in adequate sized alevins. The possible solution of this problem can be the elaboration of intensive rearing technics of pond pre-reared fry. The aims of the present work were to test the growing capacity, feed con-version and survival of pike-perch in intensive circumstances. Fish were kept in 130 l aquaria working in recirculation system at an average water temperature of 22 0.5 C.Two stocking densities were applied (18 and 36 fish/aquarium). Minced fish (test) and live prey (control) were offered twice a day till satiation in two replications. The experiment lasted 4 weeks. According to our results minced fish is suitable feed in the intensive rearing of pike-perch alevins. Daily food intake was only influenced significantly by different feeds (2.01g vs.4.53 g, test and control, respectively). Feeding and stocking density had significant effect (P=0.001 and 0.017) on the average weight gain (0.52 g and 1.40 g forminced fish and live feed, respectively, 1.02 g in lower and 0.90 g in higher density). Owning to the high variances treatment effect on feed conversion proved to be not significant. Average survival of the minced fish fed group was 62.2 % vs. 78.8 % of the

live fish fed alevins. This difference was significant (P<0.01) in the first two weeks when almost all of the losses happened due to cannibalism and other unknown reasons. Based on our results a period of 10–14 days is needed for pre-reared pike-perch to change gradually their feeding from zooplankton to minced fish diet.

Keywords: pike-perch, feeding, stocking density, intensive rearing

INTRODUCTIONThe pike-perch is one of the most noble and perhaps

the most sensitive fish in Hungary. Market demands andcompetition force the production of high quality freshwa-

ter fish in European aquaculture. One of the constraints of the increasing pike-perch production in natural waters,reservoirs and ponds is the shortage in adequate sized al-evins. The possible solution of this problem can be theelaboration of intensive rearing technics of pondpre-reared fry. It seems to be justified since the intensiverearing of its North American relative (Stizostedionvitreum) is more or less resolved. There are recommenda-

tions for the adequate stocking density (Kuipers andSummerfelt, 1994; Chesire andSteele, 1972) and encour-aging preliminary results are published for the transforma-

tion to dry and semi-moist foods (Colesante et al., 1986;Kuipers and Summerfelt, 1994). Intensive rearing of thepike perch larvae on artificial diet is not viable because theprevious experiments showed poor growth and high mor-

tality (Klein Bretteler, 1989; Schlumberger and Proteau,1991) and the pre-rearing in ponds is easy to resolve. Thegreat growing capacity of the pre-reared pike perch can be

well exploited with high value artificial foods and from 2grams to more than 300 grams growth can be achievedon 22-26 oC temperature in a year (Hilge, 1990).

Our final aim was to study growing capacity, foodconversation and survival of the pike-perch under inten-sive conditions.

MATERIAL AND METHODSThe study was carried out in the Fish Laboratory of

the University of Kaposvár , from 14 thofJuneto16 th of July1999. After a two weeks period of conditioning the experi-ment continued for 4 weeks. Against Ichtyophtirius infec-

tion malachit green was applied in the first two weeks.In this period the fingerlings were kept in 150 l

troughs and live bream fry was fed ad libitum. After thisperiod fish were introduced into 10 aerated, 150 l aquariaunder 18 and36 individual/ aquarium.Starting weight was1,86 1,01 gram and the average initial length was


(1) Tamás Molnár, Ph.D student, (2) Csaba Hancz,DSc, (3)Marcell Molnár, Ph.D student, (4) Gabriella Stettner, Researcher - University of Kaposvár, Faculty of Animal Science, Guba S. u. 40, 7400 Kaposvár, Hungary



54,48 9,54 millimetre. Control group in 5 aquaria wasfed by live prey ad libitum and in the other 5 aquaria the

treatment group received only minced fish from the begin-ning. The different stocking densities were divided in thesame ratio between the treatment and control groups.

Feed was offered two times a day, weight and length mea-surements were made weekly on all individuals. The aver-age temperature was 22 0,5 C in the aquaria working inrecalculation system.

Statistical analysis was carried out with SPSS for Windows 8.0, the effects of the different rearing condi-

tions were estimated with ANOVA and chi-square test. Themeans were compared by S-N-K test.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONGrowth data of thedifferent treatmentcombinations

where: weight1 = initial weight, and weight 2 = finalare shown in Tables 1 and 2.

where: weight1 = initial weight, and weight 2 = final weight

Daily food intake (2.01g vs.4.53 g, test and control,respectively) was only influenced significantly by differentfeeds (Figure1), stocking density hadno significant effect.

Feeding (Figure 2) and stocking density (Figure 3)had significant effect (P = 0.001 and 0.017) on the aver-

ageweightgainandinthesecondcasethedifferencesap-peared on the first and third experimental week.

Owning to the high variance treatmenteffects on feedconversion proved to be not significant mainly in the first

two experimental weeks. (First week: 6.524.12 and4.191.38 g/g , second week 3.260.46 and 6.695.95g/g for the 36 and 18 stocking density; 4.060.98 vs.6.684.14 g/g and 3.180.53 vs. 6.776.69 g/g for livingprey and minced fish, respectively).

Average survival of the minced fish fed group was62.2% vs. 78.8% of the live fish fed alevins. This differ-ence was significant (P<0.01) in the first two weekswhen almost all of the losses happened due to cannibal-ism appearingas a consequence of the starvation after thefood change and other unknown reasons. The treatmenteffect on cannibalism was not significant. Based on our results a 10 – 14 day period is needed for pre-rearedpike-perch to change gradually their feeding from zoo-plankton to minced fish diet. It is supported by Nickum’sresults (1978), who found that in pond pre-rearing ofwalleye (Stizostedion vitreum) losses due to starvation

appear in the first two weeks.

CONCLUSIONBased on our results the intensive rearing of pond

pre-reared of pikeperch on not living food (minced fish) isviable.

In the experimental period the stocking density hadsignificant effect only on the average weight gain and notstatistically significant but well perceptible effect on thefood conversion in the first two experimental weeks. Since

the stocking density had no effect on the survival and can-nibalism further experiences are needed to determine theoptimal density.

Average survival of the minced fish fed group was62.2% vs. 78.8% of the live fish fed alevins. This differ-


Table 1. Growth data of pre-reared pike-perch in the combinations of the living prey- minced fish feeding and 18-36stocking density

Minced fish –18 Minced fish -36 Living prey-18 Living prey-36

Initial weight 1.49 0.59 1.72 0.90 2.34 1.39 2.02 1.14

Initial length 51.88 7.96 53.90 9.98 57.36 11.76 55.62 9.87

Final weight 3.84 1.85 5.12 3.08 10.38 3.32 7.62 2.48

Final length 66.81 9.94 70.65 14.48 95.46 12.24 86.75 9.85

SGR (%/day)a 3.38 3.90 5.32 4.74 a The Specific growth rate was counted by the next way

Table 2. Parameters of the growth equations belonging to the different treatment combinations

Treatment combination Coefficient ofdetermination

Significance level(p<)

Coefficient ofregression 1(k)

Constant(lnA)

Minced fish 18-density 0.522 0.008 0.035 0.234

36-density 0.406 0.047 0.043 0.305

Living prey 18-density 0.615 0.007 0.058 0.733

36-density 0.636 0.001 0.050 0.6031 lnW = lnA + kt

100days

weight1lnweight2lnSGR



ence was significant (P<0.01) in the first two weeks.Based on these data a 10–14 day period is needed for pre-reared pike-perch to change gradually their feedingfrom zooplankton to minced fish diet.

Asaconsequenceofthechangeoffeedingdailyfood

intake and the average weight gain of minced fish fedgroups were lower than the levels measured in the groupsfed on live prey. In food conversion there is no significant

treatment effect. Further investigations are needed withfeeding of high value artificial foods.

REFERENCES1. Chesire, W.F., Steele, K.L. (1972): Hatcheriy rearing of

walleye using artificial food. Progressive Fish-Culturist34:96-99

2. Colesante, R.T., Youmans, N.B., Ziolkoski, B. (1986): Inten-sive culture of walleye fry with live food and formulated di-ets. Progressive Fish-Culturist 48:33-37

3. Hilge,V. (1990): Beobachtungen zur aufzuht von Zandern(Stizostedion lucioperca L.) im Labor. Arch. Fish Wiss. 40(1/2):167-173

4. Klein Breteler, J.P.G. (1989): Intensive culture of pike-perchfry with live food. pp.203-207. In: Aquaculture- a biotech-nology in progress. Vol. 1. N. De Pauw et al. (Eds) Euro-pean Aquaculture Society, Bredene, 1220p.

5. Kuipers, K.L., Summerfelt, R.C. (1994): Converting pond-re-ared Walleye fingerlings to formulated feeds: Effects ofdiet, temperature and stocking density. Journal of AplliedAquaculture, Vol 4(2):31-57

6. Nickum, J.G. (1978): Intensive culture of walleyes : state of the art. pp. 187-194. in R.L. Kendall,editor. SelectedCoolwater Fishes of North America. American FisheriesSociety1. Special Publication No.11, Washington, D.C.

7. Schlumberger, O., Proteau, J.P. (1991): Production de juve-niles de sandre (Stizostedion lucioperca.). Aqua Revue36: 25-28.


3,92

1,28

3,96

1,74

4,67

2,32

5,58

2,70

0,00

1,00

2,00

3,00

4,00

5,00

6,00

D a i l y f o o d i n t a k e

( g / i n d i v i d u a l / w e e k )

1. 2. 3. 4.

Experimental weeks

Changes in the daily food intake

according to feeding

live prey

minced fish

1,05

0,24

1,31

0,38

1,48

0,74

1,77

0,71

0,00

0,20

0,40

0,60

0,80

1,00

1,20

1,40

1,60

1,80

A

v e r a g e w e i g h t g a i n


1 2 3 4

Experimental we eks

Changes in the average weight gain

according to feeding

live prey

minced fish

0,50

0,79 0,86 0,83

1,01

1,22 1,24 1,24

0,00

0,20

0,40

0,60

0,80

1,00

1,20

1,40

A v e r a g e w e i g h t g a i n


1.hét 2.hét 3.hét 4.hét

Experimental weeks

Changes in the average weight gain

according to the s tocking density

36

18

Figure 2. Changes in the average weight gain according to feeding

Figure 3. Changes in the average weight gain according to the stocking density

Figure 1. Changes in the daily food intake according to feeding



ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 638.162

NUTRITIOUS – HEALING STRUCTURE OF SOME KINDS OF HONEY INEASTERN CROATIA

Z. Tucak (1) , A. Tucak (2) , Z. Puškadija(3) , Marijana Tucak (4)


ABSTRACT

Honey as food and honey as medicine are for a long time in peoples use. The nutritious and healing substances are different, also of the honey-herbs which the bees visit. The analised kind of honey (Acacia, Flower honey, linden-honey) showw a real richnes in healing and nutri-tious structure. The organoleptic and chemical features of the analised honey- types fit intothe standards of Republic Croatia and the Europian Unit. The said exhibitors justificate the

hitherto way of bee-keeping and the technology of honey-production.

Keywords: honey, organoleptic analysis, quality

INTRODUCTIONHoney is getting a more and more looked-for article

because of its energetic and healing characteristics. Whatis the quality of honey in Republic Croatia? The organo-leptic and chemical examination of honey of differenthoney-giving plants in Eastern Slavonia shows as that theproduced honey is of a exceptional quality and comprisesitself into the most severe standards of Republic Croatia

and the European Union. Those facts make us liable toprotect the honey-giving plants and continue the technol-ogy of honey-production.

MATERIAL AND METHODSThe estimation of the honey-quality has been esti-

mated by the standard methods (NN 20/2000.).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Some sorts of honey differ by their organleptic char-acteristics are: the color, aroma, perfume, the density and

ripe. The got honey-samples have had organoleptic features characteristic for the investigated kinds of honeys.


(1) Zvonimir Tucak, Associated Professor, (3) Zlatko Puškadija, BAg - J.J.Strossmayer University of Osijek, Faculty of Agriculture, Trg sv.Trojstva3, 31000 Osijek, Croatia (2) Antun Tucak, Full Professor - Klinical Hospital of Osijek, Huttlerova 4, 31000 Osijek, Croatia, (4) Marijana Tucak,BAg - Ag-

ricultural Institute of Osijek, Ju`no predgra|e 17, 31000 Osijek, Croatia

Table 1. Organoleptic characteristics of the investigated samples of honey

No. Sort of honey Organoleptic features

01. Acacia yellow, running, of a good smelt and taste

02. Flower darker yellow, very good smelt and taste somewhat ch

ristalized

03. Deciduous dark, acrid, of intense smelt, very thick 04. Acacia pale-yellow, fluent, good smelt and taste

05. Flower darker yellow, fluent, good taste and smelt

06. Lime yellow, smelt like the lime tree blossom, good taste, somewhat christalized

07. Acacia yellow, fluent, very good smelt and taste

08. Flower yellow-red, fluent, of good smelt and taste

09. Deciduous red-dark, fluent, acrid thick, smelt not very intensive




Table 2. Chemical characteristics of the investigated honey samples

Samp.No.

Sort ofhoney Location Water,%

Sumar of

proteins, %

Sourness Reduced

sugar pH mm/kg

01. Acacia Ðakovo 21,51 3,049387 6,44 13,01 70,6

02. Flower Ðakovo 26,91 2,220048 6,457 13,39 72,5

03. Decid.mead Osijek 21,61 2,249669 6,799 29,47 69,1

04. Acacia Poèga 22,73 1,728135 6,417 12,24 72,2

05. Lime Podravina 22,91 1,467099 6,788 28,71 70,5

06 Flower Podravina 21,82 1,281823 6,849 33,08 73,2

07. Acacia Baranja 19,26 0,625459 6,811 30,25 70,5

08 Flower Baranja 20,81 0,558632 6,670 21,89 69,8

09. Decid.mead Baranja 24,03 0,344320 6,738 25,61 72,4

Norms according to the Regulations:

The Republic of Croatia to 21 - - to 40 65 and

more

European Union to 21 - - to 40 65 andmore

Table 3. Inclusion of mineral substances in honey

Mineral Dark honey (mg/kg) Bright honey (mg/kg)

Silicium 23.00 136.00

Aluminium 111.00 9.00

Iron 37.00 9.00

Calcium 227.00 107.00

Magnesium 132.00 40.00

Natrium 23.00 251.00

Kalium 1.24 441.00

Mangan 10.00 0.80

Cuprum 0.60 0.80

Chrom 0.60 0.30

Nickel 0.06 0.03

Zinc 2.00 3.00

Cobalt 6.00 0.20

Antimon 2.00 1.00

Lead 0.20 0.10

Phosphor 123.00 129.00




The received honey-samples we have investigatedby chemical methods, which are here for the quality de-

termination of honey which is to be selling. The resultsshow that the investigated honeys satisfy the Criteria ofRep. Croatia, but also the criteria of the European Union

(Tab. 2).Honey includes a whole row of microelements (Tab.

3 ) which in small amounts play a big biological role in theorganism, togeather with the vitamins and enzims.

Cole-hydrats are the main ingredient of honey andmake 95–99% of dry material. By using differentchromatografic methods it was established that the sug-ars in the honey are put togeather from :

• monosacharides - fructose and glucose• disacharides - malthose, turanose, isomalthose,

sacharose, maltulose, isomaltulose, nigerose, trehalose, glutilose, laminaribose, gentiobiose.

• oligosacharides – erlosis, panose, maltotriose,kestose, isomaltobiose, melecitose, isopanose,6-alfa-glukozilsaharose, 3-alfa-3 izomaltoseil,

• glucose, rafinose, isomaltoterose, isomaltopentose.

Many of mentioned sugars are flower sugars.Compared with thenectare andhoney dew, the bee-honeyhas much more sugar in it. The greatest amount of sugar sintesizes itself under the influenceof invertasis andby theinfluence of the throat glands of the bee.

Water is after the cole-hydrats the seccond essentialingredient of bee-honey and makes the amount of15–23%. The amount of water has a big influence onsome of phisical properties (christalisation, viscosity,spec. weight) of honey.

