The Relevance of Leisurein Theories of Aging

南華大學休閒產業經濟學系

黃瓊玉

2012 年 11 月 18 日

銀 髮 族 休 閒

The Relevance of Leisure in Theories of Aging

•當我們在探討銀髮族休閒時，為什麼需要研讀Theory of Aging（老化理論）？

•The way leisure professionals design, implement, and evaluateleisure services, whether community based or institutional, isinfluenced by our perceptions of later life and how older adults adaptto the changes that aging brings.

•Providers of leisure services must understand a variety of theories ofaging in order to provide meaningful services for older adults.

The Relevance of Leisure in Theories of Aging

•Explain the relevance of aging theory in leisure research and practice

•Identify and explain several psychological theories of aging

•Identify and explain several sociological theories of aging

•Explain how aging theories have developed over time

•Discuss prominent critiques of theories of aging

The objectives of this chapter:

Leisure as a Context for Continuity and Change

Several general points about the evidence of later-life leisure

•Overall activity involvement appears to decrease with age.(Agahi et al. 2006; Cutler & Hendricks 1990);exception: television watching

•The relative influence of age and history on leisure activity

Seppo Iso-Ahola (1980)The relative strength of preferences for novel versus familiar leisure forms overthe life course.

Childhood Early Adulthood Old age

Low

Rel

ativ

est

reng

thH

igh

Preference for novelty Preference for the familiar

Leisure as a Context for Continuity and Change

•The evidence has been stronger for maintaining activities in later life rather thanfor abandoning them or adopting new ones

•The prevailing evidence suggests continuity of interests rather than change

(Iso-Ahola et al. 1994; McGuire et al. 1987)

(Cutler & Hendricks 1990, Iwasaki & Smale 1998, Lee & King 2003,Singleton et al. 1993)

Psychological Theories of Aging

•Theories of control and dependence

- Selective optimization with compensation model

- Socioemotional selectivity theory

The view that older people choose to interact with familiar people to affordpositive feelings and avoid unfamiliar relationships that may lead inunpredictable and unpleasant directions.

Older adults choose among activities, relinquishing some while optimizing theirabilities in others, using both technological and human resources tocompensate for changes in order to continue participating in the chosenactivities.

Psychological Theories of Aging

- Psychosocial stage theory

Erik Erikson

•Focus on psychosocial development throughout the life cycle

•8 stages of ego development成功下階段

危機正面與負面特質平衡不順利阻礙下階段

Erik Erikson(1902 - 1994)

Based on Freud…took steps further: what happens when you are young impactslater life

Last stage: Ego Integrity vs. Despair （統整 vs 絕望）Purpose: to establish a sense of meaning in one’s life,

rather than feeling despair or bitterness that life waswasted; to accept oneself and one’s life without despair.

受社會、文化、重要他人影響

Psychological Theories of Aging

悔恨舊事，徒呼負負隨心所欲，安享餘年自我榮耀(統整)與悲觀絕望50-生命終點(成年晚期-老年期)

8

不關心別人生活與社會，缺少生活意義

熱愛家庭關懷社會，有責任心有正義感

精力充沛(生產)與停滯頹廢31-50(成年中期)7

與社會疏離，時感寂寞孤獨與人相處有親密感友愛親密與孤癖疏離(親密與孤立)19-30(成年早期)6

生活無目的的無方向，時而感到徬徨迷失

有了明確的自我觀念與自我追尋的方向

自我統整(認同)與角色混淆12-18(青少年期-青春期)

5

缺乏生活基本能力，充滿失敗感

具有求學、做事、待人的基本能力

勤奮進取與自貶自卑6-11(學齡兒童期)4

畏懼退縮，缺少自我價值感主動好奇，行動有方向，開始有責任感

自動自發(主動)與退縮愧疚(罪惡感)

4-6(學齡前兒童期)

3

缺乏信心，行動畏首畏尾能按社會行為要求表現目的性行為

自主行動(自律)與羞怯懷疑(害羞)2-3(幼兒期)2

面對新環境時會焦慮對人信任，有安全感信任與不信任0-1(嬰兒期)1

發展障礙者特徵發展順利的特徵發展危機 (developmental crisis)與任務

年齡階段

Erikson 心裡社會發展理論的八個階段

Psychological Theories of Aging

•瑞典電影藝術大師 伯格曼 (Ingmar Bergman)

