The Science of Explosives. 0306281248.04070(22235). 91.683kB.doc.

The Science of Explosives

Written by

Kim S***-k****

-The Science of Explosives. 0306281248.04070(22235). 91.683kB.doc.

The Science of Explosives. 0306281248.04070. 91.683kB.doc.

The Science of Explosives, 2004 0703 SA 0653p, 683KB /// // : 2006 2 15 6:01:00 / : 2006 6 4 2:50:08 / : 2008 3 16 / : 2003 9 4 11:36:00 /...... 0803162248.

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m . //(; + 10 pt, , 10, ) The Science of Explosives(; + 30 pt, , 30, ) /0/1/////////10//////////20//////////30(; + 10 pt, , 10, ) Written by(; + 12 pt, , 12, ) / Kim Sung-kyung(; + 20 pt, , 20, )

The Science of Explosives(, () , ).

Engineer Explosives Manufacturing(, ). Engineer Explosives Handling(, ).

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Engineer Industrial Chemistry, Industrial Engineer Industrial Chemistry, Engineer Explosives Manufacturing, Professional Engineer Explosives and blasting, Engineer Explosives Handling, Industrial Engineer Explosives Handling, Craftsman Chemical Analysis.

Professional Engineer Chemical Safety, Professional Engineer Chemical Apparatus Equipment, Professional Engineer Industrial Chemistry, Professional Engineer Chemical Plant Design, Professional Engineer Polymer Professional Engineer Fire Fighting Facilities, Professional Engineer Gas, Professional Engineer Quality Control, Professional Engineer Nondestructive Testing, Professional Engineer Hydraulic Machinery, Professional Engineer Making Machinery, Professional Engineer Air-Conditioning & Refrigerating Machinery, Professional Engineer Nonferrous Metallurgy, Professional Engineer Ferrous Metallurgy, Professional Engineer Metal Material, Professional Engineer Surface Treatment, Professional Engineer Metal Working. Human Resources Development Service of Korea. SIVAT(, Seoul Institute for Vocational Training in Advanced Technology). .

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. 2002, 47, ( ) 35, 0, 0.0%. 2001, 25, 19, 3, 15.8%. 2000, 26, 19, 0, 0.0%. 1999, 58, 49, 3, 6.1%. 92-98, 613, 434, 49, 11.3%. 84-91, 424, 333, 36, 10.8%. 78-83, 1207, 939, 65, 6.9%.

. 84-91, 259, ( ) 203, 22, 10.8%. 81-83, 700, 451, 8, 1.8%.

" . 2002, 36, ( ) 28, 5, 17.9%. 2001 73, 49, 6, 12.2%. 2000, 69, 53, 10, 18.9%. 1999, 67, 52, 2, 3.8%. 96-98, 317, 217, 26, 12.0%. 92-95, 251, 167, 46, 27.5%. 90-91, 78, 61, 12, 19.7%.

. 2002, 1667, ( ) 1302, 55, 4.2%. 2001, 2429, 1907, 161, 8.4%. 2000, 5094, 3863, 416, 10.8%. 1999, 3987, 4251, 140, 3.3%. 96-98, 10202, 8905, 287, 3.2%. 92-95, 4257, 3516, 193, 5.5%. 84-91, 4412, 3473, 197, 5.7%. 78-83, 3157, 2529, 566, 22.4%.

. 2002, 1038, ( ) 808, 50, 6.2%. 2001, 1216, 942, 107, 11.4%. 2000, 2088, 1568, 114, 7.3%. 1999, 2312, 1888, 126, 6.7%. 96-98, 5241, 4508, 698, 15.5%. 92-95, 2483, 2090, 154, 7.4%. 84-91, 5387, 4531, 308, 6.8%. 77-83, 6036, 4944, 427, 8.6%.

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m275 J. . 667 (, ,(, ),, ) Greek fire . 1313 . 1786 C.L. ( ) () . 1800 .1838 .1845 (, ). 1847 A(, Ascanio). . 1866 A(, Alfred). nitroglycerine (, ) ( ) . 1878 ( ) (, ) blasting gelatine( dynamite) . 1984 B , 1888 ( ), 1889 ( )() ( ) . 20 . 1904 .,()(, RDX).

m . ( )( ) (, ) (, firework), (, , ),, . (, ). , aromatic compound . (, ) (, ) .

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(, ). ( ) . ( ) (, ). () ( )( )(, ) ( ) ( ) . ( ) ( ) . ( ) , (, 8018568711061 ). (, ), (, ), (, ) . 20 (, 4), . (, 826 2). ( ) ( )( )() () (, 5). ( ) ( ) (, 5681171401061, 7, 6566) (, ) , , 4 , , (, ) (, 9). . (, 10). (, 13). ( ) . (, 1063), (, 802, 808, 835, 856, 873, 902 ).

m( ) , , . 20 (, 4), (, 20 ) ( )() ( ). (, ) (, ) (, ) , , 4 , , (, ) . .

mBlack powder sulfur content. (, ) 15+10%, 10+10%. (, ) 10+10%, 10+20%. (, ) 8+4%, 10+6%. /

(, black powder, gun powder, ). 75%KNO3, 15%C, 10%S.

mBrisance( in g sand). lead trinitroresorcinate 9.5+11.9g, 15.45g. Pb(N3)2 13.9+4.1g, 15.95g. Hg(ONC)2 15.5+6.9g, 18.95g. amatol 50/50 38g. tritonal 42g. TNT 43g. picric acid 45g. tetryl 53.5g. NG 60g. RDX 61g. PETN 69.1g max. /

mDensity. HMX 1.84g/cm3. RDX 1.82g/cm3. PETN 1.77g/cm3 (, 1.74g/cm3). picric acid 1.763g/cm3. tetryl 1.73g/cm3. ((hexa)nitromannite, C6H8(NO3)6 1.72 g/cm3. nitrocellulose, 13.3%N 1.66g/cm3. )TNT 1.65g/cm3 (, 1.7g/cm3). DDNP 1.63g/cm3. NG 1.6g/cm3, 1.596 at 15 Ng 1.5g/cm3. trinitrophenethol(e) 1.45. trinitroanisole(, TNA) 1.4g/cm3. Pb(N3)2 4.17g/cm3, 4.93g/cm3, 3.8g/cm3, (0.8g/cm3), 4.60g/cm3, 4.8g/cm3. Hg(ONC)2 4.42g/cm3, 1.2+0.5(5)g/cm3. lead trinitroresorcinate 3.02g/cm3, 1.0+1.6g/cm3. /

mDetonation velocity(, VOD). HMX 9100m/s at 1.84. RDX 8500m/s. PETN 8300m/s. ((hexa)nitromannite 8200m/s. )tetryl 7850m/s, 7600m/s at 1.62. NG 7500+500m/s (. blasting dynamite, 92.5%NG-7.5%C/C 7000+500m/s). picric acid 7100m/s. DDNP 6900m/s at 1.58. TNT 6800+200m/s. Hg(ONC)2 4700+700m/s. Pb(N3)2 4000+1000m/s, 5300m/s. carlit 3500+xm/s. ANFO 3500+1000m/s. ammonium nitrate explosive 3000+2000m/s. ammon powder(? , ammon explosive) 1000+4000m/s. /

m . PETN 5330m/s at 0.85, 7400m/s at 1.50, 8300m/s (, 5530+2970m/s) at 1.70, 1.77g/cm3. tetryl 7600m/s at 1.62, 7850m/s at 1.70, 1.73g/cm3. TNT 6800m/s at 1.55, 7000m/s at 1.60, 1.65g/cm3, Hg(ONC)2 4000m/s at 3.0, 5050m/s at 4.0, 5400m/s at 5.0, 4.42g/cm3, 6000kg/cm2 . )( Pb(N3)2 4500m/s at 3.8, 5100m/s at 4.0, 4.8g/cm3, 4.93g/cm3, 6000kg/cm2 () . )(tricinate, C6H2(NO2)3O2Pb 4900m/s at 2.6, 5200m/s at 2.9, 3.02g/cm3. )(tetracene, C2H8N10O, guanylnitrosoaminoguanyltetracene 0.8, 1.0 . )

mReducing series . picric acid sg(, sp.gr., specific gravity, ), mp(, melting point, , ). TNT sg. tetryl VOD. trinitrophenethol(e) sg, mp. /

mMelting point. HMX 273. RDX 202. PETN 141.3. tetryl 129.5 picric acid 125.4. ((hexa)nitromannite 112.5. )TNT 81 (, 82? ), trinitrophenethol 78. trinitroanisole(, TNA ) 66. NG 8 11() . 40~50 . 180 . 205~215(, 210) . 240 . 1470kcal/kg. 4000. 13.5, 2.8. 14, fp 8. Ng 22.8. /

m(Standard )Ignition point. C2H8N10O 140. Hg(ONC)2 170+10, 190. DDNP 180. tetryl 190. Ng 195+5. NG 200. PETN 225, 215. RDX 230. nitrocellulose(, 13.3%N) 230. black powder 265+35. lead trinitroresorcinate 275+10. TNT 300+x, 300. picric acid 300+x, 310. Pb(N3)2 320+40. 345/

mHeat of explosion. Ng 1700kcal/kg. NG 1470kcal/kg, 1583kcal/kg. PETN 1460+80kcal/kg, 1543kcal/kg. ((hexa)nitromannite 1450kcal/kg. )RDX 1300kcal/kg. tetryl 1120kcal/kg. NC(, C24H29O9(NO3)11, 11, 13.48%N) nitrocellulose(, 13.3%N) 1030kcal/kg. picric acid 1000kcal/kg. TNT 1000kcal/kg. DDNP 820kcal/kg. Hg(ONC)2 409kcal/kg./

mImpact sensitivity( in inches). Hg(ONC)2 2in.(5.079 8cm), . NG 2+1in.(, 5.079 8+2.539 9cm, 7.619 7cm). lead trinitroresorcinate 2+1in.(, 5.079 8+2.539 9cm, 7.619 7cm). Pb(N3)2 3+1in.(, 7.619 7+2.539 9cm, 10.159 6cm). PETN 6in.(, 15.239 4cm). RDX 7in.(, 17.779 3cm). tetryl 8in.(, 20.319 2cm). nitrostarch 8in.(, 20.319 2cm). picric acid 12+1in.(, 30.478 8+2.539 9cm, 33.018 7cm). TNT 14in.(, 35.558 6cm). explosive D 18in.(, 45.718 2cm). Compo C4(, C4?) 19in.(, 48.258 1cm). /

mTrauzle lead block test( in cc). Pb(N3)2 115cm3. lead trinitroresorcinate 120cm3. Hg(ONC)2 150cm3. TNT 285cm3. picric acid 300cm3. amatol 50/50 330?cm3. tetrytol? 350cm3. tritonal 360cm3. pentolite 50/50 375cm3. tetryl -?cm3. minol II 465cm3. torpex 475cm3. RDX 525cm3. PETN 500+60cm3. NG 515+85?cm3. /