The honey-albumens consist of albumine,globuline and peptons, which make half of the coloidematters of the honey. The amount of the total albumensin honey is 0 – 1, 67%.

Enzims ( Ferments ) of the honey are of albumenskind. They have to qicken the chemical processes in thelive organism and stay unchanged themselves. Today weconsider that honey has in it: Inverthase, Diastase,Amilase, Kathalase, sour fosfathase glukooksidhase,

Polifenoloksidase, Peroksidase Estrase and proteoliticensime.

CONCLUSION1. The results of organoleptic and chemical analises

of honey show its richness of nutritious and healing com-ponents of honey.

2. Thenutritious and healing substances of thehoneydepends of the honey-plants which the bees visit.

3. The organoleptic and chemical characteristics of the analysed honeys are corresponding with the Stan-

dards of the Republic Croatia and European Union.

REFERENCES

1. Abadì}, N. (1967): Tajne p~elinjeg meda, Sarajevo.2. Bogdanov, S., Martin, P., Lullmann, C. (1997): Harmonised

methods of the European Honey Commission, ApidologieExtra issue, p. 1-59.

3.Dadant,C.C.(1975):TheHiveandtheHoneyBee,Hamilton.4. Lowry, O. H., Rosenbrough N.J., Lewis Faerr A. and Randall

R.J. (1971.): Protein measurment winth the folinphenue

reagent, J. Biol. Chem. 193, 265.5. Peruši}, A.(1962): P~elinji med, Zagreb.6. Tucak, Z., Puškadija, Z., Ba~i},T., Horvat, S. (1999):

P~elarstvo, Sveu~ilište J.J. Strossmayera Osijek.7. @ivanovi}, N. (1988): Med kaoanimalna namirnica.Diplomski

rad, Zagreb.8. ………. Grupa autora (1990): P~elarstvo, Nakladni zavod

Znanje, Zagreb.9. ………. Narodne novine 20/2000: Pravilnik o kvaliteti meda i

drugih p~elinjih proizvoda te o metodama kontrolekvalitete meda i drugih p~elinjih proizvoda, 1985.



ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 637:661.73

THE D-AMINO ACID CONTENT OF FOODSTUFFS SUBJECTED TO VARIOUSTECHNOLOGICAL PROCEDURES

J. Csapó(1) , Zsuzsana Csapó-Kiss(2) , Éva Varga-Visi (3) , L. Kametler (4) , G. Pohn(5) , P. Horn(6)

Scientific review

ABSTRACT

D-amino acids occurring in dietary proteins originate as a consequence of technological in-tervention while basic materials are being prepared for consumption. Foodstuffs are the most

significant sources of D-amino acids, as in the process of cooking or during the various pro-cessing procedures used in the food industry dietary proteins undergo racemisation to a

greater or lesser degree. Food stores are now selling increasing quantities of foods (such as breakfast cereals, baked potatoes, liquid and powdered infant foods, meat substitutes and other supplements) which in some cases contain substantial quantities of D-amino acids,which in turn possess characteristics harmful with respect to digestion and health. Alkali treatment catalyses the racemisation of optically active amino acids. The degree of

racemisation undergone varies from protein to protein, but the relative order of the degree of racemisation of the individual amino acids within proteins shows a high level of similarity. The principal factors influencing racemisation are the pH of the medium, heat treatment, the dura-tion of the application of alkaline treatment and the structure of the respective amino acids.

D-amino acids formed in the course of treatment with alkalis or heat give rise to a deteriora-tion in quality and reduce the extent to which food thus treated can be used safely. The pres-ence of D-amino acids in proteins leads to a decrease in digestibility and the availability of theother amino acids. This results in a reduction in the quantities of the L-enantiomers of the es-

sential amino acids, as the peptide bonds cannot split in the normal way. Some D-amino acidscan exert an isomer-toxic effect and have the capacity to give rise to changes in the biological effect of lysinoalanine.

Keywords: D-amino acids, racemisation, heat treatment, bacterial activity

INTRODUCTIONFoods contain large quantities of non-natural sub-

stances of external origin, which influence their digest-ibility to a considerable degree. An example is theD-stereoisomer amino acids, which are formed fromcommon L-stereoisomer amino acids, either in the course

of the production process or as a consequence of chan-ges in the microbiological quality of the foodstuff. Thepresence of these D-stereoisomer amino acids results in asubstantial reduction in the digestibility of dietary proteinand the availability of the transformed amino acid. How-ever, despite the fact that D-amino acids in foods are con-sidered undesirable, some hold the opinion that in certaincases D-amino acids can nevertheless be beneficial to thehuman organism.

As methods developed for the separation and deter-mination of amino acid enantiomers have been perfected ithas been found that, contrary to previous belief, D-aminoacids occur in a great variety of organisms. For example,bacterial cell wall peptidoglycans contain D-aspartic acid,D-glutamic acid and D-alanine; in some marine wormsand invertebrates the cellular fluid contains D-amino acidsas a main component; in certain marine shellfish quanti-

ties of D-amino acids can exceed 1%; and higher plantsalso contain D-amino acids. Metabolically stable proteinsin mammals of longer life span contain major quantities ofD-aspartic acid derived from racemisation: the D-asparticacid concentration of the white matter of the human brainamounts to 3%, the clarified basic protein of the spinalcord to 10%. It was verified that aspartic acid racemises invivo in human tissues, but due to rapid metabolism doesnot accumulate in measurable quantities.

The chiral amino acids can be transformed intoracemic mixtures, the reaction mechanism of this trans-formation process necessitating the splitting off of the hy-drogen of the - position carbon atom and the formationof the structure of the planar carbanion. The degree ofracemisation occurring depends on whether the aminoacid occurs free or in bound form in the peptide chain, andis naturally chiefly dependent on temperature and pH, andalso on the nature of the R group occurring in the aminoacid. On examination of the racemisation of free amino ac-


(1) János Csapó, Full Professor, (2) Zsuzsanna Csapó-Kiss, DSc, (3) ÉvaVarga-Visi, BCh, (4) László Kametler, Full Professor, (5) Péter Horn, Full

Professor - University of Kaposvár, Faculty of Animal Science, Guba S. u.40, 7400 Kaposvár, Hungary



ids it was established that at 100oC and at pH between 7and 8 the half-life of racemisation (i.e., the time taken for

the D/L ratio to reach 0.33) for serine is 3 days, for aspartic acid 30 days, for alanine 120 days, and for isoleucine300 days.

ItwasreportedthatatpH9andat83oCforcaseinthehalf-life of racemisation for the above four amino acids,respectively, is as follows: 16 hours, 19 hours, 11 daysand 57 days; it were gave these respective values for soyaprotein at 75oC in 0.1 M normal sodium hydroxide as 9minutes, 20 minutes, 5 hours and 25 hours. As can beseen from these collected data, in different conditions therespective amino acids show racemisation times of differ-ent duration, but the order of the degree of racemisationamong the amino acids remains to a certain extent un-changed. The racemisation of serine, cystine and thre-onine results not only in the corresponding D-enantiomer,

but also in an amino acid not constituting one of the com-ponents of proteins. For example, in the inter-carbanionstate serine can readily lose its OH group in the formationof dehydroalanine. Reaction of dehydroalanine with the

amino group of lysine results in lysinoalanine, anamino acid of which the alanine part is racemic while thelysine part is optically active. In dietary proteins this reac-

tion can result in cross-linking, leading to a reduction inprotein digestibility; the lysinoalanine content of the resul-

tant foodstuff also bears toxic effect.From the aspect of nutrition the racemisation of es-

sential amino acids is of the greatest significance. The di-

gestibility and metabolism of the D-enantiomers of theessential amino acids have been studied for some consid-erable time. It is evident that in mammals the D-enantio-mers of essential amino acids are utilised to very lowdegrees, in some cases, act as growth inhibitors, and arefor the most part excreted in the urine.

The half-life of racemisation for the essential aminoacids has only recently been subjected to investigation. AtpH between 7 and 8 it was measured the half-life ofracemisation at 100oC for isoleucine, leucine and valine at300 days, and for phenylalanine and tyrosine at 50 days.Working under the same conditions it was determined the

half-life of racemisation for lysine at 40 days, while othersmeasured the half-life of racemisation at pH 9 and 83oC at40 days for tryptophan, 20 days for threonine and 2 daysfor cysteine. It was obtained a value of 30 days for thehalf-life of racemisation for methionine at 100oC at pH be-

tween 7 and 8. It appears from the empirical data thatcysteine is particularly susceptible to racemisation, while

the amino acids with aliphatic side-chains are the moststable in this respect. For most of the essential amino ac-ids the half-life of racemisation is longer than that for as-partic acid.

Food proteins exposed to alkali treatment pro-

cesses or to lengthy heat treatment contain considerableconcentrations of amino acids derived from racem-isation. It is now evident that the reduction in digestibility

is related to the formation of lysinoalanine and theracemisation arising.

D-AMINO ACIDS OF DIETARY ORIGINThe majority of food treatment procedures, per-

formed for thepurposes of improving flavour, consistencyor non-perishability, and including cooking and baking, in-volve heat treatment, and in some cases alkaline condi-

tions are also applied. Racemisation induced by suchintervention gives rise to D-amino acids in proteins. It wasdemonstrated that considerable quantities of D-amino ac-ids are to be found in some commercially available food-stuffs which have been subjected to the effect of

technological processes. Lysinoalanine is present almostuniversally in food substances. In addition, syntheticallymanufactured products such as aspartame dipeptide areparticularly susceptible to racemisation. Investigationsperformed by the authors indicate that 10 to 40% of theamino acid content of feather meal produced by means ofalkaline hydrolysis undergoes racemisation, the degree of

this being dependent on the production parameters.

NATURAL BASIC MATERIALSMilk, meat and the various types of grain, which do

not contain substantial quantities of D-amino acids, areoften exposed, in the course of preparat ion for consump-

tion, to conditions which may give rise to racemisation.Milk and dairy products serve as examples of how thecomposition of natural substances can change. Al-

though untreated (i.e., raw) milk is available in somefood stores, most dairy products are first pasteurised(involving heating for 30 minutes at 68-72oC) or ultrapasteurised (involving heating for 15 seconds at135-145oC). They are subsequently subjected to ho-mogenisation and condensation, until a particular prod-uct such as milk for commercial consumption, yoghurtor cheese derived from the various milk protein fractionsis finally obtained. The latter two dairy products are fer-mented by means of bacteria, this process also consti-

tuting a source of D-amino acids. (The concentration ofD-amino acids is hereafter given in accordance with thefollowing: % D-amino acid = (D/D+L)100).

The free D-aspartic acid content of milk powder at4-5% and its D-alanine content at 8-12% was determined.With respect to yoghurt, free D-alanine content was mea-sured at 64-68%, free D-aspartic acid content at 20-32%,and free D-glutamic acid content at 53-56%. For maturecheese content values for the same D-amino acids of20-45%, 8-35% and 5-22% respectively were obtained.The free D-phenylalanine content of mature cheese wasfound to be between 2 and 13%, D-leucine also being de-

tected in minimal quantities in mature cheese. TheD-aspartic acid content of roast coffee proved to be

23-38%, its D-glutamic acid content 32-41%, and itsD-phenylalanine content 9-12%. On the basis of the mea-surements recorded the attention is draw to the fact that itis not foodstuffs subjected to lengthy heat treatment




which contain substantial quantities of D-amino acids, butrather those which have undergone a process of bacterialfermentation.

On examination of free D-amino acids in milk, fer-mented milk, fresh cheese and curd cheese it was estab-

lished that considerable quantities of D-amino acids occur both in rawmilk and in fermented dairy products manufac-

tured from it. It may be ascertained that yoghurt andcheese contain substantial quantities of D-alanine(1.35-2.48 mg/100g), D-aspartic acid (0.31-0.37mg/100g) and D-glutamic acid (1.09-2.13 mg/100g),while the quantities of D-lysine (1.49 mg/100g) andD-proline (2.18 mg/100g) present may also be consider-able. In addition, trace quantities of D-valine, D-leucine,D-allo-isoleucine and D-serine were also detected in fer-mented dairy products by the above authors. On analysisof the origin of D-amino acids they established that the oc-

currence of these can, for the most part, be traced back tomicrobiological intervention, or to microbial contamina-

tion in the case of raw or pasteurised samples, or possibly to the unintentional addition to the composite milk of milk derived from cows with subclinical mastitis.

FOODSTUFFS SUBJECTED TO VARIOUSTECHNOLOGICAL PROCEDURES

Modern food industry technology applies a diverserange of procedures for the purpose of modifying thecharacteristics of proteins in order to improve flavour,consistency and non-perishability. Treatment with heat or

alkalis is used preferentially for the manufacture of prod-ucts possessing particular characteristics, form and func-

tion. For example, soya protein is treated with alkalis andheat for the purposes of obtaining, through extrusion, aproduct of fibrous structure suitable for consumption as ameat substitute. Alkali treatment is also applied in order toobtain flaked maize and tortillas from maize protein.

Heat treatment or combined heat and alkali treatmentin every case gave rise to D-amino acids in measurablequantities. The highest D-aspartic acid content (31%) wasdetermined in the casein heated to 230 oC for 20 minutes.Comparison of the racemised amino acids reveals that the

highest degree of racemisation occurred in aspartic acid.Certain amino acids, such as serine and cysteine, proba-bly racemise more rapidly than aspartic acid. It may bestated in general that the essential amino acids do notracemise rapidly unless exposed to high temperature.However, it may also be the case with the essential aminoacids that a combination of high temperature and alkali

treatment is accompanied by a substantial degree ofracemisation.

Authors have also reported on the high D-amino acidcontent of treated foods. On examination of the D-Aspcontent of a number of commercially available foods very

high ratios of this D-amino acid was established in tex- tured soya protein (9%), bacon (13%) and non-milk fat(17%). Substantial quantities of D-Asp was determined insavoury crackers made from wheat flour (9.5%), wheat

cake (11.9%), Mexican pancake (11.6%) and corn cake(15.4%). The data for the fried hamburger indicate thatracemisation occurs to only an insignificant degree in thatparticular food in the course of the frying process. Thehigh ratios of D-amino acids detected in the toasted white

bread, the cooked bacon and the chicken meat demon-strate that in some foods substantial degrees ofracemisation can arise in the process of cooking, bakingor frying.

On examining the effect on food proteins of micro-wave treatment fairly recently ascertained that by the ef -fect of microwave treatment of 10 minutes’ duration thecis-3 and cis-4 hydroxyproline content of all three infantfoods examined increased, and only microwave-treatedformulae contained D-proline in detectable quantities.The concentration of the cis isomer was found to be 1-2mg per litre. The above authors point out that if the cis

isomer is incorporated into a protein instead of the transisomer, structural, functional and immunological chan-ges can result.

MANUFACTURED FOODS AND ARTIFICIALLYPRODUCED PEPTIDES

This category includes every type of food subjected to substantial levels of technological treatment, or syn- thetically produced (e.g. aspartame). In some liquid foods the protein is combined with carbohydrate, in the processof which the protein may undergo considerable change.

Antibiotic peptides may contain substantial quantities ofD-amino acids, as may some drugs used in chemother-apy; the residues of these may subsequently result in sig-nificant D-amino acid content of foodstuffs produced. Onevaluation of data in the literature it may be ascertained

that synthetic products contain considerably higher levelsof amino acids than natural basic materials, the former be-ing the main sources of the D-amino acid content offoods. Liquid food formulae based on soya protein, actu-ally purchased from health food stores, has been found tocontain 13% D-aspartic acid, this being a substantiallyhigher level than that determined in soya-based infant for-

mulae. It was reported that food products formulated to in-duce weight loss which had been subjected to alkali

treatment proved to contain 50% D-serine, 37% D-aspartic acid and 26% D-phenylalanine; these high quantities ofD-amino acids might pose a risk if consumed as the solesource of dietary protein. Such extreme cases are rela-

tively rare, but it should nevertheless be noted that in food-stuffs subjected to lengthy alkali or heat treatmentprocesses a high proportion of the amino acids presentmay undergo racemisation.

