人口問題研究（J.ofPopulationProblems）70－3（2014.9）pp.207～223

特集：第18回厚生政策セミナー

「国際人口移動の新たな局面～『日本モデル』の構築に向けて」

SomeImplicationsofRecentGlobalInternationalMigration

forJapan:AnAustralianPerspective

GraemeHUGO＊

INTRODUCTION

OverthepostwarperiodJapanandAustraliahaverepresentedpolaroppositesintheirpolicies

towardinternationalmigration,althoughbothhaveexperiencedcontinuedeconomicgrowthanda

demographictransitiontolow fertilityandageingpopulations.Japanhaslargelyeschewed

internationalmigrationdespitedevelopingstronginternationaleconomicandpoliticallinkages,an

ageingandshrinkingpopulation,substantialshortagesoflowskilledworkersandapressingneed

tobenefitfromtheincreasingscaleandcomplexityofinternationalmigrationofskilledworkers.

Australia,ontheotherhand,hasbecomeaquintessentialimmigrationsociety.Halfofits

populationisafirstorgenerationmigrant.OpinionpollsshowthatAustralia(alongwithCanada)

isaloneamongOECDcountriesinconsistentlyhavingamajorityofthepopulationbeinginfavour

ofmigration.

Itisarguedinthispaperthatinternationalmigrationisincreasinganessentialstructuralelement

intheglobaleconomyandthateffectiveparticipationinthateconomyrequiressomeengagement

inmigration.WhileAustraliahasatotallydifferentculturalandhistoricalcontext,therearesome

―207―

AustraliaunlikeJapanisaquintessentialimmigrationnationwithahalfofitspopulationbeinga

permanentortemporarymigrantortheirAustralia-bornchildren.Thereisstrongpublicsupportofthe

positivedimensionsofinternationalmigrationandAustraliahasbecomeamulticulturalsocietywithover60

birthplacegroupswithmorethan10,000residentsinAustralia.Yetatthebeginningofthepostwarperiod

AustraliawasinsomewayssimilartocontemporaryJapanwithrespecttomigration.Lessthanoneinten

Australianswereoverseasbornandover97percentwereofanglo-celticethnicity.Australiawas

monoculturalandstronglyopposedtoincreasingethnicdiversity.Yetoverthenextsixdecadesthiswas

transformed.WithpostwarmigrationAustralia'spopulationwouldcurrentlybe12millionalmost10million

lessthantheactualpopulationbutmoreimportantlyithasincreasedgreatlyindiversity.Thismassivechange

wasachievedlargelywithoutconflict,amaintenanceofsocialcohesionandhugeimprovementsin

prosperity.ThepaperdiscussessomeofthelessonsfromtheAustralianexperiencewhichcountrieswhoare

contemplatingincreasingmigrationlikeJapancouldconsider.

*TheAustralianPopulationandMigrationResearchCentre,TheUniversityofAdelaide

lessonswhichcanbedrawnfromtheAustralianexperiencewhichmaybeusefulforJapanasthey

faceafutureinwhichthesizeofthenationalpopulationwillcontinuetofallandtheworkforce

age.Attheoutset,however,itisnecessarytooutlinesomeofthekeyrecentdevelopmentsinglobal

internationalmigration,especiallyastheyimpingeontheAsianregion.

I.GLOBALTRENDSININTERNATIONALMIGRATION

In2013theUnitedNationsestimatedthat232millionpeople(3.2percentoftheglobal

population)livedoutsidetheircountryofbirth.Ofthese,13.9percentwereinAsiancountries

while29.8percenthadmovedoutofanAsiannation.ThiscomparestoAsiabeingcurrentlyhome

to55.7percentoftheglobalpopulation.TheUnitedNations'analysisfurtheridentifiedtheAsian

regionashavingsomeofthefastestgrowinginternationalmigrantpopulationsofanyworldregion

(Figure1).Between2000and2013thenumberofimmigrantsinASEANnations,forexample,

increasedbyalmost80percent!Anotherimportantfeatureisthatmuchofthemigrationisdrawn

fromwithintheregion.AWorldBankanalysis(Rathaetal.,2013,13)depictedinFigure2found

thatwhilethenumberofpeopleidentifiedasemigrantsfromEastAsiaandthePacificincreased

by60percentbetween2000and2013toreach35million,theproportionofthemmovingwithin

theregionincreasedfrom46to48percent.However,asFigure2indicates,theshareofthose

emigrantswhomovedtoEastAsiannationsdecreasedfrom41to37percent,suggestingthatEast

Asiancountriesarenottakingadvantageofimmigrationtoboosttheirhumancapitalasmuchas

ASEANnations.InpassingwenotethattheproportionmovingtoAustraliaincreasedfrom15.7

―208―

Figure1:TheNumberofInternationalMigrants:AbsoluteChangeandPercentage

ChangeBetween2000and2013,byRegion

-202468

10121416

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Source:UnpublisheddatasuppliedbyUnitedNations

percentto16.5percent.Thepointisclearthen;theAsianregionisbothanincreasinglyimportant

destinationandanoriginofinternationalmigrantsinthecontemporaryworldbutthatthis

dynamismisespeciallystrongonSoutheastAsia.