. pentolite(, 50%PETN, 50%TNT). torpex(, 42%RDX, 40%TNT, 18%Al powder). tetrytol(, 75%tetryl, 25%TNT). minol II(, 40%NH4NO3, 40%TNT, 20%Al powder). Comp. B(, 60%RDX, 39%TNT, 1%wax), cyclotol(, 60%RDX, 40%TNT). tritonal(, 80%TNT, 20%Al powder). Comp. C-2(, 77%RDX, 3%tetryl, 4%TNT, 10%DNT, 5%MNT, 1%NC). amatol 50/50(, 50%NH4NO3, 50%TNT). Comp. A-3(, 91%RDX, 9%wax). amatol 80/20(, 80%NH4NO3, 20%TNT). picratol(, 52%picric acid, 48%TNT). explosive D(, ammonium picrate, C6H2(NO2)3ONH4), Comp. C-4(, 91%RDX, 9%plasticizer)

(, black powder, gun powder, ). 75%KNO3, 15%C, 10%S.

m (, brown powder) . () 75%KNO3, 15%brown charcoal, 10%S. (, charcoal). () () .

m (, white powder, ) (4:1:1 ). 66. 666 67%KClO3, 16. 666 67%C12H22O11, 16. 666 67%KFe(CN)63H2O.

mcheddite nitronaphthalene, (, castor? oil), starch .

cheddite nitro (, castor oil?) KClO3 . (2kg () ) (, impact weight sensitivity?) 32cm .

carlit. 75%NH4ClO4, 16%ferrosilicon(, Si-Fe), 6%, 3%heavy oil.

mammonium nitrate explosives amatol, ammonal, . amatol 80%NH4NO3, 20%TNT 40%NH4NO3, 60%TNT. ammonal 22%NH4NO3, 11%Al, 67%TNT. NG, TNT, DNT, DNB, DNN, .

ANFO . 94.5%NH4NO3, 5.5%fuel oil, 94%NH4NO3, 6%fuel oil.

ammonium dynamite (%). amm.dyn.(20(, 20 ): 12.0%NG, 11.8%NH4NO3, 57.3%NaNO3, 10.2%, 6.7%S, 1.2%CaCO3, 0.8%. amm.dyn.(60: 22.5%NG, 50.3%NH4NO3, 15.2%NaNO3, 8.6%, 1.6%S, 1.1%CaCO3, 0.7%.

blasting ((gelatine ))dynamite. 95%NG, 5%CC.

mpentolite(, 50%PETN, 50%TNT). torpex(, 42%RDX, 40%TNT, 18%Al powder). tetrytol(, 75%tetryl, 25%TNT). minol II(, 40%NH4NO3, 40%TNT, 20%Al powder). Comp. B, cyclotol(, 60%RDX, 40%TNT). tritonal(, 80%TNT, 20%Al powder). Comp. C-2(, 77%RDX, 3%tetryl, 4%TNT, 10%DNT, 5%MNT, 1%NC). amatol 50/50(, 50%NH4NO3, 50%TNT). Comp. A-3(, 91%RDX, 9%wax). amatol 80/20(, 80%NH4NO3, 20%TNT). picratol(, 52%picric acid, 48%TNT). Comp. C-4(, 91%RDX, 9%plasticizer).

mtorpex=torpEDO+exPLOSIVE=torp(edo )ex(plosive). (, ) .

mTNT () . amatol(, 50~80%NH4NO3, 50~20%TNT). composition B (, 60%RDX, 39%TNT, 1%wax). cyclotol(, 60~75%RDX, 40~25%TNT). pentolite(, 50%PETN, 50%TNT). tetrytol(, 65~80%tetryl, 35~20%TNT). tritonal(, 20%Al powder, 80%TNT). octol(, 70~75%HMX, 30~25%TNT).

PBX(, Plastic Bonded eXplosive) HMX( ) PETN( RDX ) (plastic )binder(, , ) plasticizer (, ) . PBX () 7800m/s , 8300m/s (, ) . (, ) 700kg/cm2 . (, ) . missile(, ), projectile, (torpedo, , )(, underwater) (, weapon) .

m( )() (, shaped charge, ) ( )PBX . PBX V (, V) conical .

(, double base, DB, )( ) . cordite 65%NC, 30%NG, 5%vaselline?. ballistite 50%NC, 48%NG, 2%diphenylamine?.

1887 Alfred Nobel 60% 39% , 1% camphor ballistite(, Nobel powder, m , double base powder)( ) . 1846 Ascanio Sobrero nitroglycerine .

(, , ) NC 37%, NG 58%, Vaseline 5% (, cordite, ) . (, cord) cordite (, ) . ( ) .

azide detonator . 40%Pb(N3)2, 60%C6H(NO2)3O2Pb.

m priming agent . 80% Hg(ONC)2, 20%KClO3.

azide detonator

m8( , ) 0.5ginitiator, 0.90gbooster(, 1.40g, 100.000 000 00%), 50mml, 6.5mmDO, 6.2mmDI(, 0.15mmt). 6( , ) 0.4ginitiator, 0.45gbooster(, 0.85g, 60.714 285 71%), 6.5mmDO, 6.2mmDI(, 0.15mmt), 35mml. 3( , ) 0.3ginitiator, 0.35gbooster(, 0.65g, 46.428 571 43%), 30mml, 6.5mmDO, 6.2mmDI(, 0.15mmt).

m- 2,500. oxyhydrogen flame 2,500. oxyacetylene flame 3,800.

( . )20kt(, 20kt) () (, atomic) 1ms(, 100 1) 6,000 . 1ms ()() 5,000, 1m, atm(, 50 atm) . 100ms(, 1 1) 30, 13m~14m .

8 NONEL(, ) ( ). 6.5mmDO, NONEL 75ms 500ms 25ms .

shell, interior capsule, priming composition(, detonating composition,), based charge.

booster(, primer) ANFO slurry (, Emulan) () . booster NG 30% straight dynamite(, ) gelatine dynamite, (, ).

m (, oxygen supply source?, )oxygen sorce ( ) . oxygen source oxidant.

m . V copper liner atomization. jet(, ) (, ) 10 000m/s 200 000kg/cm2(, 200. 000t/cm2). (metal )slag 1000m/s . conical (, ) . ( )() 40(~60(( ). (plasma )jet . stand-off(( )) jet (, jet ) liner ( )( ) ( ) (, ).

stand off [stnd f | - f, -] a. 1 , ; 2 ( ) () n. 1 ; 2 , ; 3 ; ; , () 4 = standoff HALF 5 6 7 8 , ; .

stand by [stndbi, ] n. (pl. ~s) 1 [] 2 () ; ; () 3 , , 4 [] []; 5 (); TV 6 () on ~ , a. ; ; ; the ~ order a ~ player ad. , , fly ~ to Italy on standby , stand by (1) (cf. BYSTANDER); (2) []; (3) , ... stand er by [stnd bi] n. (pl. stand ers ) , (bystander).

3m(, ) 100g~200g . () . () concentrated blasting. .

chamber blasting. (1 ) . 200kg (, ). 200kg (, ). 1.00m(0.88m .

m 37.5%Hg(ONC)2, 37.5%KClO3, 25.0%Sb2S3. (3:3:2. ) ( ) . tetracene, tricinate, Ba(NO3)2 .

incandescent detonator instantaneous electric detonator delay electric detonator . incandescent slot detonator slot detonator , , .

m . ( ) ( ) (, Jouls heat) . 10V~20V . ( ) 64%Cu2S, 14%Cu3P, 22%KClO3.

m() ( ) fulminate detonator, (tetryl ) composite detonator(, tetryl , ), azide detonator, diazodinitrophenol (, DDNP ) .

m( ) . : ()1 5.5mm 6.0mm 16mm 0.3g, ()2 5.5mm 6.0mm 22mm 0.4g, ()3 5.5mm 6.0mm 20mm 0.54g, ()4 5.5mm 6.0mm 26mm 0.65g, ()5 6.0mm 6.5mm 30mm 0.8g, ()6 6.0mm 6.5mm 35mm 1.0g, ()7 6.0mm 6.5mm 40mm 1.5g, ()8 6.2mm 7.0mm 45mm 2.0g, ()9 6.2mm 7.0mm 50mm 2.5g, ()10 6.7mm 7.5mm 50mm 3.0g.

m(tetryl ) composite detonator(, tetryl , , ). ( ) tetryl: 3 0.30g 0.35g, 6 0.40g 0.45g, 8 0.5g 0.9g.

m (( )). ( ). 4 (( )) 0.25g40%Pb(N3)2+60%C6H(NO2)3O2Pb, 0.25gtetryl, 5 (( )) 0.27g, 0.30g. 6 (( )) 0.30g , 0.40g. 7 (( )) 0.30g, 0.65g. 8 (( )) 0.30g, 0.85g.

DDNP . DDNP . tetryl, PETN(, RDX) . , . DDNP , (, , ).

( )( )incandescent (electric )deonator . 0.5V~2.0V, 1.0A~1.5A, 0.8~1.5(, 0.5W~3.0W 1s , 0.5J~3.0J ). 90%Pt, 10%Ir.

Pt 80% -Ir 20% . 0.02mm, 2mm. ( ) 300/m-400/m, 1.3~1.2. 0.5V~2.0V. (, , m, MS, DS) Si-Sb2S3-Pb3O4 3 . (, , m) (, delay time) MS DS . MS(, milisecond) () 0.001s~0.01s(, 1ms~100ms). DS(, decisecond) () 0.1s~1.0s(, 1ds~10ds).

anti-static electric detonator. (, ) . , . (, ) 2000pF, ( )(( )) 8kV~25kV, 64~625E(, J?).

tricinate tetracene (, ) .

(, plain detonator, blasting cap) 1864 (dynamite )Alfred Nobel . . initiator .

( )tricinate ( )Ba(NO3)2, Sb2S3, Pb(SCN)2, C2H8O10O, Hg(ONC)2 .

(( ))() (, PDD, Precise electronic Delay Detonator, ). 1982() Atlas Powder IC chip electronic delay circuit . 0.2ms . () (, ) precise controlled blasting . PDD blasting machine ( )24V DC power supply( 24V ) ( , ) .

detonating cord. 1 : TNT(, T-) picric acid, (,) , 5.0mm ~5.5mm, ()( ) 20g/m~25g/m, 5500m, . 2 : : pentrit(, PETN, P-) hexogen(, RDX, H-) tetryl, (, ) (, )// tape(, )/( )PVC , 5.0mm ~5.5mm, ()( ) 10g/m(, 20g/m, 40?g/m), 5500m, . : 10m 3h .