On studying racemisation in aspartame sweetener itwas reported that both aspartic acid and glutamic acid

racemised rapidly at neutral pH at 100oC. Racemisationoccurs when the sweetener is transformed into a cyclicaldipeptide, these being highly susceptible to racemisation.The importance of awareness of this lies in the fact that if





sweetener is added to food before, for example, cooking,a high degree of racemisation may result.

REFERENCES1. Bada, J.L., Miller, S.L. (1987): Racemization and the origin of

optical active organic compounds in living organisms. In:H.Man, J.L. Bada (1987): Dietary D-amino acids. Ann.Rev. Nutr., 7: 209-225.

2. Bruckner, H., Hausch, M. (1990): D-amino acids in dairyproducts: Detection, origin and nutritional aspects. I. Milk,fermented milk, fresh cheese and acid curd cheese.Milchwissenschaft, 45: 357-360.

3. Chung, S.Y., Swaisgood, H.E., Catignani, G.L. (1986): Effectof alkali treatment in the presence of fructose on digest-ibility of food proteins as determined by an immobilizeddigestive enzyme assay (IDEA). J. Agric. Fd. Chem., 34:579-584.

4. Csapó, J., Henics, Z. (1991): Quantitative determination of

bacterial protein from the diaminopimelic acid andD-alanine content of rumen liquor and intestines. ActaAgronomica Hungarica, 1-2: 159-173.

5. Csapó, J., Tóth-Pósfai, I., Csapó-Kiss, Zs. (1991a): Separa- tion of D- and L-amino acids by ion exchange columnchromatography in the form of alanyl dipeptides. AminoAcids, 1: 331-337.

6. Csapó, J., Gombos, S., Csapó, Zs., Tossenberger, J. (1991):A bakteriális eredetû fehérje mennyiségi meghatározása abendtfolyadék és a béltartalom diaminopimelinsav ésD-alanin tartalma alapján. (Quantitative determination ofbacterial protein from the diaminopimelic acid andD-alanine content of rumen liquor and intestine).

Állattenyésztés és Takarmányozás, 5: 431-441.7. Csapó, J., Einarsson, S. (1993): Élelmiszerek és takarmányok D-aminosav tartalma. 1. Az aminosavenantiomerek szétválasztása és meghatározása az1-/9-fluorenil/etil-kloroformáttal történt származék-képzés után forditott fázisu folyadékkromato- gráfiával.(D-amino acid content of foodstuffs and feeds. Separa-

tion and determination of the amino acid enantiomers byreversed phase liquid chromatography after precolumnderivatization by 1-/9-fluorenyl-ethyl-chlorophormate.)Élelmiszervizsg. Közl., 39: 290-302.

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alapján. (D-amino acid content of foodstuffs and feeds.III. Their significance, determination and physiological ef-fect according to the special literature). Élelmiszervizsg.Közl., 4: 299-316.

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ttgygyulladás hatása a tej D-aminosav tartalmára. (Influ-ence of udder inflammation on D-amino acid content ofmilk). Szaktanácsok, 1-4: 38-52.

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ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 636.92:636.084.11

NEW POSSIBILITIES OF RAISING RABBIT YOUNG BY ALTERNATIVENURSING METHODS

Tünde Gyarmati (1) , Zs. Szendrõ( 2) , L. Maertens(3) , Edit Biró-Németh(4) , I. Radnai (5) , G. Milisits(6) , Zs. Matics(7)


ABSTRACT

In the first experiment 360 Pannon White kits from 45 litters were divided into 3 groups.The kits in group SS were suckled once a day during the first 35 days of life (traditional method of nursing). Group DD was raised by 2 does and the kits were suckled both in the morning and in the evening until 35 days of age. The kits of the 3 rd group (D0) were suckled twice a day for 23 days, after which they were weaned. Rabbits which were suckled twiceadayconsumed89%moremilkuntil23daysofagethanthoseoftheSSkits.Inthe second experiment authors used different management systems, to investigate the possibilities of “double-suckling”. Both nulliparous as multiparous does were treated to in-duce pseudopregnancy (by means of GnRH). They were used as second doe and suckled the kits in the afternoon. Pseudopregnant does produced milk (nulliparous does less thandoes which had previously produced litters), but in conditions of controlled suckling they were not willing to suckle the young. In a third experiment, does (n=44) were inseminated 11 days after kindling. Weaning was performed at the age of 21 days and doescould systematically serve as second mother for the litters born at the same day. The“additional” does that nursed the young in the afternoon produced 65 % of the milk quan-tity produced by the natural mother between days 0 and 21.

Keywords: rabbit, suckling, milk intakeINTRODUCTION

It is a particular feature of rabbit does that they nurseonce a day (Zarrow et al., 1965). Under natural circum-stances the young also suckle once a day, and spend therest of the day sleeping (Hudson and Distel, 1982). How-ever, according some results in commercial rabbit cages30-50% of the does nurse their young 2 times/day (Seitzetal., 1997). Suckling only takes about 3 to 4 minutes, but

the young are able to take in enough milk for their dailyneeds (one sixth of their body weight) in such a short time

(Lebas, 1975). Suckling rabbits do not start significantsolid feed intake before 20 days of age. This is why their survival and weight gain depend on the doe’s milk produc-

tion, i.e. how much milk each individual kit consumes.Experiments in which attempts have been made to

induce does to nurse twice a day have been unsuccessful(Herczeg, 1981). Ethological observations have empha-sised that suckling is dependent only on the willingness of

the doe and not on the inclination of the young. In hu-man-related research, nursing twice a day was used as amodel for overfeeding babies (Harmand et al., 1970,Spencer and Hull, 1984). Twice-daily suckling was used

in experiments by McNitt et al. (1988). In this study theyoungwerealsoraisedby2does,theeffectofsucklingon the growth of the young being investigated. Padilha et al.(1994, 1996) used two does for suckling the young after

the lactation peak, with the objective of evaluating the ef-fect of a postponed shift to solid feed on caecummicroflora and the fermentation pattern.

The objective of this research project was to estab-lish whether suckling young are ready and able to sucklemilk from two does within one day. The other purpose ofour experiments was to study if kindled or pseu-dopregnant or early weaned does could serve as secondmother. The implications on the milk production of bothdoes and the milk intake of the young were measured.

MATERIAL AND METHODSPannon White does were housed in single-floor wire

cages in a building heated in winter (minimum 15°C) butnot cooled in summer (maximum 26-28°C). The length ofdaily illumination was 16 hours. The does were fed a com-mercially available rabbit feed ad libitum. The diet fed in

the first 18 days contained no medication (CP: 16.8%,CFat: 2.9%, CF: 14.1% and 10.3 DE MJ/kg,), but subse-quently a medicated diet was given (10.3 DE MJ/kg,18.2% CP, 3.3 % Cfat, 12.2 % CF, 0.02 % Clinacox prx,


(1) Tünde Gyarmati, MSc, Ph.D student,(2) Zsolt Szendrõ, DSc, (4) Edit Biró-Németh, MSc, (5) István Radnai, MSc, (6) Gábor Milisits, Ph.D, (7) Zsolt Matics, MSc - University of Kaposvár, Faculty of Animal Science, GubaS. u. 40., 7400 Kaposvár, Hungary (3) Luc Maertens, Irg. - Department of

Animal Nutrition and Husbandry, Section of Small Stock Husbandry, Merelbeke, Belgium



0.1% Oxytetracycline). The does had free access to drink-ing water from self-drinkers.

Experiment 1: The does were treated with 5 IUoxytocin on the 31st day of pregnancy. The experimental

groups were formed based on the number of times theyoung suckled per day (i.e., once or twice). The additionaldaily suckling was carried out by an additional doe whichhad produced a litter at the same time but whose progenyhad been removed. Irrespective of the number of suck-lings (groups SS and D). One doe was put into the nestbox at 8 a.m. every day. For the second nursing the other doe was put in at 8 p.m. Suckling twice a day was main-

tained until weaning (DD) or until the 23rd day and after theyoung were weaned (D0).

The following experimental treatments were estab-lished:

• Group SS: suckled once a day until weaning at 35 daysof age (n = 15 litters, 120 kits)

• Group DD:suckledtwiceadayuntilweaningat35daysof age (n=16 litters, 128 kits)

• Group D0: suckled twice a day until 23 days of age and then weaned (n=14 litters, 112 kits).

Milk production was measured using the weigh (doe)-suckle-weigh(doe) procedure.

Experiment 2: Nulliparous does (n=15) were in-

jected with 1.5 g GnRH at the age of 16.5 weeks, whilemultiparous does (n=20) were submitted to the same treatment 11 days subsequent to parturition in order to in-duce pseudopregnancy. Determination of their milk pro-duction started 18 days after the treatment. In thisprocedure, each litter was daily nursed by its own mother at 8 a.m. and by the pseudopregnant doe at 5 p.m. Bothdoes had only access to the nest box during the controlledsuckling time. The same weigh-suckle-weigh procedurewas followed to measure the milk production. The meanindividual milk intake of the young rabbits was calculted

based on thequantity of milk produced and thenumber ofyoung in the litter.

Experiment 3: Females were inseminated followinga42d reproduction rhytm and a 2 batch management sys-

tem with an interval of 21 days. Thus when a does kindled,another doe was available on the 21st day of lactation. Thiswas the pair system on which the experiment was based.The original does were allowed to nurse daily her young(n=44) at 8 a.m. while the second doe, whose litter hadbeen weaned at the age of 21 days, nursed the same litter at 4 p.m. The young rabbits were weaned at the age of 21

days, after which their mother was transferred to another litter to act as a secondary suckling doe. An additionalcontrol group (S, n=45) were allowed to suckle their young in the traditional manner, once a day, and their

progeny were weaned at the age of 35 days.In exp. 1 dailymilk production was measured while in experiments 2 and3. milk production of all does was measured every 2 to 3days (three times a week).Single-variable analysis of vari-ance was performed in order to compare the milk intake of

the young.


Experiment 1: Young who suckled twice a day (DD)consumed 89 % more milk between day 1 and 23 than theSS rabbits (taken as 100 %). The young of the DD groupsuckled 74 % more milk between day 24 and 35 than

those of the SS groups (Figure 1).These findings are inagreement with those published by McNitt et al. (1988);who determined a 84% higher intake of milk by young

which suckled twice a day before the age of 19 days. Thedifference observed between the milk intake of the SS and the D young reveals that rabbits do not have access to suf-ficient milk in the traditional nursing system. They begin tostarve and consequently cannot gain as much weight aswould be expected on the basis of their growth potential.Milk intake for 1 g weight gain between birth and 21 daysof age was 2.02, 1.98, and 2.01 g in groups SS, DD, andD0 respectively. This implies that almost doubled levels ofmilk consumption did not affect milk efficiency. However,

the significance of these system using two does littered at

the same time should rather be considered as theoretical,becauseeachlitterwasnursedbytwodoesandoneofthelitters had to be sold or fostered by another doe. On theother hand, rabbit young can already be weaned from 14days off if an adapted milkreplacer is fed (Prud’hon andBel, 1968; Mc Nitt and Moody, 1992; Ferguson et al.,1997) or from 18 days off based on an exclusively pelletfeeding (Schlolaut and Lange, 1971; Piattoni andMaertens, 1999). In a system of twice-daily suckling,mothers from early weaned litters have still a potential asmilk producer. However, data concerning their milk pro-duction or the required attributes for substitute does arenot available. Milk production of pseudopregnant,nulliparous does (N) reached only 21% compared withdoes of group M during the 5 weeks lactation. If they pro-duced previously litters (K), then milk production reached35 % of the controls. This experiment provides evidence

that, in similarity with other animal species (e.g., the dog:Dumon et al., 1993; Zöldág et al., 1993), does in whichpseudopregnancy has been induced are also capable ofproducing milk. In the3 weeks followingparturition,whichis the most important period from the aspect of suckling,

the corresponding values were 15 and 39%. In theory, if a

pseudopregnant doe is introduced to suckle a litter as asecondary doe to their own mother, the young have ac-cess to the additional quantities of milk given above.




Fig. 1. Milk intake of young suckled once a day (SS), twice aday (DD) or twice a day to 23 rd day (D0)

Experiment 2: The milk production of the differentcategories of does is presented in Figure 2. However,pseudopregnant does were not willing to suckle theyoung. The data recorded were attained by means of shut-

ting these does together with the young in the nestboxes.

Figure 2. Daily milk production in does rearing their own litter (M), pseudopregnant nulliparous does (N) and

pseudopregnant does which had previously produced itters (K): shown separately and as totals for the natural mother and the substitute doe (M+N and M+K)

Experiment 3: In this experiment, does whose litter had been weaned on the 21st day of lactation, served for

the double suckling (P). In the morning the original mother (M), in the afternoon the “weaned” doe (already insemi-nated 11 after parturition). Figure 3 demonstrates that in

the first three weeks the lactation curve for the does ofgroup M was comparable with the control (S). The does

that nursed the young in the afternoon produced less milk

than the natural mothers. After the 14 th day, pregnant does(P) dried up. The combined milk production of the twodoes(M+P)amountedto70to100gmoredaythancon-

trols (S) during first week.

Figure 3. Milk production of original and control does and combined milk production of the two does in the 3 rd

experiment

The difference in milk production between controls(S) and M+P became minimal at day 21. In group DP thequantity of milk suckled from the M doe was slightly be-hind that observed in the young of group S. The more milk was derived from the substitute doe, the less the M doegave. The quantities of milk suckled in the afternoon in thefirst 3 weeks from does of groups P amounted 60% of thequantities recorded for their own mother (M). In the first,second and third week, double suckling leads to 69, 28and 4 % more milk in group DP.

CONCLUSIONS• This research reveals that most does are also willing tonurse in the evening. The young are willing and able tosuckle twice within 24 hours.

• Twice daily suckling resulted in a 89% increased milk intake.

• Exploitation of the advantages of suckling twice dailyenabled the young to be weaned at 23 days of age.These rabbits were raised successfully on a commer-cial medicated diet.

• Does in which pseudopregnancy has been induced bymeans of treatment with GnRH also produce milk. The

milk production of the nulliparous does proved low,while that of those which had already produced litterswas more substantial. However, the experience of theauthors was that in conditions of controlled sucklingpseudopregnant does were notwilling to suckle free theyoung.

• Thedoeswhoselittershadbeenweanedonthe21st daysubsequent to parturition proved suitable as secondarysuckling does.

• In experiment 3 of the present study the intake of youngincreased with 69% due to the double suckling system.Thus, rearing with two does proved possible in a man-

agement system with re-insemination on the 11 th

dayafter parturition and weaning at the age of 21 days.• Use of this method is also questionable in view of antic-

ipated EU regulations relating to weaning at 21 days.


0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34

Age, da ys

M i l k i n t a k e , g

SS DD D0

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

1 4 9 14 18 23 28 32

Days after parturition

M i l k p r o d u

c e d , g

DP

S

M

P

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

3 8 12 17 22 26 31 35

Days after parturition

M i l k p r o d u

c e d , g

N

K

M

S+N

S+K



REFERENCES1. Dumon, C., Dumoulin, P.Y., Collet, J. P. (1993): The suppres-

sion of lactation during canine pseudopregnancy usingcabergoline. Pratique Medicale and Chirurgicale del’Animal de Compaquie. 28(5): 573-577.

2. Ferguson, F.A., Lukefahr, S.D., Mc Nitt, J.L. (1997): A techni-cal note on artificial milk feeding on rabbit kids weaned at14 days. World Rabbit Sci. (2): 65-70.

3. Harmand, M. J., Hull, D., Oyesiku, I. (1970): The influence ofbirth weight and nutrition on postanal growth of rabbits.Biol. Neonate, 16:306.

