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268 教學與研究

In fact ,the very term st昆主is the third canon of oratory一-the others being i且皂白且

disposition 旦旦旦旦且， and 生且立£1. Let us consider one classical representative ,

Aristotle. The essential rhetorical conceptions in Aristotle' s Rhetoric are of great i

importance , beginning with his broad definition of rhetoric as "the faculty of dis­

covering in a particular case the available means of persuasion. ,,(3) Implicit in this.

definition is the recognition of the need for individual discovery and the inclusion of

the audience. In fact , Aristotle goes on in Book II of the 立區已且丘 to discuss the

audience and to emphasize the idea that a person , interested in persuasion , must be

concerned with human nature. In Book III he stresses clearness and appropriateness

(both singularly noticeable in Goldsmith) as primo.:'y virtues of prose style. If we

think of rh台toric as the use of discourse that employs directness in statement , these

two qualities , clearness and appropriateness , seem vital corollaries. Basically ,

Aristotle' s theory of rhetoric suggests a proper approach to the study of an

individual writer一to isolate his particular stylistic characteristics and to show

their effectiveness.

During the Renaissance rhetorical treatises dealt primarily with style and

specifically with figures of speech. In fact , there was a general tendency to regard

effective writing as largely determined by stylistic devices.

Ao Language

A general way to study style is to analyze the language of a single writer

statistically. In this process the selected writings are examined and reviewed

according to determined factors. This , of course , r呵uires the isolation of signi­

ficant characteristics and a system of classification. But I shall employ what Read,, (4)calls the "dipping audit" \ '/ or the sampling of passages as demonstrations of

characteristics of Goldsmith. These qualities will be .selected from intuitive impres­

sions as well as from logical conclusions that I have reached through general critical

reading , but especially from the close perusal of Goldsmith' s essays. Through this

process I hope to gain a sense of the whole , which is the method Goldsmith himself

employed in his criticism of the writings of others. This exploration of style will

begin with Goldsmith' s views of style as they appear in critical pieces , especially in

3.τhe Rhetoric of Aristotle , trans. Lane Cooper (New York, 1932) , p.7.4. Herbert Read , English E旦旦旦立垣(New York, 1928) P. XIII.

歌德史密斯之散文研究 269

the 已盟主y... and in a few literary reviews.

Although Goldsmith has not articulated a com"plete doctrine of style , his remarks

in many of his essays and critical articles indicate his concepts·. He tended to

!discuss , as did other critics of his era ,distinctions of style in relation to place and

I time and taste. A s he described excellences and defects in the writings of others ,he implied his own standards and preferences.

Throughout his writings Goldsmith praised clarity and conciseness ,common sense

and feeling , elegance and variety. He recommended imagination rather than imitation.

He scorned obscurity and obscenity and monotony. He differentiated sharply between

wit and humor , and he recommended g∞d-natured satire. He revealed his keen

! sense of propriety in composition ,both as a creator and a critic.

Earlier in an explication of approaches to the study of style , I mentioned Gold­

smit/:1' s concern with the work of art in its totality. Repeatedly he suggests that

critics should not examine particulars , i ,. e. , minute faults or beauties , but rather

that they should seek the essence ,which is often the basic theme itself. In a revie叭，

lof Home' s 旦旦旦旦旦，主 Tr豆堡包， he disregards individual features but takes one

Iperspective: the play is weak because of the 1叫 of moral focus , a focus which,(多)Goldsmith regards as basic to every story--the "ground-work of every fable.'

Herein , Goldsmith shows his fundamental belief that literature should please and

should instruct. Along with Samuel Johnson , he consistently upheld the high moral

purpose of literature; but unlike Johnson' s dogmatic manner , Goldsmith would in­

struct by blending the delightful and the moralistic. In this way he felt people might

be deceived into instruction , for "The finest sentiment and the most weighty truth

may put on a pleasant face , and it is even virtuous to jest when serious advice mustI (6)be disgusting." \ ~ I Often the source of delight is j1umor , which , according to Gold-

smith , is grossly lacking in English letters.

5. Oliver Goldsmith，世1e EEZKsgLωldsm帥， ed. J. W.M. Gibbs (London , 1908) , IV,p.251--hereafter cited as 里生呈﹒

6. !hi且.， III, 514. His point of view is essentially the same as that expressed in No.71 (5 June 1755) of the Connoisseur: "In a word, upon all occasions I have endea­voured to laugh people into a better behaviour: as I 缸n convinced, that the stingof reproof is not less sharp for beibg concealed; and advice never comes witha better face , than when it comes with.a laughing one." The British 監旦豆豆豆，X眩，

2. Goldsmith quoted this same passage in his own re社 ew of the Connoisseur, butit was omitted in the Gibbs edition and it was included 扭曲e Cunningham edition.

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271歌德史密斯之散丈研究

deplored

"laboured diction ," "pompous epithets ," "affected terms ," and "coined words"--all(9)of which he considered to be deviations from common sense.

HeGoldsmith.byGeneral ," the same basic principles were expressed

In reference to some

revived plays , "ascribed to ShaJ手espeare，" G~Jqsmith castigated the forced humor ,(10)

,far-fetched conceit , and unnatural hyperQole.

ao Choice of Words

beanforced , too contrived totooasdiction""labouredregardedGoldsmith

effective instrument for persuasion. According to him,pedants , critics ,grammarians ,and some poets often seek the involved word , and the result is obscurity and cumber-

entailsIn the且旦旦且he recommends simplicity in expression , and this

perspicuity and brevity. Only words that can convey ideas without unnecessary cir-

someness.

of terms with the most generallyaccepted

shows

Selectioncumlocution should be used.

otherrespect, forhisheAlthoughunderstanding.toconnotations leads

languages , Goldsmith is determined to use English terms rather than barbarisms , a

ascribed to imported as well as obsolete words by eighteenth-century gram­

entirely

term

fromoppositevIewaIScourse ,ofThis ,rhetoricians.andmanans

theOnfor he believed writers should prefer Latin words to Saxon.Johnson's ,other hand , Goldsmith criticizes the Germans for writing in Latin insteadof studying

Goldsmith associates the use of affected , st立f wordsand using their own language.

