LITHUANIAN UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES

FACULTY OF HUMANITIES

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH PHILOLOGY AND DIDACTICS

AIGERIM TURSYNOVA

REFERENCE AND ITS LINGUISTIC REALIZATION

IN THE TEXT OF TEXTBOOKS AND RESEARCH ARTICLES

IN ENGLISH

MA THESIS

Academic advisor: Assoc.Prof. Dr. Daiva Verikaitė-Gaigalienė

Vilnius, 2018

LIETUVOS EDUKOLOGIJOS UNIVERSITETAS

HUMANITARINIO UGDYMO FAKULTETAS

ANGLŲ FILOLOGIJOS IR DIDAKTIKOS KATEDRA

REFERENCIJA IR JOS RAIŠKA

VADOVĖLIŲ IR MOKSLINIŲ STRAIPSNIŲ TEKSTUOSE

ANGLŲ KALBA

Magistro darbas

Magistro darbo autorė Aigerim Tursynova

Patvirtinu, kad darbas atliktas savarankiškai, naudojant tik darbe nurodytus šaltinius

(Parašas, data)

Vadovas doc. dr. Daiva Verikaitė-Gaigalienė

(Parašas, data)

CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................... 3

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 4

1. REFERENCE AS THE INDENTIFICATION OF AN ENTITY IN THE

CONTEX……..………………………………………………………………………….7

1.1 Discourse analysis and genre theory .............................................................. 7

1.2 Text and Discourse ........................................................................................ 8

1.3 Cohesion and Coherence ............................................................................ 10

1.4. The types of cohesive devices .................................................................... 11

1.5. The concept of reference ............................................................................ 13

1.6. Types of reference ...................................................................................... 14

2. REALIZATION OF REFERENCE IN SCIENCE TEXTS ................................... 17

2.1 Methodology and procedure ............................................................................ 17

2.2 General overview of frequency of items of reference in texts of research

articles and textbooks ............................................................................................ 18

2.3 Anaphoric and cataphoric reference in science texts ....................................... 19

2.4 Reference by indefinite noun phrases in science texts .................................... 25

2.5 Reference by definite noun phrases in science texts ....................................... 28

2.6 Personal, demonstrative, comparative reference in science texts ................... 33

CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................................. 49

SANTRAUKA ................................................................................................................ 51

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................ 52

SOURCES ....................................................................................................................... 54

ABSTRACT

This study aims at exploring the influence of a genre on the use of the items of

reference and its linguistic realization. Two genres of science texts were subjected to

analysis – textbooks and research articles in the field of Biology. The mixed-method

approach was employed in the study: the relative frequency of the occurrence of items under

investigation was calculated and interpreted. The research demonstrated that the majority of

reference patterns in the analyzed texts constituted the referential use of noun phrases. It was

also noticed that 3rd person singular and plural pronouns were the most frequent items used

to identify the entities. Further studies of the influence of a genre on means of the items of

reference must be conducted to determine the influence of a genre on the means of cohesion

in general.

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INTRODUCTION

Language is the bridge between cultures and society. People around the world

communicate through language. Discourse analysis presents the different ways of language

using and understanding. When discourse analysis was still in early stages, many important

works were published dealing with the discourse analysis that were introduced by Zellig

Harris (1952) and later on were widely discussed and developed by many scholars (

McCarthy, 1991; Brown & Yule, 1983; Bhatia, 2002; Paltridge, 2006; Coulthard 1977, 1985;

Cook, 1989)

Cohesіon іs one of the most іmportant categorіes of text. Varіous scholars, dependіng

on the approach to the study of the text (lіnguіstіc or psycholіnguіstіc), consіder the terms

coherence and cohesіon from dіfferent perspectіves. Іn the early seventіes, when text analysіs

was stіll іn іts early stages, many іmportant works were publіshed dealіng wіth the terms

coherence and cohesіon that were іntroduced by Hallіday & Hasan (1976) and later on were

wіdely dіscussed and developed by many scholars (Widdowson, 1979; Beaugrande &

Dressler, 1981; Brown & Yule, 1983; Schiffrin, 1987; McCarthy, 1991; Hoey, 1991; Bex,

1996; Campbell, 1994; Tanskanen, 2006).

One of the options that grammar of English offers for creating ties between sentences is

reference. Reference plays an important role in creating cohesive links between the elements

which can be difficult to interpret if a sentence is taken out of the context. Pronominalisation

is the most widely used referring device, although other linguistic items such as

demonstratives and comparatives can have the same function. The present study is based on

Halliday and Hasan’s (2013) taxonomy of reference, i.e. personal, demonstrative and

comparative reference.

The Researh Question

Although reference has been examined by different scholars (Hallіday & Hasan, 1976;

Widdowson, 1979; Beaugrande & Dressler, 1981; Brown & Yule, 1983; Schiffrin, 1987;

McCarthy, 1991; Hoey, 1991; Bex, 1996; Campbell, 1994; Tanskanen, 2006, still not

much attention has been given to the linguistic realization of reference. Cohesive device such

as reference has been investigated in the scientific texts, but still relatively little attention was given

to the comparison of the use of reference in the text of textbooks and research article genres.

The belongіng of the text to a partіcular genre plays a significant role whіle identifying and

classіfyіng the items of reference, therefore the scientific texts of different genres were

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іnvestіgated. The present research aims at addressing the following research question:

What is the variability of reference realization in the texts of different genres, i.e. the genre

of a textbook and a research article?

The aim and the objectives of the research

Therefore, the aіm of the present research is to analyze the items of reference in the

text of textbooks and research article genres.

To achіeve the aіm, the followіng objectіves were pursued:

to make a detailed inventory of items of reference – personal, demonstrative and

comparative – in the text of the textbook and the research article genre;

to present formal and functional characteristics of the analysed items of

reference in the text of textbook and the research article genre;

to analyse the results of the frequency distribution of the items of reference in

the analysed texts.

The research methods

Qualitative research method was adopted to interpret the data retrieved from the text.

Content analysis method was employed in order to identify items of reference in texts, while

comparative analysis method was carried out to highlight the similarities and differences

between the items of reference in two genres of scientific texts. Quantitative research

method was adopted to quantify the results. Thus, through analyzing both, qualitative and

quantitative data, the mixed-method approach was applied.

The scope of the research

The research was conducted on the material of the following scientific texts in the

field of biology: eight research articles and two textbooks. Both, research articles and

textbooks, were of approximately the same length: 30.000 words. The texts were selected

randomly but from the point of view of stylistic characteristics they were typical pieces of

the textbook and the research article.

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The relevance and significance of the research

The present study is an attempt to examine the typical patterns of reference in

linguistic context and provide an analysis of linguistic means. It could have implications for

teachers and researchers in the field of teaching academic English.

The outline of the thesis

The outlіne of thіs paper іs as follows. Іntroductіon presents the research question, the

aіm and objectіves of the thesіs. The first chapter presents a brіef overvіew of the lіterature

on the phenomenon of cohesіon and coherence as such. Thіs іncludes provіdіng a lіterature

revіew on the discourse analysis and genre theory, text and discourse, cohesіon and

coherence and the item of reference itself. The second chapter contaіns analysіs of the items

of reference in the investigated texts. Conclusіons compose the third sectіon.

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1. Reference as the identification of an entity in the context

This chapter provides an overview of the theoretical background on which the present

study is based. While incorporating explanations of discourse analysis and genre theory,

discourse and text, cohesion, it is structured to examine the related literature to the items of

reference.

1.1 Discourse analysis and genre theory

Language is the art of communication. We use the language to build a relationship

between cultures and society. Discourse analysis is also a view of language in use; that is,

how, through the use of language, people achieve certain communicative goals, perform

certain communicative acts, participate in certain communicative events and present

themselves to others. (Partridge, 2006, 9). Discourse analysis was widely discussed and

developed by many scholars such as McCarthy (1991), Brown & Yule (1983), Bhatia

(2002), Paltridge (2006); Coulthard (1977), Cook (1989). The first linguist who introduced

the term discourse analysis was Zellig Harris in 1952. “Connected discourse occurs within a

particular situation – weather of a person speaking, or of a conversation, or of someone

sitting down occasionally over the period of month to write a particular kind of book in a

particular literary or scientific tradition.” (Harris 1952, 3).

Also he was interested in the allocation of linguistic elements in extended texts, and

the links between the text and its social situation. In other words, the discourse analysis is an

instrument of communication in context (Brown & Yule, 1983, 6).

According to McCarthy (1991,2) discourse analysis is study of spoken and written

interaction. In discourse analysis it is fundamentally concerned with the relationship

between language and the contexts of its use. As McCarthy (1991, 2) asserts, discourse

analysis is not a method of teaching language, it is a way of describing and understanding

how language is used.

Many scholars focused on deep structure of discourse, from discourse to genre, and

how to use language in general (language learning and language teaching). The use of

reference within certain genre was investigated by many scholars. The occurrence of the

items of reference and its linguistic realization may vary in different texts of different

genres.

The term genre is defined by various scholars differently. Genre theory introduces the

way in which the communicative events produced by a specialized linguistic community are

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structured. Basically, a genre comprises a class of communicative events, the members of

which share some set of communicative purposes. By a communicative event Swales (1981,

1985, 1990) means ‘one in which language plays both a significant and an indispensable

role’. So, a genre is a highly structure communicative event which may be written (abstracts,

business letters, etc.) or oral (interviews, etc.). Bhatia (1993, 13) defines genre as: “a

recognisable communicative event characterized by a set of communicative purpose(s)

identified and mutually understood by the members of the professional or academic

community in which it regularly occurs.” Bhatia (1993, 2002) states that “although there are

a number of other factors, like content, form, intended audience, medium or channel, that

influence the nature and construction of a genre, it is primarily characterized by the

communicative purpose(s) that it is intended to fulfil.” So, the communicative purpose(s)

defines the structure of the genre, when the purpose changes, the genre will be different.