( ) 1. (, CCR, concrete cracking reagent), 2. (, Drive-It, Hilti) , 3. explosion (Al )rivet, 4. (Neumann effect ) jet tapper, 5. /(, ) (, ), 6. fireworks, 7. (, ) gas generator, 8. .

bristar( ) ( ) (, CaO?, ?) . thermite(, ) Al .

() Bristar. () CaO. colloid Ca(OH)2 3 ( )() .

concrete cracking reagent(,() hinecker) (K2Cr2O7, )Pb3O4, PbCrO4, BaO2, KBrO3 (, ) Al-Mg , , , , , binder (, ) . PE . (, ) .

CCR K2Cr2O7 , Al , Mg Al-Mg , () centralite . () 60m/s, 60cm, 1500kcal/kg, (, ) 400~430, 28mm, 60g/.

mK2Cr2O7 ( K2O*2CrO3. K2CrO4 ( K2O*CrO3. KMnO4 (2 ( K2Mn2O8 ( K2O*Mn2O7.

urbanite (, ).

/(, ) . ( ) NH4ClO4, KClO4 ( )Sr(NO3)2 . ( ) (, ) (, , ). (, burning time) 5min~10min. (, ) . ( ) .

(() )( )() . ( )() (, ) (), reliability . air bag, , (, , (, ) ), valve (, ). (, ) azide(, NaN3), ( ) , composite propellant, (, single base propellant, double base propellant) .

m 1799 . 1799 .

m 1967 . 1799 .

(6. ) ( ) (6.1 ) (, )stability( test), (6.2 ) , (6.3 ) (, ), (6.4 )( )() ( ) .

(6.1.1 ) . (, () ) 1 . (, ester ( )() () ) 2 . NG 5(, ) 2 . ( )() 1 ( ) . ( 59) (, ) stability test (, ) .

m ester () thermal stability test(( )) . ester () free acid test(, ) .

m (, ) . . .

59 (, ) () . /

ester , ( )() ( ) 1 - (1) 1() () . 2 -() (, () ) 2(,) () 3 . ( )() (. )-() () ( ) 3(, 3 ) () . /

ester (, ) , 3 ( )-(1) 1() () . ( )() (. )- () () ( ) 1(, 1 ) (1() ) () .

(1)) . 3g~3.5g 65 ()( )()(, ) ()( ) NOx(, ) . NOx (, ) ( )HNO2 (-) . KI- (, , ) () . 65 () 8min (, ) () ( ) .( 8min () 8min ( ) . 8min . 8min . )

m(2)) . ()( )() ( ) . ( )PH (, ) () . ( )4h~( )6h(, 5h ) PH (, ) () () (, ) .

(6.2 ) sensitivity(, , ). , (, ), , (, ) (, ). ( (, )fire resistance test explosion point test ) , ( impact weight test sympathetic detonation test )(, ) , () initiating sensitivity, friction sensitivity, electric sensitivity .

(6.2.1 ) ( ). 1) () fire resistance (sensitivity )test(, ) , , . 2) explosion point test ()( )() () ()( )() () .

() fire resistance (sensitivity )test(, ) (, ) (, ) .

m ( ) ( ) ( ) .

m . (, ) . fire resistance (sensitivity )test(, ) ( ) . ( ) .

m . test tube 3g () . (3g ) . (3g ) (, ) () (, , ). (, 3g ) (, ) (. (, ) ).

m(() )() ( ) . 100mm(, 10cm), (, ) 15mm . 100g ( ) ( ) . 100mm(, 10cm), (, ) 15mm 900 . 900 ( ) 100g ( ) . ( ) , (900 ) (, ) (, ) .

m() ( ) crucible test. 1mm 120mm(, 12cm) (, ). ( 1mm, 12cm . )( 1mm, 12cm ) (900 ). (900 ) 0.5g (, 0.5g, 0.5g ) 5g (. 0.5g, 1.0g, 1.5g, 2.0g, 2.5g, 3.0g, 3.5g, 4.5g, 5.0g ). ( ) (, ) ( ) .

2) ()( )() () ()() () () .

m()( )() () ( )( )() ( ). 0.1g ( , ) (, ) cork . oil bath(, ) 0.1g ( , ) . oil bath(, ) (, /) (, ) (, ).

m()( )() () ( )( )() ( 0.1g ) . Krupp . 0.1g ( , ) (, ) (, ) 4s (, ).

m 0.1g ( , ) (, ) (, ) 4s .

6.2.2 impact sensitivity. (, ) ( , )( )() (, ) (, ).

m1) impact weight test. (, ) (, ) . 5kg ( ) . ( ) 0% (, ) P2 . ( ) 100% P1 . ( ) 50% A .

2)( ) sympathetic detonation test. (, ) () (, ) . . ( ). n= s/( )d. n=s/d.

m . 2() (, B) (, , , ) (, , ) 1() (, A) () ( ). ( )(). ( )((, )) (() )(, ) , . (, ) .

m1 a . 1 b . 2 c . 2 b . S cd . mCD 1 exciting 2 ( ) .

m( )exciting behavior (2 ) (1 ). ( ) . ( ) ( )( )action. ( ) (1 ) (, , ) (2 )reaction(, reaction). exciting behavior 1 ( )(, , ) (, ) . 2 impact sensitivity (, ) . ( , ) ( , ) . (, ).

m . () . (1 ) A (, ) . A (2 )B 2 (, ) ( (, , , ) ) . 3 ( )(, )( ) .

6.2.3 initiating sensitivity. (, , , , , bulk density) . (, , , ) . particle size (, ) .

m (, ) (, ) .

mANFO () . mesh : (8~10mesh )2.0mm 2000m/s, (10~14 1.4 2780, 13~20 1.0 3000, 20~32 )0.7mm 3200m/s.

mANFO . ANFO 0.9 4 6 () . ANFO 1.2 20 6 (, ) () .

6.2.4 friction resistance(, ). ( ) . 1) mortar test(, ) 2)( ) Rathsburg (friction resistance )test .

1) (, ) 20~30 (, , ) (20kg/cm2~35kg/cm2 , 20kg/cm2~35kg/cm2 )(, ) (, ) (, ) . 2( ) () picric acid . ( )qualitative .

2)( ) Rathsburg (friction resistance )test () (, ) () rim (25kg/cm2 ) 80/min(, 80RPM) 20(, 15.0s) (, ) . ( ) carlit ( ) . ( ) H. Rathsburg .

m ( ) . .

( ) , ( ) , . .

m( ) sample explosive. ( ) . reference explosive. sample explosives. .

Quantity Symbol Value Power of ten Units: Faraday constant F=NAe 9. 648 53(104C/mol. Elementary charge e 1. 602 177(10-19C.

6.2.5 . ( ) E=CV2/2. . () 1(10-4(F~4(10-4(F(, 9. 648 53(10-6C~3. 859 412(10-5C)) 3(10-4(F(, 2. 894 559(10-5C) . 10000V E=(2. 894 559(10-5C)( 10000V)2/2=1. 447 279 5(10-3J? .

. lead azide 0.007J(, 1.000time), mercury fulminate 0.025J(, 3. 571 428 571times), black powder 0.8J(, 114. 285 714 3times), NC 3.1J(, 442. 857 142 9times), NG 6.0J(, 857. 142 857 1times).

(, , ). () (, ) blend(, m ), (,m ), (,m ), . (, ) blend . () () K , Sr , Ba Al . KClO3 , (? )p-nitroaniline, I2, PbI2, CuI2, PbO, CoO . ( ) KClO4, KNO3 Al , Sb2S3 .

mhexane : CH3(CH2)4CH3, C6H14, 6C*14H, CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3. CH2(H)-CH(H)-CH(H)-CH(H)-CH(H)-CH2(H).

m : C6H8(OH)6, C6H14O6, 6C*2H*6H2O, 6C*14H*6O. CH2(OH)-CH(OH)-CH(OH)-CH(OH)-CH(OH)-CH2(OH). C6H8(NO3)6.

m the unit of monosaccharides: C6H7O(OH)5, C6H12O6, 6C*6H2O, 6C*12H*6O. C1H(OH)-C2H(OH)-C3H(OH)-C4H(OH)-C5H(CH2OH)-O-.

m the unit of disaccharides, -C6H6O(OH)4, C6H10O5, 6C*5H2O, 6C*10H*5O.

m the unit of polysaccharides, =C6H5O(OH)3, C6H8O4, 6C*4H2O, 6C*8H*4O. =C6H5O(NO3)3.

mNitrocellulose . G/Cgun cotton C24H29O9(NO3)11(, 11) 13.48%N, C24H30O10(NO3)10(, 10) 12.76%N. C/Ccollodion cotton C24H31O11(NO3)9(, 9) 11.97%N, C24H32O12(NO3)8(, 8) 11.12%N, C24H33O13(NO3)7(, 7) 10.18%N.

m . C24H29O9(NO3)11 ( 12CO2+12CO+16H2O+8.5H2+5.5N2

m11 . C24H40O20+11HONO2 ( C24H29O9(NO3)11+11H2O.

m. C24H29O9(OH)11, [C6H7O2(OH)3]n, [C6H10O5]n. . C24H29O9(NO3)11, [C6H7O2(NO3)3]n.

10%( , 7~8%)H2O, 23%HNO3, 70%H2SO4. 1.48~1.49 1(, ) 1.84 3(, ) . 1kg 20g 20 2~2.5hr . 60 () . 30 .

m1 . 7%H2O, 23%HNO3, 70%H2SO4.

m1 . 17%H2O, 23%HNO3, 60%H2SO4.

m2nitroglycerine(, C3H5(NO3)3) . 0%H2O, 50%HNO3, 50%H2SO4.

3.1.2 TNT(, 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene, C6H2CH3(NO2)3, C6H2 (NO2)3CH3) 3 (, ). Na2CO3 Na2SO3 . TNT . TNT (, ) .

1() MNT : 16%H2O, 28%HNO3, 56%H2SO4. 55. /

2() DNT : 7%H2O, 32%HNO3, 61%H2SO4. 85. /

3() TNT : 2%H2O, 49%HNO3, 49%H2SO4. 90.