Such pomposity weakens the appeal of writing to readers ofwith insincere writers.

Through full utilization of words in vogue , and Goldsmith believedthe middle class.

key toclarity , theachievewriteracanthat they may be repeated frequently ,communication.

the wor~d of Language?fromchooseWhat basic type of word does Goldsmith

impression of an author' s vocabulary bya

definite sampling , I recorded ten of the most frequently used 旦旦盟主 in the 包盟主L

I The results of the choice Goldsmith made and the number of times used are: 些旦旦旦

a拉但已垃

generalagetcanwethatBelieving

0多); ££且已 or 旦旦已旦旦(40)已翠些(39); 但旦旦(33); 且也立(29);也已(20);

(18);生已組e (14); 車~( 10); 盟主主(9) •

While there will be no attempt to probe any psychological aspects of language In

this study, it is apprent that Goldsmith was concerned with judgments about absurdity

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軟苦奮史密斯之散文研究 273

\

posterity ，~ and nothing remembered..." The sentence concludes , not with the main

clause so characteristiξofa strict periodic sentence ,but with an elaborate cursus-­

"except our filling a rhasm in the registers of time , or having served to continue the

species. " In the passage the antithetic parallelism , limited , of course , to two

constituents , is shown in such phrases as "opulence to fame ," and "interest or

intrigue ," Conjunctive and disjunctive words indicate the parallel elements, but it is

sign丘icant that there is freedom in the ordering of the members. Hence, Goldsmith's

passage does not seem to have the monotonous rhythm , common to Johnson 's 旦旦旦旦旦

or Idler essays. Neither is there the steady coherence so obvious in Johnson's

innumerable antithetical expressions ,which may be the result of a difference between

the two authors in concentration of thα19ht. Here Goldsmith ranges in thought 出 he

begins with the rewards of genius , moves on to the repudiation of playwrights , and

ends with the values of the age--all in one sentence , which sentence itself begins

with a dependent word ~且﹒ Considering the passage as a whole , I think the result or

effect is typical of Goldsmith--an individual treatment of a group of words in such a

way as to flow and to end on an elaboration.

Another aspect of formal parallelism in Goldsmith 1s writing is his prevailing

tendency to use word pairs , triplets and less frequently , quadruplets and quintuplets.

Because of the dominance of these combinations, unusually fresh rather than trite , it

is appropriate to include some illustrations and brief analysis. In a single paragraph

from the essay "ot Polite Learning in France" the following word pairs appear: "in

want and obscurity ," "slow and cautious ," "wealthy or indolent ," "indolence and,,(l3)avarice ," and "patronage and learning. "\~-'I Two of the five indicate a matching pf

meanings , two present contrasting ideas , and the last seems to distribute the

meamng.

Goldsmith is deceptively clear , and one main factor of this apparent clarity is nis

ability to relate words of similar meaning or association in complex groupings. The

triplet , composed of single units , is a common feature of Goldsmith 1 s writing. Here

are three examples from the essay "Of Polite Learnill?; in Holland": "understood ,cultivated , and spoken"; "want , banishment , or sorrow"; "the patriot , philosopher ,

,(14)and poet. 'W 'I We notice the alliteration of the last oil

13. 些生呈， pp.491 -498.14. 些盟主， pp. 487-491.

274 教學與研究

quently used by Goldsmith. Rather he tends to break such a sequence of alliterative，，(1步)words , as in "porticos , processions , and cavalcades. ，，\~/ I Occasionally he creates

a compound sentence of triplets-- "Thus , learning was encouraged , protected ,.116)

honoured , and in its turn , adorned , strengthened , and harmonized the community. 'I\ ~~I

Such complete balance is rare and thus its presence is a variation. In general，由e

triplet is more forceful by its very extension ,but its over-use could create monotony,a feature deplored by Goldsmith.

Rarely did Goldsmith increase single words to groups of four or five , but there

are some examples in the Enquiry. Often the quadruplets are made up of proper一一一;~~~~ r'~~~，，~ ,, (17)names: "Edinburgh , Leyden , Gottingen , Geneva." \~I I In fact , the entire essay "On

Universities" from which these names of both colleges and cities have been quoted ,gives the impression of a listing , somewhat like a traveller' s guidebα)k to places of

interest. Undoubtedly 出e multiple elements contribute strongly to this over-all

effect , once again illustrating the unitv of thought and expression. However , quad­

ruplets are not limited to lists of proper names , but are used in many other associa­

tions , such as the rather devastating picture of critics; "blank of silk , ribbons ,,,(I8)smiles , and whispers. ，， \~VI An illustration of the quintuplet completes this aspect of

Goldsmith' s style: "Critics , sophists , grammarians , rhetoricians , and commenta-,(19)tors. ，，\~// Here Goldsmith enumerates and combines the figures he holds responsible

for the literary decline. These "big five" seem to become an unforgettable combina­

tion for the reader.