The concept of genre was established also by other linguists, for example, Mauranen

(1993, 18) highlights genre as “ a class of discourses which have the same primary social

function” and “tend to display typical lexicogrammatical and textual features, which

facilitate their identification, but such features do not constitute obligatory or definatory

criteria for genres.” Martin (1992, 503) defined genre not just as a text type, but as “social

processes.” Holmes (1997, 322) states that “a genre then can be briefly defined as a class of

texts characterized by a specific communicative function…” According to Christie (1985,

12), genre refers to “any staged and culturally purposive activity leading to the creation of a

text” and goes on to say that “we create texts representative of particular kinds of genres to

serve different social purposes.” Connor (1996, 11) employs genre to refer to “texts formed

according to cultural and traditional expectations as required by specific purposes and tasks

such as a research report in biology.” According to Bunton (1998, 27), genre is “an event or

set of events which leads to the creation of a text based on a common social/functional

communicative goal or purpose.” The present study focuses on the science texts of different

genres, i.e. textbooks and research articles. Further, the concept of the text and discourse

will be reviewed.

1.2 Text and Discourse

Halliday & Hasan (1976) noted that we cannot discuss cohesion without mentioning

the concept of the text and discourse. A number of scholars have been trying to provide a

definition of the text (van Dijk, 1972; Widdowson, 1979; de Beaugrande & Dressler, 1981;

9

Halliday & Hasan, 1976; Brown & Yule, 1996; Cook, 1996; Gee, 2014) but have not

reached a concrete definition of it, as the term has been defined from different perspectives.

Halliday & Hasan defined the term text as any autheic stretch of written or spoken language

that forms a unified whole. They claimed that it is not a grammatical but a semantic unit

(Halliday & Hasan, 1976, 2). Werlich (1976, 23) pointed that a text is an extended structure

of syntactic and textual units that is marked by both coherence and completion, while a non-

text consists of random sequences of linguistic units in any temporal and/or spatial

extension.

According to Widdowson (1979), a text is a collection of formal objects held together

by patterns of equivalence or frequencies or by cohesive devices. Fowler (1991, 59) believed

that a text is made up of sentences, but there exist separate principles of text-construction

beyond the rules for making sentences. As the definition presented by Fowler suggests, very

little requirements that have to be realized in order to be ascribed to the category of texts, the

account presented by De Beaugrande & Dressler (1981, 19) might be important. They saw a

text as a communicative occurrence which meets seven standards of textuality: cohesion

(which is related to surface structures of texts), coherence (which is related to deep

structures of texts), intentionality (which reveals itself through goal-directed use of

language), acceptability (which creates conditions for the topic development), situationality

(which is concerned with the being of text situationally relevant), intertextuality (which is

based on the experience of earlier encountered texts), and informativity (which deals with

the ability of the text to present the new information).

Brown & Yule (1996, 190) asserted that text is a verbal record of a communicative

event. They noted that, although a number of scholars have been trying to provide an

explanation for how forming a text is identified by speakers of English, the account

provided by Halliday & Hasan (1976) is the most comprehensive.

What distinguishes the text from something that is not a text is texture (Halliday &

Hasan, 1976, 2). Halliday & Hasan believed that the texture can express the property of

being a text. They claimed that in order for a passage of English to be perceived as a text,

certain linguistic features have to contribute to its total unity and give it texture. They

considered the following example:

Wash and core six cooking apples. Put them into a fireproof dish.

From the two sentences it is clear that when we mention them, we mean apples. In this

case them refers back to six cooking apples and it is called anaphoric reference. The

anaphoric function presented by them gives cohesion to the sentences so that they are

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interpreted as a whole and together constitute a text. The texture there is provided by the

cohesive relation between the and six apples as they refer to the same thing. It is mentioned

that the identity of reference is not the only meaning relation that gives texture (Halliday &

Hasan, 1976, 3). Thus, they believe that what makes any length of text meaningful and

coherent is termed texture.

Paltridge (2011, 130) suggested that the unity of texture refers to the way in which

patterns of cohesion create both cohesive and coherent texts and it results where there are

language items tying meaning together in the text in which it occurs. He claimed that the

basis for texture is semantic.

Halliday defined texture as being a matter of meaning relations (1989, 71) and that the

meaning of words to each other as well as to the world outside the text is connected by a tie.

The term tie is used by Halliday & Hasan as a single instance of cohesion or one occurrence

of a pair of cohesively related items (1976, 3). We can call the relationship between them

and six cooking apples, in the example used above, as a tie. Any segment of the text can be

characterized in terms of the number and kinds of ties and with the help of the ties the text

can be analysed in terms of its cohesive properties.

Discourse analysis focuses on knowledge about language and the world beyond

the text that is needed for successful communication. It views the patterns of language

across texts and considers the connection between the language and the cultural and

social contexts in which it is used (Paltridge, 2006,2). An area of language where the

grammar and discourse are integrated is in patterns of cohesion in texts. The concept of

cohesion and coherence are discussed in the section which follows.

1.3 Cohesion and Coherence

The concept of cohesion was introduced by Halliday & Hasan and is viewed by them

as a semantic one and refers to relations of meaning that define a text as a text (1976, 4).

This semantic aspect of cohesion has a relation with the reader who interprets the elements

in a given co-text depending on the other element within the same co-text. Halliday &

Hassan (1976, 4) claimed that “Cohesion occurs where the interpretation of some element in

the discourse is dependent on that of another. The one presupposes the other in the sense that

it cannot be effectively decoded except by resources to it”.

The notions cohesion and coherence are sometimes confused in linguistics although

one has to be clearly distinguished from another. After Halliday & Hasan’s (1976) work on

the concept of cohesion was published, many scholars tried to explain different aspects of it,

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among which were Dooley & Levinsohn (2001) whose framework was based primarily on

Halliday & Hasan (1976) and Brown & Yule’s (1983) view. According to McCarthy (1991,

26), cohesion is a guide to coherence, and coherence is something created by the reader

when he or she participates in the act of reading. Brown & Yule (1996, 67) also claimed that

coherence is impossible without the reader. Hoey (1991, 12) supported his idea and believed

that cohesion is a property of the text while coherence is a facet of the reader’s evaluation of

a text.

It has been widely discussed whether cohesion is a necessary but not sufficient

criterion of coherence (Halliday & Hasan 1976; Halliday, 1985). It has also been claimed

that cohesion is neither necessary nor sufficient for the text coherence, and a text can be

coherent without formal cohesive devices (Hoey, 1991). As both cohesion and coherence in

text are relevant, they both can contribute to discourse organization: cohesion being at the

surface level of the text, while coherence being an underlying phenomenon in the text.

In general, coherence means the conceptual and semantic integrity of the text, whereas

cohesion is the use of appropriate language units, forms and explicit connectors. The main

types of cohesive devices are discussed in the subsection which follows.

1.4. The types of cohesive devices

Cohesion is considered to be realized through the use of cohesive devices. The

evolution of linguistics evoked the necessity to investigate the contribution of cohesive

devices to the text. Different models of cohesion were recognized with their categories of

cohesive devices that create coherence in texts. Let us consider some of them.

According to Halliday & Hasan (1976), cohesion is classified into two broad types:

grammatical (reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunctions) and lexical (repetition,

synonymy, antonymy, meronymy). Grammatical cohesion refers to the structural content and

lexical cohesion refers to language content. Both types of cohesion and their divisions are

presented in Table 1:

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Table 1. Types of Cohesion Based on Halliday and Hasan (1976).

Later on, Hasan (1984) reworked this classification and added hyponymy which was

also discussed by Paltridge (2011)., Zamel (1983, 22) and Widdowson (2004, 64) refer to

Halliday & Hasan’s work. Paltridge (2011, 131) suggested that the main patterns of cohesion

are reference, substitution and ellipsis, conjunction and lexical cohesion. The classification

provided by Paltridge (2011) is very similar to Haliday & Hasan’s. Although the scholars

took a special look at Halliday & Hasan’s discussion and generally agreed with their

classification, they disagreed in certain areas and on certain issues. (Brown & Yule, 1983;

Schiffrin, 1987; McCarthy, 1991; Carter et al., 2000). Tanskanen (2006, 25) criticized the fact

that Halliday & Hasan describe mainly grammatical cohesion, and that it is preferred to

lexical cohesion despite the fact that grammatical cohesion is more easily recoverable from

13

the text than lexical cohesion.

Since the main focus of the current study is on examining the grammatical cohesive

device such as reference, an elaborate explanation of it will be presented in the sections which

follow.

1.5. The concept of reference

Every language has certain items which have the property of reference. Instead of being

interpreted semantically, one makes reference to something else for their interpretation.

Reference is the type of cohesion, which is characterized by the specific nature of the

information that is to be retrieved. According to Halliday & Hasan (1976, 31), the cohesion

lies in the continuity of reference by which the same thing appears in the discourse the second

time. This continuity of reference binds the text together.

The studies in the area of reference were carried out by a number of various linguists

(Halliday and Hasan, 1976; 1989; Lyons, 1977; 1996; Toolan, 1988; Yule 1996; Kempson;

1995; Saeed, 1997; Kearns 2000; Hudddleston and Plum, 2002; Finegan, 2004) with the

emphasis on its different aspects and showed it as a complex phenomenon. Lyons (1977)

focuses on the distinction of the terms reference and denotation, provides a detailed

classification of 11 different reference types and examines the relation between reference,

meaning and truth. In the 1976 study by Halliday & Hasan, reference is seen as a semantic

relation, not a grammatical one. It can create a meaningful link when there are following

references to a single entity. The reference is defined as the evoking of an entity by a speaker

through the use of a lexical item in a text. (Halliday & Hasan, 1976, 32).