Table1showsthenumberofpersonsborninAsiancountrieslivingoutsidetheircountryofbirth

in2000and2013dividedbetweenthosethatmovedwithinAsiaandthosesettlingoutsideAsia.

ItisinterestinginTable1thatwhilethenumberofintra-Asiaimmigrantsincreasedbetween2000

and2013by25percent,thenumberofAsiansmovingtootherpartsoftheworldincreasedby77.8

percent.ThiswasdespitethisperiodbeingofrapideconomicdevelopmentinAsiaandreflects,to

someextent,thereluctanceofseveralAsiancountriestoembracemigrationasanimportant

structuralelementindevelopment(Castles,2003).

II.AUSTRALIANINTERNATIONALMIGRATIONFROMAJAPANPERSPECTIVE

Australia,locatedontheedgeofAsia,canbedescribedasaquintessentiallyimmigrationnation

andhencetheantithesesofseveralEastAsiannations.Table2showsmorethanhalfofthe

―209―

Figure2:NumbersofPeopleMovingWithintheEastAsia-PacificRegion

AccordingtoDestination,2000and2013

18

42%

41%

15.7%

2000 2013

45%

37%

16.5%

Others

East Asia

Australia

Southeast Asia

Others

East Asia

Australia

Southeast Asia

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

MIL

LIO

N

Source:Rathaetal.,2013,13

Table1:Asia:ImmigrantsbyOrigin,2000and2013

WithinAsia OutsideAsia

2000 23,087,762 22,643,777

2013 28,830,702 40,263,673

PercentChange 24.87 77.81

Source:UnitedNations,2013

Australianpopulationatanyonetimeareeitheranimmigrant,achildofanimmigrantora

temporaryresident.Immigrationcurrentlyaccountsfor59.5percentofnationalpopulationgrowth

andasFigure3showsthereisalonghistoryofnetmigrationgainscontributingtopopulation

growth.Moreover,likeJapan,Australiafacesageingofitspopulationsothatmigrationisseenas

playinganevenmoreimportantroleinthefutureasisenvisagedintheDepartmentofTreasury's

IntergenerationalReports(Costello,2002,2004;DepartmentofTreasury,2007;Swan,2010).

―210―

Table2:Australia:ACountryofImmigration

● 27percentbornoverseasin2011

● 20percentAustralia-bornwithanoverseas-bornparent(s)in2011

● 1,142,560personstemporarilypresentat31March2014

● WithoutpostwarmigrationtheAustralianpopulationwouldbelessthan13millioncomparedwith23.3millionin2013

Source:ABS2011Census;DIBP,2014

Figure3:Australia:NaturalIncreaseandNetMigration,1860-2013

500

1860 1870 1880 1890 201319401910 1920 1930 19901960 1970 19801900 1950 2000

Net Migration

Natural Increase

400

300

200

100

0

-100

POPU

LATI

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(’00

0)

Source:ABS;Borrie,1994

AnimportantimpactofimmigrationinAustraliahasbeenitsimpactontheculturaldiversityof

itspopulation.Table3showsthatatthe2011PopulationCensus,almostafifthofAustralian

householdsspokealanguageotherthanEnglishathome,while28.7percentindicatedthatthey

wereofnon-AngloCelticancestry.

Australiaisoneoftheworld'snationsmostinfluencedbymigrationandwithoneofthemost

diversepopulations.AsJapandiscussesthewholeissueofwhetheritembracesmigrationtoassist

innationaleconomicdevelopmentandoffsettingtheeffectsofageing,itisinterestingtolookat

thesituationinAustraliaagenerationago.In1947,attheendofWorldWarII,Australia's

migrationsituationwasnothinglikethatdescribedabove.Table4indicatesthatonly9.8percent

ofAustralianswereforeign-bornandofthose,7.9percentwereborninanEnglish-speakingnation.

Moreover,ofthe1.9percentborninmorediversecontexts,almostallwerefromSouthernand

EasternEuropeorwereEuropeansborntocontinentalparentsinAsiannations.HenceinAustralia

lessthanatenthofthepopulationweremigrantsandthesocietywasoverwhelmingly

monocultural,dominatedbypeopleofAngloCelticheritage.Themainelementofdiversitywasthe

51,048Aboriginalpopulation・0.67percentofthetotal.