Rather than leave the impression that Goldsmith used abstract words almost

exclusively , I shall cite some evidence of his rather extensive use of concrete

names of persons and places. At the same time , we can consider these as allusions

that add vivacity as well as contribute to the perspicuity of his language. In discus­

sing learning in various countries ,Goldsmith mentions spec芷ic writers ,contemporary

and ancient. He alludes to geographical places and topical institutions , such as

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歌德史密斯之散女研究 277

(28)animals decline~~~/Perhapsthe Keenest surprises come with the frothy inter、mingling

of allusions and words that suggests a nonsensical , yet logical , effect: "But the

wiser part of mankind would not be imposed upon by unintellfgible jargon, nor , like

the knight in Pantagruel , swallow a chimera for a breakfast , though even cooked by

Aristotle. ,, (29)

Realizing that vivacity and perspicuity of both thought and words are major

factor s in attracting , holding , and persuading his reader s , Goldsmith , as a com­

munication expert , chooses the simple , direct , appropriate vehicle. His choice is

deliberate , not only proved by his overwhelming testimony in principle and practice ,but by his evident rejection of the aureate expressions , which he slyly intrudes and

places in juxtaposition with passages filled with common words. For example , in his

analysis of the decay in learning in Italy , he writes of the poets who turn from

reality to some Golden Age:

The zephyr breathes the most exquisite perfume , the ,trees weareternal verdure; fauns , and dryads , and hamadryads , stand readyto fan the sultry shepherdess , who has forgot indeed the prettines­ses , with which Guarini I s shepherdesses have been reproached , butis so simple and innocent as often to have no meaning. Happycountry , where the pastoral age begins to revive !--where the witseven of Rome , are united into a rural group, _<?t nymphs and swains ,under the app~llationof modern Arcadi~ns,'UO)

Certainly this passage is a bold and artful contrast with the balance of the essay.

Thus Goldsmith underscores the character of his own diction--its simplicity.

bo Sentence Structure

The scope of this part is limited to word order ,both in sentences and paragraphs,and to rhythmical features of Goldsmith I s essays. As in his selection and use of

words , Goldsmith I s style in sentences is in subtle accord with content.

A review of Goldsmith I s principles of prose , cited in the earlier discussion of

the Enquiry , reveals that he deplored the "inflated style" and urged "writing

naturally." His repudiation of contrived writing does not mean that he wrote

inellegant prose. On the contrary , he made use of balanced constructions , as

revealed above in the analysis of formal parallelism in words.

Just as in the case of vocabulary , chosen with consideration for vivacity and

perspicuity , Goldsmith professes his ideas on sentences in his essay "Of Eloquence'~

28. u>型工， pp.469 -4 70.29. 些且工， p.474.~O. u>盟主， pp.481 -482.

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6L62五胡平草書三~~貨主~~違章墟

280 教學與研究

些1， us叫 to state a change in direction or to introduceoppositiOf1 30

豆豆， used to show cause mainly or to reveal similarities 21旦旦e， used to show cause or time 3盟主旦J used 的 show cause or time 4旦旦， used to show contrast 12

other transitional forms used include 笠， therefore，包里堂堂，也笠， !旦旦控， from

世巴金且包旦旦旦旦，且!.2!::旦旦旦旦，and i旦旦旦旦﹒ The latter phrase or，坐坐笠!，Gold­

smith de伊nds on to introduce conclusions or paragraphs and to summarize the main

mought or moral of the discourse. His transitions seem almost "organic" and move

easily to establish the desired relationships-. In fact , these natural connections

provide a vital service in linking ideas sm∞thly and clearly.

To attain unity and coherence in paragraphs , Goldsmith uses parallelism and

repetition. His sentences are lucid , not only because of the choice of words , but

also because of the balanced phrasing. The .balance may be shown in such simple

forms as:

By this means , strong expression , new thought , ris~!1g， passions ,and the true declamatory style, will naturally ensue. v斗I

It appears , of course , in longer , more complex units:

As I said before, the g∞d preacher should adopt no model , write nosermons , study no peri叫s; let him but understand his subject"Jhelanguage'he speaks; and be' convinced of the truths he deliv~rsJ3步)

However , unlike Johnson , whose use of parallelism is one of his most conspicuous

qualities , Goldsmith does not sustain parallels throughout many paragraphs and

seems to elude any positive, consistent , organized system of hypotaxis. Rather his

parallelisms seem to develop spontaneously in order to vary the rhythm of the prose

or to provide a precise expression of thought.

Despite common strictures against repetition by rhetoricians and grammarians ,Goldsmith demonstrates steadily his belief that repetition is necessary , not only for

emphasis , but for full and effective explanation of the sUbject. Often he attempts

through restatement , not usually a literal repetition , to expand ideas. Note how

repetition functions ih this paragr中h:

Enthusiasm in religion , which prevails only among the vulgar ,shouldbe the chief object of politics. A society of enthusiasts , governedby reason , among the great , is the most indissolub峙， the mostvirtuous , and the most efficient of its own decrees that can be

34. Works , II, 425.35. 些盟工， p.427.

歌德史密斯之散文研究 281

imagined. Every country, possessed of any degree of strength ,have had their enthusiasms , which ever serve as laws among thepeople. The Greeks had their Kalokagath峙， the Romans their 在旦旦

空空些坦墅， and we the truer and firmer bond of the Protestant區區已. The principle is the same in all: how much , th凹， is itthe duty of those, whom the law has appointed teachers of thisreligion , to enforce its obligations , and to raise these entl)u§iasmsamong pωpIe ， by which alo;}'e political society can subsist. (36)

We are aware of the repetition of the words enthusiasm , reli旦旦L~且且正，且堅!，坦且，

且也~and且盟主主﹒ Moving from the opening short topic sentence to the long final

clinching statement , Goldsmith equates enthusiasm in religion with enthusiasm in

political units. Restatement expands the basic idea and suggests complexity of

thought. And , of course , the entire paragraph reveals coherence , achieved not by

transitional devices , but mainly by rep~tition of words and thoughts.

