“The Differential Mode of Association”

——Understanding of traditional Chinese social structure and the behaviors of the Chinese people

Rong MaDepartment of Sociology

Institute of Sociology and AnthropologyPeking University

2015. 6

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Based on his deeply observation of Chinese society,

Professor Fei Xiaotong ( 费孝通 ) proposed the basic

characteristics of the structure of Chinese society in

his early book “Homebound China”.

He propose a new key concept of “The Differential

Mode of Association”( 差序格局 ) and compared this

mode with the social structure in the West.

His theory and this concept has a strong influence

in China and is well known abroad.

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In the late Qing Dynasty, some westerners published books

to describe “the Chinese” （中国人） , which have a quite

different cultural tradition compared with the western society.

The Chinese scholars, especially those studied abroad, also

tried to define and analyze the “nature” and characteristics of

the Chinese culture.

Prof. Fei Xiaotong ( 费孝通 ) published his book

Earthbound China ( 《乡土中国》 ) in 1947. In this book, he

proposed a new concept “the differential mode of association”

( 差序格局 ), and used this model to analyze the basic

characteristics of Chinese tradition.

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Based on Fei’s argument, this article tries to compare the

value systems and behavior regulations between the traditional

Chinese society and western society which have been based on

different religious background.

A tradition of thousand years cannot be simply cut off by

revolutions, wars, even “the Cultural Revolution” (the 1960s).

Even today, we still feel that “differential mode of association”

still affects the people’s behaviors in China today.

In order to become a modern civic society ruled by law, it is

important to rethink and understand our cultural traditions. In

this aspect, Professor Fei’s theory of “the differential mode of

association” still provides some insightful clues.

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1. 西方现代社会中的“团体格局”

The “group mode of association” in western society

Fei defined the basic characteristics of the structure in

western society as “a group mode of association”.

He described this mode as “a number of bands of

firewood which are bound up in parallel”. The relation

among the members in each group is equal and simple.

If there is different status among the group members,

their status is pre-stipulated” (Fei, 1998: 25).

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There are two “groups” with clear boundaries in western society.

family,

For adult children, parents usually do not have required obligations, they may pay meals even eat together in a restaurant.

state , the fundamental group of society.

All political, economic, educational systems are functioning within the boundaries of a state. The state guaranties all rights of every citizen.

Fei called this structure “group mode of association” (团体格局 ) .

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2 ．中国传统社会中的“差序格局”The “differential mode of association” in the

traditional Chinese society

In Fei’s opinion, every person is located in the

center of his/her relationship network circle. He/she

defines others by his/her personal connections.

Fei described this mode of relations as “the

situation of stone which is thrown into a lake, and

creates waves in circle”, first circle of wave is strong,

the second wave is weaker, the third one is even

weaker, and go on.

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In comparison with the concept of “family” in

western society:

The boundary of “family” in China is not clear and

is flexible. When someone is getting very close to a

person, he may consider him “a family member”.

The “family members” of some rich/powerful

persons might include many people. That is the

expansion of the “family scope”.

For example, county officials were often call

“parents officials”(父母官 ). The emperors call his

subjects “son people” (子民 ).

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3. 中国传统社会中的“国” “ State” in the Chinese traditional society

In traditional China through dynasties, the boundary of

“state” was not clear either. State is only one of waves of

relationship scope of individuals.

People think the state as the “family of the emperors”, and

state is a far away image to a person who live in countryside or

a remote area. To an ordinary person, the most important

concern is his “personal interests”.

Therefore, “in the traditional Chinese society, one could

sacrifice his family for himself, sacrifice party for his family,

sacrifice state for his party, and sacrifice the earth for his state”

(Fei, 1998:29).

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The rules within the “differential mode of

association” ( 差序格局 ) is “ 关系” . It is a network

in which people define the different rules of

connection between different individuals.

To any officers, the most important person is the

one directly gives him orders ( 县官不如现管 ), the

emperor was too far away and no direct effects on

him. ( 天高皇帝远 ).

This pattern may explain many behaviors of

Chinese officers today. “ 一盘散沙”（孙中山）。

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4 ．“差序格局”源自中国传统道德体系The “differential mode of association”

is based on Confucian ethics

“孔子的道德系统里绝不肯离开差序格局的中心，‘君子求诸己，小人求诸人’。因之，他不能像耶稣一样普爱天下，甚至而爱他的仇敌，还要为杀死他的人求上帝的饶赦——这些不是从自我中心出发的”（费孝通， 1998 ： 29 ）。

The basic corn is Confucian culture in the “differential

mode of association” and the orders between emperors and his

officers, the father and the son, the husband and wife, etc.

