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Brakes

There are generally two independentbrakeson a motorcycle, one set on the front wheel and

one on the rear. However, some models have "linked brakes" whereby both can be applied at

the same time using only one control. Front brakes are generally much more powerful than

rear brakes: roughly two thirds of stopping power comes from the front brake - mainly a result

of weight transfer being much more pronounced compared to larger vehicles, due to the very

short wheelbase. Brakes can either be drum or disc based, with disc brakes being more

common on large, modern or expensive motorcycles for their far superior stopping power,

particularly in wet conditions. There are many brake-performance-enhancing aftermarket

parts available for most motorcycles including brake pads of varying compounds and steel

braided brake lines.

In the 1980s, BMW introduced the antilock braking system (ABS) to the world of

motorcycling. This life-saving advance has since been adopted for civilian motorcycles bysome other manufacturers, including Honda, Suzuki, Yamaha, Kawasaki and Ducati. Some

larger scooters also offer ABS brakes.

Suspension

Plunger design suspensions were superceded by the swinging arm

Main article:Suspension (motorcycle)

Modern designs have the two wheels of a motorcycle connected to the chassis by a suspension

arrangement, however 'chopper' style motorcycles often elect to forgo rear suspension, usinga rigid frame.

The front suspension generally consists of sliding aluminum tubes with long springs inside

called forkswhich use hydraulic fluid for dampingshock absorbers. For handling, the front

fork is the most critical part of a motorcycle. The angle of rake determines how stable the

motorcycle feels. The rear suspension supports the swingarm, which is attached via the

swingarm pivot boltto the frame and holds theaxleof the rear wheel. The rear suspension can

consist of several shock arrangements:

Dual shocks, which are placed at the far ends of the swingarm
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Traditional monoshock, which is placed at the front of the swingarm, above theswingarm pivot bolt

Softail style monoshock, which is mounted horizontally in front of the swingarm,below the swingarm pivot bolt

Instruments

With dirtbikes excluded, almost all motorcycles have a speedometer, an odometer and a

tachometer. Fuel gauges are becoming more common, but traditionally a reserve tank

arrangement is used with a petcock (petrol tap) on the side of the motorcycle allowing the

rider to switch to a reserve fuel supply when the main fuel supply is exhausted. There is not

actually a separate reserve tank: The intake for the petcock has two pipes, one extending

higher into the fuel tank than the other. When fuel no longer covers the long pipe, the rider

switches the petcock to the "reserve" setting, which accesses the shorter pipe. Riders whose

bikes lack a fuel gauge (most machines prior to the past few years) usually learn how many

miles/km they can go with a full tank of fuel, and then use a trip meter if available to judge

when they must refill the tank.

Fairing

A full fairing on a 2006 BMW.

Aplasticorfiberglassshell, known as afairing, is placed over the frame on some models to

shield the rider from the wind. Drag is the major factor that limits motorcycle speed, as it

increases at the square of the velocity, with the resultant required power increasing with thecube of velocity. As can be seen from the streamlined appearance of new performance

motorcycles, there is much aerodynamic technology included in the design. Unfortunately, no

one has been able to overcome the effect of the turbulence caused by the spinning front wheel,

which prevents the motorcycle from cutting a clean path through the air. Another problem is

that no designs have been discovered that can improve aerodynamic performance without

unacceptably compromising the rider's ability to control the machine. In the absence of a

fairing or windshield, a phenomenon known as the windsock effect occurs at speeds above

100 km/h, where the rider becomes a major source of drag and is pushed back from the

handlebars, tiring the rider. However, these motorcycles still effectively push their way

through the atmosphere with brute force.
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Cabin cyclesolved the problem of aerodynamics by isolating driver from outside air.

Fuel efficiency

Motorcycle fuel efficiency benefits from the relatively small mass of the vehicle, compared to

its passengers and to other motor vehicles, and subsequent small engine displacement.However, poor aerodynamics of exposed passengers and engines designed for goals other

than fuel economy can work to reduce these benefits.

Fuel effiency varies greatly with engine displacement from a low of 29 mpg U.S.