In contrast to Halliday & Hasan, Brown & Yule differentiate between reference and co-

reference(1996, 192). Brown & Yule considered that the meaning of a lexical item is partially

determined by its sense, i.e., the component properties are also determined by its reference,

i.e., the set of objects in the world to which the expression can be correctly applied (Brown

and Yule, 1983, 204). If we consider such an example: That woman is a doctor. That woman

is used as a referring expression whose referent is a specific woman - doctor. There exist co –

reference relations between that woman and a doctor. Two members in a sentence are linked

through a particular kind of meaning relation. This particular semantic relation between the

two members is treated as the identity of reference. In the following example: I had a little nut

tree / Nothing would it bear the personal pronoun it and a noun phrase a little nut tree have

the same situational referent. This relationship of situational identity of reference is known as

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co – referentiality and is usually realized by the items of reference, such as personal pronouns

he, she, it, etc., demonstratives or the use of the definite article the. (Halliday and Hasan,

1989,73).

Brown &Yule concluded that the reference is only an option that can help to create

cohesion if it is repeated. According to them, reference is an entity being the evoking or

naming that entity in the text, while co-reference is the subsequent naming or evoking of that

entity by the speaker. They claimed that each reference to the entity changes the mental

representation of that entity. Brown & Yule also distinguish correct and successful reference.

Correct reference is the use of reference which can elicit the referent. However, the audience

may not recognize the reference or misinterpret the meaning that was conveyed by the

speaker. In order to be classified as successful, the reference has to evoke the same meaning

as the speaker intends to express (Brown & Yule, 1996).

Martin & Rose (2005, 131) distinguish a bridging reference, where an item refers to

something that has to be inferentially retrieved from the text or situation and to be presumed

indirectly. Each of these types of reference described above makes the contribution to

creating the cohesion in the text and to the ways the reader interprets the text as he/she reads

it.

The above mentioned scholars concluded that the items which have the property of

reference in the English language are personals, demonstratives and comparatives (Halliday &

Hasan, 1976, 31). Personal reference functions through the category of person; the

demonstrative reference is reference by means of location; the comparative reference is

represented through identity or similarity (Halliday & Hasan, 1976, 37).

.

1.6. Types of reference

The items of reference can be classified according to their function in the text from

several perspectives. Generally reference items function within a text in two different ways.

They can be anaphoric or cataphoric. Halliday & Hasan distinguish situational and textual

reference (1976, 33). They call situational reference exophora or exophoric reference and

contrast it to textual – endophora, which is the reference within the text. In case of endophoric

reference, it may be anaphoric or cataphoric. It is essential for both types of references,

endophoric and exophoric, that there is a presupposition that must be satisfied; the thing

referred to has to be identifiable somehow (Halliday & Hasan, 1976, 33). The following table

demonstrates the classification of reference by Halliday&Hasan (2013,33).

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Table 2. Referring items based on Halliday and Hasan (1976, 33)

Paltridge claims that reference refers to the situation where the correspondence of an

item can be reclaimed from either within or outside the text (2011, 131). He, as well as

Brown & Yule (1996, 192), Johnstone (2002, 101), Hatch (1992, 224), and McCarthy

(1991, 35), classifies the reference into four patterns: anaphoric, cataphoric, exophoric, and

homophoric reference (Paltridge, 2011, 131).

Yule (1996, 136) defines anaphoric reference as “subsequent reference within a text

and illustrated via pronouns”. According to Mathews (1996, 19) anaphora is ‘the relation

between a pronoun and another element, in the same or in earlier sentence that supplies its

referent’. ‘Anaphora is the relation between an anaphor and an antecedent, where the

interpretation of the anaphor is determined via that of the antecedent’. In the following

example: Where is my book? It’s on the table, we have a particular relationship between

book and it. The second referring expression it is an example of anaphora and the definite

noun phrase my book is called the antecedent. When some entity is introduced in the initial

sentence, speakers usually use various expressions to maintain reference. Consider the

following examples:

(2) In the film, a man and a woman were trying to wash a cat. The man was

holding the cat while the woman poured water on it. He said something to her and they

started laughing. (Yule, 1996,22)

(3) A boy was holding a frog in a jar. When the boy went to sleep at night, the frog

escaped from the jar. When the boy woke up in the morning, he noticed that the frog was

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gone was very sad. (Yule, 1996,22)

Examples (2) and (3) show that in the English language the initial reference is often

indefinite (a man, a woman, a cat, a boy, a frog, a jar). The definite noun phrases (the

man, the woman, the cat, the boy, the frog, the jar) and the pronouns (it, her, they, he) are

examples of subsequent reference to already introduced referents and are defined as

anaphoric reference or anaphora

When a word or phrase refers forward to another word or phrase which is used later

in a text, it is called cataphoric reference. Crystal (2004, 65) defines cataphora as a

linguistic unit referring forward to another unit. The following example demonstrates it:

(4) Many of them are colourless and transparent so cell contents need to be

stained to be seen. (RA (1), 38 )

In example (4) them refers forward to cell contents and the reader knows the item

being referred to is yet to come in the text and reads forward to find the meaning of them.

Exophoric reference is where the identity of the item can be retrieved looking outside

the text to the situation in which the text occurs to identify the item being referred to.

When the identity of the item can be retrieved with the help of reference to cultural

knowledge in general, rather than the specific context of the text, we have homophoric

reference (Paltridge, 2011, 131- 132). In the present research the focus will be only on

endophoric reference.

Halliday and Hasan’s taxonomy includes three categories of reference: personal.

demonstrative and comparative. These three types of reference can be summarized in the

following table ( see Tabel 3):

Table 3. Types of References (based on Halliday and Hasan (1976, 38)).

Personal Demonstratives Comparatives

Existential Possessive this/that, these/those, same, identical, similar(ly),

I/me, you, my/mine, here/there, such, different, other, else

we/us, he/ your/yours, definite article: the more, so many, better.

him, she/ her, our/ours, his,

it,they/ them her/hers, its,

their/theirs

The detailed inventory of each and its usage in the researched texts will be given

in the chapter that follows.

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2. Realization of Reference in Science Texts: Textbooks and Research Articles

In this section, the research question will be addressed, i.e. what is the

variability of reference realization in the texts of different genres, i.e. the genre of a

textbook and a research article, and the results of the research will be revealed. Firstly,

this chapter describes in details the methods and procedure used in implementing the

current research. Secondly, an elaborate examination of the items of reference found in

textbooks and research articles is presented. Finally, each type of the items of reference

will be presented, described and compared separately.

2.1 Methodology and procedure

The present analysis aims to analyze the items of reference in the text of

textbooks and research article genres. First 30,000 words from two textbooks on

Biology and first 30,000 words from eight research articles of the same field, i.e.

Biology were analyzed with the purpose to examine the linguistic realization of

reference and note their differences and similarities in the analysed texts. In the current

research Halliday & Hasan’s (1976) taxonomy of reference was used: personal,

demonstrative and comparative reference were analysed

The procedure of conducting the research was as follows:

to study and examіne scіentіfіc lіterature on the phenomenon of reference and

іts treatment by dіfferent lіnguіsts;

to descrіbe and systemіze the items of reference found іn the textbooks;

to analyze the items of reference used іn the research articles;

to determіne the frequency of occurrence of reference іn both texts ;

to make a comparatіve analysіs of the items of reference used in the researched

text.

The mixed-method approach was used. Firstly, qualitative method was used to

interpret the data found in the text. Secondly, the quantitative research method was

adopted to quantify the found items of reference in terms of percentages. Finally, the

comparative analysis was used to underline the similarities and differences between

the identified items of reference in the analysed texts. Two kinds of texts, i.e. the text

18

of textbooks and research article genres were investigated carefully and the results of

the research are presented in the sections that follow. At the beginning, general

overview of items of reference found in the analyzed texts will be presented, and then

each type will be discussed separately.

2.2 General overview of frequency of items of reference in texts of research

articles and textbooks

The general distribution of items of reference in texts of research articles and

textbooks is as follows: in the text of textbooks personal reference accounts for 29,29 %

of the total, demonstrative – 49, 52 %, and comparative reference – 21,20%; in the text

of research articles personal reference comes up to 13,99 %, demonstrative reference is

represented by 66,14 %, and comparative – 19,87 %. (see Figure 1). The group of

demonstrative reference comprises the majority of cohesive devices in both texts. The

difference is that the distribution of personal reference is higher in the text of textbooks

in comparison to research articles. In case of the distribution of comparative reference, it

is higher in research articles than in the textbooks.

Figure 1. General overview of frequency of items of reference in texts of research

articles and textbooks.

19

To find out whether the results are significant or not, the Chi-square test was

applied. Chi-square uses categorical data. It looks at how many things fall into

different categories, and calculates whether the probability of obtaining those count is

significantly different from random. Chi-square produces two numbers, a Χ2 value and

a p value. The small p value indicates that the chances of getting the given distribution

by chance is extremely unlikely, so it must be due to something else besides chance.

Having calculated manually the values, the following results were obtained:

The chi-square statistic is 7.4638.

The p-value is 0.23947.

As the result is significant at p < 0.5, we can conclude that the results are relevant

and significant.

In the following sections of the paper, each type of items of reference and its

usage, i.e. anaphorical or cataphorical, will be discussed in a more detailed way.