A child learns the ethics and rules within his family first,

then gradually learns how to deal with others.

5 ．西方社会中“国家”与“公民” 关系的文化宗教基础

The religion is the foundation of relation between state and citizens in modern western society

The state is the most important “group”.

Every citizen must be loyal to his state, and all

citizens are equal in law. The officers (from a town

mayor to state president) are elected, and become

ordinary citizen after he lost in election.

The foundation of this mode of group is

Christianity (religion). Everyone is equal in the front

of God. God treats everyone with justice.

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6. 儒家教导遵守“三纲五常”人伦， 不同“圈子”有不同规则 .

Confucian ethics teaches people to follow the rules

of “differential mode of association”, and treat

different people in different way (different “ 关系” ,

different treatment ） .

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People has no respect to a single

principle.

Every person fights for his interests

and expects others to give up their

interests to meet his need.

This expectation causes conflicts

between individuals and groups.

“ 红眼病” , “ 杀熟” , “ 造假” ,“ 恶性竞争” ,

“一锤子买卖” , 柏杨描述的中国社会“酱缸”现象 .

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7 ．个人与团体 Individuals and group

The relation between individuals and

groups in China is different from the

western society.

In western society, people usually

follow rules in his working group

(institution, factory, etc.) regardless the

personality of group leader.

But there is no such a rule in the

traditional society of China（ Fei， 1998：

35）。

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In China, when a person works hard, he is not following

rules but repays the leader who treats him well ( 诸葛亮“鞠躬尽瘁，死而后已”，报答刘备“三顾”之恩 ).

If someone thinks that his working units does not treat him

well, he pay no attention to the work, even destroys the tools,

equipments, and ruins the business of his unit.

The phenomena of“ 公报私仇”、“假公济私”、“徇私舞弊” in Chinese society is rooted deeply in the social

network of respective ethics in “differential mode of

association”.

If a person who considers his own interests and

convenience most important, he will not follow the public rules

(standing and waiting in line, follow the traffic lights, etc.)

8 ．“差序格局”与法律 The “differential mode of association” and law

Practice of ethics and laws actually depends on the relation

between people and the objective persons.

Many people condemn corruption, but try to cover the

corruption of their parents, son, or close relatives. “In this

society, there are no universal standards in practice, people

would clarify their relations with the objective person first,

then decide what standards should be applied” (Fei, 1998: 36)

“因为在这种社会中，一切普遍的标准并不发生作用，一定要问清了，对象是谁，和自己是什么关系之后，才能决定拿出什么标准来”（费孝通， 1998 ： 36 ）。

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The personal relation is above the law.

This ethics was from Confucius.

《论语•子路》：“叶公语孔子曰：吾党有直躬者，其父攘羊，而子证之。孔子曰：吾党之直者异于是，父为子隐，子为父隐，直在其中矣”。

When a father stole a sheep, his son should lie

to cover his father. This is the ethics of father-son

relation.

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9 ．腐败行为的“利益单元”

“Interest group” and corruption

Besides the individual corruption, there is also the

corruption of “interest groups”. Some administrative units

keep their own “unit treasury” (“ 小金库” ) . The money is

distributed or consumed by the members of the unit.

The leaders of these units would defend themselves that

they did not put the money in their own pockets (not for

themselves).

They and their employees usually have sympathy and

even support this kind of corruption. They consider the loss

of the national treasury is not serious.

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Public vs. private

“在差序格局里，公和私是相对而言的，站在任何一圈里，向内看也可以是公的”（费孝通， 1998 ： 30 ）。

In “differential mode of association”,

Interpreting “public” and “private” is

relative.

In any circle of the “relation waves”,

looking towards the “center” and working for

the interest of all people in scope. The

action is “for public (unit)”, not “for

selfish individual”.

The outsiders’ interests can be

sacrificed for the interest of “insiders”.

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From above description and comparison,

we can get some ideas about the

“differential mode of association”with some

examples.

This short presentation can not cover

all content of Fei’s theory of this

important concept.

But the concept of “the differential

mode of association” (差序格局 ) is really a key for Chinese people today to understand

their own tradition ethics, and for

foreigners to understand the behaviors of

Chinese and the way of their thinking in

cross-cultural communication.

Thanks