《野草莓》

- 描述一個進入人生最後階段的瑞典醫生，以薩˙伯格 (Isak Borg) 的生命故事

- 以記憶、想像及作夢的方式，重新經歷從小孩、成年到老年的各個階段的生命歷程

•藉由這部電影中一個老人對於其生命意義追尋的各個情景，點出所有的老年人也都有這類的追尋，傳達 Erikson 理論的論點：「人生各階段交錯影響，人生在老年時期達最高潮」。

•Erik H. Erikson, Joan M. Erikson and Helen Q. KivnickVital Involvement in Old Age The Experience of Old Age in Our Time(Erikson 老年研究報告 人生八大階段)

(Smultronstället, 1957)

Psychological Theories of Aging

•Theories of Self and Identity in Later Life

- Innovation theory of successful aging

- Multiple threshold perspectives

A theory postulating that older adults seek out new leisure activities in orderto both recreate aspects of self and to invent new aspects.

A theory postulating that older adults seek out new leisure activities in orderto both recreate aspects of self and to invent new aspects.

Sociological Theories of Aging

•Activity theory

•Continuity theory

•Disengagement theory

The view that older adults age successfully when they replace lost roles withnew roles in later life.

The view that older adults withdraw from relationships and activities in later lifeto make way for younger people and prepare for death.

The view that life patterns developed in earlier life are maintained in later life.

Sociological Theories of Aging - Activity theory

Havighurst & Colleagues, 1963

•Attempted to answer how older adults adjust to age-related changes, such asretirement, poor health, and role loss….

•Self concept is related to roles then previous roles must be replaced with newones to remain active.

The Meaning of Activity

•Everyone looks for meaning in life.•Activities that people do are made meaningful based upon their values and

cultural backgrounds.•The environment/context in which an activity takes place also adds meaning

to the activity in question.•Outcomes of engaging in activity also impact meaning –for example:

- Satisfaction of participant- Increased Self-esteem- Pragmatic (getting the job done)- Altruistic goal met

Sociological Theories of Aging - Activity theory

•Older adults deny the existence of old age –fight the aging process

•The well-adjusted older adult takes on larger numbers and variety ofproductive roles through activities in voluntary work, churches, leisureorganizations

•The more active, the greater life satisfaction, positive self-concept, andadjustment in late-life

•Empirical evidencePositive/Negative Correlation between activity & life satisfaction.

小 結

Sociological Theories of Aging - Disengagement theory

Cummings & Henry, 1961

aging is an inevitable,older people decrease their activity levels,seek more passive roles,interact less frequently with others,and become increasingly preoccupied with their inner lives.

•People can become more reflective about their lives.

•People can become less constrained by social roles.

•People become more discerning about relationships, which can help themadjust to increasing frequency of serious illness and death among their peers.

Disengagement Theory- Positive

“After having lavished its light upon the worldthe sun withdraws its rays in order to illuminateitself” Carl Gustav Jung (1875 –1961)

Sociological Theories of Aging - Disengagement theory

•Supports Ageist attitudes towards older adults

•Little empirical support (physical & social stress disengage)

•Doesn’t take into account changing definitions “aging”

•Doesn’t take into account variation in personalities

Problems Disengagement Theory

Sociological Theories of Aging - Continuity theory

Shortcomings with other theories led to…

•Substitutes similar roles for lost ones•Continue to maintain similar adaptation strategies•As we age we become more of what we were•Past HX counts - basic personality, attitudes, and behaviors remain

constant throughout the life span•Each person provides their own standard for successful aging

•Elders attempt to continue with important activities•Elders perceive activities as continuous•Successful aging is characterized by how much continuity the elder

has with activities

Atchley, 1989

Sociological Theories of Aging - Continuity theory

Differences in personalityDifferences in physical functionjust want to do nothing!

Control over social situation, Socioeconomic effects, Cultural effects.

Problems with the theory

Conclusion

•Theories of aging are highly debatable.

•Psychological theories of aging provide insight into how older adults maypersonally adjust to change and loss associated with later life.

•Sociological theories consider the impact of broader social factors on aging.

•All of these theories help us to consider how can we best support older adultsin their leisure endeavors.

討 論

1. Make a list of your current leisure activities. Which of these activities do

you think you will participate in after you retire? Will you drop activities or

add activities to your repertoire?

2. 根據第一次作業中與退休人士們的訪談內容，which theory (or theories) of

aging fits best with your understanding of older adults?

3. 觀察妳/你周遭環境中，提供給老年人的一些相關休閒服務和設施，這些服

務和設施或商品，跟課堂中所介紹的老化理論有何連結?

References

References

References