2.3 Anaphoric and cataphoric reference in science texts

Anaphoric reference

Anaphoric reference describes an item which refers back to another word or phrase

used earlier in a text. To quote Beaugrande and Dressler (1981,60), “anaphora is the most

common directionality for co-reference since the identity of the conceptual content being

kept current is made plain in advance”. To illustrate:

(5) The membrane which surrounds all cells is essential in controlling exchange

between the cell and its environment. It is a very effective barrier, but also allows a

controlled traffic of materials across it in both directions. (TB(1),3)

In the example (5) it refers back to the membrance. The identity of it is retrieved by

reference to an earlier mentioned item in the text and is the example of anaphoric

reference. The identity of it is retrieved by reference to an earlier mentioned item in the

text. If a reader is not sure what is being referred to, they will read back in the text to find

the answer.

The following sentences display prototypical examples of simple anaphora:

(6) Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) provided evidence for this. He showed that

20

bacteria could not grow in a sealed, sterilised container of chicken soup. (TB(2),7)

In the above example Louis Pasteur is an antecedent and he is the anaphoric pronoun.

(7) A random student examined two walls, one facing east and the other facing

west. He measured the percentage of each wall that was covered with lichens.(TB(1),15)

Example (7) shows that an indefinite noun phrase a random student is the antecedent

and he is the anaphoric pronoun.

Anaphoric pronouns are anaphorically linked to the antecedent. The simplest relation

between anaphorically linked NPs is that of co – reference. For example:

(8) In the middle of the 17th century, one of the pioneers of microscopy, Robert

Hooke (1635–1703), decided to examine a piece of cork tissue with his home-built

microscope, and he saw numerous box-shaped structures that he thought resembled

‘monks’ cells’ or rooms, so he called them ‘cells’. (TB(1),5)

He is anaphoric to Robert Hooke and by virtue of that relation refers to the same

person as the latter phrase: we say then that antecedent and anaphor are co – referential.

The analysis of anaphoric reference in textbooks and research articles has focused

on the relationship between the anaphors and antecedents in the selected examples from

the texts. An attempt has been made to examine the least complicated patterns of anaphoric

reference such as the reference of a single pronoun to its antecedent within the frames of

one sentence or in the immediately following sentence as well as longer sequences of

anaphoric pronouns referring to the same antecedent.

In the research the following patterns of the analyzed anaphoric pronoun reference

were distinguished based on the structural position of the referring elements:

1) single anaphoric reference where a lexical item refers to its antecedent within

the same sentence.

2) chain anaphoric reference which exhibits a link between several lexical

elements and a single occurrence of a referring noun phrase.

The comparative analysis showed that the texts of textbooks genre tended to use chain

anaphoric reference pattern and the texts of research article genre tended to use single

anaphoric reference pattern.

Consider the following examples:

(9) Harvey was unwilling to believe this doctrine and sought evidence to

produce and support his own theories. He carefully recorded all his observations and

carried out dissections on which to base his conclusions. He calculated the volume of blood

that might pass through the heart in one day to disprove Galen’s suppositions. (TB(1),14).

21

(10) A student measured the width of cracks on many pine trees in a

plantation and found that they varied considerably. The data she collected showed a normal

distribution. She noticed that the larger, and presumably older, trees tended to have wider

cracks in their bark than the smaller trees. She wanted to see if there was a correlation

between the size of the trees and the size of these cracks. She chose to measure the

circumference of each tree as a measure of their overall size. She measured the width of the

cracks in the bark. (TB(2),34).

(11) So after one billion years of living together, we have subjugated a free-

living bacterium, turning it into a domesticated organelle. (RA(2),3).

(12) This illustrates the usefulness and importance associated with

engineering stably expressing cell lines, particularly when they are intended for further use

in screening and/or multiplexed applications.(RA(4),1).

In sentence (9) and (10) taken from the textbooks, personal pronouns he and she refer

to Harvey and student respectively in the initial sentence, forming chain anaphoric reference

pattern. In sentence (11) and (12) personal pronouns it and they refer to a free-living

bacterium and cell lines within the same sentence, creating single anaphoric reference

pattern.

In examining the reference distance two types can be found: distal link pattern and

proximate link pattern. The distal link pattern is observed when the distance between the

lexical referent and the referring noun phrase is of more than one sentence length. When

the textual referent and the referring noun phrase are identified either within the limits of

the same sentence or the referent is identified in the immediately preceding or succeeding

sentences, it is considered to be a proximate link pattern. (Verikaite, 1999).

Let us consider the following examples:

(13) Petar Bilic thought that he was going to add to that statistic. RA(2), 12)

(14) Darwin visited Floreana in 1835, he noticed that the mockingbirds on

different islands within the Galapagos were not all alike.

(15) On 3 September 1928, Professor Alexander Fleming was examining a batch

of culture plates on which he had grown Staphylococcus bacteria.

(16) It is crucial to understanding our planet, the effect human activities have on it and

how the organisms which live on it will survive in the future. RA(2), 15)

(17) Describe how the fluidity of the membrane allows it to change shape, break

and re- form during endocytosis and exocytosis.

In the above presented examples there is a referential anaphoric link between

22

pronouns and their antecedents in the frames of one sentence. In example (13), (14), (15)

the personal pronoun he refers to the preceding proper nouns. The personal pronoun it

refers to the definite noun phrases our planet, the membrance in examples (16), (17).

Consider more examples:

(18) Scientists use statistics to help them analyse and understand the evidence

they collect during experiments.

Example (10) shows that the personal pronoun they is used to refer to the definite noun

scientists in the same sentence.

(19) Gregor Mendel (1822–1884) was an Augustinian monk in the Abbey of St

Thomas in Brno, a town in what is now the Czech Republic. Over a period of seven years,

he cultivated and tested di erent pea plants and studied their visible characteristics.

(20) Margulis saw such symbiotic unions as a major driving cause of evolutionary

change. She continued to challenge the Darwinian view that evolution occurs mainly as a

result of competition between species.

In the above mentioned examples the personal pronouns he and she refer

anaphorically to their antecedents Gregor Mendel and Margulis in the immediately

preceding sentence. The type of antecedents Gregor Mendel and Margulis used in the

sentences are expressed via proper names with reference to particular people.

(21) Darwin published a report of his experiments in 1880. He observed that oat

shoots grew towards light because of some ‘influence’, which he proposed was transmitted

from the shoot tip to the area immediately below. (TB(1),33)

(22) Prokaryotic cells are so called because they have no nucleus (‘prokaryote’

comes from the Greek, meaning ‘before the nucleus’). They also have no organelles

(internal structures), so there is little compartmentalisation of function within

them.(TB(2),12)

In the above examples the anaphoric pronouns he and they are co – referential with

their antecedents expressed via the proper name Darwin and the definite noun phrase

prokaryotic cells in the immediately preceding sentence.

The following sentences deal with anaphoric reference realized in longer stretches of

text forming an anaphoric chain. As has already been mentioned, chain reference exhibits a

sequence of links between several lexical referents and a single occurrence of a referring

noun. Consider more examples:

(23) Gregor Mendel (1822–1884) was an Augustinian monk in the Abbey of St

Thomas in Brno, a town in what is now the Czech Republic. Over a period of seven years,

23

he cultivated and tested different pea plants and studied their visible characteristics. In

1866, he published a paper on the inheritance of characteristics in pea plants, which he

called ‘Experiments on Plant Hybridization’, in The Proceedings of the Natural History

Society of Brünn. In it, he set out his two laws of inheritance.(TB(2),19)

Example (23) shows that the personal pronoun he in the second, third and fourth

sentences refers back to its antecedent Ursula which is a definite noun phrase Gregor

Mendel expressed via proper name.

(24) The most numerous organelles seen with the light microscope are usually

mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion). They are only just visible, but films of living

cells, taken with the aid of a light microscope, have shown that they can move about,

change shape and divide. They are specialised to carry out aerobic respiration.(TB(2),22)

In example (24) the personal pronoun they in the second and third sentence refers

back to the noun phrase mitochondria.

(25) In the early days of microscopy an English scientist, Robert Hooke, decided to

examine thin slices of plant material. He chose cork as one of his examples. Looking down

the microscope, he was struck by the regular appearance of the structure, and in 1665 he

wrote a book containing the diagram shown in Figure 1.2. (TB(1),15)

Example (25) illustrates that each anaphor realized by personal pronoun he and

possessive pronoun his refers to the same person as its antecedent, so all the above

underlined noun phrases have the same referent.

(26) Water is an unusual chemical because the solid form, ice, is less dense

than its liquid form. Below 4 °C, the density of it starts to decrease. Ice therefore floats on

liquid water and insulates the water under it. This reduces the tendency for large bodies of

it to freeze completely, and increases the chances of life surviving in cold conditions.

(RA(1)39)

In example (18) the referent which is expressed via the noun phrase water is

introduced in the first sentence. The personal pronoun it is used to refer to their antecedent

(27) The study of cells has given rise to an important branch of biology known

as cell biology. They can now be studied by many different methods, but scientists

began simply by looking at them, using various types of microscope.(TB(2),22)

In example (27) the objective pronoun them is anaphoric to the preceding definite

noun phrase the cells and the personal pronoun they refers to its antecedent water in the

preceding sentence.

(28) Petar Bilic (not his real name) thought that he was going to add to that

24

statistic. The muscle in both of his ventricles had deteriorated so much that his heart was

only just keeping him alive. No suitable heart could be found for a transplant. He was very

lucky. In recent years, biomedical engineers have developed a pumping device called a

‘total artificial heart’ (Figure 8.1). Petar’s heart was completely removed, and an

artificial heart put in its place. Petar was able to go home within a few weeks of his

operation. The plan is that the artificial heart will keep him alive until a real heart is

available for transplant.(TB(2),33)

Example (28) shows that the personal pronoun he, the objective pronoun him and the

possessive pronoun his are co – referential with their antecedent Petar Bilic expressed via

the proper noun in the initial sentence.