Because the avoidance of ambiguity or douDle meaning was an ideal of Goldsmith ,he not only chose his words carefully , but he collocated them judiciously and skill­

fully. In analyzing the arrangement ot words , phrases , and clauses in Goldsmith' s

essays , I have found that the disposition rests on sense , sound and rhythm.

In considering sense or meaning in relationship with the ordering of words , my

studyof Goldsmith' s sentences shows that he sometimes begins his sentences with

the main thought , followed by modifying, dependent phrases or clauses , often in

parallel constructions. The following illustrations are typical of thIS pattern of

Goldsmith' s loose sentences:

We shall undoubtedly hear learned disquisitions on the structure ofone actor I s Ie阱， and another' s eyebrows.

"Remarks on Our Theatres"

Thus , she spends the whole week in a close cha'mber , with no othercompany but her monkey , her apothecary , and cat: and comesdressed out to the Park every Sunday, to show her airs , to get newlov甘s ， to catch a new cold , and to make new work for the doctor.

"On Dress"

They esteemed those virtues so inseparable , that the known expres­sion of Vir fr些~ signified, at one and the same time , a sober andmanaging man, an honest man , and a man of substance.

"Political Frugality"

But the prp.dominant structures in Goldsmith I s essays are the long, compound and

compound-complex sentences. Here, of course , independent and dependent elements

are balanced , and these circumulative sentences tend to move thought steadily

36. lb盟二， p.426.

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unharmonious conjunctions of sound: a succession of polysyllables , the collisions of

vowels , and excessiveness of sibilants , or identical word endings. When he uses

harsh or uneuphonious s∞nds ， it is done deliberately. In fact , Goldsmith 1 s selection

of words for vocal effect is associated with his thought and his visual sense , and

much of the choice is probably instinctive.

In the opening paragraph of his celebrated "A City Night Piece" Goldsmith

achieves a soft , somnole肘， sound effect by combining liquid consonants , i. e. ，士，且，

且， and !:.' along with 且， ..!.，主 or 玉， and.§ , with short and monophthong vowels inters­

persed with long vowels; the nasals , as in the words 旦旦旦旦，旦旦旦i且富， and 生旦旦之=

盟主in the opening paragraph and an obscure , negating effect:

The clock has struck two , the expiring taper rises and sinks in thesocket , the watchman forgets the hour in slumber , the laborious andthe happy are at rest , and nothing now wakes but guilt , revelry , anddespair. The drunkard once more fills the destroying bowel , therobber walks his midnight round , and the suicide lifts his guilty armagainst his own sacred person. (38)

The gradation of the last parallel clause enhances the harmonious modulation of the

passage.

In contrast , the third paragraph from the same essay reveals strong , harsh

sounds through Goldsmith' s use of diphthongs , i. e. ，旦旦旦，旦旦且，包旦旦; long

vowels; mutes , i. e. ，包且~l也旦且，單單且i. "h" words , i. e. , ha且豆豆，且旦旦， 山旦旦11;

and 川h" sounds , i. e. , c且型盟:

What a gloom hangs all around! The dying lamp feebly emits a yellowgleam; no sound is heard but of the chiming clock , or the distantwatch-dog. A11 the bustle of human pride is forgotten , and this hourmay well display the emptiness of human vanity. (39)

Now , in moving from a consideration of rhythm as sound to rhythm in syntax , we

are dealing with a much more generally accepted aspect of this stylistic feature.

Balance of structure or syntactic order constitutes a major basis for rhythm.

Parallelism of phrases and clauses appears often in Goldsmith' s essays.. "The way

to βcquire lasting esteem ,is not by the fewness of a writer's faults ,but the greatness

of his beauties.. • ," The rewards of mediocrity are immediately paid; those attend­

ing excellence generally paid in reversion ," and "If wrong , every inferior dunce

38. 豆豆些呈， II, 376-377.39. 車已， p. 377. See also George Campbell , ThePhilosophyof 旦旦旦些， (Carbo丘dale ，

illinois , 1963) , pp.329-330 for a discussion of various elements of articulatesounds; I found 也is material by an eighteenth -century rhetorician to have basicrelAvance.

284 教學與研究

thinks himself entitled to laugh at their disappointment; if right , men of superior,(40)talents think their honour engaged to oppose. . .'

Occasionally the final part of the parallel structure is expanded by Goldsmith

These gradations appear in the following illustrations:

The 位penses of societ.) , ..,f presents , of entertainments , and 盟主

other helps to cheerfulness , are actions merely indifferent. . •"Justice and Generosity"

Puffed up themselves with ideas of false grandeur , and measuringmerit by adventitious circumstances of greatness , they generallycommunicate those fatal prejudices to their pupils , confirm theirpride by adulation , or 垃立學旦旦當 ignorance 垃些單旦旦旦旦且

堂里已旦旦旦L 旦旦旦旦迪拉且已包且已型旦旦 t主主且Z ﹒"Charles the Twelfth"

Different types of anaphora are used by Goldsmith for emphasis. For instance ,when he wishes to add emotional stress to his ideas , he often repeats the initial

word in a series of exclamations:

Our fire-works , our public feasts and entertainments , our entriesof ambassadors ,etc. , what mummery all this! ~且延 childish pageants!也且t millions are sacrificed in paying tribute to custom! 退出1 anunnecessary charge at times when we are pressed w.i):!;J.. \r臼1 want ,which cannot be satisfied without burthening the poor'''''''!(Note also the、 gradation.)