3.1.1 picric acid(, 2,4,6-trinitrophenol, C6H2(OH)(NO2)3, C6H2(NO2)2OH) 1) phenol sulfonation process , 2) chlorobenzene process , 3) direct nitration (of benzene )with Hg catalyst ( ) .

m1) . C6H5OH ((, H2SO4) C6H4(OH)SO3H(, phenolsulfonic acid) ((, HNO3) C6H2(NO2)3OH. /

2) . C6H5Cl) -(HNO3)( C6H3Cl(NO2)2(, dinitrochlorobenzene) -(NaOH)( C6H2(NO2)2ONa -(HCl)( C6H2(NO2)2OH(, dinitrophenol) -(HNO3)( C6H2(NO2)3OH. /

3) ( ) . C6H6 (HNO3, Hg cat.)( C6H2(NO2)3OH.

m3.1.3 trinitroanisole(, TNA, C6H2(NO2)3OCH3) . C6H3Cl(NO2)2(, dinitrochlorobenzene) -NaOH,CH3OH,methylation( C6H3(NO2)2OCH3(, dinitrochloroanisole) HNO3,nitration( C6H2(NO2)3OCH3.

m3.1.4 trinitrophenetol(, C6H2(NO2)3OC2H5) . C6H3Cl(NO2)2(, dinitrochlorobenzene) -NaOH,C2H5OH,ethylation( C6H3(NO2)2OC2H5(, dinitrochlorophenetol) HNO3,nitration( C6H2(NO2)3OC2H5.

m3.1.5 tetryl(, 2,4,6-trinitrophenylmethylnitroamine, tetranitromethylaniline, tetralite) dimethylaniline yield 20%~30% . C6H5N(CH3)2 HNO3,H2SO4,nitration( C6H2(NO2)3N(NO2)CH3.

Chapter 15(, 15 ). Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution () . 1. Introduction. - Aromatic Group() : loosely held electron electrophile . - : aromatic group resonance . 2. Orientation. (1) Effect of Substitiuents. electrophilic substitution electrophile . (2) Determination of Orientation .

Classification of Substituent . Activating: reaction rate . Deactivating . Table. Effect of groups on electrophilic aromatic substitution() () (, ) . Acivating ortho, para directorsm. Strongly activating -NH2, (-NHR, -NR2), -OH. Deactivating Meta directors -NO2, -CN, -COOH(-COOR), -SO3H, -CHO, -COR. Moderately activating. -OCH3(-OC2H5, etc). Deactivating ortho, para directors -F, -Cl, -Br, -I. Weakly activating -C6H5, -CH3(-C2H5, etc).

Reactivity and Orientation (, ()). Reactivity. electrophilic substitution() rate-determining- carbocation activation energy . - Aromatic ring() electrophile carbocation activation energy .

Orientation( rule)( ). - activating group o-, p- m- activated o-, p-directing. - deactivating group o-, p- m- deactivated m-directing. -NH2, -OH group N, O unshared electron pair aromatic ring() positive charge resonance activating group o-, p-directing. - Halogen () electronegativity() inductive effect() deactivating group unshared electron pair resonance o-, p-directing.

-NH2, -OH, -OCH3, -NHCOCH3, -C6H5, -CH3 releases electrons: stabilizes carbocations, activates : , . N(CH3)3+, -NO2, -CN, -SO3H, -COOH, -CHO, -COR, -X withdraws electrons: destabilizes carbocation, deactivates : , .

mRDX(, hexogen, trimethylenetrinitramine, (-CH2-N-NO2)3) 1) 2) . . . (batch process) HNO3 (, HNO3 ) recovery unit(, ) () .

m1) . (CH2)6N4(, hexamethylenetetranine, urotropin?) 98%c-HNO3,80?,5?( (-CH2-N-NO2)3+HCHO+NH4NO3.

2) . (CH2)6N4+2HNO3 -65( (CH2)6N4(2HNO3 NH4NO3+HNO3 ( NH4NO3(HNO3. (CH2)6N4(2HNO3 + NH4NO3(HNO3+6(CH3CO)2O(, acetic anhydride) ( 2(-CH2-N-NO2)3+12CH3COOH.

10~20%(, 15%)H2O, 23%HNO3, 60%H2SO4. ( ) 1.44 1(, ) ( ) 1.84 1.2(, ) . 20 1.5~2hr . 60 () .

cord

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mNirostarch . C12H14O4(NO3)6(, 6) 14.14%N. C12H15O5(NO3)5(, 5) 12.76%N. C12H16O6(NO3)4(, 4) 11.12%N.

mNirosugar . C6H4O3(NO3)8? (, 8, octanitrosugar) 17.28%N. C6H7O4(NO3)5? (, 5, pentanitrosugar) 15.95%N

mDehydrating Value of Sulfuric acid(, ). DVS=kgH2SO4/(kgH2O+kgH2O)(=3.50)

m . 1.84g/cc at 96%(, 36N)H2SO4. 1.52g/cc 1.50g/cc , 1.502g/cc at 98%HNO3 , 1.42g/cc at 72%, 1.40g/cc at 67%, 1.38g/cc at 63% . 0.795g/cc at 99.86 vol% C2H5OH.

scale 80 d_15^15 (C2H5OH) 0.797 : 99.46 vol%, 0.796 : 99.66 vol%, 0.795 : 99.86 vol%.

(nitro)cellulose unit

m1nitroglycerine . 0%H2O, 50%HNO3, 50%H2SO4.

m(, 50: 50) 98% , 98% , 2330% . ( . ) 98.5% , 1.262 . 45 1 ( ) . 1015(,1218) ( ) ( ). () . , , (40 ) . ( ), . .

mnitroglycerine 10~18.

m . 1 (, ) 150ml . . ( . )13ml 100ml 20 . 20 39ml 10 . dropper ( ) ( ) . ( ) 30 . . () 10min. () 30 . (, ) . ( ) . . ( ). ( ). . . .

m (, ) (15 )1.596. ( ) () . (1.9)2.2. 13.2(~13.5). 227.09g/mol.

mC3H5(OH)33HNO3 C3H5(NO3)33H2O+84.6kcal/mol(, )

( ) 8 , 14 . , , . .

1847 ( )(A. Sobrero) . () A. B. (, Alfred Bernard Nobel) 1962 () .

m(, nitrater?) reactor. Nathan 1901 (, ). Schmidt(-Meisner)(-) ( ), Biazzi ( ), injector ( ), NAB . .

, () ( ) .

1866 () , , ( ) .

, () .

m ( )(, , ) () . . (, 65%NC, 30%NG) () () . (, 50%NC, 50%NG?) . nitrocellulose, nitroglycerine, nitroguanidine(, NGd, CH4N3(NO2) .

m 150H2O 100gNaOH 1C2H5OH , .

antifreeze dynamite. NG 8 . NG . (, ) NG Ng ( ). 10%Ng(, 90%NG) 10 ( ) 30%Ng(, 70%NG) 40 ( ) (, ).

. 6%~18%( )NG (, ) . NG NH4NO3 . ( ) 0.7~1.3. . 18%~98%( )NG ( , ) . ( ) 1.3~1.6. .

. ( , , ) ( , )NG .

strength of dynamite . NG 30%. ( ) 30% NG ( ) .

n ( ) s(, S) ( )d (, ) . n=S/d. sympathetic detonation .

6.3.2 . 1) . 2) . Dautriche test (sensor )Mettegang , oscillograph , ( ( ) ) camera (, , ? ) .

m Dautriche test. V=Lv/2x. V=(10cm)(v/2x. V=ABv/2EF V: ( ) , v: ( ) , L: (( ) )AB ( 10cm), x: ( )EF . 1. 10cm L . 2. (, ) . 3. (, 2)M E (tape ). 4. () EF x .

(, strength) (, ) RWS(, relative weight strength, dynamite %) EWS(, equivalent weight strength, percent strength, NG46%, m46%NG)) .

6.3.3 . 1) (, brisance, B) mortar test, ballistic mortar test, ballistic pendulum test, ( )Trauzle lead block test . ( ) 10g . 10g ( ) . 100g ( ) .

m1) ballistic pendulum test. ( ) 5t () ( ) . 100g . (5t )() ( ) . 6 (100g ) . (5t )() . (, ) ( ) .

m2) mortar test. (10cm3 ) ( ) 15kg . 45( 10g 15kg . 45( (15kg ) . (, ) ( ) . .

m3) ballistic mortar test. (10cm3 ) ( )ballistic mortar( pendulum) ( ) 16kg . (10cm3 ) ballistic mortar 10g (16kg ) . (6 )(10g ) . ( ) (, , ) . (, ) (, , ) .

m4)( ) Trauzle lead block test. ( ) 200mm(, 20.0cm), 200mm(, 20.0cm). 25mm, 125mm, 6l(, 61cm3) (, ) . 10g . (6? ) . ( 10g ) ( 6 ) . , (, ) (, ) (, , ) . 10g . .

Trauzle lead block test 2g ( ) (, 8 ) ( ) . (, 80%Hg(ONC)2+20%KClO3) ( ) 17cm3 ( ) . tetryl 8 25cm3 ( ) .

() () . NG 90% dynamite 525cc/10g, () 480cc/10g, NG 60% dynamite 360cc/10g, tetryl 350cc/g, ( ) 335cc/10g, picric acid 310cc/10g, TNT 300cc/g, ( ) dynamite 240cc/10g, Hg(ONC)2 150cc/10g, Pb(N3)2 115cc/10g, black powder 30g/10g.

6.3.4 . . , Kasts brisance, Bichels brisance, Redls brisance . ( . )

m1) brisance test. (, ) ( )()Hess brisance meter ( )()Kast brisance meter . 8 .

m 100g 6 . 10g 6 . 8 6 ? .

( )() 40mm, 30mm 2 (, ) 1 1 ((, )), 1 ( ) . ( 40mm, 30mm )2 (, ) (, ) . (2 ) ( ) . ( ) 50g ( ) . ( ) (50g ) 8 (, ). ( 40mm, 30mm ) ( ) .

m ( )()(, ) 1 1 ( 21mm?, 21mm? )1 (, ) . ( ) . 1 (, ) ( ) . 15g 21mm(, 2.1cm) (, ). ( 21mm(, 2.1cm) 15g ) (1 ) . 8 (15g ) (, ). ( ) ( ) ( )( )( ) ( ) .

BK((h1-h2)Cu. B(K)=k(D. k, (, D. B=(DrS. (, (, ) )(, (, (, ) )Dr, ( ) () (, (, ) (, ) )S.

m6.4 ( ) . 6.4.1 ( ) (methane )gas test (, ) coal dust test . 6.4.2 1)( ) , 2)( ) , 3)( ) . 6.4.3 1)( ) lead plate test, 2)( )() , 3)( ) nail test, 4)( ) , 5)( ) , 6)( ) .

6.4.1 ( )( ) ()( )( ) . ( ) ( ). . . (, ) ( ) ( ).

m( ) . 9(0.3%(, 9.0(0.3%) methane( ) (, ) (91% ) ( ). 6 ( ) )400g~600g(, 500g ) ( ) ( ) (, ). ( ) (10 ) 10 ( ) 1 ( ) ( ) . 10 1(, 10 1) . ( . )

m . 35% (, ) 150mesh(, ?) 1500g (, , ) . 1500g ( ) 80% ( ) . ( ) ( ? )(6 ) (, ). ()( ) (5 ) 5 ( ) 1 ( ) ()( ) . 5 1(, 5 1) .