(8.1 L/100km)reported by a Honda VTR1000F rider[1] to 107 mpg U.S. (2.2 L/100km)

reported for the Verucci Nitro 50cc Scooter[2]. A specially designed Matzu Matsuzawa Honda

XL125 achieved 470 mpg U.S. (0.5 L/100km) "on real highways - in real conditions."[3]

Dynamics

A motorcycle stays upright when it is steered to keep its center of gravity over its wheels.

Lock the steering of a motorcycle and it is virtually impossible to ride. Cancel the gyroscopic

effect of its rotating wheels by adding counter-rotating wheels, and it can still be easily

ridden.

A motorcycle must lean in order to turn. This lean is induced by a method known as

countersteering. This however is a separate action to the rider leaning their body, as it is

virtually impossible to steer a motorcycle through body leaning alone.

Short wheelbase motorcycles, such as sport bikes, can generate enough torque at the rear

wheel and enough stopping force at the front wheel in order to flip longitudinally. These

actions, especially if performed on purpose are known aswheeliesandstoppiesrespectively.

Mobility

In many cultures, motorcycles are the primary means of motorized transport, not automobiles.

According to the Taiwanese government "the number of automobiles per ten thousands

population is around 2,500, and the number of motorcycles is about 5,000."[4]

Safety

Motorcycles have a far higher rate of crippling and fatal accidents per unit distance than

automobiles. According to the US Highway Safety Authority, in 2002 20.9 cars out of

100,000 ended up in fatal crashes. The rate for motorcycles is 66.7 per 100,000. The most

common type of motorcycle accident is caused by inattentive drivers making a turn directly in

front of a motorcycle. Other leading causes of motorcycle accidents involve unlicensed and

untrained riders and drunk or drugged riding.

Types of motorcycles

There are many different types of motorcycles for many different purposes.
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Mopeds: small, light, inexpensive, efficient rides for getting around town. usuallystarted by pedaling (motorcycle + pedals = moped).

Dual-sport/enduro: Designed to be street legal (having turn signals and a headlightand taillight) while still maintaining at least some off-road ability in such attributes as

knobby tires and high ground clearance.

Scooters: bike with a step-through frame and generally smaller wheels than those oftraditional motorcycles. Can be riden without straddling any part of the bike.

Available in sport, commuter, and touring models.

Sport bikes: Fast, light, sleek motorcycles designed for maximum performance, forracing homologation or spirited road riding. They are distinguishable by their brightly

colored plastic bodywork and the rider's tipped-forward seating position.

Cruisers: A range of small to large motorcycles designed for comfort and looks witha relaxed upright seating position. They are notable for their heavy use of chrome and

are often highly customized.

Choppers: Usually custom motorcycles with long rake (longer front forks) and wildpaint jobs. These are created more for show than dependability and ridability.

Touring motorcycles: designed for comfort, luggage carrying and reliability. Bothcruisers and sport bikes can be used as touring bikes.

Dirt bikes/motocross bikes/off-road bikes: designed for racing, recreation, orsometimes long-distance touring in gravel/mud/sand conditions.

Pocket bikes: Small imitations of sport bikes designed for recreation or racing by allage levels; seePocketbike Racing

Mini bikes: Very small bikes deisgned to be simple and fun for children. Generallythey have no clutch or shifting to simplify operation

Train

Inrail transport, a train consists of rail vehicles that move along guides to transport freight or

passengers from one place to another. The guideway (permanent way) usually consists of

conventional rail tracks, but might also be monorail or maglev. Propulsion for the train is

provided by a separatelocomotive, or from individual motors in self-propelledmultiple units.

Most trains are powered by diesel engines or by electricity supplied by trackside systems.

Historically thesteam enginewas the dominant form of locomotive power through the mid-

20th century, but other sources of power (such ashorses,rope(orwire),gravity,pneumatics,

orgas turbines) are possible.