4. Herczeg, B. (1981): Effect of number of suckling on the milk production of does. Diplomwork, PANNON University,Kaposvár.

5. Hudson, R., Distel, H. (1982): The pattern of behaviour of rab-bit pups in the nest. Behaviour, 79:255-271.

6. Lebas, F. (1975): Le lapin de chair: ses besoins nutritionnalset son alimentation pratique. ITAVI, Paris.

7. McNitt, J., Moody, G.L. JR. (1988): Milk intake and growthrates of suckling rabbits. J. Appl. Rabbit Res. 11:117.

8. McNitt, J.I., Moody, G.L. (1992): A method for weaning rabbitkits at 14 days. J. Appl.Rabbit Res., 15: 661-665.

9. Padilha, T.S., Licois, D., Gidenn, T., Carre, B., Coudert, P.,Lebas, F. (1996): Caecal microflora and fermentation pat-

tern in excusively milk-fed young rabbits. 6th World Rab-bit Congress, Toulouse, Vol.1: 247-251.

10. Padilha,T.S., Licois,D., Gidenne,T., Carre,B., Fonty,G.(1994): Evolution de la microflore et de l’activitefermentaire caecale chez le lapereau pendant la periodeperi-sevrage: premiers resultats. Vlémes Journées de laRecherche Cunicole. 6-7.

11. Piattoni F., Maertens, L. (1999): Effect of weaning age andsolid feed distribution before weaning on the caecal fer-mentation pattern of young rabbits. 11. Arbeitstagungüber Pelztier-, Kaninchen- und Heimtierproduction undKrankenheiten, Celle, Ed. Deutsche Vet. Med.

Gesellschaft e.V., Giessen, 97-105.12. Proud’hon, M., Bel, L. (1968): Le sevrage précoce deslapereaux et la reproduction des lapines. Ann. Zootech.,17(1):23-30.

13. Schlolaut W., Lange, L. (1971): Untersuchungen über dasfrühzeitige Absetzen beim Kaninchen. Züchtungskunde43:136-143.

14. Seitz, K., Gutkoksi, S., Lange, K., Hoy, ST. (1997):Untersuchungen zum Saugeverhalten bei Kaninchen. 11.Arbeitstagung über Haltung und Krankenheiten der Kaninchen, Pelztiere und Heimtiere. Celle, Ed. DeutscheVet. Med. Gesellschaft e.V., Giessen, 24-32.

15. Spencer, A., Hull, D. (1984): The effect of over-feeding new-born rabbits on somatic and visceral growth, body com-

position and long-term growth potential. British Journal ofNutrition, 51:389-402.

16. Zarrow, M. X., Denenberg, V.M., Anderson, C.O. (1965):Rabbit: Frequency of suckling in the pup. Science150:1835-1836.

17. Zöldág, L., Benedek, D., Kecskeméthy, S. (1993): Preven- tion of puerperal lactation and lactation caused bypseudopregnancy in the dog. (in Hung.) Magyar Állatorvosok Lapja. 48(6): 360-364.




ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 636.92:636.061.8’082.4

EINFLUSS DES FETTGEHALTES IM ORGANISMUS VON MUTTERKANINCHENAUF EINIGE VERMEHRUNGSBIOLOGISCHE EIGENSCHAFTEN

A. Lévai (1) , G. Milisits(2) , Zs. Szendrõ(3) , I. Radnai (4) , Edit Biró-Németh(5)


ZUSAMMENFASSUNG

Um den Einfluss des Fettgehaltes im Organismus von Mutterkaninchen auf einigevermehrungsbiologische Eigenschaften zu bestimmen, wurden die auf Grund des10-Wochen-Gewichtes und der Zunahmen zwischen der 6. und 10. Lebenswoche den Durchschnitt repräsentierenden Tiere (Durchschnitt Abweichung) ausgewählt und ihr Fettgehalt im Organismus in lebendem Zustand mit der TOBEC Methode bestimmt. Auf Grund der geschätzten Werte wurden von den weiblichen Tieren jeweils die extremen16%, von den männlichen Tieren die jeweils extremen 8% zur Weiterzucht ausgewählt. Jede fette Mutter wurde mit Sperma von fetten Rammlern besamt, jede magere Mutter dagegen mit Sperma von mageren Rammlern. Es wurde festgestellt, daß dieTrächtigkeitsrate bei den fetten Mutterkaninchen statistisch bewiesend größer (71.4%und 43.7%), die Zwischenwurfzeit statistisch bewiesend kleiner war. Keine statistisch bewiesenen Unterschiede wurden im Wurfzahl (8.3 und 8.3) und Wurfgewicht (437g und 450g) zur Geburt beobachtet, aber die Ausfallsrate bis zum 21. Lebenstag war bei den fetten Mutterkaninchen kleiner (16.7% und 28.3%).

Schlüsselwörter: Kaninchen, Selektion, Fett, Reproduktion

EINLEITUNGDie vermehrungsbiologischen Eigenschaften der Mutterkaninchen werden von zahlreichen Faktoren beein-flusst. Dazu gehören die Jahreszeit (Csonka und Szendrõ,1984; McNitt und Moody, 1990), der aktuelle vermeh-rungsbiologische Zustand (Szendrõ, 1988) sowie die Hal-

tungs- (Mattioli, 1982) und Fütterungsbedingungen(Lebas et al., 1988) als bedeutendste und gleichermaßenam meisten untersuchte Umstände. Hauptsächlich bei an-deren Tierarten - aber auch im humanen Bereich - wurdenjedoch schon mehrmals Versuche durchgeführt um fest-zustellen, wie der Fettgehalt des Organismus einige vereh-

rungsbiologische Parameter bei weiblichen Individuenbeeinflusst. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass sowohl übertrie-bene Verfettung als auch übertriebene Fettarmut gleicher-maßen problematisch sind, was sich hauptsächlich inverminderter Empfängnis, schlechteren Wurf- und Auf-zuchtergebnissen oder in schwereren Fällen sogar imAusbleiben des Östrus zeigt. Bei unseren eigenen Unter-suchungen hatten das Ziel, zwei hinsichtlich des Fettge-haltes im Organismus abweichende Bestände zuentwickeln und deren Produktionsergebnisse zu verglei-chen.

MATERIAL UND METHODEUnsere Untersuchungen wurden in der Versuchsan-lage der Fakultät für Tierproduktion der UniversitätKaposvár mit der Rasse Pannon Weiße durchgeführt. Die

Kaninchen wurden nach der Entwöhnung im Alter von 6Wochen im geschlossenen Gebäude bei einer 16-stü-ndigen Beleuchtung und einer Raumtemperatur von15-20 0C in Käfigen aus punktverschweißtem Drahtgitter (800x500mm) in Gruppen von 5-6 Kaninchen/Käfig ge-alten. Als Futtermittel wurde das im Handel erhältlicheKaninchenfutter (DE 10.30 MJ/kg, Rohprotein 17.5%,Rohfett 3.6%, Rohfaser 12.4%) ad libitum verwendet.Das Trinkwasser stand den Kaninchen aus Selbsttränkenjederzeit zur Verfügung.

Im Alter von 10 Wochen wurde der Versuchsbestandgewogen. Auf Grund des 10-Wochen-Gewichtes und der

Zunahmen zwischen der 6. und 10. Lebenswoche wurdendie den Durchschnitt repräsentierenden Tiere (Durch-schnitt Abweichung) ausgewählt. Ihr Fettgehalt im Orga-nismus wurde in lebendem Zustand bestimmt, und zwar mit dem Gerät EM-SCAN SA-3152 - welches die Verände-rungen der elektrische Leitfähigkeit des ganzen Körpersmessen kann - die sogenannte TOBEC Methode. JedesTier wurde dreimal gemessen. Zu den weiteren Berech-nungen wurde der Durchschnitt aus den drei Messungenverwendet. Die Messabweichungen blieben bei allen Indi-viduen unter 2 %. Die gemessenen Werte wurden in einevon Milisits et al . (2000) erarbeitete Gleichung eingesetztund damit der Fettgehalt berechnet. Auf Grund der ge-


(1) András Lévai, Ph.D Student, (2) Gábor Milisits, DSc, (3) Zsolt Szendrõ, DSc (4) István Radnai, MSc (5) Edit Biró-Németh, MSc - Kaposvárer Universität, Fakultät für Tierproduktion, Guba S. u. 40., 7400 Kaposvár,Ungarn



schätzten Werte wurden von den weiblichen Tieren jeweilsdie extremen 16%, von den männlichen Tieren die jeweilsextremen 8% zur Weiterzucht ausgewählt. Die Mutterka-ninchen wurden erstmalig im Alter von 17 Wochen mit fri-schem verdünnten Sperma besamt, das von Rammlern

stammte, die nicht am Versuch teilnahmen. Das Ergebnisder Erstbesamung und des ersten Wurfes wurde nichtausgewertet. Ab der zweiten Besamung wurde bereitsjede fette Mutter mit Sperma von fetten Rammlern be-samt, jede magere Mutter dagegen mitSperma von mage-ren Rammlern. Auch in diesen Fällen wurde zur Besamungimmer frisches, verdünntes Sperma benutzt. Während desVersuches wurden folgende Daten festgehalten:

- notwendige Besamungen für einen Wurf,- Trächtigkeitsrate,- Zwischenwurfzeit,- Anzahl der Lebend- und Totgeborenen eines

Wurfes,- Wurfgewicht zur Geburt,- Wurfzahl und Wurfgewicht am 21. Lebenstag,

sowie- Ausfall im Säugealter.Die Auswertung der Daten erfolgte mit der Einfak-

tor-Varianzanalyse bzw. dem Chi2-Test. Zu den statisti-schen Berechnungen wurde das statistische ProgrammSPSS for Windows benutzt (SPSS for Windows, 1997).

ERGEBNISSEEinige wichtige Parameter der zur Weiterzucht ausge-

wählten Tiere aus dem Versuchsbestand zeigt Tabelle 1.Aus den Daten der Tabelle ist gut zu ersehen, dass

die geschätzten Fettwerte der beiden extremen Tiergrup-pen unterschiedlich sind. Bei den fetten undmageren Müt-

tern bzw. Rammlern sind die beobachteten Unterschiedestatistisch nachweisbar (P<0.05).

Auch bei der Trächtigkeitsrate der Mutterkaninchen,die nach 10-11 Tage nach ihrem ersten Wurf zielgerichtetgepaart wurden (fette Mütter mit fetten Rammlern, magereMütter mit mageren Rammlern) waren die Unterschiedesignifikant. Bei den fetten Mutterkaninchen waren fastdreiviertel (71.4%), bei den mageren dagegen nur weniger als die Hälfte (43.7%) nach der Erstbesamung trächtig. Zueinem Wurf waren bei den fetten Mutterkaninchen durch-schnittlich 1.26, bei den mageren 1.41 Besamungen not-wendig. Wegen der Unterschiede in den zu einem Wurfnotwendigen Besamungen und der Trächtigkeitsrate fiel

dann auch die Zwischenwurfzeit zwischen den beidenGruppen signifikant aus. Die fette Mütter hatten nach der zweiten zielgerichteten Besamung durchschnittlich 56Tage Zwischenwurfzeit, die magere dagegen durch-schnittlich 67 Tage.

Hinsichtlich der Wurfzahl zur Geburt gab es zwischenden beiden Gruppen keine statistisch bewiesenen Unter-schiede ( Abbildung 1). Wegen der abweichenden Ausfall-rate in der Säugezeit jedoch ist die Wurfzahl am 21. Le-benstag bereits signifikant. Als Ergebnis ist das 21-tägigeWurfgewicht ebenfalls statistisch beweisbar (2406, bzw.2030g). Auch bei der Ausfallsrate ist der aufgetretene Un-

terschied (16.7, bzw. 28.3%) - P<0.05 - statistisch nach-weisbar.

Abbildung 1. Wurfzahl zur Geburt und nach 21 Tagen bei fetten und mageren Mutterkaninchen

SCHLUSSFOLGERUNGEN

Aus den Versuchsergebnissen ist eindeutig festzu-stellen, dass der Fettgehalt des Organismus bedeutenddie vermehrungsbiologischen Eigenschaften der Mutter-kaninchen beeinflusst. Bei den mageren Mutterkanin-chen verschlechtert sich die Trächtigkeitsrate, steigendie zu einem Wurf notwendigen Besamungen, dadurchwiederum wächst die Zwischenwurfzeit. Auf Grund der bisherigen Ergebnisse scheint es, dass der Fettgehalt imOrganismus keinen Einfluss auf die Wurfzahl bei der Ge-burt hat, aber die unterschiedlichen Ausfallzahlen imSäugealter haben doch bedeutende Auswirkungen aufdie Wurfzahl am 21. Tag nach der Geburt. Zu den hier

vorgestellten Ergebnissen muss man allerdings bemer-ken, dass diese nur aus dem Anfangsstadium einer lan-gen Versuchsreihe stammen. Die bisherigen Ergebnissehaben demnach nur Informationscharakter. Zur genaue-ren Ergebnissen und Schlussfolgerungen sind weitere Un-


Tabelle 1. Die wichtigsten Grunddaten der auf Grund der geschätzten Fettwerte zur Weiterzucht ausgewählten Kaninchen

Eigenschaft

Fett Mager

Mutter (n=41) Rammler (n=20) Mutter (n=34) Rammler (n=20)

Durch-

schnitt

Abwei-

chung

Durch-

schnitt

Abwei-

chung

Durch-

schnitt

Abwei-

chung

Durch-

schnitt

Abwei-

chung10-Wochen-Gewicht (g) 2244 113 2262 138 2265 176 2204 161

Fett (%) 7.7 1.4 8.2 1.4 4.1 1.6 3.2 1.6

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Wurfzahl zur Geburt Wurfzahl nach 21 Lebenstagen

Fette Mütter

Magere Mütter



tersuchungen und die Daten eines größeren Bestandesnotwendig.

DANKSAGUNGDie Forschung wurde vom Landesfonds für Wissen-

schaft und Forschung (OTKA F032594) und vom JánosBolyai Forscher Stipendium unterstützt.

QUELLENVERZEICHNIS1. Csonka, L.-né., Szendrõ, Zs. (1984): Effect of season on pro-

ductive traits of rabbits (in Hungarian). Állattenyésztési ésTakarmányozási Kutatóközpont közleményei. Gödöllõ,311-317p.

2. Lebas, F., Viard-Drouet F., Coudert, P. (1988): Reproductionand morbidity of rabbit does effect of diet energy level andorigin. 4 th World Rabbit Congress Budapest, Hungary,Proceedings Vol 3: 53-57.

3. Mattioli, C. (1982): Influenca del clima sulla riproduzione.Rivista di Coniglicoltura 19: 38-39.4. McNitt, J. I., Moody, G. L. Jr. (1990): Effect of month, breed,

and parity on doe productivity in southern Louisiana.Journal of Applied Rabbit Research Vol 13:169-175.

5. Milisits G., Szendrõ Zs., Mihálovics Gy., Biró-Németh E.,Radnai I., Lévai A. (2000): Use of the TOBEC method for predicting the body composition of growing rabbits. 7 th

World Rabbit Congress, Valencia.6. Szendrõ, Zs. (1988): Investigations on frequent kindlings with

a view to breeding. 4 th World Rabbit Congress Budapest,Hungary. Proceedings Vol 1: 326-331p.

7. ………. SPSS for Windows (1997): Version 8.0, CopyrightSPSS Inc.

EFFECT OF BODY FAT CONTENT ON SOMEREPRODUCTIVE TRAITS OF RABBIT DOES

ABSTRACT

The aim of this study was to clarify the effect of body fat content on some reproductive traits of PannonWhite rabbit does. For this purpose rabbits of average

1 S.D. liveweight at 10weeks and of average 1 S.D.daily weight gain between 6 and 10 weeks of age werechosen from the experimental stock of the university, and their fat content was determined with an EM-SCAN SA-3152 type Small Animal Body Composition Analyser (by means of the TOBEC method). Based onthe fat content determined the best and worst 16% of the does and the best and worst 8% of the bucks were

chosen and mated with each other (fatty doe with fatty buck and lean doe with lean buck). It was found that the conception rate was significantlyhigher (71.4% vs. 43.7%) and the time between two kindlings signifi-cantly lower (56 vs. 67 days) in the case of fatty rabbits. No differences were observed in litter size (8.3 vs.8.3) or litter weight at birth (437g vs. 450g), but mor-tality among the suckling rabbits was significantly lower (16.7% vs. 28.3%) in the case of fatty rabbits.