6.4.2 . 1) (, ) 15(, )( ) . 1 (, 1lot, ?) (, , 5) 1.1m 5 ( ) . 1m ( ) . 5 5 (, ). 5 100s/m~140s/m( ) (, ), ( ) 10s .

100s/m~140s/m , (, ) 10s/m .

m2)( ) . 1m ( ) . 10~30(, 20) . 1.5m (, ) 1m (, ) 2h (, ). ( 1.5m ) 25cm 1m . ( 1m ) (, , ) . ( 1m () 2h . )

( 4~5g/m ) safety fuse. ()/ 1m: 1(, ) /(, ) 5.0mm 100 ~140s/m 2h, 2(, ( )) /(, ) 4.8mm 100~140s/m 2h, 3(, ) /(, ) 4.6mm 100~140s/m 2h, ( ) /vinyl 4.8mm 100~140s/m 2h.

m (, ) . (, ) .

mBickford()() ( ) (, ) (, ) (1 ) (, ) 2() asphalt . Universal()() ( ) (, ) (, ) (1 ) (, ) 2() asphalt . Bickford()() ( ) 1 . Universal()() ( ) 1 .

m3)( ) . () 6mm( 10cm ) (, ). (1 5.0mm. ) 5cm () 6mm . ( ) .

m6.3.4 . 1) lead plate test 4mm, 40mm, 40mm, 1600mm(, 4cm(4cm) () 25mm, 30mm (, ) . () 25mm, 30mm (, ) 4mm, 40mm, 40mm, 1600mm(, 4cm(4cm) . (, ) . . (, ) scratch(, ) .

m2) . () ( )() . TNT (, m) talc . TNT talc 30g ( )1250kg/cm2 . (() 25mm, 30mm (, ) ? )( 4mm, 40mm, 40mm, 1600mm ) (30g ) . 27mm(, 2.7cm) ( ) . ( )3 20% (, 6gtalc, 24gTNT) ( ). ( )6 30% (, 9gtalc, 21gTNT) ( ). ( )8 40% (, 12gtalc, 18gTNT) ( ).

m3) nail test. () . (, , ) . 10cm . (8 5.0cm. 6 3.5cm. 3 3.0cm. )( ) . ( ) (, ) .

m4)( )(, m) . ( stray current ) 0.25A 30s () ( ) . 1.0A (30s )() ( ) . ( ( )() 0.6A~0.8A. 0.6A ( ) 0%( ) . 0.8A ( ) 100%( ) . ( ). )0.25A 30s , 1.0A ( ) .

m5)( ) . 1kg/cm2 (, 10m ) 1h (, ). . (, ) .

m6)( ) . (, , , from short delay to long delay) (, ). (, ) (, ) (, , , ) (, ).

. 8km 300m .

m(-D-glucos(, , ): C6H12O6. 6C*6H2O, C6H7O(OH)5, 3 725. 178 21cal/g. ((-D-glucose (-D-glucose, (-D-fructose )180.16g/mol .

mglucose fructose CH(OH)-CH(OH)-CH(OH)-CH(OH)-CH(CH2OH)-O-. glucose fructose 1 OH . glucose 1 ( )axial OH . fructose 1 ( )equatorial OH .

mglucos fructose galctose . 6hexose glucose, fructose, galctose .

msucrose(, , ): C12H22O11, 342.30g/mol, 3 941. 534 85cal/g.

(, , ) 1.0 0.6, 0.5~0.6, 1.0~1.5, 0.3. 185. , 12.5 100m 200g .

(, sucrose). D- D- . (, ) . . 20%, 15% . . () . 1.0 0.6, 0.5~0.6, 1.0~1.5, 0.3. 185, 200 . , 12.5 100m 200g . , 95% , . D- D- . . (, ) , () D- D- . ( ) . . ( ) . . () , . (, , yield) (, ) 5.5% .

cellulose(, ): (C6H10O5)n (n=30006000) -. 1020%, 50%, 90%, 100%(, ).

() 50% . () 1 1011 . .

30-50% . - . + c-HNO3 (C6H7O2(OH)3)n + 3nHNO3 (, c-H2SO4) [C6H7O2(ONO2)3]n(, ) + 3H2O + (, ) (C6H7O2(OH)3)n+3n(CH3CO)2O [C6H7O2(OCOCH3)3]n +3nCH3COOH .

: C6H10O5)n (, n=403000, n=250 ). () ( )() -. ()(, ) . 20% 80% (, 25% 75% ) . (, ) . () () ( )() -. () () ( )() . () () ( )() (, , ). +(, ).

m - . ( ) . 25% 75% . 300-3,000 - 1.4 . 34,000g/mol~170,000g/mol. (, ) . 1.6 ( ) . 50,000g/mol~5,000,000g/mol.

(crab , ) (, , , ). 109 .

: (, ), Ca5(, OH)(, PO4)3.

m 6:35am . . 850 . 30m ( 1) . 7:35am. ( ) ( ) . ( ) . . 4100 . (, ) 7:50am. . 4 . 8:23am . 1 . . 10min ( ) . . (, 3 ) 112.5g, 28mm 2 2 .

m3 ( ) (, dummy ) . (, dummy ). 28mm, 112.5g, 2. 56.8%NG, 18.2%(1.82%NC, 22.6%NaNO3, 18.2%, 1.2%CaCO3(, ), 0.2%NaCl(, Na2B4O710H2O), 0.3%bentonite.

mbentonite. montmorillonite ( ) (AI, Mg)2Si4O10(OH)2 4H2O clay mineral . . zeolite(, ). stilbite ( )CaAl2Si7O18 7H2O. Molecular sieve (, ).

mNa2B4O710H2O(Na2O*2B2O3.

H3BO3 (2(H6B2O6(B2O3*3H2O.

H3BO3 (4(H12B4O12.(2B2O3*6H2O.

Na2B4O710H2O(2B2O3*6H2O*Na2O*4H2O

m2 ( ) 70() . 2(), 3(), 5(), 7() .

1(, ). Dynamite nitroglycerine . - NaOH- ( )- 150mlH2O, 100gNaOH, 1lC2H5OH.

2. ? T-: TNT. P-: PETN, pentrit. H-: hexogen, RDX.

3. Nitrocellulose cellulose . (C6H7O2(OH)3)n + 3nHNO3 ((, c-H2SO4) [C6H7O2(ONO2)3]n(, , trinitrocellulose) + 3H2O.

4. , , () . Hg+4HNO3 ( Hg(NO3)2+2H2O+2NO2, Hg(NO3)2+(96%) C2H5OH( Hg(ONC)2+O2. 3Hg+8HNO3 -30( 3Hg(NO3)2+4H2O+2NO.

mHg+NO2 ( HgO+NO. ( ) (, ) .

mHg+4HNO3 ( Hg(NO3)2+2H2O+2NO2,

2NO2+2Hg ( 2NO+2HgO

2HgO+4HNO3 ( 2Hg(NO3)2+2H2O

mHg+4HNO3 ( Hg(NO3)2+2H2O+2NO2,

2NO2+2Hg ( 2NO+2HgO,

2HgO+4HNO3 ( 2Hg(NO3)2+2H2O.

3Hg+8HNO3 ( 3Hg(NO3)2+2H2O+2NO.

5. . PE, polyethylene.

6. Hot spot .

7. (, ) (). (, ). 2000m/s~8500m/s( 2000m/s~9100m/s) . (, ). (, , ).

8. Dynamite .

9. % NG dynamite ()? 6% ( NG)

10. lithmus ? 4h~6h. 5h lithmus .

11. 1m ? 2h.

12. . N-O 3() . N-N 2() . N-O ( ( ( N-N ( (. /7. NO2 C6H2(NO2)3CH3, -NO C2H8N10, -NNO2 (CH2)3(NNO2)3. N2- C6H(NO2)3ON2 N3- Pb(N3)2. (, ) .

13. ( )() ( )() . /7. ( )-, TNT-, NaCl- , NH4NO3-, Al -, .

14. Tetryl .

15. ANFO heavy ANFO 3 . ( ( ( .

16. ANFO . 94%NH4NO3, 6%.

17(, ). . 8km 300m ( ) .

m ( )subscript . (, ) (, ) superscript .

m2. (, explosive mixtures) 2.1 (, nitrate explosives, ), 2.2 (, chlorate explosives, ), 2.3 (, perchlorate explosives, ), 2.4. liquid explosives .

, , (, ANFO ), (, slurry explosive), carlit .

m2.4 2.4.1 (, LOX, Liquid Oxygen eXplosive, oxyliquid), 2.4.2 panclastite, 2.4.3 Sprengel (,Sprengel ) .

2.4.1 LOX , Al powder, naphthalene?, ? ( ) . 5min. ( ). ( ) . 4500m/s~6000m/s (, ) (, ) . 1895 Linde (, , ).

2.4.2 panclastite ()liq. N2O4 nitrobenzene CS2, , Borneol camphor(, C10H17OH) . panclastite ( ) (, ) .

2.4.3 Sprengel nitrobenzene . 1871 Sprengel (, ).

nitrocellulose(, C24H29O9(NO3)11) , , . 13%N? (, 10~11) ( ) . 10%N~12%N(, 7~9) () dynamite . 10%N celluloid(, lacquer?) .

gelatine dynamite . dynamite , , gelatine dynamite, ammonia gelatine dynamite . ()( )(). , , . gel. l-kg/s3?

(, )MMAN(, monomethylamine nitrate). gel thickener CMC(, carboxymethylcellulose?), guar gum , ?, .

() (, ).

(, )( , ) (, ) .

, , . . (, ) . Ba(NO3)2 ( BaO+N2+5O, BaO+2HCl ( BaCl2+H2O.

(, ) (). 169 100 ammonia . 200 . 250~260 . NH4NO3 -100( HNO3+NH3. NH4NO3-200(N2O+2H2O. NH4NO3 -250~260( O+N2+2H2O.

(, ). ( ) . dynamite 10mm, slurry explosive 12mm~15mm, ANFO explosive ( )20mm ( )30mm.

(, ) . dynamite 50mm, ANFO explosive 250mm~300mm.

(, ) deadpoint . ( ) () . ( . . press . . )

ANFO ( )8%~10% . () .

nitroglycerine , . 20%Ng, 80%NG (, ) -20. 30%Ng, 70%NG (, ) -40.

C(CH2NO3)4(,C(CH2ONO2)4, PETN, pentaery?thrite tetranitrate, pentrit?) , (ethyl )alcohol, (diethyl)ether . NG . pentrinit PETN NG ( ).