―211―

Table3:IndicatorsofAustralianDiversity,2011

Indicator Percent

Bornoverseas 26.1

BornoverseasinCALDcountry 16.6

Australia-bornwithanoverseas-bornparent 18.8

SpeakslanguageotherthanEnglishathome 19.2

Ancestry(multiresponse)inaCALDcountry 28.7

Ancestry(multiresponse)inanAsiancountry 9.9

Non-Christianreligion 22.3

Indigenouspopulation 2.6

No.ofbirthplacegroupswith10,000+ 67

No.ofbirthplacegroupswith1,000+ 133

No.ofindigenouspersons 548,369

Source:ABS2011Census

Table4:Australia'sPopulationin1947

Birthplace Number Percent

Australia 6,835,171 90.2

Overseas 744,187 9.8

BorninUK,Ireland,Canada,SouthAfrica,NewZealandandUSA

601,036 7.9

OtherBirthplace 143,151 1.9

Total 7,579,358 100.0

Source:AustralianCensusof1947

AsJapandiscussesinternallythepotentialimpactsofincreasedimmigration,itcouldbeuseful

toexamineAustralia'spostwarinternationalmigrationhistory.Australia'simmigrationsituationin

1947wasnottoodifferenttothecontemporaryJapanesesituation,bothwithrespecttotherelative

significanceofmigrantsinthepopulationandintermsofthestrongculturalhomogeneity.The

latterissueappearstodominatemuchofthepolicyandpublicdiscussiononfutureinternational

migrationinJapananditisrelevantthatthisissuewasequallyprominentintheimmediatepostwar

yearsasAustraliaalsowascontemplatingasignificantincreaseininternationalmigration(Jupp,

2002;Borrie,1994;Price,1979).

ThesituationinAustraliain1947hassomeparallelswithcontemporaryJapan.Firstly,therewas

ahighlevelofconcernoftheneedforpopulationgrowth.Thesloganof'populateorperish'

dominatedthediscourseofpolicymakersandthecommunitymoregenerally(Jupp,2002,10).

Secondly,therewasanoverwhelmingconcernformaintenanceofa'BritishAustralia'.Itwasonly

afterextendedpublicdiscussionandanever-worseningshortageofworkerswhichthreatenedto

stallAustralia'srapidpostwareconomicgrowththattherewasanyrelentingonthisissueandthen

itwasextremelylimitedandhedgedwithconditions.TherestrictionofAustralianimmigrationto

peoplefromEnglish-speakingnations,especiallythosewhowereBritish,changedtentativelyin

1949.InthatyearAustralia,forthefirsttime,providedassistedpassagetonon-Britishmigrants.

Some170,000DisplacedPersonswhofledtheircountries(Poland,theBalticcountries,Hungary)

duringtheNaziorsubsequentRussianinvasionandwerehousedincampsinEuropeweresettled

inAustralia.However,theyhadtosignanagreementtoworkinajobandplacedesignatedbythe

Governmentforatleastthefirsttwoyears.Theexperienceofthe'DPs'wasclearlywatchedand

itwasfoundthatnotonlyweretherenoclashes,abreakdowninsocialcohesionorathreatofany

kindtoAustraliansocietybuttheymadeimportantandsignificanteconomiccontributions.

Infact,theDPsgavethegovernmentconfidencetoseekimmigrantsfromelsewhereinEurope

tohelpfillthecontinuinglabourmarketshortagesduringtheAustralian'longboom'ofthe1950s

and1960swhenmanufacturingurbanbasedemploymentexpandedrapidly.Figure4showshow,

witheachpostwardecade,thebackgroundofimmigrantstoAustraliabecamemorediverse.Inthe

1950stheNetherlands,Germany,Italy,Greece,MaltaandtheformerYugoslaviaallbecame

significantoriginsofimmigrants.However,the'WhiteAustralia'Policystillverylargelyprevailed,

althoughthe'BritishAustralia'restrictionshadbeenexpandedtobea'CaucasianorWhite

Australia'.TheWhiteAustraliaPolicy,infact,haditsoriginsintheveryearliestdaysofAustralian

federationin1901whentheImmigrationRestrictionActwasoneofthefirstactionsofthenew

nationalgovernment.Thisremainedintactuntil1958whenitwasreplacedbyanewMigrationAct

(Jupp,2002,8).

ThewideningofthespectrumofcountriesfromwhichAustraliadrewsettlerscontinuedinto

TurkeyandtheMiddleEastinthelate1960sandintheearly1970stheWhiteAustraliaPolicywas

finallydismantledaltogether.Infact,therehadbeengradualmodificationsmadethroughoutthe

―212―

postwarperiodanditsfinalabolitiondidnotleadtoanimmediatechange.Infact,manyaspects

of'BritishAustralia'influencedmigrationwithassistedpassagebeingrestrictedtosettlersfromthe

UKandBritishcitizensbeingaccordedfullcitizenshiprightsuponarrival.However,Figure4

indicatesthattheUKremainedtheoriginofalmosthalfofimmigrantsuptothe1970s.However,

thediagramalsoshowsthestepbystep,gradualincreaseindiversityoftheintake.Substantial

immigrationfromAsiabeganwiththeinflowofrefugeesfromVietnamand,toalesserextent,

CambodiaandLaosinthelate1970sand1980s.TheywerejoinedbymigrantsfromSoutheast

Asia・Singapore,Malaysia,Thailand,IndonesiaandthePhilippines,andtheninthe1990sand

2000sChinaandIndiabecamemajororiginsofpermanentmigrants.Anotherimportantstepin

increaseddiversitywastheinfluxofmainlyrefugeesbutalsoincludingsomehighlyskilledgroups

likedoctorsfromSubSaharanAfrica.TherewasalonghistoryofAfricanmigrationbuthitherto

itwasalmosttotallywhiteSouthAfricans.By2001oneintenAustralianswereofAsianancestry,

whereasin1947itwouldhavebeenafractionofasinglepercent.