So the attention was focused on anaphoric reference, a type of reference that

contributes to the cohesion the most, but to have a full picture of personal reference, we

must also touch upon the cases of cataphoric reference.

Cataphoric reference

When a word or phrase refers forward to another word or phrase which is used later

in a text, it is called cataphoric reference. Crystal (2004, 65) defines cataphora as a

linguistic unit referring forward to another unit. The following example demonstrates it:

(21) Many of them are colourless and transparent so cell contents need to be

stained to be seen. RA(1), 39)

In example (21) them refers forward to cell contents and the reader knows the item

being referred to is yet to come in the text and reads forward to find the meaning of them.

Consider the following examples:

(22) I turned the corner and almost stepped on it. There was a large snake in the

middle of the path. (Yule, 1996,23)

In example (22), the pronoun it is used first and it is difficult to interpret until the full

noun phrase a large snake is presented in the next line. Consider more examples:

(23) Since he had forgotten about the meeting, John didn't come.

(24) He who hesitates is lost. (Halliday&Hasan, 1976,56)

In the above examples we deal with cataphoric personal reference where he refer

forward to the definite noun phrase John and a defining relative clause who hesitates.

According to Halliday and Hasan (1976,56), personal pronouns perform cataphoric

structural functions. Third person pronouns other than it may refer cataphorically to a

25

defining relative clause. This usage is archaic and is found in proverbs and archaisms. All

third person pronouns occur cataphorically as ‘substitute themes’ in clauses in which the

referent is delayed to the end. Lastly, it is very frequently used in this way where the

subject of the clause is nominalization.

In both texts anaphoric reference prevails, they constitute 92% in research articles,

and 93% in textbooks (see Figure 2). The specificity of the scientific text sets limits to the

use of cataphoric reference. Therefore, cataphoric reference is practically absent from the

scientific texts.

Figure 2. The Relative Frequency of Anaphoric and Cataphoric Reference in Science

Texts.

2.4 Reference by indefinite noun phrases in science texts

The speaker (the writer), in identifying an entity for the reader, is guided by the

principle of shared information. If the entity being identified does not present shared

information, it is realized as an indefinite noun phrase. An indefinite noun phrase is defined

as either an indefinite pronoun or a noun phrase introduced by the indefinite article a (e.g.

a cat, such a cat). Indefinite noun phrases can refer to generic (non - specific) and (non –

generic) specific entities. Consider: A cat is a domestic animal. (a cat refers to a typical

representative of the cat class)

Research Articles Textbooks

7.00% 8.00%

30.00%

20.00%

10.00%

0.00%

Anaphoric

Cataphoric

90.00%

80.00%

70.00%

60.00%

50.00%

40.00%

93.00% 92.00% 100.00%

Anaphoric and cataphoric reference

26

A cat is under the table. (a cat refers to a specific individual of the cat class)

According to Kearns (2000,120) and Lyons (1977,187), indefinite noun phrases can

be used with specific and non – specific reference. For instance, the sentence: Every

evening at six o’clock a heron flies over the chalet contains an indefinite noun- phrase a

heron which is used to refer to a specific though unidentified individual and this

interpretation is supported by the following sentence: It nests in the grounds of the

chateau. Thus, we can say that the indefinite noun – phrase in the above mentioned

example is being used with indefinite, but specific reference. Lyons (1977,188 – 189)

offers two possible interpretations of the same sentence. If we can paraphrase this sentence

a particular heron, this indefinite noun phrase is considered to be used with specific

reference. There is the other interpretation of the sentence which can be offered. If we

assume that the speaker is not referring to a specific individual this sentence can be

paraphrased some heron or other. Thus, under the latter interpretation, the indefinite noun

phrase is used non – specifically. Consider more examples:

(25) Mary wants to buy a Norton – she is negotiating with the owner. (Kearns,

2000,120)

(26) Mary wants to buy a Norton – she will look for one at the Biker Meet. (Kearns,

2000,120)

In sentence (25) an indefinite noun phrase a Norton is used with specific reference

because a Norton refers to a particular or specific bike which Mary wants to buy. However,

in sentence (26) an indefinite noun phrase is used with non – specific reference because

Mary has no particular bike in mind. Another example illustrating the usage of indefinite

noun phrases used with specific or non – specific reference would be John wants to marry a

Frenchwoman. This sentence can be interpreted in two ways. If we understand that John

wants to marry a woman who is French, then an indefinite description a Frenchwoman is

said to be used with specific reference. If we apply the other interpretation which says John

wants to have a French wife, an indefinite description is said to have nonspecific reference.

(Kearns, 2000,120)

The following examples that have been selected for the research illustrate the use of

the indefinite noun phrases with reference to things or objects. Since all the indefinite noun

phrases in the following examples are used to refer to particular people, things or objects,

they illustrate the referential use of indefinite noun phrases. Consider the following

examples of indefinite noun phrases found in textbooks and research articles:

(27) Looking down the microscope, he was struck by the regular

27

appearance of the structure, and in 1665 he wrote a book containing the diagram shown

in Figure 1.2 (RA(2),33)

(28) A cell can be thought of as a bag in which the chemistry of life is allowed to

occur, partially separated from the environment

outside. (RA(3),60)

In the above examples the indefinite noun phrases a book and a cell are used to refer

to the object existing outside the text, i.e. A cell also refers to an indefinite object existing

in really, not in the text of the textbook. . However, the author does not refer to these

particular objects in the succeeding discourse by using other reference devices such as

pronouns or the definite noun phrases. The same examples can be found in research

articles:

(29) A recent study in PLOS Biology by Nick Lane and colleagues suggests that

the need to pass on high-quality mitochondria to our offspring has determined how

organisms choose which cells will contribute to the next generation.

In example (29) the indefinite noun phrases a recent study is used to refer to

particular object in the research article, although the authors do not refer to these particular

object in the succeeding text by using other reference devices. Let us consider another

examples found in research articles and textbooks respectively:

(30) A survey of mitochondrial DNA from more than 500 human tumours

reveals a compendium of more than 600 somatic mutations. Due to it, the authors find that

although in cancer the rules of evolution are rewritten to prioritise the cell over the

organism, selection still strongly favours a functioning mitochondrion.(TB(1),14)

(31) A number of mitochondria in a cell is very variable. As they are

responsible for aerobic respiration, it is not surprising that they with a high demand for

energy. (RA(2)44)

Example (30) shows that the personal pronoun it in the second sentence refers

backwards to an indefinite noun phrase a survey. In example (31) the personal pronoun

they in the second sentence refers backwards to an indefinite noun phrase a number of

mitochondria.

Consider more examples:

(32) In 1852, a Russian scientist discovered that certain diseases could be

transmitted by agents that, unlike bacteria, could pass through the finest filters. He found

the first evidence for the existence of viruses, tiny ‘organisms’ which are much smaller

than bacteria and are on the boundary between what we think of as living and non-

28

living.(TB(2),42)

(33) A worm is a bacteriovore, and during feeding, the intestine is colonized by

the small fraction of bacteria that survive ingestion. It can survive and proliferate, forming

communities within the host gut.(TB(1),25.

2.5 Reference by definite noun phrases in science texts

Definite noun phrase refers to ‘a specific person or set of persons that can be

identified in context by someone spoken to’. (Mathews, 1997, 89) According to Kearns

(2000, 93) definite NPs pick out definite or particular objects that the hearer can identify.

Definite NPs include names, possessive NPs such as John Kendrew’s study, demonstrative

NPs such as that organism, those cells, and referring pronouns. However, generally,

discussion of definite descriptions focuses on NPs preceded by the definite article the.

Kearns (2000,93) differentiates between singular (e.g. the immune system, the formation)

and plural definite descriptions (e.g the following circumstances, the authors). According

to Saeed (1997,28 – 29), definite noun phrases operate like names to pick out an

individual, they can also form definite descriptions where the referent is whoever or

whatever fits the description.

Most of the proper names are used to refer to specific people or locations and denote

shared information. Consider the following examples of referential expressions expressed

via proper names which were selected from research articles and textbooks respectively:

(34) Margulis’s greatest achievement was to use evidence from microbiology to

help firmly establish an idea that had been around since the mid-19th century – that new

organisms can be created from combinations of existing organisms which are not

necessarily closely related.(MJ.23)

(35) A recent study in PLOS Biology by Nick Lane and colleagues suggests that

the need to pass on high-quality mitochondria to our offspring has determined how

organisms choose which cells will contribute to the next generation.(TB(2),17)

The above sentences show that the proper nouns Margulis and Nick Lane are used to

refer to particular people.

Kempson (1997,12) asserts that the naming relation between a word and its object is

most transparent with proper names, the paradigm case of naming. There is a one – to –

one correspondence between a proper name and object. She calls the relationship between

29

word and object the relationship of reference. The reference of names is simple and direct.

The semantic value of a name is simply the object it refers to, and accordingly the

proposition expressed by a sentence containing a name contains that object as a

component: such propositions are said to be object – dependent (Kearns, 2000,93)

Particular entities are also realized through the use of the definite article. According

to Halliday and Hasan (1976,32), the definite article is ‘the item that in English carries the

meaning of specific identity or definiteness in its pure form’. According to Valeika and

Buitkiene (2003,58), the article as a noun marker ‘speeds up the process of identification,

and consequently, it speeds up the process of the comprehension of the text’. The sentence

as a unit of information is made of two parts: the New and the Given. To quote Valeika

and Buitkiene (2003,59), ‘by given information is meant information shared by both the

speaker and the addressee: it may be recoverable from the context or familiar to them due

to the shared environment’.