In Americanrailway terminology, and increasingly within the railway industry in the United

Kingdom, a consist is used to describe the group of rail vehicles which make up a train.
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In the United Kingdom Section 83(1) of the Railways Act 1993 defines train as follows:

a) two or more items of rolling stock coupled together, at least one of which is a locomotive;

or

b) a locomotive not coupled to any other rolling stock.

A train can consist of a combination of a locomotive and attached railroad cars, or a self-

propelledmultiple unit(or occasionally a single powered coach, called arailcar). Trains can

also be hauled by horses, pulled by a cable, or run downhill by gravity.

Special kinds of trains running on corresponding special 'railways' areatmospheric railways,

monorails, high-speed railways, Dinky Trains, maglev, rubber-tired underground, funicular

andcog railways.

A passenger train may consist of one or several locomotives, and one or more coaches.Alternatively, a train may consist entirely of passenger carrying coaches, some or all of which

are powered as a "multiple unit". In many parts of the world, particularlyJapanandEurope,

high-speed railis utilized extensively for passenger travel.

Freight trains comprise wagons or trucks rather than carriages, though some parcel and mail

trains (especiallyTravelling Post Offices) are outwardly more like passenger trains.

In theUnited Kingdom, a train hauled by two locomotives is said to be "double-headed", and

inCanadaand theUnited States it is quite common for a long freight train to be headed by

three, four, or even five locomotives. A train with a locomotive attached at each end isdescribed as 'top and tailed', this practice typically being used when there are no reversing

facilities available. Where the second locomotive is attached temporarily to assist a train up

steep banks (or down them by providing braking power) it is referred to as 'banking'.

Trains can also be mixed, hauling both passengers and freight, see e.g. Transportation in

Mauritania. Such mixed trains became rare in many countries, but were commonplace on the

first 19th-century railroads.

Special trains are also used forTrack Maintenance; in some places, this is calledmaintenance

of way.

A single uncoupled rail vehicle is not technically a train, but is usually referred to as such for

signalling reasons.

The first trains were rope-hauled, gravity powered or pulled by horses, but from the early

19th centuryalmost all were powered bysteam locomotives. From the1920sonwards they

began to be replaced by less labour intensive and cleaner (but more expensive) diesel

locomotives and electric locomotives, while at about the same time self-propelled multiple

unitvehicles of either power system became much more common in passenger service. Most

countries had replaced steam locomotives for day-to-day use by the1970s. A few countries,

most notably thePeople's Republic of Chinawherecoalis in cheap and plentiful supply, still
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ikipedia.org/wiki/Funicularhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubber-tired_undergroundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_levitation_trainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinky_Trainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-speed_railhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monorailhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_railwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railcarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railroad_carhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locomotive


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use steam locomotives, but this is being gradually phased out. Historic steam trains still run in

many other countries, for the leisure and enthusiast market.

Electric traction offers a lower cost per mile of train operation but at a very high initial cost,

which can only be justified on high traffic lines. Since the cost per mile of construction is

much higher, electric traction is less favoured on long-distance lines. Electric trains receivetheir current viaoverhead linesor through athird rail electric system.

Passenger trains

Passenger trains havePassenger cars. Passenger trains travel betweenstations; the distance

between stations may vary from under 1 km to much more. Long-distance trains, sometimes

crossing several countries, may have a dining car or restaurant car; they may also have

sleeping cars, but not in the case of high-speed rail; these arrive at their destination before the

night falls and are in competition withairplanes in speed. Very long distance trains such as

those on theTrans-Siberian railwayare usually not high-speed.

Very fast trains sometimes tilt, like the Pendolino or Talgo. Tilting is a system where the

passenger cars automatically lean into curves, reducing the centrifugal forces acting on

passengers and permitting higher speeds on curves in the track with greater passenger

comfort.

For trains connecting cities, we can distinguish inter-city trains, which do not halt at small

stations, and trains that serve all stations, usually known as local trains or "stoppers" (and

sometimes an intermediate kind, see alsolimited-stop

).