FromaJapanperspective,thereareanumberofinterestingfeaturesofthistransformationwithin

thelifetimeofthepresentwriter:

―213―

Figure4:Australia:SettlerArrivalsbyRegionofLastResidence,1947-96andPermanent

AdditionsbyRegionofBirth,1997-2013

0

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UK and Ireland Other Europe Africa Americas NZ and Pacific Middle East Asia

*July 1945 to June 1947Note: Middle East includes North Africa from 1996-97.

Source:DIBPdata

● Itwasachievedbyandlargewithoutanyviolence.Therehavebeenisolatedincidentsandit

remainsacontestedarea,butthereisnoevidenceofawidespreadbreakdowninsocial

cohesion,andviolentincidentshavebeenlimited.

● Therewasno'destruction','swamping'or'crowdingout'ofAustralia'sBritishheritage.As

Jupp(2002,5)putsit:

'(AlthoughAustralia)iscertainlymuchmoremulticulturalthanitwasfiftyyearsago…

itisstillamuchmore"British"societythaneitherCanadaortheUnitedStates'.

● Thegovernmenthasmaintainedahighlevelofcontroloverthenumberandcompositionof

themigrantintakeusinganadministrativesystem,notdissimilartothatemployedinJapan.

Indeed,muchofthepositiveattitudesofAustraliansaboutthemigrationarebasedona

confidencethattheimmigrationiscontrolled.

● MigrationhasbeenandremainsoneofthemostcontestedareasofAustralianpublicpolicy

buttherehavealsobeenlongperiodswhentherehasbeentotalbipartisanshipbetweenthetwo

sidesofpoliticsinthenation.

III.SOMEPOTENTIALLESSONSFROMTHEAUSTRALIANEXPERIENCE

Everynationhasthesovereignrighttodevelopitsownpoliciesoninternationalmigrationwhich

bestmeettheirowneconomicneeds,culturalmaintenanceanddevelopmentandinternational

obligations.Moreovereachcountryhasitsownuniquesetofcultural,geographical,economicand

socialcircumstanceswhichmustshapemigrationpolicy.Nevertheless,thisisanareawhere

countriescanlearnfromeachother,notonlyintermsofadoptingbestpracticebutavoidingthe

manyandvariedpitfallsthatcanbeassociatedwithinternationalmigration.Thereis,however,a

fairlygeneralconsensusthat(Jupp,2002,2)'Australianimmigrationandmulticulturalpolicyhas

beenasuccess',despitethefactthatitremainsamuchcontestedareawithinAustralia.Moreover,

aswaspointedoutearlier,thereareatleasttwoparallelsinthecontemporaryinternational

migrationdiscourseinJapanandthatinAustraliaatthecloseofWorldWarII.Whataresomeof

thedimensionsofAustralianpostWorldWarIIinternationalmigrationwhichmayhavesome

resonanceshouldJapanchoosetoopenitselfmoretointernationalmigration?

ThefirstlessonrelatestothehighlycontrolledandplannednatureofAustralianmigration.This

hasbeengreatlyfacilitatedbyAustralia'sislandgeographyanditsgeographicalisolationwhichhas

madebordercontrolmorefeasible,especiallyduringthemoderneraofelectronicsurveillanceof

borders.YetJapantoohasanislandgeographyandinmanywaysalreadyexercisesahighlevel

ofcontrolofwhocomesintothenation.However,Australiahasclearlytiedthemigrationprogram

anditscontroltotheeconomicplanningneedsofthenationandintegratedmigrationintoits

economicplanning.Indeedoverthelasttwodecadestheprogramhasbecomeevenmoretightly

focusedinthisway.

―214―

Sincethe1970sAustraliahasidentifiedfourchannelsunderwhichforeignerscanapplytosettle

inAustralia:

(a)Skilledworkers・groupswithtrainingorskillsinshortageintheAustralianlabourmarket.

(b)Familymigrantswhowererelatedtoearliergenerationsofmigrants.

(c)Refugee-humanitarianmigrantswhowererecognisedundertheUNHCR1952Convention.

(d)Others,mainlyNewZealanderswhohavemoreorlessfreeaccesstosettleinAustraliaunder

aspeciallynegotiatedTransTasmanAgreement.

Foreachgroup,exceptNewZealandersthegovernmentsetsaplanninglevelafterconsultation

withstakeholderssuchasstategovernments,employers,unionsandcommunityorganisations.As

Table5indicates,suchisthehighdegreeofclosemanagementofAustralianmigrationthereis

almostanexactcorrespondencebetweentheplanninglevelsandtheactualoutcomesofthe

numbersofsettlersineachcategory.