PA 3320.

TNT .

tetryl alcohol ( alcohol ) . tetryl (, , ) .

hexogen(, RDX) PETN, tetryl(, ) (, ) . hexogen .

(, ) (, ) 0.1g (50 )100g 30cm (, , ) .

Pb(N3)2 ( ( . Pb(N3)2 (, ) .

mPb(N3)2+4NaOH ( Na2PbO2+2NaN3+2H2O. Na2PbO2 ( Na2O*PbO ( NaOH H+ M+(, H M) (, ) .

C6H8(NO3)6 . (, ) 1.72g/cm3, 112~113, () 8200m/s, () 1450kcal/kg(, 1450kcal/kg). explosion rivet .

C6H(NO2)3O2Pb 3.01g/cm3, () 5200m/s, 275~280. .

cellulose empirical formula C6H10O5.

: 6~8%H2O, 21%( 1.48~1.49 )HNO3, 71%( 1.84 )H2SO4, 5~26, 1h~8h. : 15~17%H2O, 24%HNO3, 61%H2SO4, 40, 1h30m .

PETN pentaerythritol 5( ) ( ) (, ) 15 .

(CH2NNO2)3(, T4?, T4?, cyclonite, RDX) acetone . () 1460kcal/kg, () 8370m/s.

C6H2(NO2)4NCH3(, tetryl) 1.73g/cm3, () 1120kcal/kg, 3370, 190, 1.62 (, 1.62) 7600m/s 1.7 7850m/s. .

() 7100m/s.

TNT 1.55 6800m/s, 1.60 7000m/s.

(, ) () 700kcal/kg, () 265l/kg, 265 275.

ANFO 1 , 2 6 100% . 200mesh . diesel (fuel )oil(, ) . () prill ammonium nitrate .

ANFO () 2500m/s~3000m/s . 50mm? ANFO () 4500m/s .

slurry ( )( 20% ) ANFO . TNT (, , nitrocellulose) NH4NO3 . O/W suspention(, ). 2(, 1970) slurry MMAN(, monomethylamine nitrate, CH3NH2(HNO3) EGMN(, ethyleneglycol? mononitrate, CH2OH-CH2NO3), HN(, hydrazine nitrate, N2H4(HNO3) . 15 . .

emulsion emulsion type W/O W/O emulsion . . 10v%~40v% . emulsion () 5000m/s~5800m/s, (, bulk density) 1.05~1.15. 20~35 . slurry ( ) (, ).

(, perchlorate explosive mixture?) carlit, Yonchite, Perdit, Neu-leonit Alkalsit, .

0.90 ANFO ( ) 4atm~5atm. 0.98 ( ) 5atm~6atm. 1.2 .

ANFO fuel oil 3 (, ) diesel oil 2. volatility ( ) flash point 50 .

. P=K(D2. P ( )(), K , ( , D ( )().

( ). P0=(f()/(1-((). P0 ( )(), f (, ), ( covolume(, ), ( .

dynamite NG (30% ) dynamite. straight dynamite (, (40) NG (45% )NaNO3 dynamite. ammonium dynamite NG NH4NO3 dynamite.

straight dynamite (40 (, str.dyn.(40) 39.0%NG, 45.5%NaNO3, 14.6%, 0%S( powder), 0.8%CaCO3, 0.9%H2O. ( )() 4400m/s. straight dynamite (40 () (, ) . 1/2lb=453.592g/2=226.796g, , .

ammonium dynamite (40(, amm.dyn.(40) 16.5%NG, 31.4%NH4NO3, 37.5%NaNO3, 9.2%, 3.6%S( powder), 1.1%CaCO3, 0.7%H2O. ( )() 3300m/s. CaCO3 ( )() .

m ammonium dynamite dynamite powder dynamite(, ). .

mgelatine dynamite blasting gelatine dynamite(, blasting dynamite, blasting gelatine), gelatine dynamite, ammonium gelatine dynamite .

dynamite , , . blasting dynamite . straight dynamite . ammonium dynamite .

detonators fulminate detonator, composite detonator, ( )azide detonator, DDNP DDNP detonator, . , , DDNP .

? ( )dynamite, dynamite, ( ) Eqs . (, , m ) ( )() ( , ( ) ).

Eqs (, equivalent to sheathed explosives, ion exchange explosives, ) . Eqs ( ) nitrogel NH4Cl NaNO3( KNO3). Eqs Eqs-I Eqs-II . (, ) . NH4Cl+NaNO3 ( NH4NO3+NaCl.

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mreducing or cooling agent(,mcooling agent, m) NaCl(, ), KCl, , Na2B4O7, (NH4)2C2O4H2O(, ) ( ).

mH2C2O4, (COOH)2, C2H2O4. H2C2O42H2O. ( )oxalic acid dyhydrate. Na2C2O4.(NH4)2C2O4H2O. CaC2O43H2O.

mborax(, Na2B4O710H2Odisodium tetraborate decahydrate , ). orthoboric acid(, H3BO3, ). metaboric acid(, HBO2). tetraboric acid(, H2B4O7., pyroboric acid). KBO2, NaBO2. potassium pentaborate tetrahydrate(, KB5O84H2O). ()( )(mono)sodium perborate tetrahydrate(, NaBO34H2O).

m . (, ) ( )() () ( )() ( )() (, ) . () steady detonation( ) () ( )() ( ) . () ideal detonation( ) ( ) . () ( ) ( ) energy loss .

m() . dynamite. () (, ) 0.9(m~1.0(m barium ferrite(, BaO(6Fe2O3?, BaCO3(6Fe2O3) acrylic acid( ester) () polymer . 9%~10% (acrylic acid( ester) () polymer ) barium ferrite dynamite . barium ferrite dynamite magnetizer ( )( ) . (, , ) 400. ( ) 2200~3100.

m()(, , FeO, , ). ()(, , Fe2O3, , , ). (, Fe3O4, ). hematite(, , Fe2O3). magnetite(, , Fe3O4).

mFe3O4( FeO*Fe2O3.

ferrite magnet . ( )strontium magnet(, SrCO36Fe2O3). ( )barium magnet(, BaCO36Fe2O3).

MO Fe2O3 () . M 2 , 2 , 2 , .

FeO , .

Fe2O3 1,550 . Fe3O4 . . .

( ). 1 (( )): 80t, 40t, 4000 , 2000km, 400 CCR, (, () , 0t .

2 (( )): 20t, 10t, 1000 , 500km, 100CCR, (, () , 0t .

3 (( )): 50kg, 25kg, 1 , 1500m(, 1.5km), 1 CCR, (, () , 0t .

4 (( )): 30kg, 15kg, 5000 , 1000m(, 1km), 300 CCR, 10000m(, 10km) , 0 .

5 (( )): 400t, 200t, 0 , 0m(, 0km), 0 CCR, 0m(, 0km) , 0t .

6 (, , m ): 0t, 0t, 0 , 0m(, 0km), 0 25 CCR, (m(, (km) , 0t . ( CCR . )

7 (, ): 0t, 0t, 0 , 0m(, 0km), 0 0 CCR, 0m(, 0km) , 10t . ( . )

8 : 0t, 0t, 0 , 0m(, 0km), 0 0 CCR, (m(, (km) , 0t . ( . )

. 1( ) ( ). 1.5m 10, 1.5m~1.0m 5, 0.5m () () ().

( )()elastic wave () () P S (? )Rayleigh Love , .

sporting cartridges. , cartridge case, propellant, shot, (, )disk, (, , ). priming tube. . electric fuses. chamber blasting. gallery blasting. deep hole blasting. quarry blasting. no-cut-round blasting. bench-cut blasting. tunnel() blasting. line blasting. controlled blasting(, smooth blasting). SB . line drilling, cushion blasting, pre-splitting(, pre-sharing). (, ). round(, ). working space. Neuman blasting. (, )circuit tester. resistance tester. ohmmeter. accelerometer. blasting machine. . center cut blasting. wedge cut. (, German cut). pyramid cut. burnt cut? burn cut(, ). coromant cut. secondary blasting. . MS milisecond blasting(, MS blasting). () electric blasting. (, ?)spread blasting. ( )velocity of explosion. ( ) disruptive effect. ( )()detonation wave. sympathetic detonation. fuse test. (, ) spontaneous decomposition. (, )spontaneous explosion. stability and stability test. , heating test, heat test. (, )effect. explosive effect. ambient pressure() . peak pressure . secondary shock wave . borehole diameter( ). hopperfunnel . black rain (, ). process of propellant burning . flame zone: luminous (, ). fizz zone . foam zone . shotgun cartridge . wad?(, ). vent. TNT manufacturing building . Non hazardous area? . ()fense. baricade. Door alarmed () . metal cone. liner. shaped charge for tapping blast? furnace. GB filler. bursting charge( ). propelling charge() (, ). stand by . claymore () .