An electric multiple unit pulling into Tile Hill station;Coventry, England

Interior of a passenger car in a long-distance train in Finland

For shorter distances many cities have networks ofcommuter trains, serving the city and its

suburbs. Some carriages may be laid out to have more standing room than seats, or to
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facilitate the carrying of prams, cycles or wheelchairs. Some countries have some double-

decked passenger trains for use in conurbations. Double deck high speed and sleeper trains

are becoming more common in Europe.

Passenger trains usually haveemergency brakehandles (or a "communication cord") that the

public can operate. Abuse is punished by afine.

Large cities often have ametrosystem, also called underground, subway or tube. The trains

are electrically powered, usually by third rail, and their railroads are separate from other

traffic, without level crossings. Usually they run in tunnels in the city centre and sometimes

on elevated structures in the outer parts of the city. They can accelerate and decelerate faster

than heavier, long-distance trains.

A light one- or two-car rail vehicle running through the streets is by convention not

considered a train but rather atram, trolley, light-rail vehicle or streetcar, but the distinction is

not always strict. In some countries such as the United Kingdom the distinction between a

tramway and arailwayis precise and defined in law.

The termlight railis sometimes used for a modern tram, but it may also mean an intermediate

form between a tram and a train, similar to metro except that it may have level crossings.

These are often protected with crossing gates. They may also be called atrolley.

Maglevtrains andmonorailsrepresent minor technologies in the train field.

The termrapid transit is used for public transport such as commuter trains, metro and light

rail. However, in New York City, lines on theNew York City Subwayhave been referred to as

"trains".

Freight trains

An electric container freight train
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Freight wagons filled withlimestoneawait unloading, at sidings inRugby, England

AnSPfreight train west ofChicagoin1992.

Freight trains havefreight cars.

Much of the world's freight is transported by train. In theUSAthe rail system is used mostly

for transportingcargo(or freight).

Under the right circumstances, transporting freight by train is highly economic, and also more

energy efficient than transporting freight by road. Rail freight is most economic when freight

is being carried in bulk and over long distances, but is less suited to short distances and small

loads. Bulk aggregate movements of a mere twenty miles can be cost effective even allowingfor trans-shipment costs. These trans-shipment costs dominate in many cases and many

modern practices such ascontainerfreight are aimed at minimizing these.

The main disadvantage of rail freight is its lack of flexibility. For this reason, rail has lost

much of the freight business to road competition. Many governments are now trying to

encourage more freight onto trains, because of the environmental benefits that it would bring.

There are many different types of freight trains, which are used to carry many different kinds

of freight, with many different types of wagons. One of the most common types on modern

railways are container trains, where containers can be lifted on and off the train bycranesandloaded off or ontotrucksorships.

This type of freight train has largely superseded the traditionalboxcar type of freight train,

with which the cargo has to be loaded or unloaded manually.

In some countries "piggy-back" trains are used: trucks can drive straight onto the train and

drive off again when the end destination is reached. A system like this is used on theChannel

Tunnel between England and France and between France and Italy (Modalohr road trailer

carriers). Piggy back trains are the fastest growing type of freight trains in the United States,

where they are also known as 'traileronflatcar' or TOFC trains. There are also some "inter-
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modal" vehicles, which have two sets of wheels, for use in a train, or as thesemi-trailerof a

road vehicle. This isobsolete, the current semi-trailers have road wheels only and are carried

on specially adaptedtruckswhen moving on rails, for specific details seeRoadrailer.

There are also many other types of wagons, such as "low loader" wagons for transporting

road vehicles. There arerefrigerator carsfor transportingfoodssuch as ice cream. There are

simple types of open-topped wagons for transporting minerals and bulk material such as

coal, andtankersfor transporting liquids and gases. Today however most coal and aggregates

are moved in hopper wagons that can be filled and discharged rapidly, to enable efficient

handling of the materials.

Freight trains are sometimes illegally boarded by passengers who do not wish, or do not have

the money, to travel by ordinary means. This is referred to as "Hopping" and is considered by

some communities to be a viable form of transport. Most hoppers sneak into train yards and

stow away in boxcars. More bold hoppers will catch a train "on the fly", that is, as it ismoving, leading to occasional fatalities, some of which go unrecorded.