Keywords: rabbit, selection, fat, reproduction




ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 636.598

INVESTIGATIONS ON THE NATURAL EGG LAYING HABITS OFDOMESTIC GEESE

Mónika Pandur (1) , F. Bogenfürst (2)


ABSTRACT

The present study was based on the examination of the natural egg laying habits of domestic geese. The authors studied Grey Landes geese during the summer laying period. On the day of arrival of the birds a TyniTalk II artificial egg was placed in each nest. These eggs contain a microchip which detects and records data on the temperature of the surroundings. The resultsobtained demonstrate that after laying a certain number of eggs females laying under natural conditions sit on the nest not only when laying new eggs, but also to warm the eggs in it. Thetime devoted to warming increases with the laying period.

Keywords: goose female, natural lay, periodic warming, nest, artificial egg

INTRODUCTIONProblems arising from the storage of eggs date back

as far as artificial incubation itself. As early as 1735Reaumur (cit. Mayes andTakeballi, 1984) faced this prob-lem and attempted to solve it by dipping eggs in meltedmutton fat, thus succeeding in prolonging the storage lifeof incubated eggs.

In the course of the 20 th century hatchery practicehas improved through a number of results which havebeen achieved, but it has still not been possible to devise astandard treatment method to prevent deterioration inhatchability due to long-term storage (Valdimirova, 1969;Mayes and Takeballi, 1984; Bogenfürst, 1986). The au-

thors of publications relating to this topic agree on the ne-cessity to apply some type of treatment during storage toprevent the occurence of irreversible changes in the egg.This paper will devote attention to periodic pre-warming

treatments linked to the present work of the authors.The necessity for the periodic warming of eggs can

be verified on examination of the behaviour of female birdsunder natural conditions. In such conditions the femalesits on the nest and lays a new egg every 1 to 5 days (de-pending on species), while at the same time warming theeggs laid previously. Thus, the female ensures that the de-velopment of the embryo is initiated before she beginsbrooding (Tretjakov and Krok, 1968).

Embryonic development begins almost immediatelyafter the female begins to brood on the nest, as the threadcell is positioned on top of the yolk (Bogenfürst, 1994). Asa result of the position of the eggs in the nest the embryoof each is very close to the body of the female (max. 1-1.5cm) which ensures very rapid heat exchange between thefemale and the embryo.

Up to the present no attempts have been made to ap-proach the topic of the periodic warming of geese eggsduring storage from the aspect of natural laying condi-

tions.

MATERIAL AND METHODSGrey landes geese were studied during the summer

laying period in June and July 1999. Five geese, whichoriginated from Haker Plusz Ltd.(Hungary), were housedas follows : 1 female + 1 male (group 1) and 2 females +1 male (group 2). The birds were taken from the layingfarm at 20% general laying intensity.

The degree of opening of the laying bones of the fe-males gave an indication of the time already spent laying.This degree of opening was narrowest in the female allo-cated to group 1; the laying bones in the other two femaleswere already wide opened.

The birds were fed the same layer feed as on the lay-

ing farm, available ad libitum. Drinking water was alsofreely available. The birds were allotted to pens of 15 or 20m2 ground area, in which a covered area was provided toconceal the nest or nests.

On the day of arrival of the birds a TyniTalk II artifi-cial egg (hereafter abbreviated to AE) was placed ineach nest. These eggs contain a mycrochip which de-

tects and records data on the temperature of the sur -roundings. An AE has the capacity to save 1800 data,

the f requency at which the data are recorded being setby the user. The programme on which an AE operatesruns on Windows 95.


(1) Monika Pandur, Ph.D student, (2) Ferenc Bogenfürst, Full Professor -University of Kaposvár, Faculty of Animal Sciences,Guba S. u. 40, 7400

Kaposvár, Hungary



Adatarecordingfrequencyof1min.30sec.wasset,which enabled data to be recorded for a total of 45 hours.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONThe results obtained demonstrate that after laying a

certain number of eggs females laying under natural con-ditions sit on the nest not only when laying new eggs, butalso to warm the eggs in it. The time devoted to warmingincreases with the laying period, an aspect not yet incor-porated into the practice of periodic warming prior to arti-ficial hatching.

Examination of the results obtained for group 1 re-veals that even during the laying of the first egg the femalespent more than an hour on the nest. (Table and Figure).After laying the fifth egg the female sat on the nest eachday for a period of varying length to warm the previouslylaid eggs. On the 19th day of the experiment the femalespent more than half of the day on the nest, a conditionbordering on brooding. The following day she actually be-gan to brood.

Brooding began after nine eggs had been layed. Ac-cording to data in the literature goose females lay about 11

to 14 eggs before beginning the process of hatching them(Gergely 1957; Báldi,1961). In this study fewer eggs werelaid due to the fact that the females had already laid on thefarm from which they were taken. It is thought that the fe-male allocated togroup1 had laid 1 or 2 eggs before being

transferred to the experimantal farm.The temperature data shown in Table vary quite con-

siderably. The reason for this is that the females tented to turn the eggs with their beaks before sitting on the nest.This changed the position of the AE in the nest; it was nolonger as close to her body as the uppermost side of theeggs, so it recorded data only from the air warmed by thefemale. It can be supposed that the highest temperaturerecorded (37.3oC) was measured very close to the bodyof the female.

The laying bones of the females allocated to group 2were already wide open on arrival, which reveals an ad-

vantage in laying over the female of group 1. The durationof the laying of the first eggs shows same pattern : the fe-males of group 2 each spent one hour on the nest until

they had each laid 2 eggs, after which the laying time in-creased. This indicates that they had both previously laid 3or 4 eggs on the laying farm. (Table and Figure)


Table. Lay performance of groups 1 and 2

Day Egg laying Warming length Peak

temperature Egg laying Warminglength

Peak temperature

group 1 group 2

1 - - - 1n 1h30’ 30.2oC2 1 1h30’ 31.3oC 1k 1h40’ 28.9oC

3 - - - - - -

4 1 1h 40’ 29.9oC 1n 2h30’ 31.8oC

5 - - - - - -

6 - - - 1 1h 32.4oC

7 1 1h30’ 33.3oC - - -

8 - 2h 20’ 32.6oC 1n 3h 20’ 29.2oC

9 1 2h 50’ 31.8oC - - -

10 1 3h30’ 37.3oC 2 5h 33.7oC11 - - - - 4h40’ 32.6oC

12 1 4h 10’ 33.7oC 2 6h 10’ 33.6oC

13 - 2h 20’ 31.4oC - 4h 30’ 33.1oC

14 1 5h 20’ 34.3oC 1 6h 50’ 34.8oC

15 - 4h 20’ 37.3oC 1 10h 30’ 34.9oC

16 1 7h 50’ 27.2oC 1 1h 40’ 32.2oC

17 - 4h 30.0oC - 2h 10’ 29.6oC

18 1 7h 20’ 32.1oC 1k 10h 35.3oC

19 - 13h 40’ 32.8oC - 12h 55’ 35.3oC20 BROODING 1k 14h 28.1oC

21 - BROODING



After the fifth day of the experiment it became clear that domestic goose females do not remain in the immedi-ate vicinity of their nests. At first the two females of group2 laid their eggs in separate nests, but on the fifth day thefemales jointly gathered together the straw from the twonests to create a shared one. Subsequently both femaleslaid their eggs in this nest. After spending much timewatching the females it was possible, in half of all in-stances, to see which female was sitting on the nest. Twodifferent letters in the data of Table indicate the femalesidentified.

CONCLUSIONThis experiment was the first stage in a long-term se-

ries of experiments. In this first stage it was possible toverify that goose females sit on their nest not only when

they are laying eggs, but also to warm the eggs and keep the embryos alive with more frequent warming than hadpreviously been supposed.

The authors intend to repeat this study in traditionalgoose egg laying in order to gather more data for the pur-pose of comparison.

REFERENCES1. Báldy, B. (1961): A baromfi tenyésztése. Mezõgaz- dasági

Kiadó, Budapest.2. Bogenfürst, F. (1986): A keltethetõség javításával összefüggõ

tényezõk hatásának vizsgálata, különös tekintettel alúdfajra. Kandidátusi értekezés, Kaposvár.

3. Bogenfürst, F. (1994): Keltetés. Gazda Kistermelõi

Lap- és Könyvkiadó, Budapest.4. Gergely, B. (1957) : A baromfikeltetés kézikönyve.

Mezõgazdasági Kiadó, Budapest.5. Mayes, F. J., Takeballi, M. A. (1984): Storage of the eggs of

the fowl before incubation, World’s Poultry Science Jour-nal 40(2):131-140.

6. Tretjakov, N. P., Krok, G. Sz. (1968): Inkubacija sz osznovamiembriologii. Kolosz, Moszkva.

7. Vladimirova, J.N. (1969): O predinkubacionnom podogrevekurinüh jaic. Pticevodsztvo, 33:77-81.


Time spent on the nest, group 1 and 2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Days

H o u r s

Group 1Group 2



ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 636.367.37:637.5.04/.07

THE EFFECT OF CHAROLLAIS SHEEP ON THE MEAT PRODUCTION AND THE

SLAUGHTER VALUE OF THE HUNGARIAN MERINOGy. Toldi (1) , A. Lengyel (2) , D. Mezõszentgyörgyi (3) , R. Romvári (4)


ABSTRACT

25 Hungarian Merino, 22 Charollais and 20 Charollais F 1 lambs were analyzed with CT by the authors. With the help of the 7 pictures taken of the short and long loin muscle and thethigh muscle, the amount of fat put in was analyzed with the different genotypes. Accord- ing to the results, the Hungarian Merino produces less muscle and more tallow. Statis-

tically verifiable difference between the three genotypes can be established based uponthe fat and muscle area on the short loin muscle and the thigh muscle, and the fat tissue area on the long loin muscle. The muscle area measured in the Charollais stock in-creased significantly, 25 cm 2 at the short loin muscle and 13 cm 2 at the head of the femur.The Charollais type as a cross breed partner (terminal type) will improve the meat pro-duction Table of the Hungarian Merino, primarily at the body parts that supply the most valuable 1st class meat.

Keywords: Charollais sheep, Hungarian Merino, body composition, muscle, fat area

INTRODUCTIONThe crucial amount of the income of Hungarian

sheep-stations comes from selling livestock and mutton.A characteristic feature is exporting live animals in which the unfavorable slaughter value is harder to find. Sellingcarcass can result in higher income and in this case bodycomposition is more important, as in determining thepriceof the amount of muscle and tallow are more important in

the EUROP rating system (Klosz, 1994).Estimation of body composition earlier was only

possible with trial slaughter. Using this method, apart fromhaving to kill the experimental animal, the breeders couldcalculate slow progress because of the length of the gen-eration interval.

In order to improve the efficiency of breeding and toquicken the genetic improvement, the development of amethod became the center of research to enable thehigh-precision estimation of breeding value in vivo state,since knowing the body size will notnecessarily give exactresults for slaughter value.

Skjervold and coworkers (1981) were the first to usecomputer layer analysis (CT) in pig experiments.

Based upon the research of Simm (1987), Vangen(1992), Kövér et al. (1993) with pigs, Bentsen andSehested (1985), Romvári and Perényi (1993) with broil-ers, Sehested (1986), Young et al. (1987), Lengyel et al.(1994) with sheep, it can be established that applying CTanalysis results in the selection would greatly improve thework to increase the production of meat.

Our experiments were carried out with the aim to determine how far imported Charollais meat type can im-prove the meat quality of Hungarian Merino sheep whencompared based upon the same live weight and anatomi-cal points.

MATERIAL AND METHODSThe experiments to determine body composition in

vivo were performed at the CT Biology Centre of the Fac-ulty of Animal Science of Kaposvar University. 25 Hungar-ian Merino (Me), 22 Charollais (Ch) and 20 Charollais x HungarianMerino/F1 (ChF1)sheepwereusedintheexper-iment.

The Hungarian Merino and the F1 stock was suppliedfrom the farm site of the Lajoskomárom “Gyõzelem”co-op and the Charollais from CSEMEZ László’s flock,whose whole flock had been imported. Due to the high in-dividual value of the breed sheep, the comparison of thegenotypes were made based upon the CT images pre-pared and the data obtained from these. The live weight of

the animals examined was 34 ± 1.5 kg. The keeping con-ditions for each group were identical, and subsequent toweaning the animals were fed an intensive diet (feed con-centrate and hay) up to the time of examinations.


(1) Gyula Toldi, BAg, (2) Attila Lengyel, Ass. Professor, (3) David Mezõszentgyorgy, BAg, (4) Robert Romvari, Ass. Professor - University of Kaposvar, Faculty of Animal Science, Guba S. u. 40, 7400 Kaposvar, Hun- gary



8 CT images were taken of each animal. The first im-age taken was in each case a topogram, this being an ori-entation image in which the entire length of the body canbe seen. In this topogram the spinal column can be clearlydistinguished, thus allowing 7anatomical points to marked

as sites for the images to be taken. Determination of thesectional surface area of the long loin muscle:

1 st image:takenatthe9 th thoracic vertebra (vertebra thoracalis nona)

2 nd image: taken at the 11 th thoracic vertebra3 rd image: taken at the 13 th thoracic vertebraEvaluation of the data obtained from these images

enabled the area of the M. longissimus dorsi and that of the subcutaneous fat tissue situated above it to be deter-mined in the left half of the body.

Determination of the sectional surface area of theshort loin muscle:

4th image: taken at the 2nd lumbar vertebra5th image: taken at the 4 th lumbar vertebraThe M. psoas major is also depicted in these images.

Here, evaluation enabled the total area of the muscle tis-sue comprising the M. longissimus dorsi and the M.psoas major and also the total collective area of the sub-cutaneous fat tissue situated above the M. ongissimusdorsi and the fat tissue located between the M.longissimus dorsi and the M. psoas major to be deter-mined in the left half of the body.

6th image: taken at the 6 th lumbar vertebra

At this examination point the entire dimensions of theslice,with the exception of the intra-abdominalorgansand

the reproductive organs, were taken into account. This im-ages was used to determine the area of the muscle tissueand fat tissue.

The last image was taken at the head of the femur and was used to determine the sectional surface area of

the thigh muscle. Evaluation of this image was performedon the basis of the same procedure as that outlined for the6 th image.

Evaluation of the images obtained was performed bymeans of theCTPC computer programme(Kövér, 1991).

This program is suitable for the on-screen depictionof the images required, for the measurement of distancesand areas shown on those, for the demarcation and high-

lighting of certain areas and for the determination of thearea of these, and also for the magnification of individualparts of the image. This software also provided the oppor-

tunity for the setting of density values for muscle and fat

tissue already examined. This was necessary due to theneed for the individual tissue types to be readily distin-guishable.

The limit values determined, on the basis of theHounsfield-scale, were the following:

+ 30 - +200 density limit value for the muscle tissue,0 - +30 density limit value for the liquid phase substances

from the muscle tissue,0 - -30 density limit value for the liquid phase substances from

the fat tissue,-30 - -200 density limit value for the fat tissue.

The areas to be examined were delineated on thescreen by means of the computer mouse, subsequently

the programme was used to calculate from these areas,on the basis of density values, the areas of the respective

type of tissue.