Besides the context, Givenness and Newness can be expressed by the definite and

indefinite article, respectively. Consider the following examples:

(36) Influenza is a typical virus, which must infect a living cell in order to

reproduce. Once inside a cell, the virus takes over the machinery of the cell to manufacture

many copies of itself, which may go on to infect other cells in the infected organism

(TB(1),66).

(37) During prophase, a chromosome become visible. During interphase they

have been drawn out into long threads, allowing the cellular machinery access to the genes.

Now, the chromosome coils several times to produce a supercoil. The chromosomes appear

shorter and thicker, and can now be seen using a microscope.(TB(1), 34).

In examples (36) and (37) the indefinite article a signals a novel referent, used for the

first mention of something, as in a virus, a cell, a chromosome. The definite article the

signals a familiar referent, so the virus refers forward to a virus and so on.

Let us consider the following examples used in research articles and textbooks

respectively:

(38) The Michaelis–Menten constant is the substrate concentration at which an

enzyme works at half its maximum rate (½V max ). At this point half the active sites of the

enzyme are occupied by substrate. The higher the affinity of the enzyme for the substrate,

the lower the substrate concentration needed for this to happen. Thus the Michaelis–

Menten constant is a measure of the affinity of the enzyme for its substrate. (RA(4),27)

(39) A hematoma is initially formed in the fracture site, and fibroblasts and

30

platelets are attracted into the fibrin clot and lay down a transient soft cartilaginous callus

with collagen and PGs providing structural support. HA also has roles to play in all stages

of fracture repair, particularly in the hematoma formation and in the regulation of inflammatory

conditions and the influx of cells into the fracture site.

In examples (38) and (39) the indefinite article a signals a novel referent, used for the

first mention of something, as in an enzyme, a hematoma. The definite article the signals a

familiar referent, so the enzyme refers to an enzyme and so on.

Studies in the pronominal reference (Halliday and Hasan (1976;1989), Huddleston

and Plum (2002,1453 – 1460) show that pronouns occupy a significant position in the

system of textual reference and are termed ‘reference items’ which means that they help to

create texture by linking sentences together. Most of the linguists (Poole, 1999; Lyons

1996; Thomas, 1995) attribute pronouns to highly deictic items which means that their

interpretation depends essentially on the context.

The major class of pronouns is personal pronouns, which play a great role in creating

cohesion and texture. They may have situational, anaphoric and cataphoric reference.

There is a distinction to be made between the first and second person, and the third person.

Only the third person is inherently cohesive, in that a third person pronoun typically refers

anaphorically to a preceding item in the text. The first and second person pronoun forms do

not normally refer to the text at all; According to Halliday and Hasan (1976: 49), the first

and the second person forms essentially refer to the situation, whereas those of the third

person essentially refer to an entity presented in the text. Consider the following examples

selected from research articles and textbooks to illustrate the reference expressed by

personal pronouns:

(40) The ecologist was studying the composition of vegetation on moorland

following a reclamation scheme. He assessed the abundance of these two species by

recording the percentage cover in 11 quadrats as shown in Table 18.3.(TB(1),28)

Example (40) shows that the pronoun he refers back the definite noun phrase the

ecologist.

(41) A climber rests on the summit of Mount Everest. He is breathing oxygen

through a mask.(TB(2),21)

Example (41) implies that the personal pronoun he refers back to an indefinite noun

phrase a climber.

Having analysed 30.000 words from eight research articles and 30.000 words from

two textbooks, the following results were obtained. The figures that follow show the

31

general distribution of definite and indefinite noun phrases as well as proper names,

definite article and personal pronouns in the research articles and textbooks comparatively.

In the research articles, indefinite noun phrases accounted for 23% of the total, while

definite noun phrases comes up to 77 %, (see Figure 3).

Figure 3. Definite and Indefinite NPs in Research Articles.

In textbooks, indefinite noun phrases comprise 26 % of the total, while definite

noun phrases constitute 74 %, (see Figure 4).

Research articles

Definite NP

23%

Indefinite NP

77%

32

Figure 4. Definite and Indefinite NPs in Textbooks.

The figures above show little difference, so we can conclude that definite noun phrases

both.

In textbooks proper names accounts for 11%, definite article comes up to 58%, and

personal pronouns constitute 31% of the total. The Figure 5 is presented below illustrates

the results:

Figure 5. Relative Frequency of Proper Names, Definite Article and Personal

Pronouns in Textbooks.

Textbooks

26%

Definite NP

74% Indefinite NP

Textbooks

11%

31%

Proper names

Definite articles

Personal pronouns

58%

33

In research articles proper names stands for 6%, definite article comes up to

79%, and personal pronouns constitute 15% of the total. The Figure 6 is presented

below illustrates the calculations:

Figure 6. Relative Frequency of Proper Names, Definite Article and Personal

Pronouns in Research Articles.

As it can be seen from the Figures 5 and 6, definite articles prevails in both texts, while

personal pronouns are more common for textbooks.

The next subchapter will overview the use of reference according to Halliday&Hasan’s

taxonomy (1976).

2.6 Personal, demonstrative, comparative reference in science texts

Halliday&Hasan distinguish three types of reference: personal, demonstrative and

comparative. Each of them separately will be discussed in the sections which follow.

79%

6% 15%

Personal Pronouns Definite Articles Proper Names

Research Articles

34

Personal reference

Personal reference functions through the category of person. This system of reference,

where the items of the category of personals refer to something by specifying its function or

role in the speech situation, are referred to as person, where ‘person’ is used in the special

sense of ‘role’. The traditionally recognized categories in this system are first person, second

person and third person, converging with the number categories of singular and plural

(Halliday & Hasan, 1976, 44). To illustrate:

(42) In the early days of microscopy an English scientist, Robert Hooke,

decided to examine thin slices of plant material. He chose cork as one of his examples.

(TB(1),13)

In example (42) the personal pronoun he refers to proper noun and serves as a

personal reference. The significance of the person system is that it is the means of referring

to relevant persons and objects. The principal distinction is that between the persons

defined by their roles in the communication process, on the one hand, and all other entities

on the other. The former is called speech roles; they are the roles of speaker and addressee.

The latter, which is called simply other roles, include all other relevant entities other than

speaker and addressee. In terms of the traditional categories of person, the distinction

is that between first and second person on one hand, and third person on the other. The

types of speech roles are illustrated in the Table 4:

Table 4: Types of Speech Roles.

35

There is a distinction to be made between the speech roles (first and second

person) and the other roles (third person). Only the third person is inherently cohesive,

in that a third person form typically refers anaphorically to a preceding item in the

text. In other words, it is only anaphoric type of reference that is relevant to cohesion,

since it provides a link with a preceding portion of a text.

Vladimorou (2007) explored the referents and the pragmatic functions performed by

personal reference in the journal articles. He also presented semantic reference of we

(exclusive and inclusive), pragmatic functions of personal reference. He found out the

problems which have been relatively neglected to ambiguity, multifunctionality and shifts

among different types of pronoun. Verikaite (1999) overviewed some aspects of personal

reference in the texts of science English. She classified reference into three categories:

exaphoric, cataphoric and anaphoric, and admitted that among those three, anaphoric

reference has the most important place concerning the production of the connected text.

Therefore, not all forms of personal pronouns can be observed in the researched text.

Buitkienė (2005, 3) claims that the basic referential category of the first and second person

is deictic. The first and second persons I and you preserve their deictic sense. The third

persons, he, she, it, or they, can also be used deictically, but they function more

anaphorically or cataphorically. Therefore, only he, she, it, and they perform a cohesive

function. Possessive determiners are considered to be a separate and independent group of

personal reference.

In the present study the 1st person pronouns such as I and we, and the 3rd person

personal pronouns such as he, she, it and they have been investigated. Although first and

second person personal and possessive pronouns do not show the relation between sentences

but merely point to the speaker performing deictic function, they were also taken into

account while compiling Figure 7.

The distribution of personal reference in the texts of is presented in Figure 7 below.

As it is apparent from this figure, it, they, you constitute the major part of the personal

reference items used in texts of textbooks, while it and we are the most frequently used in

texts of research articles.

36

Figure 7. The Distribution of Personal Reference in the Texts of Textbooks and

Research articles.

Personal reference in the texts of Textbooks

The distribution of personal reference in the text of Textbooks is presented in Figure 8

below. As it is apparent from this figure, they and it constitute the major part of the personal

references used. Personal reference such as he and she were of the least frequency.

37

Figure 8. Personal Reference in the Texts of Textbooks.

Figure 8 above demonstrates that the most frequently used personal pronoun in the

researched text is it, comprising 58,72 % of all occurrences. The personal pronoun they is on

the second place according to its appearance and come up to 37,75 %. It can be explained by

the field to which the text belongs to. Biology is the natural science that involves the study

of life and living organisms, including their physical structure, chemical composition,

function, development and evolution. It describes the cell as the basic unit of life, genes as

the basic unit of heredity, and evolution as the engine that propels the creation of new

species. Biology describes not the human beings who are gender specific, but the inanimate

objects which are gender neutral and are referred to with the help of personal reference, such

as they, it. To illustrate:

(43) The main role of DNA is to direct the activities of the cell. It does this by

controlling the proteins that the cell produces. (TB(1),50).

(44) Most plants have green leaves. This tells us that they do not absorb the green

part of the spectrum – green light is reflected and makes the leaf appear green. (TB(2),61).

In sentence (43) the personal pronoun it is used to refer to the above mentioned DNA,

which is gender neutral. The personal pronoun they in sentence (44) refers back to plants,

which has no gender as well.

38

References he, she comprise 1,86% and 1,68 % from all the occurrences respectively.