Aircraft

Airbus A380

An aircraft is anymachinecapable ofatmosphericflight.

Categories and classification

Aircraft fall into two broad categories:

Heavier than air
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Heavier than air aircraft, or aerodynes, include autogyros, helicopters and variants, and

conventional fixed-wing aircraft (airplanes or aeroplanes). Fixed-wing aircraft generally use

aninternal-combustion enginein the form of apiston engine(with apropeller) or aturbine

engine(jetorturboprop), to providethrustthat moves the craft forward through the air. The

movement of air over the wings producesliftthat causes the aircraft to fly. Exceptions includegliderswhich have no engines and gain their thrust, initially, fromwinchesor tugs and then

from gravity and thermal currents. For a glider to maintain its forward speed it must descend

in relation to the air (but not necessarily in relation to the ground). Helicopters and autogyros

use a spinning rotor (a rotary wing) to provide lift; helicopters also use the rotor to provide

thrust.Gyrodynesare aircraft intermediate between helicopters and autogyros, whose rotor is

sometimes powered (often by a jet at its tips) but which do not have a tail rotor.Heliplanesare

combination aircraft with both a rotor and wings; they can take off and land vertically, and

hover, like a helicopter, but use their wings for high speed flight. The abbreviationVTOL is

applied to aircraft that can take off and land vertically.STOL stands for Short Take Off andLanding.

Lighter than air

A hot air balloon takes off from Royal Victoria Park, Bath, England

Lighter than airaerostats:balloonsandairships. Aerostats usebuoyancyto float in the air in

much the same manner as ships float on the water. In particular, these aircraft use a relatively

low density gas such ashelium,hydrogenor heated air, to displace the air around the craft.

The distinction between a balloon and an airship is that an airship has some means of

controlling both its forward motion and steering itself, while balloons are carried along with

the wind.

Types of aircraft
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There are several ways to classify aircraft. Below, we describe classifications by design,

propulsion and usage.

By design

A size comparison of some of the largest aircraft in the world. TheAirbus A380-800(largest

airliner), theBoeing 747-8, theAntonov An-225 (aircraft with the greatest payload) and the

Hughes H-4 "Spruce Goose"(aircraft with greatest wingspan).

A first division by design among aircraft is between lighter-than-air, aerostat, and heavier-

than-air aircraft, aerodyne.

Examples of lighter-than-air aircraft include non-steerableballoons, such ashot air balloons

andgas balloons, and steerableairships(sometimes called dirigible balloons) such asblimps

(that have non-rigid construction) and rigid airships that have an internal frame. The most

successful type of rigid airship was theZeppelin. Several accidents, such as theHindenburg

fire atLakehurst, NJ, in 1937 led to the demise of large rigid airships.

In heavier-than-air aircraft, there are two ways to produce lift: aerodynamic lift and engine

lift. In the case of aerodynamic lift, the aircraft is kept in the air by wings or rotors (see

aerodynamics). With engine lift, the aircraft defeats gravity by use of vertical thrust.
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Examples of engine lift aircraft are rockets, and VTOL aircraft such as theHawker-Siddeley

Harrier.

Among aerodynamically lifted aircraft, most fall in the category offixed-wing aircraft, where

horizontal airfoils produce lift, by profiting from airflow patterns determined by Bernoulli's

equationand, to some extent, theCoanda effect.

The forerunner of these type of aircraft is thekite. Kites depend upon the tension between the

cord which anchors it to the ground and the force of thewindcurrents. Much aerodynamic

work was done with kites until test aircraft, wind tunnels and now computer modelling

programs became available.

In a "conventional" configuration, the lift surfaces are placed in front of a control surface or

tailplane. The other configuration is the canardwhere small horizontal control surfaces are

placed forward of the wings, near the nose of the aircraft. Canards are becoming more

common as supersonic aerodynamics grows more mature and because the forward surface

contributes lift during straight-and-level flight.

A collection ofNASAtesting aircraft

The number of lift surfaces varied in the pre-1950 period, as biplanes (two wings) and

triplanes (three wings) were numerous in the early days of aviation. Subsequently most

aircraft are monoplanes. This is principally an improvement in structures and not

aerodynamics.