Statistical analysis was performed by means of theSPSS® for WindowsTM (8.0) software package, on thedata for muscle and fat area derived from the three images

taken both in the long loin muscle (images taken at the 9 th,11 th and 13 th thoracic vertebra) and in the short loin mus-cle (images taken at the 2nd, 4 th and6 th lumbar vertebra). Ineach case the minimum and maximum values, the meanof the distribution were calculated, and the t-test and vari-ance analysis were applied for the purpose of compari-son.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONIn the charrolais and Charollais F1 stocks the values

obtained for the sectional area of the long loin muscleproved 4 to 9 cm2 higher than those measured in the Me-rino rams (Table 1).Significant difference (P<0.01) couldonly be found between the Merino and the Charollais.

Evaluation of the fat area of the fat tissue shows that the difference of the three genotypes examined is statisti-cally verifiable (P<0.01, P<0.001). The Merino can becharacterized as having the highest fat area; the Charollaisas having the lowest fat area.

In the Charollais stock the values of the area of themuscle were 37 cm2 higher than those in the Merino stock (Table 2).

In the Charollais F1 stock the area of the muscle in-creased significantly (25 cm2) compared to the Merino.Significant degrees of difference can be ascertained be-

tween the three genotypes at P<0.001 level. The Merinocan be characterized as having the highest and the


Table 1. Muscle and fat area data of the long loinMuscle area, cm2 Fat area, cm2

x s x sMerino (Me) 35.76a 5.81 33.15a 8.28

Charollais 44.63b 5.77 22.51b 6.31

Ch F1 41.28b 6.17 28.03ab 5.11

Statistically significant differences (a; b)



Charollais as having the lowest fat area value. Significantdegrees of difference can be found between the Merinoand Charollais and the Charollais and Charollais F1.

The muscle area at the head of the femur of theCharollaiswas25cm2 higher, and that of the Charollais 13cm2 higher than the value obtained at the Merino (Table 3).Significant degree of difference can be ascertained be-

tween the three genotype at P<0.001 level. The Merinocan be characterized as having the highest and theCharollais as having the lowest fat area value. Thedegreesof difference between the three genotypes are statistically

verifiable. At the judgement of the fenotype, the greatestdifference can be seen at the thigh muscle and the shortloin muscle. The values obtained from the CT also yield

this, though the difference could be higher if several im-ages were to be taken of the thigh muscle. The reason for

this is that the back legs are stretched when the animalsare strapped down. In such a position, especially with theCharollais, a substantial proportion of the thigh muscle isconcentrated farther back; therefore, values obtained at

the head of the femur cannot really represent the real dif-ference between the types. To determine values of the

thigh muscle in the future, a different examination positionwould be expedient.

CONCLUSIONBased upon the results of our experiments, the fol-

lowing conclusions can be drawn:- the sectinal surface area of the loin muscle along the

full length of the spine and the thigh muscle is higher at theCharollais and the Charollais F1 than those at the Merino,

- the Merino can be characterized as having the high-est and the Charollais as having the lowest fat area value,

- in the Charollais F1 stock the area of the muscle tis-sue increased along the full length of the spine and the

thigh muscle, while the area covered with tallow de-creased compared to the Merino,

- the greatest improvement was achieved in thecrossed flock at the thigh muscle and short loin muscle, in

the increase of muscle area and decrease of fat area,

- for a more precise determination of the thigh mus-cle a different sectional surface area is necessary,

- in general it can be concluded that using theCharollais type as a cross-breed partner will improve themeat production Table of the Hungarian Merino, primarily

the body parts that supply the most valuable 1st classmeat.

The planned compulsory introduction of heS/EUROP meat classification system into the EU will put

the issue of producing quality meat in focus. Using theCharollais type will help Hungary gain the necessary qual-

ity improvement.

REFERENCES1. Bensten, H.B., Sehested, E. (1989): Br. Poultry Sci., 30:

575-585.2. Klosz, T. (1994): A hús, 4: 212-213.3. Kövér, Gy., Horn, P., Kovách, G., Pászthy, Gy. (1993): A hús,

4: 235-237.4. Lengyel, A., Pászthy, Gy., Kövér, Gy., Horn, P. (1994): A hús,

1: 39-41.5. Romvári, R., Perényi, M. (1993): Brojler csirkék testzsír

tartalmának in vivo vizsgálata CT segítségével. MÉTE

Kisállattenyésztési Nap, Kaposvár, 66-77 p.6. Sehested, E. (1986): In vivo prediction of lambs carcass

composition by computerized tomography. Ph. D. Thesis.Dept. of Animal Science, Agricultural University of Nor -way, 81 p.

7. Skjervold, H., Gronseth, K., Vangen, O., Evense, A. (1981): Z.Tierzücht. Züchtbiol., 98: 77-79 p.

8. Vangen, O. (1992): Assesing body composition of pigs bycomputer assisted tomography. Rewiew. Pigs News andInromation, 13(4): 1-22.

9. Young, M.J., Garden, K.L., Knopp, T.C. (1987): Computer aided tomography – Comprehensive body compositionaldata from live animals. Proceedings of New Zealand Soci-

ety of Animal Production, 47: 69-71.


Table 2. Muscle and fat area of the short loin

Muscle area, cm2 Fat area, cm2

x s x s

Merino (Me) 95.38a

16.12 35.86a

8.76Charollais 132.18b 15.73 26.18b 6.57

Ch F1 120.76ab 17.30 32.33ab 10.39

Table 3. The muscle and fat area data taken at the head of the femur

Muscle area, cm2 Fat area, cm2

x s x s

Merino (Me) 152.97a 32.08 43.82a 9.56

Charollais 177.41b 31.52 30.18b 10.71

Ch F1 165.71ab

29.63 37.29ab

11.47



ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 636.4:636.085.19

EFFECT OF LOW DOSES OF THE MYCOTOXIN FUMONISIN B1 ON THE BODYMASS GAIN, FEED INTAKE AND FEED CONVERSION RATE OF PIGS

Á. Tóth(1) , Melinda Zomborzsky-Kovács(2) , G. Tornyos(3) , N. Szalai (4) , Krisztina Kübler (5)


ABSTRACT

The fumonisin group of mycotoxins produced by Fusariun moniliforme is a rather newly dis-covered contaminant of some agricultural products, especially maize based food and animal

feed. Fumonisin was discovered in 1988 of mouldy maize inspected since 1993 has shown FB1

contamination, the degree of this contamination increasing from year to year. Problemsof mycotoxins cause significant economic losses due to the reduced feed intake, body weight gain and feed efficiency. We have very few informations about the effect of FB1 onthese in South Africa, where high evidence was found between the occurrence of humanoesophageal cancer and the rate of FB1 contamination. The discovery of this toxin lead tothe explanation of equine leucoencephalomalacia (ELEM), porcine pulmonary oedema(PPC) and possibly liver cancer in rats. In Hungary almost 70 % parameters – especially in farm animals. Three experiments were carried out with weaned piglets, in order to study the dose and time dependent effect of FB1 . Fungal culture of Fusariun moniliformewasaddedtothedietsothattheFB1 exposurewas:0,10,20and40ppmfor4weeks,0,1,5and10ppmfor8weeks and0,1,5and10ppmfor5months.Innoneoftheexperiments and the periods examined had FB1 any significant effect on feed consumption, body weight gain and feed conversion of weaned pigs. In spite of these findings mild or severe pulmonary oedema caused by the toxin was found in the animals by dissection carried

out at the end of the experiment. Our results draw the attention to human health concernsof FB1 . The toxin consumed by the animals without any clinical signs can cumulate in the animals and then enter the human organism by means of products of animal origin (meat, milk, etc.).

Keywords: micotoxins, Fumonisin, pig, gain of body weight

INTRODUCTIONMycotoxins get into the human organism with con-

taminated plant food and consumer goods such as bread,beer or coffee. In addition to this, foods of animal origin in-directly introduce into the food chain also the mycotoxinscontained in feeds consumed by the animals. Prolonged,so-called chronic exposure to low doses of mycotoxins isespecially dangerous, as is the additive multitoxic effect

that occurs if several toxins are present simultaneously.Fusarium moniliforme is a fungus that occurs on

maize all over the world. Under certain conditions it pro-duces mycotoxins of veterinary and medical importance.The most important representative of these mycotoxins isfumonisin B1, which causes equine leukoencephalo-malacia and porcine pulmonary oedema, and has beenassociated with the development of oesophageal cancer in humans. The objective of these experiments was to

study the effect of fumonisinB1 exposure of different duration and dose level (low dose) on the body mass gain,feed consumption and feed conversion rate of pigs.

MATERIAL AND METHODSExperimental animals

Twenty weaned barrows of identical body mass (10kg) and of the same genotype were used in the experi-ments. Before the start of the experiment the animals were

assigned to four groups on the basis of their body mass.The piglets were housed individually. They were fed twicea day, and the quantity of feed not consumed by the ani-mals was weighed and recorded. Drinking water wasavailable ad libitum.

During the experimental period the animals wereweighed twice a week, then in the experiments of longer

term (8 weeks and 5 months) weighing was performedonce a week. The clinical status of the piglets waschecked twice a day. At the end of the experiment the ani-mals were killed and examined for gross lesions bynecropsy.


(1) Akos Tóth, Ph.D student, (2) Melinda Zomborszky-Kovacs, Associate Professor, (3) Gabor Tornyos, Ph.D. student, (4) Norbert Szalat, Student (5) KrisztinaKûbler, Student - University of Kaposvár, Faculty of Animal Sci-ence, Guba S. u. 40, 7400 Kaposvár, Hungary



Design of the experiments Experiment 1: Four random groups of weaned piglets

werefedadietcontaining0,10,20or40mg/kgfumonisinB1 (FB1) for a relatively short period of time, for 4 weeks.The objective was to determine whether the effect offumonisin B1 doses much lower than those reported in theliterature could be detected already after a short period ofexposure.

Experiment 2: Four random groups of weaned pigletswere fed a diet containing 0, 1, 5 or 10 mg/kg FB 1 for 8weeks. Utilising the results of the first experiment, evenlower doses were applied, but for a longer time. Experi- ment 3: Four random groups of weaned piglets were fed adiet containing 0, 1, 5 or 10 mg/kg FB1 for 5 months. Theobjective of this experiment was to study the effect of

treatment of substantially longer duration, which lasteduntil end of fattening.

Housing of the animalsThe experimental animals were housed individually in

battery cages. One cage between two neighbouringgroups was left empty, to prevent cross-contaminationbetween the animals. In this way we ascertained that theanimals consumed only the toxin quantity designated for

them. In the 5-month experiment, the animals were kept inbatteries during the first 8 weeks and subsequently theywere housed in individual boxes.

Feeding

Theexperimental animals were fed a basal ration cor-responding to their age. In the 4-week and the 8-week ex-periment that ration contained 187 g/kg crude protein,12.8 MJ/kg ME, and 13.1 g/kg lysine (LYS). In the5-month trial, after the first 8 weeks the ration contained137g/kgcrudeprotein,12.9MJ/kgME,and9.4g/kgLYS.

After a 5-day period of adaptation, a Fusariummoniliforme fungal culture of known fumonisin B1 content

was mixed to the ration so as to ensure a daily FB1 intakeof 0, 10, 20 and 40 mg/kg of feed (ppm) in Experiment 1and 0, 1, 5 and 10 mg/kg of feed (ppm) in Experiments 2and 3.

The toxin was produced at the Veterinary Institute of

Debrecen according to the method of Fazekas et al.(1998). The feed did not contain other mycotoxins.

Statistical analysisComparison of the treated and control groups in

terms of feed consumption,body mass gain and feed con-version rate (FCR) was done by one-factor analysis ofvariance using the ANOVA programme of the SPSS 7.5programme package.


Clinical signsThe animals did not show clinical signs attributable

to toxin effect in any of the experiments. No difference wasfound between the treated and the control groups in thebehaviour of the animals either.

Body mass gain, feed consumption and feed conversion rate

Comparing the three experiments, there was no sig-nificant difference in the starting average body mass val-ues. During the study, no significant differences werefound between the treated and the control groups in daily

average body mass gain and feed consumption in anycase. There was no difference in the feed conversion rateeither (at least within the sensitivity limits of the method,which in the case of the feed conversion rate means ap-proximately 6–8% body mass/feed consumption differ-ence, assuming 5% error of first kind and 20% error ofsecondkind). Comparison of the groups was always doneby single-factor analysis of variance. The level of signifi-cance markedly exceeded 0.05 in all cases.


Table 1. The relative frequency indicate that the incidence of lung lesions depends not only on the amount of toxin in-gested but also on the duration of toxin intake

Experiments DosesMacroscopic alterations

(number of lungs with pathological alterations / number of lungs in the groups)

Weight of the lungs (mean)(a,b,c: P 0.05)

10 ppm 3 / 4 (75%) 168a

1. 20 ppm 4 / 5 (80%) 210b

40 ppm 5 / 5 (100%) 266c

1 ppm 1 / 4 (25%) 276a

2. 5 ppm 2 / 5 (40%) 294b

10 ppm 3 / 4 (75%) 367c

1 ppm 2 / 5 (40%) 588a

3. 5 ppm 3 / 4 (75%) 660b

10 ppm 6 / 6 (100%) 769c



Gross pathological findingsIn all three experiments, necropsy revealed gross le-

sions in the lungs which were indicative of the toxic effectof fumonisin B1. Table 1 show the incidence of these le-sions and the average mass of the lungs in the treatedgroups.

CONCLUSIONVery few data are available in the literature regarding

the effect of fumonisin B1 on growth and body mass gain.Especially little is known about the effects exerted by this

toxin in farm animals (including the pig) and in the case oflong-term toxin exposure.

In an 8-week experiment on weaned piglets (6 weeksold, weighing 6–12 kg), Rotter et al. (1996) studied the ef-fect of feeding a diet supplemented with purified FB1.While in male animals the body mass gain achieved inweeks 4–6 decreased in a linear ratio to increasing con-centrations of the toxin (1 and 10 ppm), in the gilts no dif-ference could be detected. Body mass gain showedmarked fluctuation in the first four weeks, then becamemore balanced in the second 4-week period. The feedconversion rate was impaired already by toxin levels aslow as 0.1 ppm, though the decrease was slight andnon-significant. No significant difference was detectablein the feed consumption either; still, it was found that at anFB1 dose of 10 ppm the toxin-treated male piglets ate ap-proximately 10% less than the control males.

The toxin doses fed in these experiments did not exerta detectable effect on the body mass gain, feed consump-

tion and feed conversion rate of the animals. This findingsomewhat differs from the results reported by Rotter et al.(1996). In their experiments, Rotter et al. fed a diet con-

taining purified FB1 mycotoxin to male and female piglets,while in these studies we added an FB1-containingmycotoxin mixture to the diet of barrows. Rotter et al.could demonstrate a negative effect of FB1 on the perfor-mance data only in boar piglets.

According to data of the literature, other fusariotoxinsaffect feed intake and body mass gain already in very lowamounts. For example, T-2 toxin was found to cause sub-

stantial feed rejection already at a level as low as 3 mg/kgof feed (Rafai et al., 1995).

In the experimental animals used in this study, the toxin exerted its harmful effects; however, this was foundout only at necropsy, as the animals did not show abnor-mal clinical signs during the experiment and their perfor-mance parameters did not change as an indication of

toxicosis. This calls the attention to human health implications, as the mycotoxin may accumulate in animals unno- ticed, and humans may ingest it with foods of animalorigin. This poses an particularly high risk, as FB1 belongs

to the group of potentially carcinogenic substances.

The absence of clinical signs in the experimental ani-mals of this study suggests that it may well happen also inhumans that this toxicosis is diagnosed only at an alreadyirreversible stage.

It is known that certain mycotoxins may interact witheach other. Thus, when several mycotoxins are simulta-neously present in the feed, they may mutually amplify the

toxic effects of each other. In experiments conducted onpiglets, Friend et al. (1992) proved that the negative effect

exerted by T-2 toxin on body mass gain and feed intakewas substantially enhanced by the presence of de-oxynivalenol (DON). In the present experiment the piglets’feed contained only the studied Fusarium moniliformemycotoxin. Thus, these doses probably exert a differenteffect under natural conditions when the contaminatedfeed often contains several different mycotoxins.