They were used only to refer to the scientists who has discovered or researched some

phenomenon. To illustrate:

(45) An ecologist was studying the composition of vegetation on moorland

following a reclamation scheme. Two species – common heather, Calluna vulgaris, and

bilberry, Vaccinium myrtillus appeared to be growing together. He assessed the abundance

of these two species by recording the percentage cover in 11 quadrats as shown in Table

18.3. (TB(1),45).

(46) A student measured the width of cracks on many pine trees in a plantation and

found that they varied considerably. The data she collected showed a normal distribution.

She noticed that the larger, and presumably older, trees tended to have wider cracks in their

bark than the smaller trees. (TB(2),32).

In sentence (45) the personal pronoun he points back to an ecologist. In sentence (46)

the personal pronoun she refers back to a student.

Personal reference in the texts of Research Articles

Figure 9. The Distribution of Personal Reference in the Text of Research Articles.

39

The distribution of personal reference in the text of research articles is presented in

Figure 9. As it is seen from this figure, it constitutes the major part of the personal

references used, when the item of personal reference they was used least frequently. To

examplify:

(47) The microarray did not have any probes representing p14, so it could not

be compared. (RA(4),65).

(48) HIV, the causative agent of AIDS, is a lentivirus within the Retroviridae

family of viruses. As such, it produces dsDNA from its RNA genome in the process of reverse

transcription, a process notorious for the introduction of a large number of mutations due to

the lack of proofreading capabilities of the viral-encoded reverse transcriptase.(RA(3),12).

(49) T-cell lymphomas proliferate at higher rates than B-cell lymphomas,

making them an aggressive cancer with poor prognosis. They are also less responsive to

treatment and do not respond well to a typical course of chemotherapy. (RA(5),32).

(50) Previously, we have shown our ability to robustly and accurately monitor

proteolytic cleavage by both the HIV-1 PR and HIV-1 Env boundary platforms. Although

the two assays are based on fluorescence, they are very different in nature. (RA(8),5).

The sentences (47) and (48) contains the referents the microarray and HIV: the

referring item – personal pronoun it points back to the referents. In sentences (49) and (50)

personal pronoun they refers back to the referent T-cell lymphomas and HIV-1 PR and HIV-1

Env boundary platforms.

Such referring items as she, he were absent, as in research articles the authors present

their own discoveries without referring to the other scientists’ works in their texts.

Halliday observed (1993,66) that scientific discourse was depersonalized during the past

hundred years. The results of the present research proved the above statement.

From the comparative analysis of personal pronouns in the texts of textbooks and

research articles, it was found out that both texts were rich in the usage of personal pronoun

it. The personal pronoun they in both texts was second on the list of the frequency of

occurrence. The personal pronoun such as he and she were absolutely absent in research

articles, while in textbooks they were found in few cases. The personal pronoun I was absent

in both texts.

It should be mentioned that there is a difference in the usage of the 1st person pronoun

such as you and we in the researched texts. In the texts of researched articles the personal

pronoun we comprises the majority of all items of personal reference – 65,68%. To

illustrate:

40

(51) In order to do so, we first performed transfection experiments including

all necessary elements of the assay and then proceeded to amplify selected sorted

populations with the goal of obtaining stable cell lines expressing each engineered assay.

We proceeded with the first assay for monitoring HIV-1 PR, which is much more complex

than the second that monitors cleavage of HIV-1 Env as it relies on three plasmids rather

than one (refer to “Materials and Methods” section for details).(RA(7),1).

(52) But it has also shaped us, and it's sobering to think that if it weren't for

mitochondria then instead of neatly setting aside our germlines in two tidy gonads within a

couple of months of conception, we might be sprouting them all over our bodies as we reach

sexual maturity. (RA(7),3).

As Verikaite admitted (1999,48-49), the pronoun we can be understood in three ways:

1) as a single author;

2) as a group of people the author wants to identify himself with;

3) as both the producer and the receiver of the text.

In texts of research articles, as they present the author’s personal experience, the

personal pronoun we is used very frequently. In case of texts of textbooks the personal

pronoun we is of the least frequency – 7,91%. In textbooks the author presents the other

scientists ideas and more often refer to the reader using the personal pronoun you:

(53) Before using this test you must also be satisfied that the data for the

variables you are investigating show a normal distribution. (TB(2),32).

(54) Sometimes you may not have collected quantitative data, but used an

abundance scale (Table 18.1) or you may not be sure if your quantitative data is normally

distributed. It might also be possible that a graph of your results shows that the data is

correlated, but not in a linear fashion. If so, then you can calculate Spearman’s rank

correlation coefficient, which involves ranking the data recorded for each variable and

assessing the difference between the ranks. (TB(1),65).

41

Demonstrative reference

Halliday & Hasan (1976, 57) define demonstrative reference as a form of verbal

pointing where the speaker identifies the referent by locating it on a scale of proximity.

Demonstrative reference is expressed by the adverbial demonstratives here, there, now and

then, nominal demonstratives this, these, that, those, and the definite article the. The

system is illustrated in the table below (Chalker, 1987: 56):

Table 5. Types of demonstrative reference.

The present study is not concerned with exophoric reference, for the reasons already

given; it is not textually cohesive. But the uses of this and that in endophoric reference are

explainable by reference to their exophoric meanings. In most cases, according to Koch,

"demonstratives signal that something was just mentioned" (2001, 5). In terms of

semantics of demonstrative reference, Halliday and Hasan distinguish between the

dimension of "near" and the dimension of "not near" (1976,38). The adverbial

demonstratives of place and time (here, there, now, and then) typically function as adjuncts

in a clause and occur outside of a noun phrase while nominal demonstratives ( this, these,

that, those, and the) tend to occur as elements of a nominal group. The English definite

42

article may be described as "the most neutral item amongst the demonstratives"

(Thompson 1996: 150); it merely indicates that the item in question is specific and

identifiable; that somewhere the information necessary for identifying it is recoverable.

Demonstrative reference constitutes the majority of all the occurrences of referential

items in the researched texts: in texts of textbooks – 49,52%, in texts of research articles –

66,14% (see Figure 10).

Demonstrative reference in the texts of Textbooks

Demonstrative reference such as that comprises half of all the occurrences. This

stands for 26,79 %, these – 11,95 %; there comes up to 10,64%; those,- and here are least

frequently used and comprises only 2,21% and 0,98%, respectively (see Figure 10).

Figure 10. The Distribution of Demonstrative Reference in the Text of Textbooks.

43

Consider the examples:

(55) She measured the width of the cracks in the bark. This means that she

collected continuous data for each of the two variables– tree circumference and crack

width. (TB(1),45).

(56) Industrialisation and the extraction and combustion of fossil fuels have

also led to an increase in the concentrations of carbon dioxide and methane in the

atmosphere. These are both greenhouse gases.(TB(2).21).

(57) Organisms are expected to migrate north or south to cooler latitudes and

also to higher altitudes. There will be competition between migrating organisms and species

in existing communities. (TB(1),33).

(58) We can imagine that a group of organisms, perhaps a population of a

species of bird, somehow arrived on one of the Hawaiian islands from mainland America;

the birds might have been blown off course by a storm. Here, separated by hundreds of

miles of ocean from the rest of their species on mainland America, the group interbred.

(TB(1),18).

Demonstrative reference in the texts of research articles

Demonstrative reference such as that comprises the majority of all the occurrences –

41%. This stands for 30 %, these – 20 %; there,- and here – 4% each; those is the least

frequently used and comprises only 1% (see Figure 11).

44

Figure 11. The Distribution of Demonstrative Reference in the Text of Research

Articles.

Consider the examples:

(59) Activation had a marked effect on four of these genes, p18, p19, p21, and

p27, resulting in a distinct pattern of gene expression in the microarray analysis in seven

dogs. This may reflect the interrelated functional role of these genes in regulating cell cycle.

(RA(7),1).

(60) A total of 49 genes sets consisting of TSG subsets were significantly

enriched in activated leukocytes (Table 2). These included 3 upregulated hallmark gene

sets, TNFA signaling via NF-kB, p53 signaling, and mTORC1 signaling, and 46 GO gene

sets.(RA(8),3).

From the comparative analysis of demonstrative reference in the texts of textbooks and

research articles, it was found out that both texts were rich in the usage of demonstrative

pronoun that. The personal pronoun this in both texts were on the second place. The

demonstrative pronoun these was on the third place. The demonstrative pronouns here was

of the least frequency in both texts. To sum up, the realization of demonstrative reference

did not show much difference in the analyzed texts, except for the usage of the

demonstrative pronoun there, which was more frequently used in the textbooks.

45

Comparative reference

Regarding comparative reference, Nunan (1993) claims that it is expressed by using

adverbs and adjectives in order to compare and contrast items within a text. Halliday &

Hasan (1976, 37) suggest that comparative reference contributes to textual cohesion by

setting up a relation of contrast expressed by such adjectives as same, identical, equal,

adjective in a comparative degree, and adverbs such as identically, likewise, so, such, etc.

General and particular comparison in English is illustrated in Tables 6. This table

represents re-arranged version of the corresponding tables in Halliday and Hasan

(1976,76).

Table 6. Comparison in English.

By general comparison is meant comparison that is simply in terms of likeness and

unlikeness without considering any particular property: two things may be the same,

similar or different, general comparison is expressed by a certain class of adjectives and

adverbs. The adjectives functions in the nominal group either as Deictic or as Epithet and

the adverbs functions in the clause as Adjunct. In this comparison likeness or unlikeness is

referential property.

Particular comparison means comparison that is in respect of (quantity or quality). It

is also expressed by means of adjectives or adverbs, not of a special class, but ordinary

adjectives function within the nominal group, but not as Deictic, they function either as

Numerative or as Epithet. The adverb function in either of two ways: either as adjunct in

the clause or as Sub- modifier, in which case they simply occur within an Epithet or a

46

Numerative on within an Adjunct. This type of comparison expresses the comparability

between things.