Themigrationprogramisincreasinglydominatedbythe'skill'partasmigrationhasbecome

morecloselyintegratedwitheconomicplanning.AcentralpartoftheskillprogramisaPoints

AssessmentTestwherebyintendingsettlersareassignedpointsassociatedwitheducation/training,

workexperience,age,Englishlanguageabilityandotherlabourmarketattributes.Amoving

cut-offlevelisrecognisedabovewhichsettlersareaccepted.Similarly,thefamilymigrationstream

hasvariedovertimeinthenatureoftherelationshiptotheAustralian-basedfamilymemberwhich

wouldenableentrancetoAustralia.Whiletherehavebeenmanymodificationsovertheyearsto

thewayinwhicheachofthefourstreamshasoperated,itstillformsthebasisoftheAustralian

permanentsettlementsystem.

Figure5showshowthemigrationhasbecomeincreasinglyfocusedonskillwiththepercentage

ofallsettlersinthiscategoryincreasingfrom29.1percentin1993-94to69.6percentin2005-06.

Increasingemployershavebeenbroughtintotheselectionprocesswithprioritybeinggivento

applicantswhoalreadyhaveajobinAustralia.

ArelatedaspectofthesuccessoftheAustralianmigrationprogramisthestrongtraditionof

evidence-drivenpolicy.Australia'sprogramsandpoliciesareconstantlybeingfine-tunedin

―215―

Table5:Australia:PlannedLevelsandOutcomesofDifferentMigrationSettler

VisaCategories,2011-13

2011-12 2012-13

PlanningLevel Outcome PlanningLevel Outcome

Family 58,600 58,604 60,185 60,185

Skill 125,750 125,755 128,950 128,973

Special 650 639 845 842

Total 185,000 184,998 190,000 190,000

Humanitarian 13,750 13,759 20,000 20,019

Source:DIBP

responsetochangesintheglobal,regionalandnationaleconomybutalsoresearchfindings.One

exampleofthisisincreasedresearchintotheeconomicimpactofmigration.Table6,forexample,

presentstheresultsofmodellingdonefortheAustraliangovernmentofthefiscalimpactofvarious

categoriesofimmigrantsoveratwentyyearperiod.Thisshowsthatthefiscalcontributionof

immigrantsincreasesovertimeandthatitisgreaterforskilledmigrantsthanothercategories.

Anotherelementisthestronginstitutionalstructuresupportingthedevelopmentandmanage-

mentofthemigrationprogram.Formostofthepostwarperiodtherehasbeenaseparateministry

(andaplaceinthecabinet)andfederalgovernmentdepartmentdevotedtomigrationand

settlement.Inaddition,ithasdevelopedacadreofmigrationprofessionalswhoareresponsiblefor

thedevelopmentofmigrationpolicyanditsoperationalisationaswellastheinstrumentstosupport

them.Ithasarguablythemostcompletecollectionofstockandflowstatisticsonmigrationinto

andoutofthecountry(Hugo,2004a)andusesthistohaveastrongtraditionofevidence-driven

policy.Therehasalsobeenareadinessofgovernment,bothconservativeandmoreliberal,to

modifypolicyinresponsetoexternalandinternaldevelopments.

OneofthefeaturesofAustralianinternationalmigrationpolicyinthepostwarperiodwhich

undoubtedlyhascontributedtoitsrelativesuccessisthatwhilethereweredramaticshiftsthey

wereintroducedgradually.ThedoyenofimmigrationresearchinAustralia,ProfessorCharlesPrice

―216―

Figure5:Australia:MigrationProgramOutcomebyStreamandNon-Program

Migration,1976-7to2012-13

0

20,000

40,000

60,000

80,000

100,000

120,000

140,00019

76-7

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Family Skill Special Eligibility Other/New Zealand Citizens Humanitarian

Source:DIAC,PopulationFlows:ImmigrationAspects,variousissues;DIAC,ImmigrationUpdate,variousissues;DIAC,2012and2013

characterisedAustralianpostwarimmi-

grationasbeingsimilartoapython

feeding・eachnewgroupofmigrants

wereintroducedandthenallowedto

digestandadjustbeforeanewgroupwas

introduced.ThusFigure4demonstrated

howthepreviouslyalmosttotallyBritish

intakewasfirstextendedtoDisplaced

PersonsfromEasternEurope,thenother

WesternEuropeandSouthernEuropean

origins,thentotheMiddleEast,thento

AsiaandfinallySubSaharanAfrica.This

tookplaceoversixdecades.

Therehasbeenastrongpolicyof'tak-

ing thecommunity with'government

decisionsbyeachnewphasebeinggiven

timetogainacceptance.Accordingly,as

inCanada,therehasbeenagenerallyhighacceptanceoftheoverallpositiveimpactsofmigration

comparedwithotherEuropeannationsasisshowninTable7.Arecentstudyof6,088South

Australiansinmetropolitanandruralareasfound87.7percentbelievedculturaldiversitywasa

―217―

Table6:Migrant'sNetImpactontheAustralianGovernmentBudgetbyVisa

Category,2010-11(A$million)

VisacategoryVisagrantsin2010-11

Netfiscalimpact(A$milliom)

PeriodofsettlementinAustralia(years)