A striking variation in the use of anaphora can be seen in these sentences , where

there is a strong secondary element of repetition:

旦單位 those princes，也旦 are educated by men ~垃 are at oncevirtuous and wise , and have been for some time in the school ofaffliction: who weigh happiness against glory, and teach their royalpupils the real value of fame; 也旦 are ever showing the superiordignity of man to that of royalty; that a peasant 也£ does his duty isa nobler character than a king of even middling reputation. 也且正，

I say , were princes , could such men be found to instruct them; butthose to whom such an education is generally intrusted , are ,merwho themselves have acted in a sphere too high to know mankindμ2)

Thus repetition of the initial word Happy is reinforced by a series of relative

clauses introduced by the pronoun who.

In addition to parallel phrases and clauses , with their variations of gradation

and repetitional features , the paragraph , as a unit of sentences , is also a unit of

rhythm. In fact , Herbert Read believes that rhythmically sentences need to be

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歌德史密斯之散文研究 285

placed in a paragraph unless they are aphorisms and therefore are self - contained.

He writes that "The sentences must be dissolved in a wider movement and this wider

movement is the rhythm of the paragraph--a rhythm that begins with the first syllable,(43)of the paragraph and is notcomplete without the last syllable.'

What can we learn from an analysis of a selected paragraph from Goldsmith I s

essays?

What we clearly conceive , says Boileau , we can clearly express. Imay add , that what is felt with emotion is expressed also with thesame movements; the words arise as readily to paint our emotionsas to express our thoughts with perspicuity. The c∞1 care anorator takes to express passions which he does not feel , onlyprevents his rising into that passion he would seem to feel. In aword , to feel your subject thoroughly , and to speak without fear, arethe only rules of eloquence , properly so called, which I can offer.Examine a writer of genius on the most beautiful parts of his work ,and he will always assure you that such passages are generallythose which have given him the least trouble , for they came as if byinspiration. To pretend that cold and didactic precepts will mak~ ~

matl eloquent , is 'only to prove that he is incap~ble of eloquence.(44)

The thought is clear: quoting Boileau , Goldsmith begins his paragraph with the key

statement that clear expression naturally follows clear thought. In addition , Gold­

smith declares that true orators must be able to feel or react emotionally to their

subject. His simple rules of eloquence are not more didactic directions but rather

are recommendations for emotional control: the orator must feel his subject in a

total sense and he must overcome fear. Rhythmically , the movement is one of balance

as the sentences glide up and down. Prepositional and infinitive phrases apear in

parallel groupings. Many words are repeated , i. e. , the words ~ and <;;，主主垃 are

repeated twice in the opening sentence , consisting of ten words. And from this point

on many words are repeated , thus adding to the sound as well as the sense of the

paragraph. But the major source of rhythm rests in the balanced constructions ,both phrases and clauses. It is mainly through syntactic repetition that the rhythm

of this paragraph is established. And , once again , Goldsmith' s union of thought and

expression is clearly evident.

1 hroughout my observations on style I have stressed Goldsmith's g:raceful ,flowing

43. Read，巨型ish P旦旦旦旦旦， pp.63-64. See also Ba阻， pp.61-74. Here Ba阻，after quoting this passage as well as other lines from Read, concludes that para­graph rhythm remains a rather nebulous thing and recommends the analysis ofsuccessive paragraphs rather than an isolated one as Read has done.

44. 也些s ， II, 421 -422.

286 教學與研究

line. In the examination of transitional phrases , syntactical balance , and repetitional

devices--all forces in the ordering of words in sentences--I have discussed clarity ,已oherence ， unity and rhythm.

B. Literary Techniques

"Studying the outlines of any work of genius , is like watching the progress of

infancy to maturity; we trace it growing under the hands of the artist; we imagine

ourselves present at every addition and improvement , and congratulate ourselves as(45)

if we had been assisting to its final perfection. \' -' I In these words lauding Montes-

quieu I s Miscellan凹的已丘丘， Goldsmith seems to describe a feeling we might have

about his own essays in their most mature state in The Citizen of the World. Having

experienced the evolution from the argumentative , rhetorically-balanced 旦旦旦旦，

through the varied and lively Bee , to an analysis of The Citizen of the World from

the figurative level , we , too , are sharing in the realization of a work of art.

a. Figures of Speech

The literary techniques that Goldsmith employs in his most masterly written

essays serve his major purposes of communication and persuasion. His attitude

toward figurative expression was examined previously in connection with the 旦旦旦旦:I，

where he expressed his <.1islike of loaded epithets and orante expressions ,far-fetchecl

conceits and unnatural hyperbole. Yet these critical pronouncements did not mean

that he wrote in literal terms all of the time. He made extensive use of similes and

to a lesser degree of metaphors , and he frequently chose to allegorize his moral

theses. But it is true that in his poetry he chose to avoid brilliant images and in his

review s of others' writings , whether history , aesthetics , poetry , or drama , he gave

the palm for thought , humor , and various harmony but not for affectation in any guise.

45. Wo草包 IV， 363. Goldsmith's au出orship of this review has been questioned byAr也ur Friedman in "Goldsmith's Contributions to the Critical旦旦控盟"MP， XLIV(1946) , p.42. 1his point of view is supported by Morris Goldenbroit, "InternalEvidence and Goldsmith's Periodical Writings ," an unpublished doctoral disser­阻位on (New York University, 1953) , p.265. Earlier R. S. Crane in 些wE堡包里

垃旦旦旦r Goldsmi組 (Chicago， 192η， pp. xl-xli quoted a passage from Gold­smith's review as the final evidence for justification for 出e publication of thenew essays. Because of Goldsmi曲's known interest in Montesquieu' s writingsand the influence of some of 出ese pieces of literature on Goldsmith and becausethe critical edition establishing Goldsmi曲's canon of writings has not been pu­blished, I choose to include a quotation which seems especially pertinent and re­presentative of Goldsmith's basic news.