engineering blasting technique(, ) . rock mechanics (, ). excavation engineering . solid earth . geology . geo, logos. agency. rock bolt . SD . swelling ( ) . stereographic projection . Hoek-Brown . oxygen balance( ) . Hopkinson effect . equivalent to sheathed explosivesEqs . . hydraulic jumbo drill. Olofsson( Sweden) . back break over hang. peak particle velocity. crater theory . non electric detonator . primer. cut off . flash over. decoupling effect. channel effect (, , ). series balancing . sub drilling. wide space blasting. wide spacing . VCR(, vertical crater reterate) . soft bed treatment blasting . direction blasting . TBM( ) . A.S.S.M( ). NATM(, new Austrian? tunnelling method). invert. Bierba((umer . Terzaghi . graphic method. computer. shotcrete. stereo . face mapping . flat-jack . sliding . RMR(, rock mass ?) .jointed rock mass . slaking . Darcy. land creep land slide. Lugeon . (, ) Coulomb . Mohr() . Mohr() . Mohr() . Griffith() . strain hardening strain softening. creep creep . crush zone. SEAM. dilatancy. hysteresis. . stress-strain curve- . Bowen . IUGS . diagenesis . () mass-movement( ). attitude, strike dip. exfoliation( ), magma, metamorphic grade, metamorphic acies, polymorphism, trace fossil , bioturbation, transition, aulacogen, post-volcanic action . explosive mixtures . explosive compounds . . . TNB. PA. trinitrochlorobenzene. lead dinitroresorcinate. Nitrodyne test. u. d. c.. ( ) Hess ?. 1() , 2() , 3() , 4() . (, ). Nonel system. Nonel connector. Nonel tube. Nonel-HN1. Nonel-PN1. UB connector. bunch connector. multiclip. mini detonator. GT/MS. GT/T. UNIDET. Hinel. TLD, trunk-line delay detonator. LP, long period detonator. DHD, down hole delay detonator. starter. bunch type. hooking-up style. Hercudet. Demolotion. angle cut. parellel cut. Trench blasting. trench . . . , , ( ) , wide space . ripping. . tunnel (, ) . . Seam cut, Burn cut, Coromant cut, Cylinder cut. . V cut, Pyramid cut, Diamond cut. MSD. DSD. system () transcore system MBS, electromagnetic induction blasting system. Magnadet. Magnadet system. plastic cover. plastic tube. bottle box. gas bomb. checker. tester. percent strength. weight strength. bulk strength(Bs). Grade strength(Gs). Relative Weight Strength(RWS). Relative Bulk Strength(RBS). () AWS(, absolute weight strength. () ABS(, absolute bulk strength). under water storage. dynamite aging. burn cut blasting. combustion. explosion. deflagration. detonation. OB(, oxygen balance). cooling agent. sensitizer. gelatinizer. desensitizer. Nitro Nobel () shaped charge fragmex 49%RDX, 50%TNT, 1%paraffin? Hopkinson effect. Neumann effect. Monroe effect. channel effect. decoupling index. decoupling. finex. conveyor( belt). Bristar. kine(, cm/s) . TBM, tunnel boring machine () ( ). ASSM(, American Steel Support Method). stress internal force. . . spalling. Daw . flannel. shellac. furo. stray current. static electricity. electrical storms. RF energy. high voltage power line. loop(, coil) (, ) . out-shot. misfire. tamplet . underground storage facilities. top heading-bench method. top heading . . bench section(, ). specific charge. access tunnel. raise climber . guide rail. protecting roof. air pipe. water pipe. safety device. air motor driven hose or cable reel. expansion bolt. arch. mucking wheel loader . 1st square. 2nd square. floor holes(, ). the wall holes. roof holes(, ). back break . over hang . specific drilling. pattern. V pattern, (, )echelon pattern, channel pattern, alternating hole pattern, flat-face pattern, sinking blast pattern. tamping . ( ) Langefors . strain energy bubble energy . crushing radial crack. spall fracturing. radial crack. acoustic impedence (c. pattern . square pattern, rectangular pattern. staggered pattern(, m, ). drilling pattern. OD (, over burden drilling method). hole diameter. burden, B(, ). spacing, S. stemming, T. sub driling, U. bench height, H. stereo net pi-diagram . jet burner . slot drill . diamond wire saw. spacer, coupler. sinker drill breaker. sinker drill. Gustafsson ( ) . ( ) flash over.

m , p299 .

weathering ( ). (, )erosion process. transportation(, ) . sedimentation .

. . ( , ) . ( ). () ( ) , .

m (, )solubility. 0 13.3gKNO3/100gH2O 11. 738 746 69%, 20 31.6 g/100gH2O 24. 012 158 05%, 40 63.9 g/100gH2O 38. 987 187 31%, 60 110g/100gH2O 52. 380 952 38%, 80 169g/100gH2O 62. 825 278 81%, 100 246g/100gH2O 71. 098 365 9%.

(, single-base) (, multi base) . (, )single base propellant (,m, m). multi(, multiple) base propellant (, ) (, , double-base) , (, triple base) .

1846 ( ) the University of Basel, Switzerland (, Christian Friedrich Schoenbein) nitrocellulose . (, ) 2 . AUTORITY .

1860 (, , ) (, ) E. Schultze (, nitrocellulise) , (). 1884 Paul Vieille . (, ) Poudre B (, gun-cotton, , , single base propellant) .

( ) nitrocellulose nitrocellulose .

gun cotton 6%, 24%, 70%. collodion cotton 16%, 24%, 60% .

1914 (, , DuPont, Du Pont) (, diphenylamine, DPA) (dinitrotoluene. DNT) (, ) . DNT ( ) ( ). . 75.50% , 20.00% , 1.50% , 1.00% , 1.00% , 0.75% , 0.25% .

(, ) . ( ) .

1929 Western Cartridge Company(, Olin Corporation) (ball powder, m ) . Picatiny Arsenal Dr. Fred Olsen ball powder (, ). . colloid - ( ) . . ( ) dibutyle phtalate . . (degressive combustion) . . ( ) ( ) . () () (, ) (, ).

. Poudre B . () .

(, ) (, purity, ) 99.0%. () (, mExtra Pure, mEP) 99.9%. ( ) 10% (, ) . (, ) .

. . 72%NaNO3, 16%C, 12%S.

Charcoal ( ) . . . . . . . ( ) . (). (lamp black )() . ( ) () . . () . (, ) (, ) ( ) . ( ) ( ) . ( ) .

Sulfur ( ) . . . (, 50% ) 444.6 ( ) . (calorie, ) (, ) . . ( ) .

( ) ( ). ( ) () . KNO3 ( ) ( ) ( ) . , , , ( )() . (, ash, ) , () , ( ) .

Potassium nitrate(, saltpeter) . ( )( )() . ( ) ( ) . (, ) ( ) . ( ) . ( )() ( ) (, , ) (, , ) (, ). () ( ) . (, ) (, , , ) () (, ) . (() nitrite bacteria () nitrate bacteria ) NO3- K2CO3 K+ () . , (, ) (, ) ( )() ( , recrystallization?) . () . ( ) (, ) . . iodine( ) . ( ) ( ) .

(, ) . .

( ) . . ( )sample . 1252 Roger Bacon 37.50%, 31.25%, 31.25%. 1350 Marcus Graecus 66.60%, 22.20%, 11.20%. 1781 Bishop Watson 75.00%, 15.00%, 10.00%. (, 75.00%, 15.00%, 10.00%) ( )() 100% 14 (, 50%, 25%, 25%) ( )() 75.0% Roger Bacon() (, 37.50%, 31.25%, 31.25%) ( )() 41.2% .

, , 76%, 14%, 10%. 1860 . manual 74.0%, 15.6%, 10.4%. -() 0.8% . 0.5% .

(, deliquescence). . ( , )(, ) ( )() ( )() ( ) . (, , brine) (, ) (, ) () . ( ) .

(, efflorescence). (, crystal water) . weathering . Na2CO310H2O (, )Na2SO410H2O . ()( )() . ()( )() () lattice . () .

(, caseless ammunition). (, Volcanic repeating pistol). (, Dreyse needle gun). SPIW(, Special Purpose Individual Weapon). (, extractor) (, ejector). (, ejection port). rotating cylinder bolt(, . ) (, cook-off). 1960 MBA (, Gyrojet). Case Telescoped Ammunition(, CTA) . Lead shot(, ) Steel shot, Tungsten buffered shot . Steel shot , . . (, ) (, , ) . ( ) . Tungsten(-Iron) shot - . Tungsten-Iron shot . . . (, strong gun cotton). Nitroguanadine H2NC(NH)NHNO2(, NH2C(NH)NHNO2). CAS No. 556-88-7. 239 . . () 75%, 15%, 10%. particle size 1mm FFFg . F Fine(, , ) () g granule(, , m) (). F . FFFFg (, ) . ( ) (Krupp gun) . ( ) ( ) ( )(cordite) . . ()1( ) (, lyddite) . 1920() (, ) . -NO3 2~4 . . (film, , ) . ()2( )() ( ) (, ) (, ) .

nitric ester(, nitrate ester). RONO . ( ) () (, ) . 1 () CH3ONO2 65 , C2H5ONO2 87.5 . condensation . , . (, )(, ) (, ) .

nitrocellulose. (, ) . , , , , . 12.513.5% , 11.212.3% , 10.711.2% . (, ) , 1 (, ) 3(, ) . (, ) , () (). (, nitration, ) , (, , nitrogen content) . (, , ) (, ) 14.14%, 14% . , . , , . , , 20% . (, ) . . P. B , 12% 13.2% 12.612.8% (, ) ( )(, ) .

collodion. (, , ) 4g 100m(, ) . ( ) . , () . () (, 3%) , (2% )camper (, elastic) (). . (, ) , .

m( )() (, celluloid, cellulose nitrate, ) (, acetate, cellulose acetate, ) .

( ). ( ) (, thermoplastic resin) . , . () () ( ) (, ) . ( ). ( )() (, , , crude cotton?), , (, pulp) ( )(, natural fiber) (, ) ( )(, , mixed acid) . '' . () (, , ) . ( ) 2 75%( ) . . 25% 25% , , . , , , . . ( ) ( )() .

( ). . . ( ). ( )(, acetic anhydride) (; ) '' ' ' . . . (, tensile strength), ( )(, ) . .

(, Ball). (AP: Armor Piercing). (Tracer). (Incendiary). (AP-I). (AP-T). - (blank). - (, frangible). - (, dummy). (, rifle grenade).

(1)grain(, gr, 0.064 79g, 64.799mg) 180ft-lb(, 180lb-ft, 244.037 423 5J) .

m1lbft=0.453 592kg(9.806 65m/s2)0.304 788m=1.355 763 464Nm=1.355 763 464J.

m (, potential energy) . ( )(, elastic force) . kg(f)m( , ) , lb(f)ft( , ) , Nm . J () .

m1gr(, grain, )=0.064 799g, 1gr=64.799mg, 1gr=1lb/7000, 7000gr=1lb.

m1ft(, feet, )=30.478 8cm, 3ft=1yd.

m1lb(, pound, )=453.592g, lb, lb. 'libra(e)''(L=pound(s) in weight)', 1lb=16oz.

General data and fundamental constants . Quantity, Symbol, Value(, ), Power of ten10 , Units. Stnadard acceleration of free fall() (, ) (, ) g=9.806 65(, exact value, )m/s2. Gravitational constant() G=6.672 5910-11Nm2/kg2. Faraday constant F=NAe=9.648 53104C/mol. Avogadro constant NA=6.022 141023()/mol. Gas constant R=NAk=8.314 51J/mol-K.

() 24%(, strontium peroxide, SrO2), 36%(, strontium nitrate, Sr(NO3)2), 30%(, magnesium powder).

(, ) (, ). strontium salts. (, ) barium salts. copper salts. cobalt salts. (, ) potassium salts.

. (, ) . 5s ~ 10s (, ) . . () . (, ) () . (, ) (, ) . (, ) (, ) . . (, ) (, ) . 4 1 . 4 + 1 + 4 + 1... . () (, ). 4:1 . ( ) ( ) () linked feeding belt 4:1 .

melement ( )atomic weight.

1H 1.0079g/mol(, 1H 1.0078g/mol 99.985%, 2H 2.0140g/mol 0.015%), 2He 4.003g/mol(, 3He 3.0160g/mol 0.00013%, 4He 4.0026g/mol 99.99987%).

3Li 6.941g/mol, 4Be 9.012g/mol, 5B 10.81g/mol, 6C 12.011g/mol(, 12C 12.0000g/mol 98.89%, 13C 13.0034g/mol 1.11%), 7N 14.007g/mol, 8O 15.999g/mol.