1 2 3 10 20

FamilyStream

Parent 8499 -7.7 -5.6 -6.0 -7.7 -9.4

Partnerandother 46044 -16.8 76.9 48.2 244.1 242.3

FamilyStreamtotal 54543 212.3 60.0 43.0 200.9 146.4

SkillStream

SkilledIndependent 36167 163.0 223.3 283.7 384.2 439.5

SkilledAustralianSponsored 9117 5.4 12.2 13.0 17.3 21.1

State/TerritorySponsored 16175 68.3 80.2 86.6 104.7 138.1

BusinessSkills 7796 44.9 44.3 46.2 33.2 24.1

EmployerSponsored 44345 465.9 478.8 485.7 493.3 530.8

SkillStreamtotal 113725 747.4 838.7 915.1 1032.8 1153.6

HumanitarianStream 13799 -247.3 -69.4 -62.0 -12.3 48.4

Totalfiscalimpactofperma-nentmigration

182067 712.4 829.2 896.1 1221.4 1348.5

BusinessLongStayvisa 90120 889.3 954.5 383.1 441.0 585.9

Source:DIAC,2012,110

Table7:SelectedNations:PercentofPopulationThat

BelievesImmigrationHasaNegativeImpact

onTheirCountry,2011

Country %

Belgium 72

SouthAfrica 70

Russia 69

GreatBritain 64

Turkey 57

UnitedStates 56

Italy 56

Spain 56

India 43

Canada 39

SaudiArabia 38

Sweden 37

Australia 31

Brazil 30

Indonesia 30

Source:IpsosMORIGlobalAdvisorSurvey,June2011

positiveinfluenceonthecommunity(GovernmentofSouthAustralia,2008).Clearlyakeyelement

inthetransformationfrom'WhiteAustralia'to'MulticulturalAustralia'wasthefactthatthe

changesweremadeinstepsratherthanmakingasudden180degreechangeinpolicy.The

transformationwasachievedinanumberofincrementalstepsratherthanasingleshift.Inmaking

thesechangesthegovernmenttendedtotakethecommunityalongwiththemsincecommunity

attitudeswerechangingalsoaseducationlevelsincreased,thebenefitsofmulticulturalmigration

becamemanifestinAustralia'ssocietyandeconomyandmoreAustralianshaddirectinteraction

withpeoplefromdifferentculturalbackgrounds.

AnotherfeatureofpostwarAustralianimmigrationpolicywhichhascontributedtoitssuccess

isitsflexibility.Thereareover200visaclassesandsubclassesbywhichapersonmayenter

Australiaandtheseareconstantlychanginginresponsetoglobalandnationalevents,processesand

forces.Agoodexampleofthisflexibilitywastheintroductionofanumberofavenuesfor

temporarymigration.WhereasinthefirstfivepostwardecadesAustralianimmigrationpolicywas

focusedalmostexclusivelyonattractingpermanentsettlersandtherewasstrongbipartisan

oppositiontotemporaryandcontractworkerprograms.However,increasinglysettlementmigration

wasperceivedbyemployersastooslowandinflexibleatooltocompeteeffectivelyinglobalhigh

skilllabourmarkets.Accordingly,in1997the457TemporaryBusinessEntryVisawasintroduced.

ItissimilartotheHIBvisaintheUnitedStates,isinitiatedbyemployersandisnotcappedand

isevenmorefocusedonskillthanthepermanentmigrationprogram.Researchhasshownithas

beengenerallyquitesuccessful(Khoo,Voight-Graf,McDonaldandHugo,2007).However,the

457programhascomeunderintensescrutinyinrecenttimeswithsomeemployersbeingaccused

ofmisusingtheschemetodisplaceAustralianworkers,especiallyinsomeregionalareas.The

unionmovement(AustralianManufacturingWorkersUnion,2006)hasraisedissuesofmigrant

workersbeingreadytosettleforlowerwagesaswellasoccupationalhealthandsafetyissues

coveredbylackofabilitytospeakEnglish.AParliamentaryInquiry(JointStandingCommitteeon

Migration,2007,2)madeanumberofrecommendationstoimproveproceduresassociatedwiththe

program.Nevertheless,Figure6showsthatthenumberofnew457scontinuedtoincreaserapidly

sothatin2007-08,61,390newapplicationswerelodgedandinmid2008therewere134,238457s

workinginAustralia.TheonsetoftheGlobalFinancialCrisissawthenumberofnewapplications

fallto54,810in2008-09buttheyhavesubsequentlyrecoveredtorealrecordnumbersin2013.

AnotherelementofsuccessintheAustralianimmigrationprogram relatestopolitical

engagement.Australiahasthreetiersofgovernment・national,state/territory(ofwhichthereare

8)andlocal(667).SinceFederationin1901Australianimmigrationandsettlementpolicyand

programshavebeenlargelytheresponsibilityofthenationalgovernment.UnderSection5.51

(xxvii)oftheAustralianConstitutionitisempoweredtolegislateforimmigration.Priorto

Federation,states(thenseparatecolonies)organisedimmigrationcontrol,assistedpassagesand

settlementservicesandcontinuedtodoso(incooperationwiththeCommonwealth)andtheend

―218―

ofWorldWar1whenthenationalgovernmenttookfullcontrolofimmigrationandsettlement

(Jupp,2002,67-68).