Other possibilities include thedelta-wing, where lift and horizontal control surfaces are often

combined, and theflying wing, where there is no separate vertical control surface (e.g. theB-2

Spirit).

A variable geometry ('swing-wing') has also been employed in a few examples of combat

aircraft (theF-111,Panavia Tornado,F-14 TomcatandB-1 Lancer, among others).
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Thelifting bodyconfiguration is where the body itself produce lift. So far, the only significant

practical application of the lifting body is in theSpace Shuttle, but many aircraft generate lift

from nothing other than wings alone.

A second category of aerodynamically lifted aircraft are therotary-wing aircraft. Here, the lift

is provided by rotatingaerofoilsorrotors. The best-known examples are thehelicopter, the

autogyro and the tiltrotor aircraft (such as the V-22 Osprey). Some craft have reaction-

powered rotors with gas jets at the tips but most have one or more lift rotors powered from

engine-driven shafts.

A further category might encompass thewing-in-ground-effecttypes, for example the Russian

ekranoplan also nicknamed the "Caspian Sea Monster" and hovercraft; most of the latter

employing a skirt and achieving limited ground or water clearance to reduce friction and

achieve speeds above those achieved byboatsof similar weight.

A recent innovation is a completely new class of aircraft, thefan wing. This uses a fixed wing

with a forced airflow produced by cylindrical fans mounted above. It is (2005) in

development in theUnited Kingdom.

And finally the flapping-wingornithopter is a category of its own. These designs may have

potential but currently have no major practical applications.

By propulsion

Gossamer Albatross, ahuman poweredaircraft

Some types of aircraft, such as the balloon orglider, do not have any propulsion. Balloons

drift with the wind, though normally the pilot can control the altitude either by heating the air

or by releasing ballast, giving some directional control (since the wind direction changes with

altitude). For gliders, takeoff takes place from a high location, or the aircraft is pulled into the

air by a ground-based winch or vehicle, or towed aloft by a powered "tug" aircraft. Airships

combine a balloon'sbuoyancywith some kind of propulsion, usuallypropellerdriven.

Until World War II, the internal combustion piston engine was virtually the only type ofpropulsion used for powered aircraft. (See also: Aircraft engine.) The piston engine is still
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used in the majority of aircraft produced, since it is efficient at the lower altitudes used by

small aircraft, but the radial engine (with the cylinders arranged in a circle around the

crankshaft) has largely given way to the horizontally-opposed engine (with the cylinders

lined up on two sides of the crankshaft). Water cooled V engines, as used in automobiles,

were common in high speed aircraft, until they were replaced by jet and turbine power. Pistonengines typically operate using avgas or regular gasoline, though some new ones are being

designed to operate on diesel or jet fuel. Piston engines normally become less efficient above

7,000-8,000 ft (2100-2400 m) above sea level because there is less oxygen available for

combustion; to solve that problem, some piston engines have mechanically powered

compressors (blowers) or turbine-powered turbochargers or turbonormalizers that compress

the air before feeding it into the engine; these piston engines can often operate efficiently at

20,000 ft (6100 m) above sea level or higher, altitudes that require the use of supplemental

oxygen orcabin pressurization. During the forties and especially following the1973 energy

crisis, development work was done on propellers with swept tips or even scimitar-shaped

blades for use in high-speed commercial and military transports.

Aturboprop-enginedDeHavilland Twin Otteradapted as afloatplane.

Pressurised aircraft, however, are more likely to use theturbine engine, since it is naturally

efficient at higher altitudes and can operate above 40,000 ft. Helicopters also typically use

turbine engines. In addition to turbine engines like theturbopropandturbojet, other types of

high-altitude, high-performance engines have included the ramjet and the pulse jet. Rocketaircraft have occasionally been experimented with. They are restricted to rather specialised

niches, such asspaceflight, where no oxygen is available for combustion (rockets carry their

own oxygen).