歌德史密斯之散文研究 287

Goldsmith's principles of imagery were in sympathy with those of the rhetoricians ,Hugh Blair and Goerge Campbell , who urged m吋甘ation and good taste in the use of

metaphor , hyperbole , and personification. Thev recommended good sense afld

simplicity as the best indicators of cultures that had advanced in science and

language. In short , Goldsmith and his associates tended to think of the lavish use of

metaphors as merely ornamental and not an integral or constitutive part of(46)language.

Similes constitute the main figures and these are appropriate and lively. Typical

of Goldsmith' s practice , many are drawn from animals and human beings and from

their activities , such as: "I am as well known in England as the dromedary , or live

crocodile"; "I grew as merry as a grig"; "natural speaking like sweet wine , runs

glibly over the palate , and scarce leaves any taste behind it"; and "the rich she

treats like an arrant stepmother." While concrete details--CalverPs butt and

Sedgeley' s homebrew , Punch and King Solomon , Tentenden and London -- are

subordinate to the general narrative or action details , they add a flavor. Key words

are often repeated , including 且些單且， candle-snuffer ， and 1, suggesting geniality ,

comedy , and egotism. Trite phrases--"the ups and downs of fortune ," "give us both

the speen ," "I naturally had r1D ear for music"--are placed next to these original

combinations--"instructing me on beating all the marches 已nd points of war" and

"such was my success , that I could ravish the laurels even from a sirloin of beef-"

In focusing on the figurative language of The Citizen of the World we can readily

see that Goldsmith uses analogical language. His analogies are frequently in the

form of simple , literal similes; for example , the first sentence of Letter IV begins:

"The English seem as silent as the Japanese. • ." and in the next paragraph appears:,,(47)"An Englishman is taught to love his King as his friend. • • ,,\-/ I Letter Vi contains a

longer example: "and he who separates sensual and sentimental enjoyments , seeking

happiness from mind alone , is in fact as wretched as the naked inhabitant of the(48)

forest , who places all happiness in the first , regardless of the latter. ","VI Some目

times the similes are pictorial , such as: "A few nights ago , one of these generous

creatures , dressed all in white , and flaunting like a meter by my side , forcibly

46. See I. A. Richards , 1h旦Philosophyof旦旦巴拉(New York, 1936) , pp.99-138.47. Works , III, 21.48. Ib盟主， p.30.

288 教學與研究

attended me home to my own apartment"; (49) "The guardian goose flew at him like a，.(如)fury , pecked β1 nim with her beak , and slapped him with her feathers":\/~I and "We

have seen with terror a winged phalanx of famished locusts ,each singly contemptible,but trom multitude become hideous , cover like clouds the face of qay , and threaten

"行1)the whole world with ruin."\/~I It should be noted that Goldsmith' s simple similes ,in contrast with epic or sustainedsimiles that he avoids ,far outnumber themetaphors

he uses. His similes seem to serve to illuminate ideas or descriptions whereas the

metaphors tend to be more traditional , onamental , and trite , e. g. , "the Book of

Nature" , "the wheel of fortune ," "The Giver of all ," "A map of my mind ,"and

"machines of pity or obedience." In many instances these traditional metapnors are

used by Altangi or Fum Hoam and may bear out Goldsmith' s intentions as presented(弦)

in the Preface--that he would retain the formality ot Eastern metaphors.

Contrary to Altangi's statement , "In the East ,similes are seldom used ,and metaphors ,，，(刃)almost wholly unknown , "V-'I _ figurative la_nguage has always been prevalent in

Oriental literature.

Occasionally Goldsmith employs animal images for the purposes of description

and for ironic effects as can be seen in many passages in 工生且已旦旦L虫且也已且﹒

(A) The subject of Letter XXVIII , a satirical essay , is the reasons for the great

number of old maids and bachelors in London. This sentence contains two similes

and two traditional mete中hors:

49. Ibid. , p.34.50. Ibid. , p.231.51. Ibid. , p.327.52. 動的.， p.10.53. lbid. , p.127. This point is often mentioned by critics in commenting on Letter

XXXIll, pp.124-l29. Gibbs in n.!. , p.129, states: "Oriental literature aboundsin me祖phor and similes; but Goldsmith either had not paid sufficient attention tothe subject to be aware of this fact or he was contentto overlook it in his eager­ness to condemnthe clumsy exaggreation of scribblers who affected to imitatethe Eastern style. --B (Bohn)" I believe that Goldsmith has used this denial , ascited in the text of this study, as part of his general ironic treatment and thusundercuts the literal statement. After all in The Citizen of the World he retellsEstern allegories and fables , filled with images. According to Miss, Woo, quotedabove, time and river metaphors have always been used by the Chinese for manyideas , and she declared: "We use metaphors abundantly to express ideas andalways have."

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歌德史密斯之散女研究 291

major persona , who criticizes the land he visits in n refine , frank , but native way.

Coming from a country that places the scholar ahead of thl~ merchant or the scienti~莉，

he is presented as one whose ethical character will persuade others to listen to him.