Thebroadoutlinesofpopulationpolicyaresetbytheelectednationalgovernment.Eachmajor

politicalpartyinAustraliahasapolicystatementrelatingtolevels,typesandcompositionof

internationalmigration.Thisformspartoftheplatformpresentedbythepartiesbeforeeach

nationalelection.Forthepartywhichwinsgovernmentthispolicystatementprovidesthebroad

objectivesoftheimmigrationprogram overthenextthreeyearsaswellaslongerterm

considerations.Infacttherehasbeenlittledifferenceinthepoliciesofthemajorpartiesformuch

ofthepost-warperiodalthoughinrecentyearsapproachestowardasylumseekershavesome

significantdifferences.Ingeneral,however,manyaspectsofpost-warimmigrationpolicyin

Australiahavehadbipartisanapproval.

Moreover,whilepoliticalpowerinimmigrationresideswiththenationalgovernment,itis

recognisedthattheothertiersofgovernmentalsohaveamajorstakeintheprocess,especiallythe

settlementdimensions.Accordinglythereareeffortstoengagewithstatesandterritories,andtoa

lesserextent,localgovernment.Thereareanumberofwaysinwhichthishasbeenachievedand

moststatesnowhavestategovernmentofficesofimmigrationandofmulticulturalism.Aparticular

development,however,hasbeentheStateSpecificandRegionalMigrationSchemes(SSRM)

―219―

Figure6:Australia:TemporaryMigration,1986-87to2012-13

0

50,000

100,000

150,000

200,000

250,000

1986

-87

1987

-88

1988

-89

1989

-90

1990

-91

1991

-92

1992

-93

1993

-94

1994

-95

1995

-96

1996

-97

1997

-98

1998

-99

1999

-200

020

00-0

120

01-0

220

02-0

320

03-0

420

04-0

520

05-0

620

06-0

720

07-0

820

08-0

920

09-1

020

10-1

120

11-1

220

12-1

3

Num

ber o

f Vis

as G

rant

ed

Year

Overseas Students Working Holiday Makers 457s

Source:DIAC,PopulationFlows:ImmigrationAspects,variousissues;DIAC,AnnualReport,variousissues

whichnowaccountedforaroundafifthofallskilledmigrants.Thisprogramfacilitatesemployers,

stateandlocalgovernmentsandfamiliesindesignatedlaggingeconomicregionstosponsor

immigrantswithouttheimmigrantshavingtofullymeetthestringentrequirementsofthe

AustralianPointsAssessmentScheme.Thereareanarrayofvisacategoriesavailableunderthe

scheme(Hugo,2008).

TheimpactoftheprogramisevidentinFigure7whichshowsthedifferentmixesofSSRMand

otherimmigrantsineachstateandterritoryin2010-11.ThestateofSouthAustralia,forexample,

hasbeenlaggingeconomicallyfordecadesandhasbeenespeciallyactiveintheSSRMprogram

(Hugo,2008).OntheotherhandNewSouthWales,themajordestinationofinternationalmigrants,

hasveryfewSSRMmigrants.IndeedtheoverallproportionofmigrantssettlinginNewSouth

Waleshasdeclinedundertheimpactoftheprogram.

―220―

Figure7:Australia:PermanentAdditionsbyStateAccordingtoWhethertheyareState

SpecificandRegionalMigrationSchemeMigrantsorOtherMigrants,2010-11

45 000

30 000

15 000

1000Other

NUMBER OF MIGRANTS

WA

SA

unknown

53,204

65,735

Tas.

ACT

NSW

Vic.

NT

Qld

SSRM

Source:DIAC,unpublisheddata

AfinalelementtobeconsideredinthesuccessofpostwarmigrationinAustraliarelatestoissues

ofsocialcohesion.Debateaboutissuesofsocialcohesionandtheadjustmentofimmigrantshave

waxedandwanedinAustralia.Awatershedinsettlementpolicywasthereleasein1978ofthe

GalballyReportonMigrantServicesandPrograms'.Thisadvocatedashiftingovernment

settlementpolicyfromthe'meltingpot'assimilationemphasiswhichprevailedinthefirstthree

postwardecadestowardmulticulturalism.Theyadvocatedthedevelopmentofethnicspecific

welfareandethnicmediaservicesandculturalandlanguagemaintenanceamongimmigrant

groups.ThereportprovidedthefoundationforAustralia'ssettlementpolicyoverthesucceeding

decades.Itdevelopedasetofguidingprinciplesthatarestillrelevantalthoughgovernmentand

communitysupportofmulticulturalismasapolicyhasfluctuatedoverthesucceedingyears(Jupp,

2002,87).

● Allmembersofsocietymusthaveanequalopportunitytorealisetheirfullpotentialandmust

haveequalaccesstoprogramsandservices.

● Everypersonshouldbeabletomaintaintheirculturewithoutprejudiceordisadvantageand

shouldbeencouragedtounderstandandembraceothercultures.