By usage

The major distinction in aircraft usage is betweenmilitary aviation, which includes all uses of

aircraft for military purposes (such as combat, patrolling, search and rescue, reconnaissance,

transport, and training), andcivil aviation, which includes all uses of aircraft for non-military

purposes.
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Military aircraft

Prototypes of theHindustan Aeronautics'Light Combat Aircraft.

Combat aircraft like fighters or bombers represent only a minority of the category. Many civil

aircraft have been produced in separate models for military use, such as the civilDouglas DC-

3 airliner, which became the military C-47/C-53/R4D transport in the U.S. military and the"Dakota" in the UK and theCommonwealth. Even the small fabric-covered two-seaterPiper

J3 Cub had a military version, the L-4 liaison, observation and trainer aircraft. In the past,

gliders and balloons have also been used as military aircraft; for example, balloons were used

for observation during theAmerican Civil WarandWorld War I, and cargo gliders were used

duringWorld War IIto land troops.

Combat aircraft themselves, though used a handful of times for reconnaissance and

surveillanceduring the Italo-Turkish War, did not come into widespread use until theBalkan

War when

first air-dropped bomb was invented and widely used by

Bulgarian air force

againstTurkey. On January 24, 1913 the first naval co-operation mission took place byGreek

Air Force planes above the Dardanelles. During World War I many types of aircraft were

adapted for attacking the ground or enemy vehicles/ships/guns/aircraft, and the first aircraft

designed asbomberswere born. In order to prevent the enemy from bombing,fighter aircraft

were developed to intercept and shoot down enemy aircraft. Tankers were developed after

World War IIto refuel other aircraft in mid-air, thus increasing their operational range. By the

time of theVietnam War,helicoptershad come into widespread military use, especially for

transporting, supplying, and supporting ground troops.

Civil aviation
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindustan_Aeronauticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindustan_Aeronauticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindustan_Aeronauticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_Combat_Aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_Combat_Aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_Combat_Aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_DC-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_DC-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_DC-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_DC-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-47_Skytrainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-47_Skytrainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-47_Skytrainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piper_Cubhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piper_Cubhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piper_Cubhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piper_Cubhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveillance_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveillance_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italo-Turkish_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italo-Turkish_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italo-Turkish_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkan_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkan_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkan_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkan_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_air-dropped_bombhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_air-dropped_bombhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgarian_air_forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgarian_air_forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkeyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkeyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkeyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Air_Forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Air_Forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Air_Forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Air_Forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bomberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bomberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bomberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighter_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighter_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighter_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanker_%28aircraft%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanker_%28aircraft%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Heli.g-code.750pix.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:4781.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Heli.g-code.750pix.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanker_%28aircraft%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighter_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bomberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Air_Forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Air_Forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkeyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgarian_air_forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_air-dropped_bombhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkan_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkan_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italo-Turkish_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveillance_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piper_Cubhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piper_Cubhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-47_Skytrainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_DC-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_DC-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_Combat_Aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindustan_Aeronauticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:4781.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_aircraft


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Bell 206B JetRanger IIIhelicopter

Civil aviation includes both scheduled airline flights andgeneral aviation, a catch-all covering

other kinds of private and commercial use. The vast majority of flights flown around the

world each day belong to the general aviation category, ranging from recreational balloon

flying to civilian flight training to business trips to firefighting to medevac flights to cargo

transportation onfreight aircraft.

Interior of Qatar Airways flight

Within general aviation, the major distinction is between private flights (where the pilot is not

paid for time or expenses) and commercial flights (where the pilot is paid by a customer or

employer). Private pilots use aircraft primarily for personal travel, business travel, or

recreation. Usually these private pilots own their own aircraft and take out loans from banks

or specialized lenders to purchase them. Commercial general aviation pilots use aircraft for a

wide range of tasks, such as flight training, pipeline surveying, passenger and freight

transport, policing, crop dusting, and medical transport (medevac). Piston-powered propeller

aircraft (single-engine or twin-engine) are especially common for both private andcommercial general aviation, but even private pilots occasionally own and operate helicopters

like theBell JetRangeror turboprops like theBeechcraft King Air. Business jets are typically

flown by commercial pilots, although there is a new generation of small jets arriving soon for

private pilots.