Comparative reference constitutes 21, 20 % of all the occurrences of referential items

in the text of textbooks, and 19,87% in the text of research articles.

Comparative reference in the Text of Textbooks

Comparative reference such as: more, other, such comprise the majority of all the

occurrences – 25, 41%, 21,67%, 21%, respectively. Same stands for 15, 09 %, different –

14,29%; identical is least frequently used and comprises only 2,54 %. (see Figure 12).

Figure 12. The Distribution of Comparative Reference in the Text of Textbooks.

Consider the examples:

(61) In 1838 Schleiden, a botanist, suggested that all plants are made of cells,

and a year later Schwann, a zoologist, suggested the same for animals. (TB(1),22).

(62) It is believed that, before life evolved, there was a period of chemical

evolution in which thousands of carbon-based molecules evolved from the more simple

molecules that existed on the young planet Earth. Such an effect can be artificially created

reasonably easily

today given similar raw ingredients, such as methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2),

hydrogen (H2), water (H2O), nitrogen (N2), ammonia (NH3) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S),

47

and an energy source – for example, an electrical discharge.(TB(1),21).

(63) Most human enzymes have an optimum temperature of around 40 °C.It

would be dangerous to maintain a body temperature of 40 °C, as even a slight rise above

this would begin to denature enzymes. Enzymes from other organisms may have different

optimum temperatures. (TB(2),37).

Comparative reference in the text of research articles

Comparative reference such as: more, other, such comprises the majority of all the

occurrences – 25, 41%, 21,67%, 21%, respectively. Same stands for 10 %, different – 18%;

identical is least frequently used and comprises only 4 %. (see Figure 13).

Figure 13. The Distribution of Comparative Reference in the Text of Research Articles.

Consider the examples:

(64) Synchronized adult AU37 were fed on YFP or dsRed bacteria (108

CFU/mL) for 2 days to colonize the intestine (results shown as day 0), then washed and fed

on the alternate color of bacteria under the same conditions.(RA(8),22).

(65) The advent of the molecular biology era, with its emphasis on nucleic

acids, has led to the suggestion that it might theoretically be possible to develop a

mathematically based system of virus classification using only genome sequence data, but it

has yet to be demonstrated. On the other hand, it has also been argued that such a system

may be practically unfeasible.3 (RA(5),12).

48

From the comparative analysis of comparative reference in the texts of textbooks and

research articles, it was concluded that demonstrative pronoun more prevailed in both texts.

The comparative reference other and such in both texts were on the second place. The

demonstrative pronouns identical was of the least frequently used in both texts. To sum up,

the realization of comparative reference did not show much difference in the analyzed texts,

except for the usage of the comparative reference different, which was of higher frequently

in the texts of research articles.

49

CONCLUSIONS

The present study is an attempt to examine the linguistic realization of reference in

science text of different genres.

In both texts anaphoric reference prevails. The specificity of the scientific text

sets limits to the use of cataphoric reference. Therefore, cataphoric reference is

practically absent in the scientific texts.

The comparative analysis showed that the texts of textbooks genre tended to

use chain anaphoric reference pattern and the texts of research article genre

tended to use single anaphoric reference pattern.

As far as anaphoric chains are concerned, the distance that existed between the

first antecedent in a chain and the final anaphor varied in length. The selected

examples showed that the distance could be quite large: it covered even

through the whole paragraph.

Demonstrative reference turns out to be most frequent type of reference in

both texts. Personal reference constituted the second major group of items of

reference used in the texts. Its occurrence was approximately of the same

frequency in both texts. Comparative reference was of the least frequency.

The difference between the two kinds of the text was in the realization of the

reference through the pronouns.

The majority of the personal forms were anaphoric. The most frequently used

forms of the personal anaphora were 3rd person pronouns.

From the comparative analysis of personal pronouns in the texts of textbooks

and research articles, it was found out that both texts were rich in the usage of

personal pronoun it referring to the inanimate objects. The personal pronoun

they in both texts was second on the list of the frequency of occurrence. The

personal pronoun such as he and she were absolutely absent in research

articles, while in textbooks they were found in few cases. The personal

pronoun I was absent in both texts.

There is a difference in the usage of the 1st person pronoun such as you and we

in the researched texts. In the texts of researched articles the personal pronoun

we comprises the majority of all items of personal reference, while in the text

of textbooks the pronoun you predominates.

The demonstratives that and this was of the highest frequency in both texts.

50

The realization of comparative reference did not show much difference in the

analyzed texts, except for the usage of the comparative reference different,

which was of higher frequently in the texts of research articles.

It was observed that the analyzed reference patterns in both texts exhibited the

referential use of noun phrases.

Due to specificity of the scientific text, it sets limits to the use of personal

pronouns. Therefore some forms of personal pronouns are practically absent

from the text of research articles and textbooks.

51

SANTRAUKA

Šiuo metu studijuojamas dalykas yra bandymas išnagrinėti lingvistinį referencijos

realizavimą ir panaudojimą skirtinguose žanruose moksliniame tekste.

Abiejuose tekstuose dominuoja anaforinė referencija. Mokslinio teksto specifiškumas

riboja kataforinių referencijų naudojimą, dėl to mokslinėse tekstuose kataforinės

referencijos praktiškai nėra.

Lyginamoji analizė parodė, kad vadovėlio tekstuose dažniausiai naudojamas grandinės

anaforinis orientacinis modelis ir tiriamojo straipsnio žanro tekstai linkę naudoti vien

anaforizmą.

Demonstracinė referencija yra kaip dažniausiai naudojama abiejų tekstų referencija.

Asmeninė referencija buvo antroji pagrindinė tekstų dalyje pateikta referencijų grupė.

Abu tekstai buvo dažniausiai naudojami. Palyginamoji referencija buvo mažiausiai

naudojama. Skirtumas tarp dviejų teksto tipų buvo referencijos realizacija per įvardžius.

Daugiausiai asmeninių formų yra anaforiniai. Dažniausiai naudojamos asmeninės

anaforos formos buvo trečiojo asmens įvardžiai.

Iš lyginamosios analizės vadovėlių tekstuose ir tyrimų straipsniuose nustatyta, kad abu

tekstai daug naudoja asmeninių įvardžių tai (it) naudojant „negyviems“ objektams.

Asmeniniai įvardžiai jie abiejose tekstuose buvo antrieji pagal įtraukimo į naudojimo

sąrašą. Įvardžiai tokie kaip jis ir ji - mažiausiai panaudojami vadovėliuose ir buvo

naudojami tik tam tikrais atvejais. Asmeninis įvardis Aš - nebuvo išvis naudojamas

abiejuose tekstuose.

Yra skirtumas naudojant 1-osios asmens įvardį kaip tu ar mes tyrinėjamuose tekstuose.

Tiriamųjų straipsnių tekstuose asmeninis įvardis mes apima daugiausiai asmeninės

referencijos, tai pat vadovėlių tekstuose įvardis mes yra dominuojantis įvardis.

Demonstruojantys tai ir tas buvo tarp dažniausiai naudojamu abiejuose tekstuose.

Realizacija lyginamosios referencijos neparodė didelio skirtumo analizuojamuose

tekstuose, išskyrus naudojant lyginamosios referencijos skirtumą, kuris dažniausiai buvo

pateiktas mokslinių straipsnių tekstuose.

Buvo pastebėta, kad abiejuose tekstuose nagrinėjami referenciniai modeliai parodė

naudojimą referencinių daiktavardžių vartojimą.

Dėl mokslinio teksto specifiškumo, nustatomas asmeninių įvardžių naudojimo limitas.

Taipogi kai kurios asmeninės daiktavardžių formos yra praktiškai nenaudojamos

mokslinių tyrinėjamų tekstuose ir vadovėliuose.

52

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SOURCES

Textbooks (TB):

1. TB (1): Jomes M. (2014). Cambridge International AS and A Level Biology.

Cambridge University Press, available from:

https://www.google.kz/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&u

act=

8&ved=0ahUKEwits7zLnovUAhUNEVAKHSYvBd0QFggjMAA&url=https://www

.gce guide.xyz/files/e-books/a-

level/Cambridge%20International%20AS%20and%20A%20Level%20Biology%20C

ours ebook.pdf&usg=AFQjCNHCcLva3Sgm9HffPBa7YWTIdDFB_g

2. TB (2): Walpole, B. (2011). Biology for the IB Diploma. Cambridge University

Press, available from:

http://www.cambridge.org/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=0521171784

Research Articles (RA):

1. RA(1): Commensal Viruses of Mosquitoes: Host Restriction, Transmission, and

Interaction with Arboviral Pathogens (2016), available from:

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5226260

2. RA(2): Mitochondria — A billion years of cohabitation (2017), available from:

http://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.2002338/

3. RA(3): Cluster Analysis of Tumor Suppressor Genes in Canine Leukocytes

Identifies Activation State (2015), available from:

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4955975/

4. RA(4): Archival Collections are Important in the Study of the Biology, Diversity,

and Evolution of Arboviruses (2016), available from:

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/labs/articles/27688704/

5. RA(5): A Single-Cell Platform for Monitoring Viral Proteolytic Cleavage in

55

Different Cellular Compartments (2015), available from:

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5034881/

6. RA(6): Stochastic assembly produces heterogeneous communities in the

Caenorhabditis elegans intestine (2017), available from:

http://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.200063

7. RA(7): Bioinformatic Characterization of Mosquito Viromes within the Eastern

United States and Puerto Rico: Discovery of Novel Viruses (2016), available from:

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4912310/

8. RA(8) Glycosaminoglycans in Wound Healing (2016), available from:

http://insights.sagepub.com/glycosaminoglycans-in-wound-healing-article-a6080