● Needsofmigrantsshouldingeneralbemetbyprogramsandservicesavailabletothewhole

communitybutspecialservicesandprogramsarenecessaryatpresenttoensureequalityof

accessandprovision.

● Servicesandprogramsshouldbedesignedandoperatedinfullconsultationwithclientsand

self-helpshouldbeencouragedasmuchaspossiblewithaviewtohelpingmigrantstobecome

self-reliantquickly.

MulticulturalisminAustraliahastakenadistinctiveform(Jupp,2002;JuppandClyne,2011)

focusingmoreonserviceprovisionthansettlementandlanguagemaintenance.

Asinotherpartsoftheworld,multiculturalismcameunderattackinAustraliaduringthelast

twodecades,especiallyduringtheconservativegovernmentofPrimeMinisterJohnHoward

(1996-2007).JuppandClyne(2011,xvi-xvii)arguethatthecontestationofmulticulturalism

derivedfrom:

● ThecollisionbetweenliberaldemocracyandIslamicfundamentalism.

● Resistancetocontinuing,increasinglyandfrequentlyuncontrolledimmigrationfrompoorer

countries.

● EconomicandsocialproblemssuchastheGlobalFinancialCrisis.

● Povertyanddislocationinsomeareasofconcentrationofmigrants.

● PerceptionsthatthedistinctcivilisationsandculturesbuiltuponaEuropeanbasisarelosing

theirpre-eminence.

● Rapidlychangingsocialstructuresandbeliefsystemswhichcreatesanxiety.

Asaresulttherewasanincreasedfocusingovernmentpronouncementson'integration'which

reachedapeakintheintroductionofacompulsory'citizenshiptest'whichimmigrantsseeking

―221―

Australiancitizenshipwererequiredtopass.

Australiahasbeenrelativelyfreeofethnic-basedviolence.Therehavebeenisolatedinstances

suchastheCronullariotsin2005whenagroupofpeoplewavingAustralianflagsattackedpeople

of'MiddleEasternAppearance'onaSydneybeach.In2009attacksonIndianstudentsin

Melbournewereinterpretedbysomeashavinganethnicdimension.ThecurrentAustralian

governmenthasrestateditscommitmenttoapolicyofmulticulturalismandeachofthestatesand

territorieshavegovernmentmulticulturalism agenciesandMigrantResourceCentres.Hence

multiculturalism remainsthebasisofgovernmentsettlementpolicyinAustraliadespitethe

challengesithasfaced.

CONCLUSION

ItisdifficulttoexaggeratethesignificanceofinternationalmigrationinAustralia'scontempo-

raryeconomy,society,demographyandculture.Fewcountrieshavebeenmoreinfluencedby

migrationbutfewalsohavesuchahighlymanagedimmigrationintake.Australiahasacomplex

immigrationsysteminvolvinganexperiencedcadreofmigrationprofessionals,asophisticateduse

oftechnologyandacomprehensive,timelyandfocuseddatacollectionsystem.Likeothernations,

Australiahasanti-migrationelementsinthepoliticalsystemandthesocietymorewidely.Yet

withinagenerationtherehasbeenatransformationfromasocietyinwhichover95percentofthe

populationwereofAngloCelticorigintoonewheretheymakeuplessthanthreequarters.The

Australianpopulationwouldbemorethan10millionlessthanatpresentifpostwarimmigration

hadnotoccurredanditwouldlackculturaldiversity.Currently,2.3percentofthepopulationare

ofindigenousoriginandafurther27.5percenthaveanon-AngloCelticorigin.Atthe2011census

therewere67birthplacegroupswithmorethan10,000personsinAustraliaand19.2percentofthe

populationspokealanguageotherthanEnglishathome.Plannedimmigrationhastransformed

Australiaduringthepostwarperiod.

WhileAustraliahashadisolatedethnicbasedviolence,racistelementsremaininthepopulation,

discriminationremainsintheworkplaceandinsocietymoregenerallyitisdifficulttoargueagainst

thepropositionthatabalancedAustralianpostwarmigrationhasbeenmassivelysuccessful.What

canbedistilledfromthisexperiencethatcouldbeusedbyothercountriessuchasJapan?This

paperhasattemptedtoraiseanumberofthesedimensionswhichmayormaynothaveresonance

inJapan.However,perhapsthemostimportantmessageisonewhichisencapsulatedinthepresent

writer'slivedlifeexperience.HewasbornintothewesternsuburbsofAdelaideinanAustralia

withsmallnumbersofmigrantsandfiercelymonoculturallyBritishwhocouldaccountformore

than95percentofthepopulation.Hischildren,however,aregrowingupinaverydifferentcontext

withhalfofthepopulationamigrantorthechildofanimmigrantandwithmanyoftheirfriends

beingfromotherpartsoftheworld.Theirfoodisinfluencedbyarangeofcultures,theyhave

―222―

relativesborninAsia,theyhavelearnedtospeakanAsianlanguage.Yetthesocietyretainsmuch

ofitsfoundationsandsocialcohesionremainsstrong.Therehasbeennoviolenceordestructionof

culture.

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