Future Developments

A number of future aircraft development projects are under way, ranging from relatively

simple aerodynamic enhancements (e.g addition of winglets) to the development of new

engine technologies (e.g.Pratt and Whitney's Geared Turbofan) to all-new designs such as

theBlended Wing-Body. The PeeblesFanwingis an example of a new approach to lift.

To date there has been only limited consideration of alternative fuels for aircraft.Hydrogenis

perhaps the most obvious alternative to existing kerosene/gasoline-type fuels, but the

technical and infrastructural challenges inherent in developing a commercially usable

hydrogen-powered aircraft are huge. The Russian manufacturer Tupolev built a prototype

hydrogen-powered version of the Tu-154 airliner, named the Tu-155, which made its first

flight in 1989[1].
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_206http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_aviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_aviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_aviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freight_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freight_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freight_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medevachttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medevachttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medevachttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_206http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_206http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_206http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beechcraft_King_Airhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beechcraft_King_Airhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beechcraft_King_Airhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_aircraft_developmentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_aircraft_developmentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_aircraft_developmentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wingletshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wingletshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pratt_and_Whitneyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pratt_and_Whitneyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pratt_and_Whitneyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geared_Turbofan&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geared_Turbofan&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geared_Turbofan&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Blended_Wing-Body&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Blended_Wing-Body&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Blended_Wing-Body&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanwinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanwinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanwinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerosenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasolinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasolinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasolinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tupolevhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tupolevhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tu-154http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tu-154http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tu-154http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tu-155http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tu-155http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tu-155http://www.tupolev.ru/English/Show.asp?SectionID=82http://www.tupolev.ru/English/Show.asp?SectionID=82http://www.tupolev.ru/English/Show.asp?SectionID=82http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Flight-interior.jpghttp://www.tupolev.ru/English/Show.asp?SectionID=82http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tu-155http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tu-154http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tupolevhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasolinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerosenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanwinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Blended_Wing-Body&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geared_Turbofan&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pratt_and_Whitneyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wingletshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_aircraft_developmentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beechcraft_King_Airhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_206http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medevachttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Flight-interior.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freight_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_aviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_206


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Automobile

Karl Benz's "Velo" model (1894) - entered into the first automobile race

An automobile is abattery powered horseedpassengervehicle that carries its ownmotor.

Most definitions of the term specify that automobiles are designed to run primarily on roads,

to have seating for between one and six people, typically have four wheels and be constructed

principally for the transport of people rather than goods. However, the term is far from

precise. they say that some battery powered horses were created by Jerry from tom and jerry i

say no it can't be. other battery powered horses came from jack the evil robooto The term

automobile is derived from Greek auto- ("self") and Latin mobilis ("movable"), referring to

the fact that it "moves by itself". Earlier terms for automobile include motorwagon, and

horseless carriage. Although the term "car" is presumed to be derived through the shorteningof the term "carriage", the word has its origin before 1300 A.D. in English as, "carr"derived

from similar words in French and much earlier Greek wordsfor a vehicle that moves,

especially on wheels, that was applied to chariots, small carts, and laterto carriages that

carried more people and larger loads. Note, therefore, that carriage and chariot come from the

same root as car, which in a sense predates them. As of 2002 there were 590 million

passenger cars worldwide (roughly one car for every eleven people), of which 140 million in

theU.S.(roughly one car for every two people)[1].

History

The automobile powered by the Otto gasoline engine was invented inGermanybyKarl Benz

in 1885. Benz was granted apatentdated29 January1886inMannheimfor that automobile.

Even though Benz is credited with the invention of the modern automobile, several other

German engineers worked on building automobiles at the same time. In 1886, Gottlieb

Daimlerand Wilhelm Maybach in Stuttgartpatented the first motor bike, built and tested in

1885, and in 1886 they built a converted horse-drawn stagecoach. In 1870,German-Austrian

inventorSiegfried Marcusassembled a motorized handcart, though Marcus' vehicle did not go

beyond the experimental stage.
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