He is a man with friends , he is a man concerned about his son I s safety and character

developmen月， and he is a man who wants to study the manners and customs of many

lands , not for the sake of curiosity , not for economic aggrandizement , but for human

betterment. Unlike most satirists who make extensive uses of invective and ridicule ,the Chinese visitor shows how England looks to one who thinks about in terms of

contrast with his own id曲1 state. The impressions , the shortcomings , the follies ,and the vices are all viewed with an attendant change of perspective as the Chinese

traveller moves from shock to admiration in many instances. His criticism and moral

judgments may be ironically considered , but they are also impressive for their

reasonableness and good-humored presentation. Goldsmith creates the Man in Black ,a major character , as a balance for Altangi. In him he portrays a person who will

picture England as a native son , who is able to tell this Chinese outsider the story

of English life and ideals; but at the same time he is free to voice his per田間I

criticisms. In a sense , the conversations between Altangi and his friend in Black

become debates that often reveal the ingenuity and subtlety of the grand designer ,Goldsmith. Through them the ills of England are exposed without bitterness or

vitriolic atack.

In addition to the Man in Black , the other characters , who become vivid figures ,minor personae , in this essentially dramatic satire , include Beau Tibbs , Mrs. Tibbs ,and the pawnbroker's widow. Letters LN , LV , LXXI , and VXXIII center around

these characters , whose language and points of view are appropriately but ironically

presented. The qualities of most of them are derived from Goldsmith's reminiscences

of his family and friends as well as from some self-study and from his general

observations on society. Here Goldsmith applies his theory on "low" humor

admirably.

We learn that Altangi' s friend in Black has a contract of marriage with the rich

widow for having been so observant in seeing the bread was rising , but in the last

letter we are told of the dissolution of the treaty over a difference in opinion <:on­

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mockery , lampooning , ridicule , caricature , farce , and drollery. Along with the

primary device of the traveller as the commentator , he uses fables , apothegms ,epigrams , diaries , allegories , situational satire , conversation , debate , and exampla.

Rhetoric ..il devices , including diminution , exaggeration , suspense, and such figures

自 the apostrophe , a rhetorical question , and chiasmus are all used ingeniously by

Goldsmith for his comic-ironic目satiric purposes.

Viewing Th呈已且至n of 旦旦Worl且 as a mighty sphere of irony dominated by the

foreign visitor--the embodiment of Chinese wisdom , grounded in maxims--Goldsmith

explodes him ironically just as he does the English for their misconception of the

nature of man and the society in which he must live. Altangi I s beliefs about his own

culture, his philosophy as applied to the trials of life , his ideals--all are undercut

consistently by their juxtaposition with other moral , social , and religious standards

until he realizes the merits of other countries 1 mores. Somewhere in the middle ,Goldsmith suggests , is the representative human being--a combination of wisdom ,sympathy , good-humor , and self-knowledge , but above all , the incarnation of person

who can see beyond the limits of himself--the real citizen of the world.

To suggest the nature of his satiric treatment , so varied , so ingenious , so

controlled, I have selected specific essays to exemplify the formal rhetorical oration

(rare in Goldsmith) , the mock heroic , the art of diminution and ridicule.

Essay LXXXVII deals with the folly of Western countries for employing Russians

to fight their battles. Here is a definite style for a definite end--to persuade people

to accept the author I s argument on a controversial subject. In this case Goldsmith

chose to write an essay in the rhetorical tradition , sharing this approach with such

beacon names as Aristotle , Cicero , QUintilian, St. Augustine , Bacon , and Hobbes.

In this arrangement Goldsmith follow·s the rhetorical order of introduction , statement

or question , division , proof , refutation , and conclusion--although writing a brief

essay.

A rhetorical , yet balanced , question introduces the problem emphatically: IIYoU,(61)tell me the people of Europe are wise; but where lies their wisdom?II\~~1 Following

this is a similarly constructed sentence , although not expressed as a question , but

also showing consideration for sound and shift in elements ,

61. Thid. , III, 325.

294 教學與研究

statement of the problem: "They are engaged in war among each other , yet apply to,,(62)the Russians , their neighbours and ours , for assistance. "\~~I After declaring his

position he begins an examination of the strength of England' s poetential enemy ,Russia. He views the country geographically and historically , alluding to specific

individuals , Johna Basilides and Peter the Great. His refutation of arguments

usually put forth by the supporters of the policy now practiced by western powers

includes several analogies with nature--the plauge of famished locusts and the

descent of myriads of desert ants. His final peroration integrates the migrations of

animals and men:

Goths , Huns , Vandals , Saracens ， τurks ， Tartars , myriads of men ,animals in human form , without country , without name , without laws ,outpowering by numbers all opposition , ravaging cities, overturningemp廿es ， and , after having destroyed whole nations , and spreadextensive desolation , how have we seen them sink oppressed by.some new enemy , more barbarous andeven more unknown than they!(63)

Repetition , balance , allusions , directness , and emphasis are here , but the flash of

satire is held until the closing paragraph. In this oratorical essay Goldsmith is

judging man and finds him wanting wisdom in seeing thingsas they really are , a basic

idea of The Citizen of the World.

In the fall of 1760 a theatre feud between Drury Lane and Covent Garden centered

around the leading performers in Gay' s工垃Be鎧2乙:三聳立a--Beard and Mrs. Brent

representing Covent Garden and Lowe and 恥11's. Vincent , Drury Lane. It is this

situation that prompted Goldsmith to write "The Preparations of Both Theatres , for

a Wint叮 Campaign ，" Letter LXXIX.

The purpose and tone of this mock-satiric essay is made clear from the beginning:

The mimetic troops , different from those of the state , begin theircampaign when 3.11 the others quit the field; and , at a time when theEuropeans cease to destroy each other ~I) .reality, they are enter­tainect with mock battles u~n the stage. (64)

Then the field of battle is described as the artill甘Y is assembled by the dancing

master with "quivering feet ," the carpenter preparing "his paradise of pasteboard'~

the hero and the heroine putting on their armours--i.e. , a brass guard for his fore­

head and a copper tail for her , still to be scoured , and even such reinforcements as

62. llii且.， pp. 325-326.63. lliid. , pp.327.64. lli岳， pp.294-295. See also Letter LXXXV for further satiric commentary on

theatrical rivalry , partially perpetuated by the panegyrical verses on 也e

performers.