The presence of mycotoxins is a constant problem. Itseems that mycotoxins cannot be eliminated from the en-vironment, and thus we must live together with the hazard

they pose. Mycotoxicoses represent an important humanhealth problem in Hungary because the population con-

sumes large quantities of cereals, which are the foodsmost likely to become contaminated with different mouldspecies.

REFERENCES

1. Fazekas, B., Bajmócy, E., Glávits, R., Fenyvesi, A., Tanyi, J.(1998): FumonisinB1 contamination of maize and experi-mental acute fumonisin toxicosis in pigs. J. Vet. Med. B.

2. Nelson, P.E., Desjardins, A.E., Plattper, R.D.(1993):

Fumonisins, mycotoxins produced by Fusarium species:biology, chemistry and significance. Ann. Rev.Cytopathol., 31: 233.

3. Rafai P., Tuboly S., Bata Á., Ványi A., Papp Z., Brydl E., JakabL., Túry E. (1995): Magy. Áo. Lapja, 682-684 p.

4. Sydenham, E.W., Gelderblom, W.C.A., Thiel, P.G., Marasas,W.F.O. (1990): Evidence for the natural occurence offumonisin-B1, a mycotoxin produced by Fusariummoniliforme, in corn. J. Agric.Food Chem.,38: 285-290.

5. Weaver, G.A., Kurtz, H. J. (1978a): Vet. Rec., 103: 531 p.6.Weaver,G.A.,Kurtz,H.J.(1978b):Canad.Vet.J.,19:310p.7. Vesonder, R.F., Ellis, J. J. (1981): Appl. Envir. Microbiol., 41:

323 p.




ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 619:639.1.052

INCIDENCE OF TRICHINELLOSIS IN WILD BOAR IN HUNTING AREAS OFOSIJEK-BARANJA COUNTY

Z. Tucak (1) , T. Florijan~i}(2) , P. Dragi~evi}(3) , Tatjana Tušek (4)

Professional paper

ABSTRACT

Theenvironment of the Osijek-Baranja County’s hunting grounds is a potential source of parasitically disease, trichinellosis. In the hounting grounds where wild boar is mostly dwelling,other animals which act as potential disease vectors (rats, foxes, badgers, jackal’s etc.),dwells too. Despite of the continuous zoo-hygieniccontrol, trichinellosis at wild boar hasbeenobserved. Their migration out of the hunting grounds makes possible the contact with pigs,which are in extensive breeding, and spreading of disease in both directions is possible. Dueto many reasons, of which the war-situation in the recent past is the main, the Osijek-BaranjaCounty become an endemic area for trichinosis. Our research has confirmed trichinellosis at wild boar, so it requires further and continuous monitoring of disease.

Keywords: trichinosis, wild boar, hunting area

INTRODUCTIONA fact that parasitically disease, trichinellosis of pigs

becomes an endemic in the Osijek-Baranja County is amotive for the research. (Rapi} et al., 1987) examinedmuscle samples of 78 wild boar by trichinelloscopy, and

recorded that 7.89% is invaded by nematode, Trichinella sp. Using the serological and parasitological analyses they recorded 21.76% of pigs holds extensively on thefarmlands is invaded by trichina. The economical condi-

tions still tending the extensive pig breeding, that makescontact with wild boar and other disease vectors morepossible. The scope of the research is to make sure howmuch is trichinosis frequent at wild boar.

MATERIAL AND METHODSThe frequency of parasitically nematode, Trichinella

sp., in the meat of wild boar, which have been shot in theOsijek-Baranja County’s hounting grounds in the period1996-1999, has been researched. Samples of the musclepart of diaphragm has been examined by method of

trichinelloscopy in the Veterinary Stations in Beli Manastir,Ðakovo and Osijek.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONIn the Osijek-Baranja County in the period

1996-1999 has been examined by trichinelloscopy: 1703samples of wild boar muscle tissue (table 1) and 225,315samples of domestic pigs muscle tissue (table 2).

Table 3 (wild boar) and table 4 (domestic pigs)shows an increase in number of examination from year toyear. It can be explained by epidemic series, which occur in Ðakovo (1997), in Baranja region (1998) and in Osijek (1999). A number of the positive results in wild boar is rel-

atively lower (0.117%) than in domestic pigs (0.276%),asit is shown by previous studies (Bogut et al., 1999).

This can be explained by fact that wild boar possessa much stronger natural immunity and instinctive behav-

Poljoprivreda 6 (2000) 152

Table 1. The total number of examined and positive wildboar meat samples in the period 1996-1999

VeterinaryStation

Examinedsamples

Positive samples

number %

Beli Manastir 544 1 0.183

Ðakovo 875 0 0.0

Osijek 284 1 0.352

Total 1703 6 0.117

(1) Zvonimir Tucak, Associated Professor, (2) Tihomir Florijan~i}, DVM, (3) MSc Pavao Dragi~evi} - J.J.Strossmayer University of Osijek, Faculty of Ag- riculture, Trg Svetog Trojstva 3, 31000 Osijek, Croatia, (4) Tatjana Tušek, Ph.D - College of Agriculture at Krièvci, M. Demerca 1, 48260 Krièvci,Croatia

Table 2. The total number of examined and positive do-mestic pigs meat samples in the period 1996-1999

VeterinaryStation Examinedsamples

Positive samples

number %

Beli Manastir 58,791 105 0.179

Ðakovo 90,403 107 0.118

Osijek 76,121 410 0.539

Total 225,315 622 0.276



iour for not consuming carcasses, which are potentiallysource of trichinosis (foxes, rats, wild pigs etc). Neverthe-less the increasing in the pig’s meat sample examination,an evidence that large number of slaughtered domesticand shot wild boar is not undergo to trichinelloscopy is

concerning. Consequently, quality of meat andmeat prod-ucts decay which is a potential hazard to human health. Toprevent this dangerous disease the Ministry of agricultureand forestry issued an order about obligatory examinationfor trichinosis of pig’s meat, from pigs used in house-hold’s nutrition, in the entire Republic of Croatia.

For further prevention and beating of trichinosis inanimals and humans, continuous monitoring of disease isimportant. Trichinelloscopy examination of all slaughteredand shot pigs should be obligatory, also appropriate dislo-cation of perished and dead animals (the best way is byburning up), and education of people and hunters about

danger of trichinosis are the main tasks too.

CONCLUSION1. In the period 1996-1999 in the Osijek-Baranja

County 1703 samples of wild boar meat has been exam-ined by trichinelloscopy.

2. The percentage of wild boar invading by Trichinella sp. is lower compared to domestic pigs.

3. More frequent appear of trichinellosis are result ofinsufficient realization of measure for prevention and beat-ing.

REFERENCES1. Bodakoš, D. (1997): Trihineloza. Hrvatski veterinarski vjesnik

1-2: 46-51.2. Bodakoš, D., Bogut, I. (1998): Trihineloza opaka bolest

ìvotinja i ljudi. Hrvatska gospodarska komora, Osijek.

3. Bogut, I., Bodakoš, D, Lederer, M., Rastija, T., Tucak, Z.(1999): Invadiranost svinja Trichinellom spiralis napodru~ju Osje~ko-baranjske ùpanije 1998. godine.Znanstveni glasnik Sveu~ilišta u Mostaru 7: 187-194.

4. Brstilo, M. (1999): Suzbijanje trihineloze u RepubliciHrvatskoj. I. hrvatski simpozij o trihinelozi. Knjigasaètaka, 9-10.

5. Marinculi}, A., Gašpar, A. (1999): Epizootiologija trihineloze.I. hrvatski simpozij o trihinelozi. Knjiga saètaka, 1-3.

6. Poto~njak, M., Bodakoš, D., Bogut, I., Zoreti} Dubravka(1998): Invadiranost svinja Trichinellom spiralis tijekom1997. godine na podru~ju Osje~ko-baranjske ùpanije.34. znanstveni skup hrvatskih agronoma. Zbornik saètaka, 309-310.

7. Pozio, E. (1999): Epidemiology of trichinellosis in Europe. I.hrvatski simpozij o trihinelozi. Knjiga saètaka, 3-4.

8. Rapi}, D., Wikerhaucer, T., Dàkula, N., Stojiljkovi}, D.,Marinculi}, A., Modri}, Z., Juki}, B., Mekanj, L., Vickovi},M., Kova~, Z., @iger, K. (1987): Eksperimentalnaistra ivanja trihineloze u SR Hrvatskoj 1982-1987. Vet.arhiv 57: 113-122.

9. Sviben, M. (1996): Nacionalno izvješ}e Republike Hrvatskeza sastanak o hrani u svijetu, Rim 13-17. studenog 1996:80-96.


Table 3. The number of examined and positive wild boar meat samples in the period 1996-1999

VeterinaryStation

1996 1997 1998 1999

Examinedsamples

Positivesamples

Examinedsamples

Positivesamples

Examinedsamples

Positivesamples

Examinedsamples

Positivesamples

BeliManastir - - 57 - 157 1 239 -

Ðakovo 301 - 134 1 195 - 245 1

Osijek 42 - 88 1 136 - 210 1

Total 92 - 320 2 733 2 1117 2

Table 4. The number of examined and positive domestic pigs meat samples in the period 1996-1999

VeterinaryStation

1996 1997 1998 1999

Examinedsamples

Positivesamples

Examinedsamples

Positivesamples

Examinedsamples

Positivesamples

Examinedsamples

Positivesamples

BeliManastir - - 1,400 2 8,564 8 38,586 80

Ðakovo 8,638 9 15,250 8 24,855 37 32,060 42

Osijek 4,160 3 11,203 75 30,791 172 29,967 160

Total 15,672 15 35.444 92 90.083 272 142.081 486



ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 636.4:637.5.04/.07

SHARE AND QUALITY OF MUSCLE TISSUE IN CARCASSES OF PIGSPRODUCED ON FAMILY FARM

A. Petri~evi}(1) , Gordana Kralik (2) , Draènka Gutzmirtl (3) , G. Kušec(4)


ABSTRACT

In this study, 60 pig carcasses were included, divided in 2 groups according to breed (1 st =SLxGL; 2 nd =SL), and within groups according to sex (gilts F 1=15 and F 2=14; malecastrates M 1=17 and M 2=14). Pigs were produced on family farm and fattened in sameconditions. Primary processed and cooled carcasses were cut according to “Kulmbach” method (CAC/79). The main parts of the carcasses were dissected on tissues (muscle, fat and bones) and share of lean meat was determined for carcasses and for individual cuts. Muscle tissue share in the carcasses was higher in gilts from 1 st and 2 nd group(F 1=53.93%; F 2=51.77%) than in male castrates from both groups (M 1=50.13%; M 2=49.90%) and regardless the sex it was higher in SL x GL crossbreds (1 st group) than in SL breed (2 nd group). Statisticaly significant differences (P<0.05) were found only incase of loins between gilts and castrates from 1 st group (F 1=9.58%; M 1=8.30%) and be-tween castrates of the 1 st group and gilts from 2 nd group (M 1=8.30% i F 2=9.57%). Meanvalues of meat quality indicators were mainly within normal boundaries; the only statisti-cally significant difference (P<0.05) was established for meat color between F 1 and F 2 group.

Keywords: fattening of pigs, meat yield, meat quality

INTRODUCTIONProduction of fattened pigs in Croatia is still not satis-

factory regarding meat yield, compared to most of the EUcountries. This disadvantage is esspecially noTable inproduction on family farms. The main reasons for this aregenetic background, feeding regimes, environment etc(Ðiki}et al. 1993; Sen~i}et al. 1994, Petri~evi}et al. 1994,Kušec et al. 1998). The improvement of those conditionscould also improve overall pig production. Its known thatsex has influence on meat yield and distribution of tissuesin the carcass of slaughtered pigs as well as on the indica-

tors of meat quality (`gur et al. 1994, Petri~evi}et al.1990). The aim of this research is to investigate yeald andquality of mucle tissue of pigs of different genetic back-ground according to sex.

MATERIAL AND METHODSIn this research, 60 pig carcasses were included, di-

vided in 2 groups. In 1st group were 15 carcasses fromgilts (F1) and 14 carcasses from male castrates (M1) ofcrossbreeds between Swedish Landrace annd GermanLandrace (SLxGL), while 2nd group consisted from 17 car-casses from gilts (F2) and 14 carcasses male castrates

(M2), Swedish Landrace (SL) pigs. All pigs were producedon family farm and fattened under the same conditions.After slaughter, primary processing of pigs, and

cooling, pig carcasses were cut and totally dissected ac-

cording to “Kulmbach” method (Commision of EuropeanCommities, 1979). Carcasses of pigs were cut on mainparts (ham, shoulder, loin, neck, belly-rib part) and lessvaluable parts (head, lower parts of legs, tail, kidnies).Main parts were further dissected on muscle tissue, fatty

tissue with skin and bones. Initial pH the meat was mea-sured 45 minutes after slaughter (pH1) and other indica-

tors of meat quality, such as: pH2, water holding capacityaccording to Grau and Hamm, color by Göfo device andconsistency by compression, were measured next day af-

ter chilling.

Data were processed on personal computer usingstandard statistical methods.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONTable 1 contains mean values and standard devia-

tions of carcasses weights, share of muscle tissues inmain cuts and meat to fat surface ratio in musculus longissimus dorsi cut. Data on carcass weights show thedifferences between two groups divided according tobreed (1stg = SLxGL; 2nd = SL) and within the breed ac-cording to sex . Carcass weight of male castrates fromboth groups (M1=82.71 kg, M2=80.71 kg) was higher


(1) Antun Petri~evi}, Professor Emeritus, (2) Gordana Kralik, Dr.h.c. Full Professor, (4) Goran Kušec, MSci, - J.J.Strossmayer University of Osijek, Faculty of Agriculture, Trg Svetog Trojstva 3, 31000 Osijek, Croatia, (3) Draènka Gutzmirtl, BAgr, Croatian Advisery Service, Kr. Petra Sva~i}a 4,31000 Osijek, Croatia



than weights of gilts (F1=78.3 kg, F2 = 76.94 kg), andstatistically significant differences (P<0.05) were foundonly between male castrates of the 1st group and femalesfrom 2nd group (M1 and F2). Differences in mean values for pH1, pH2,WHC and consistency was not in any case.Mus-

cle tissue share in the carcasses was higher in gilts from1st and 2nd group (F1=53.93%; F2=51.77%) than in malecastrates from both groups (M1=50.13%; M2=49.90%)and regardless the sex it was higher in SL x GL crossbreds(1st group)thaninSLbreed(2nd group). Statisticaly signifi-cant differences (P<0.01) were found between femalesfrom 1st group and castrates from both groups (M1 andM2). Statisticaly significant differences (P<0.05) werefound only in case of loins between gilts and castratesfrom 1st group (F1=9.58% i M1=8.30%) and betweencastrates of the 1st group and gilts from 2nd group(M1=8.30% i F2=9.57%).

Petri~evi} et al. (1999) were found similar differ-ences between sexes in carcass weight (P<0.05) and

muscle tissue share (P<0.01), while `gur et al. (1994)were not found statisticaly significant differences betweensexes regarding this indicator.

Data from Table 2 show the main indicators of meatquality. Mean values of pH1 were on the border of satisfac-

tory (5.96-6.04), while pH2 values were all within normalboundaries for both groups and sexes. Mean values for water holding capacity according to breed and sex were alittle bit higher, but still within normal boundaries. Consis-

tency can be assumed satisfactory in all cases. Differ-ences in mean values for pH1, pH2,WHC and consistencywere not statisticaly significant (P>0.05) in any case.Statistically significant differences (P<0.05) were foundonly in color of muscle tissue originated from female pigs(F1 and F2), which could be explained by influence ofbreed.