歌德史密斯之散文研究 295

(6步)messengers or letter carriers and Alexander the Great' s stooge on a stool.

The actual battle scene opens with the singing female heralds , the rival Pollies ,being contrasted in a panegyrical seesaw of their manner ,appearance , and gesturing.

The sound and movement of battle are heightened by Altangi I s appraisal: "If I ever

go to one of their playhouses , what with trumpets , hall∞ing behind the stage , and

bawling upon it , I am quite dizzy before the performance is over... the whole mind

being filled with a dead march , a funeral procession , a catcall , a jig , or a,(66)tempest. '

Goldsmith , speaking through his main persona Altangi ,emphasizes the basic point

of this mock epic-.-an attack on sentimental tragedy. Stating his amazement that no

one writes properly for the stage since most playwrights are more concerned with

stage business--trapdα)rs and scene shifting and "whining scences"--than with real

drama , Altangi submits a model mid-final scene , actually a parody of sentimental

endings in the form of a tragic pantomime. He is of the opinion that his model scene

can only result in the "rapture of insensibility" and save the viewers from "all,(67)fatigue of thinking. "

From Goldsmith rs reviews of plays , the chapter on the stage in the 且且已泣， and

his Essay 旦旦且主 T主旦旦j or，企 Comparison且etween Sentimental 巴已 Laughing

♀旦旦旦~Jl773) we learn of his intense interest in' the stage , including acti唔， direct­

ing , and writing. EveryWhere appears his scorn for the extreme emphasis on staging

and sound effects , but especially is his irony levelled at sentimental drama that

prompts our tears instead of our laughter. For him the comic impulse stems from

man I S frailities and follies and these he ridicules.

Another source of irony that Goldsmith uses is diminution. He reduces members

of various professions--the lawyer , the clergyman , the author and the educator by

pricking his designated incompetents for their motivations and practices. Perhaps

his depreciation is directed toward the ceremony of bestowing blue ribbons on

knights , whose loyalty henceforth will not be lackiqg as long as the yards of blue or

green riband remain. The creatures he selects for ridicule are not fantastic beings

--little people , giants , magic beasts , such as the creations of a Rabelais or a Swift

--but they are human beings whose pride or vanity has given them a false perspective

65. Ib盟.， p.295.66. Ib盟.， p.296.67. Ibid. , p.297..

296 教學與研究

of life. His entire process is a logical ·one--巴虫且io 型 absurdum， not desIgned to

keep the reader in any fantastic counterpart of man but to bring him to a conscious­

ness of the "littleness" of his ideas. Through an outsider' s perspective weconsider

"Little Great Men" in Letter LXXIV , an effective union of language and subject.

Altangi point s out posterity' s need to remember a catalogue of the greats of the past ,and he reflects on the number of bIOgraphers' wtlOse adulation for a great man will

make them follow him even after death: "one of his little admirers sits down , big with

the important subject , and is delivered of the history of his life and writings...,(68)called the revolutions of a life between the fireside and the easy chair. "\~-J Altangi ,

philosophizing at the end , expresses his belief that since he can never be a great

man , he must settle for being honest and having common sense. Let diminutive

admirers follow diminutive greats who march on to immortality-" catching all the

oddities , the whimsies , the absurdities , ;;lnd the littlenesses of conscious greatness,(69)by the way.1

Goldsmith 1s comic sense is best seen in many letters ridiculing man at work and

at play. In Letter LXVIII he is concerned with a topic of lively interest , the quacks

of the medical profession. Using Altangi' s dual position , as a Chinese who knows

his own country and as a visitor who is observant , Goldsmith places the medical

profession in England in juxtaposition with the place of doctors in various countries.

First , the specialists of England are derided--"sciatica doctors" and "inoculating

doctors ," the defenders from bug-bites and bites of mad dogs. Next , the prolocutor

uses illustrations and anecdotes ab∞t prime personages ,the "formidable triumvirate.

One is the unforgettable caricature of Doctor Richard Cook , F.U.N. , sometimes

called Dumplin Dick:

This great man , short of stature , is fat , and waddles as he walks.He always wears a white three-tailed wig nicely combed ,and frizzedupon each cheek.. .usually drawn at the tOIJ of. his own bills , sittingin his arm-chair ,holding a little bottle between his finger and thumb ,and surro~mQed with rotten teeth , hippers , pills , packets , andgallipots. (70)

Altangi challenges Dr. Rock to a debate on this question: "Which of those three

disorders incident to the human body , is the most fatal , the 乏正旦旦旦旦e ， parenthesis ,or,(71)apoplexy:" \ I .L J Considering the double entendre of the 1

68. Ibi且.， p.281.

69. Ibid. , p.279.70. Ibid. , p.255.71. Ibi且.， p.258.

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L6?:區的五月華字路主g~島海

298 教學與研究

ques , I must emphasize his comic perception. for this determines his material and

his varying treatment and control. As he sees man in action , a veritable comedy of

livrng ,he comments, in a most imaginative way. It appears that whim and circumstance

guided him tQ the discovery of a vein of literature which he explored fully and crea­

tively • The foreign-observer tale , the use of the persona , figurative language , and

various satiric devices have been utilized by the literary artist to give the readers

a complete , vivid picture of what he intended to illustrate.