Table 1. Share of muscle tissue in pig carcasses produced on family farm

Indicators

G r o u p 1 G r o u p 2

G e n d e r G e n d e r

F1 (n=15) M1 (n=14) F2 (n=17) M2 (n=14)

Mean s Mean s Mean s Mean s

Carcass weight (kg) 78.33 10.71 82.71*F2 10.06 76.94 10.67 80.71 10.35

Muscle tissue in carcass (%) 53.93

**M1,M2 2.56 50.13 3.43 51.77 3.62 49.90 4.25

Muscle tissue of ham in carcass(%) 18.96 1.47 18.03 1.65 18.37 1.81 17.61 2.54

Muscle tissue of loins in carcass(%)

9.58

*M1

0.90 8.30

*F2

0.39 9.57 0.98 8.56 0.89

Muscle tissue of shoulder incarcass (%) 9.35 1.00 9.12 0.77 8.79 1.01 8.63 1.15

Muscle tissue of belly-rib part incarcass (%) 10.43 1.01 9.22 1.16 9.55 0.69 9.50 1.18

Muscle tissue of neck in carcass(%) 5.61 0.57 5.46 0.79 5.49 0.83 5.60 0.91

*P<0.05; **P<0.01

Table 2. Meat quality indicators in pig carcasses produced on family farm

Indicators



F1 (n=15) M1 (n=14) F2 (n=17) M2 (n=14)

Mean s Mean s Mean s Mean s

pH1 6.02 0.27 6.04 0.29 5.96 0.35 5.98 0.21

pH2 5.67 0.17 5.71 0.17 5.66 0.12 5.68 0.14

Water holding capacity (WHC),

cm2 9.45 0.83 10.04 1.63 9.36 0.98 9.69 1.19

Color (Göfo) 61.40 *F2 3.02 60.57 6.22 58.35 3.62 59.07 3.45

Consistency, cm2 3.47 0.61 3.19 0.91 3.19 0.83 3.29 0.75

*P<0.05



Because of such a low mean values of pH1

(6.04-5.96), their partial distribution frequency is shownin Table 3.

The division of determined individual pH1 valueswas made in this manner because some experts accept

that border value for “normal” meat is >6.0 (Briskey,

1964) while others appreciate somehow less strong criteria for border value for pH1>5.8 (Kallweit, 1980).There are examples in literature where meat with pH1 val-ues >6.0 is considered as “normal”, between 6.0 and5.8 “suspicuos” and less than 5.8 PSE meat (Petricevicet al., 1994). If pH1 values from Table 3 are viewed from

this side than it is clear that only 50% of the sample inone group (M1) can be considered as “normal”, while inother groups there were less (F1=46.7%; F2 iM2=41.2%). Other samples are classified either all withPSE properties or one fraction is separated as“suspicous” i.e. with PSE changes less expressed.

Hence, if the pH1 values are viewed in this manner andnot only through mean values, than the situation is com-pletely different and not satisfying.

CONCLUSIONSOn the basis of results from this research, following

conclusions could be drawn:• The carcass weight in both groups was higher in male

castrates (M1 and M2) compared to carcasses of gilts(F1 andF2); statisticaly significant differences (P<0.05)were found between male castrates from the 1st groupand gilts from 2nd group (M1 and F2).

• Muscle tissue share in the carcasses of both grouopswas higher in gilts (F1 and F2) compared to male castrates (M1 and M2); statisticaly significant differrences(P<0.01) were found between gilts from 1st group andmale castrates from both groups (M1 and M2).

• Percentage of muscle tissue in all carcass parts washighestingiltsofthe1st group(F1), slightly lower in giltsfrom 2nd group (F2) followed by castrates from the 1st

group (M1) and lowest was in castrates from 2nd group(M2). Statisticaly significant differences (P<0.05) werefound only in case of loins between gilts and castratesfrom 1st group (F1 and M1) and between castrates of the

1st

group (M1) and gilts from 2nd

group (F2).• Meat quality indicators (pH2, WHC, color and consistency) could be considered as satisfactory according toestablished mean values. This could not be stated for

pH1 which mean values in both groups and in bothsexes lay on the border of what can be described as“normal meat” (5.36-6.04). Distribution frequency ofindividual pH1 values shows that in both groups (ac-cording to genotype) and in both sexes more than 50%of the carcasses can not be considered as satisfactory

in technological sence regarding this indicator.

REFERENCES1. Briskey, E.J. (1964): Etiologicalstatusand associated studies

of pale, soft, exudative porcine musculature. Adv. in res.,13:89-148, New York.

2. Ðiki}, Marija, Juri}, I., Petri~evi}, A. (1993): Proportion of tis-sues of leg and loin in Swedish Landrace and Hypor pigs.Scientific days on animal husbandry. Kaposvar, Hungary,1-2. September. Proceedings, pp. 82-87.

3. Grau, R., Hamm, R. (1952): Eine einfache metode zur Bestimmung der Wasserbindung im Fleisch. DieFleischwirtschaft, 4, 295-297.

4. Kallweit, E. (1980): Fleischfüle und Fleischbe- schaffenkeit.Schweinezucht und Schweinemast 28(5):148-155.5. Kušec, G., Kralik, Gordana, Petri~evi}, A., @ivkovi}, J. (1998):

Influence of genotype on meat yield estimation in swinecarcasses. Czech Journal of Animal Science, 43 (2),87-91.

6. Petri~evi}, A., Juri}, I., Kralik, Gordana, Ðiki}, Marija (1990):Kvaliteta polovica i kvalitativna svojstva mesa svinja“Hypor” hibrida prema spolu. Zbornik radova X skupasvinjogojaca Jugoslavije, 191-195, Pan~evo.

7. Petri~evi}, A., Kralik, Gordana, Gutzmirtl, Draènka, Maltar,Zlata, Fazekaš, J., Knapi}, A. (1994): Pro- cjenamesnatosti i povezanost va`nijih pokazatelja kakvo}esvinjskih polovica. Znanost i praksa u poljoprivredi iprehrambenoj tehnologiji 24, p. 67-74.

8. Petri~evi}, A., Kralik, Gordana, Kušec, G., Bukvi}, @. (1999):45th International Congress of Meat Science and Tech-nology, 01.-06.08. 1999., Yokohama, Japan, CongressProceedings, Vol.II, p.492-493.

9. Sen~i}, Ð., Kralik, Gordana, Petri~evi}, A., Jovanovac, Sonja(1994): Prinos miši}nog tkiva i povezanost pokazateljamesnatosti svinja razli~itih genotipova. Znanost i praksa upoljoprivredi i prehrambenoj tehnologiji 24, p. 80-87.

10. @gur, S., Urbas, Joà, Glava~, Marija, Šegula, B. (1994): In-fluence of sex on carcass traits in pigs. Znanost i praksa upoljoprivredi i prehrambenoj tehnlogiji 24, p. 75-79.


Table 3. Distribution of pH1 values in the muscles of pigs with different genotype and sex

pH1-value



F1(n=15) M

1 (n=14) F

2 (n=17) M

2 (n=14)

No. % No. % No. % No. %

>6.0 7 46.7 7 50.0 7 41.2 7 41.2

6.0-5.8 6 40.0 4 28.6 5 29.4 4 29.4

<5.8 3 13.3 3 21.4 5 29.4 3 29.4



ISSN 1330-7142UDK = 636.5:636.082.22+637.5

SLAUGHTERING QUALITY OF CROSSBRED PIGS WITH GERMAN LANDRACEAND PIETRAIN AS TERMINAL BREEDS

Ð. Sen~i}(1) , Gordana Kralik (2) , G. Kušec(3) , V. Margeta(4)


ABSTRACT

In the aim of slaugtering quality improvement of pigs, crossbred sows of Large White and Swedish Landrace (F 1 ) are crossed with German Landrace, Pietrain or some other boars from exemptionaly lean breeds. Triple crosses between Large White, Swedish Landrace and Pietrain are different from triple crosses with German Landrace as terminal breed regarding the conformation and leaness of carcasses and meat quality. Triple crosses with Pietrain have bigger ham diameter (72.40 cm: 70.30 cm), bigger share of ham (29.24% : 28.54%), necks (8.05% : 7.64%) and belly-rib parts (19.15% : 17.33%), better leaness(55.64% : 53.40%), lower pH 2 values in muscle tissue (5,50 : 5,86), lower water holdingcapacity (9.70 cm 2 : 8.50 cm 2 ) and paler color (58.00 : 65.50 Göfo values).

Keywords: crossbred pig, Large White, Swedish Landrace, Garman Landrace, Pietrain, car-cass, meat quality

INTRODUCTIONThe largest number of pigs in Croatia are Swedish

Landrace and Large White and their crossbred sows arefurther crossed with boars from exemptionaly lean breeds

in order to produce fattening pigs. In recent years, in theaimof improvement of leaness, conformation andcompo-sition of pig carcasses, Pietrain boars are used in terminalcrossing. Pietrain is very well known to be extreme lean,but also to have poorer meat quality. Crossing withPietrain can lead to poorer meat quality of offspring(Pellois i Runavot, 1991). Regarding the fact that out-comes of such crossing are notenough studied in Croatia,aim of this research is to point out some characteristics ofleaness and meat quality of pigs resulted from crossingwith Pietrain.

MATERIAL AND METHODESResearch have been carried out on pig carcasses

originated from triple crosses of Large White (LW), Swed-ish Landrace (SL) dams and German Landrace sires aswell as of triple crosses with Pietrain (P) sires. Followingcrossingschemewasused:(LWxSL)xGLand(LWxSL)

x P. Fifteen pigs from each crossing were fattened up to100 kg. Sex ratio was equalized. From 25 to 60 kg liveweight, pigs were fed diet with 17,5% crude proteins and14,0 MJ metabolic energy and from 60 to 100 kg liveweight they were given diet with 13,7% crude proteins and12,5 MJ metabolic energy. Diets contained superconcen-

trate and silaged corn.After slaugther, pig carcasses were cooled 24

hours at +4 °C, after that diameter of ham and surface of m. longisimuss dorsi (MLD) cut between 13 th and 14 th rib

were measured. Carcass leaness were determinedindirectly using “two points” method(ZP-Zwei Punkte) ac-cording to official regulations. Right carcass halves werecut on main parts according to Weniger et al. (1963). Less

valuable parts were: head, tail and lower parts of legs.Acidity of muscle tissue was measured 45 minutespost mortem (pH1 values), and 24 hours post mortem(pH2 values) at MLD cut. Water holding capacity was de-

termined by Grau and Hamm method (1952) and consistency by Joksimovi} (1979). Meat color was measured byGöfo device. Data were processed statisticaly according

to Bara Stani} (1965).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONIndicators of pig carcass quality are shown in table 1.

Triple crosses with Pietrain sires had larger MLD surface,

but this difference was not statisticaly significant(P>0.05). Ham diameter was very significantly higher (P<0.01) in the same cross. Theese crossbreds had alsostatisticaly significant (P<0.05) higher relative share ofham and very significanly (P<0.01) higher share of bellyrib part and neck compared to crosses with German Land-race as terminal breed. No statisticaly significant differ-ences were found regarding the shoulder and doublecheen with fat between two crossbreeds investigated. Tri-ple crosses with German Landrace sires had very signifi-cantly higher (P<0.01) relative share of loin as well as


(1) Ðuro Sen~i}, Associated Professor, (2) Gordana Kralik, Full Professor, Dr.h. c, (3) Goran Kušec, MSc, (4) VladimirMargeta, BAg - J.J.Strossmayer University of Osijek, Faculty of Agriculture, Trg sv. Trojstva 3, 31000Osijek, Croatia



less valuable parts in carcasses compared to crosseswith Pietrain as terminal breed.

Carcass leaness was significantly higher (P<0.05)in Pietrain triple crosses.

It is obvious that crossing with Pietrain sires had ef-fect on increase of ham share and on leaness of car-

casses. This is in accordance with earlier research of@ivkovic et al. (1992) in which triple crosses with Pietrainsires showed better results regarding MLD cut, share ofham and carcass leaness than triple crosses with GermanLandrace as terminal breed.

Triple crosses with Pietrain sires had poorer meatquality (table 2) compared to triple crosses with GermanLandrace which was ovbious from statisticaly lower pH2

values of muscle tissue, lower water holding capacityand paler color. The fact that rapid decrease of pH simul-

taneously decreases the water holding capacity is dem-

onstrated. This is in accrodance with research ofZivkovic et al. (1992) in which meat of triple crossbredswith Pietrain had lower pH1 values, paler color and lower

water holding capacity compared to triple crosses withGerman Landrace.

Pellois and Runavot (1991), studying the meatquality of four genotypes of pigs, found that increase ofPietrain share in crossings leads to worsen of meatquality.

CONCLUSIONTriple crosses between Large White, Swedish Land-

race and Pietrain as terminal breed differ, compared to tri-ple crosses with German Landrace sires differ regardingconformation and leaness of carcasses as well as regard-ing the meat quality.

Triple crosses with Pietrain have bigger ham diameter (72.40 cm: 70.30 cm), bigger share of ham (29.24% :28.54%), necks (8.05% : 7.64%) and belly-rib parts(19.15% : 17.33%), better leaness (55.64% : 53.40%),lower pH2 values in muscle tissue (5.50 : 5.86), lower wa-

ter holding capacity (9.70 cm2 : 8.50 cm2) and paler color (58.00 : 65.50 Göfo values).


Table 1. Pig carcass quality indicators

Indicators

Crosses

(LW x SL) x GL (LW x SL) x P

x s Vc x s VcCooled carcass weight, kg 39.10 2.67 6.83 39.00 3.07 7.87

MLD surface, cm2 41.50 5.30 12.77 43.80 6.70 15.30

Ham diameter, cm 70.30* 2.55 3.63 72.40 2.60 3.64

Share in carcass, %:

- Ham 28.54 1.04 3.64 29.24 0.89 3.06

- Shoulder 14.58 0.50 3.43 14.25 0.50 3.51

- Loin 17.41** 1.25 7.18 16.25 0.86 5.29

- Neck 7.69** 0.80 10.54 8.05 0.47 5.84

- Belly rib part 17.33** 0.87 5.02 19.15 1.13 5.83

- Less valuable parts 8.39** 0.68 8.01 7.44 0.67 9.00- yawl and fat 6.06 0.85 14.03 5.62 0.50 8.90

Carcass leaness, % 53.40* 3.00 5.62 55.64 3.22 5.81

* P<0.05 ** P<0.01

Table 2. Pig meat quality indicators

Indicators

Crosses

(LW x SL) x GL (LW x SL) x P

x s vk x s vk

pH1 6.20 0.28 4.52 6.30 0.15 2.38

pH2 5.86** 0.30 5.20 5.50 0.10 1.82Water holding capacity, cm2 8.50** 1.50 12.50 9.70 1.20 12.37

Consistency, cm2 4.10 0.50 12.19 7.20 0.35 8.33

Color (Göfo) 65.50** 3.50 5.34 58.00 2.40 4.13** P<0.01




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sto~arstvu, Agronomski glasnik, Zagreb.2. Grau, R., Hamm, R. (1952): Eine einfache Methode zur

Bestimmung der Wasser bildung in Fleisch, Die

Fleischwirtschaft 4, 295-297.3. Joksimovi}, J., Mijatovi}, M., Anastasijevi}, V., Stankovi}, M.(1970): Prilog poznavanju totalne kastracije svinja nakvalitet i tehnološka svojstva mesa. Arhiv za poljo-privredne nauke XXIII, 81, 33-43.

4. Pellois, H., Runavot, J.P. (1991): Comparaison des perfor-mances d'engraissement de carcasse et de qualite deriande de 4 types de porcs ayant une proportion variablede sang Pietrain. In 23 mes Journees de la RecherchePorcine en France, Paris.

5. @ivkovi}, J., Bukovi} Branka, Njari, B. (1992): Utjecajpasminskog sastava na prinos i kakvo}u svinjskog mesa,Sto~arstvo 46, 1-2, 25-31.

6. ………….. Pravilnik o utvr|ivanju trgova~kih kategorija iklasa svinjskih trupova i polovica. N.N. br. 79,2039-2042, 1995.

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