11Na 22.99g/mol, 12Mg 24.30g/mol, 13Al 26.98g/mol, 14Si 28.09g/mol, 15P 30.97g/mol, 16S 32.07g/mol, 17Cl 35.45g/mol.

19K 39.10g/mol, 20Ca 40.08g/mol, 22Ti 47.87g/mol, 24Cr 52.00g/mol, 25Mn 54.94g/mol, 26Fe 55.89g/mol, 27Co 58.93g/mol, 28Ni 58.69g/mol, 29Cu 63.55g/mol, 30Zn 65.39g/mol, 33As 74.92g/mol, 35Br 79.90g/mol.

37Rb 85.47g/mol, 38Sr 87.62g/mol, 40Zr 91.22g/mol, 42Mo 95.94g/mol, 44Ru 101.1g/mol, 45Rh 102.9g/mol, 46Pd 106.4g/mol, 47Ag 107.9g/mol, 48Cd 112.4g/mol, 49In 114.8g/mol, 50Sn 118.7g/mol, 51Sb 121.8g/mol, 53I 126.9g/mol.

55Cs 132.9g/mol, 56Ba 137.3g/mol, 57La-71Lu, 57La 138.9g/mol, 58Ce 140.1g/mol, 60Nd 144.2g/mol, 62Sm 150.4g/mol, 71Lu 175.0g/mol, 72Hf 178.5g/mol, 73Ta 180.9g/mol, 74W 183.8g/mol, 75Re 186.2g/mol, 76Os 190.2g/mol, 77Ir 192.2g/mol, 78Pt 195.1g/mol, 79Au 197.0g/mol, 80Hg 200.6g/mol, 81Tl 204.4g/mol, 82Pb 207.19g/mol, 83Bi 209.0g/mol.

87Fr 223.0g/mol, 88Ra 226.0g/mol, 89Ac-103Lr, 89Ac 227.0g/mol, 90Th 232.0g/mol, 91Pa 231.0g/mol, 92U 238.0g/mol, 93Np 237.0g/mol, 94Pu 239.1g/mol, 95Am 241.1g/mol, 103Lr 260.1g/mol, 109Mt, 110Uun, 111Uuu, 112Uub, 113Uut.

m( ) nuclide mass number(, nucleus , nucleon ) (, ) .

The Periodic Table . the periodic law (, )period. family. Lanthanides(, , , , ). Actinides(, , , , ). s block( ). d block( ). f block( ). p block( ).

. LiClO4 60.152w%O 2.429g/cm3 106.397g/mol 106.00kcal/mol, KClO4 46.192%O 2.520g/cm3 138.553g/mol 103.6kcal/mol, NH4ClO4 34.043%O 1.950g/cm3 117.497g/mol 69.42kcal/mol, LiNO3 58.015%O 2.380g/cm3 68.948g/mol 115.28kcal/mol, NaNO3 47.056%O 2.261g/cm3 89.005g/mol 101.54kcal/mol, KNO3 39.563%O 2.109g/cm3 101.104g/mol 117.76kcal/mol, NH4NO3 19.988%O 1.725g/cm3 80.048g/mol 87.27kcal/mol.

m12P(, 371.64g, 23. 269 53%) + 10KClO3(,1 225. 47g, 76. 730 47%) ( 3P4O10(, ) + 10KCl.

m12P+10KClO3(3P4O10+10KCl. 371.64gP, 1 225. 47g KClO3. 23. 269 53%P, 76. 730 47% KClO3.

m8P + 5KClO4 ( 2P4O10 + 5KCl. 247. 76gP, 692.73gKClO4. 375. 75gKCl. 26. 343 71%P, 73. 656 29%KClO4. 39. 633 60%. 47. 664 52l/kg.

m4P+4NH4ClO4(P4O10+2N2+4HCl+6H2O. 123. 88gP, 469. 82gNH4ClO4. 20. 865 76%P, 79. 134 24%. 490. 789 96l/kg, 453. 036 89l/kg. 549. 202 54kcal/kg. 47. 813 71%, 0. 000 00%.

m2Al+3NH4NO3(Al2O3+3N2+6H2O. 53. 96gAl, 240. 129gNH4NO3. 203. 914gAl2O3. 18. 348 19%Al, 81. 651 81%NH4NO3. 69. 337 51%. 2 251. 844 09kcal/kg, 471. 834 63kcal/kg. 685. 935 21l/kg.

mC+2NH4NO3(CO2+N2+4H2O. 12. 011gC, 160. 086gNH4NO3. 6. 979 20%C, 93. 020 80%NH4NO3. 0. 000 00%. 781. 443 02l/kg. 1 560. 427 23kcal/kg, -467. 426 21kcal/kg.

mC+CO2(2CO. CO+H2O(CO2+H2. 3 431. 566 08cal/gC. CO+H2(C+H2O.

m . 2Al+Fe2O3(Al2O3+2Fe(l). 53. 96gAl, 159. 697gFe2O3. 111. 7gFe. 25. 255 43%Al, 74. 744 57%Fe2O3. 52. 280 05%. 556. 354 44kcal/kgthermite.

m( ) ( ) (, ) . ( ) (, ) ( ) .

m5C+4KNO3(5CO2+2N2+2K2O, 4CO2+2N2+K2CO3. 12. 929 76%C, 87. 070 24%KNO3. 40. 561 84%. 72. 095 626kcal/kg. 337. 799 35l/kg.

m7S+4KNO3(6SO2+2N2+K2S. 35. 688 16%S, 64. 311 84%KNO3. 35. 067 97%. 95. 155 167kcal/kg+(. 285. 149 07l/kg.

m . 21C+3S+17.2KNO3(15.4CO2+8.6N2+5.6K2CO3+K2SO4+2K2S. 12. 083 50%C, 4. 607 65%S, 83. 308 85%KNO3. 55. 990 270 8%. 257. 706 262 ll/kg.

m . 21C+3S+16KNO3(15.4CO2+8.6N2+5.6K2CO3+K2SO4+2K2S. 252. 213gC, 96. 18gS, 1 617. 664gKNO3. 12. 828 366 6%C, 4. 892 025 0%S, 82. 279 608 4%KNO3.

m (, ): 1kg . 12. 488 55C+3. 119 15S+7. 418 10KNO3(12. 488 55CO2+3. 709 05N2+3. 119 15K2S+0. 589 90K2O. 15%C, 10%S, 75%KNO3. 39. 948 55%. 585. 847 975kcal/kg+(. 363. 053 01l/kg.

m (, ): 560. 651g . 5C+3S+4KNO3(5CO2+SO2+2N2+2K2S. 60. 055gC, 96. 18gS, 404. 416gKNO3. 220. 52g. 10. 711 65%C, 17. 155 06%S, 72. 133 29%KNO3. 39. 332 85%. 439. 343 70kcal/kg+(. 319. 828 20l/kg.

m5Si+4NH4ClO4(5SiO2+2N2+4HCl+6H2O. 140. 45gSi, 469. 82gNH4ClO4. 300. 44gSiO2. 23. 014 40%Si, 76. 985 60%NH4ClO4. 49. 230 67%. 1 149. 438 06kcal/kg+(. 440. 736 07l/kg.

m10Al+6NH4ClO4(5Al2O3+3N2+9H2O+6HCl. 269. 8gAl, 704. 73gNH4ClO4. 509. 785gAl2O3. 27. 685 14%Al, 72. 314 86%NH4ClO4. 52. 310 86%. 1 458. 972 02kcal/kg+(. 413. 996 49l/kg.

m5CH2+6NH4ClO4(5CO2+3N2+14H2O+6HCl. 70. 13gCH2, 704. 73gNH4ClO4. 9.050 67%CH2, 90. 949 33%NH4ClO4. 0. 000 00%. 284. 631 09kcal/kg+((, i-octane ). 809. 942 44l/kg.

mCH2+3NH4NO3(CO2+7H2O+3N2. 14. 026gCH2, 240. 129gNH4NO3. 5. 518 68%CH2, 94. 481 32%NH4NO3. 0. 000 00%. +1 660. 364 43kcal/kg. 399. 328 35kcal/kg. 970. 093 05l/kg.

m(NH2)2CS+2KClO3(N2+2H2O+CO2+SO2+KCl. 1mol*76. 117g/mol, 2mol*122. 547g/mol. 2mol*74. 55g/mol. 23. 696 88%, 76. 303 12%. 46. 418 09%. 348. 898 39l/kg.

m(NH2)2CS=CH4N2S, NH4SCN=CH4N2S. NH4SCN(Pb(SCN)2. ((NH2)2CS(Pb(SCN)2. (NH2)2CS NH4SCN ( )molecular formula . thiourea ammonium thiocyanate ( )structural formula . isomer. . . . (, , ).

mPb(SCN)2+2KClO4(2SO2+2CO2+N2+2KCl+Pb. 323. 346gPb(SCN)2, 2*138. 546gKClO4. 53. 851 69%Pb(SCN)2, 46. 148 31%KClO4. 59. 338 35%. . 186. 647 08l/kg.

m2CH2+3N2H5ClO4(2CO2+8H2O+3N2+3HCl. 28. 052gCH2, 397. 410gN2H5ClO4. 6. 593 30%CH2, 93. 406 70%N2H5ClO4. 0. 000 00%. 532. 262 09l/kg.

m4Al+3N2H5ClO4(2Al2O3+6H2O+3N2+3HCl. 107. 92gAl, 397. 410gN2H5ClO4. 21. 356 34%Al, 78. 643 66%N2H5ClO4. 40. 352 64%. 532. 262 09l/kg.

mguanidine perchlorate. 2(NH2)2CNH*HClO4(3N2+5H2O+CO2+CO+HCl.

mguanidine nitrate. (NH2)2CNH*HNO3(2N2+2H2O+H2+CO.

mN2H5ClO4(N2+2H2O+HCl+O2. 132. 470g/mol. 846. 002 87l/kg.

m4KNO3(2K2O+2N2+5O2. 1 080kcal/kg. 39. 560 75%O. 101. 104g/mol. 46. 585 20%.

mKClO4(KCl+2O2. +46.2w%O. 138. 546g/mol. 746kcal/kg.

m2KClO3(2KCl+3O2. 39. 166 20%O. 122. 547g/mol. 782kcal/kg.

m2NH4ClO4(N2+3H2O+5/2O2. 34. 042 55%O. 824kcal/kg. 117. 455g/mol. 810. 719 15l/kg.

mNH4NO3(N2+2H2O+1/2O2. 20. 000 00%O. 80. 043g/mol. 980. 612 50l/kg. 1 090kcal/kg.

mHNO3. 63g/mol. 76. 190 48%O.

mHClO4. 100. 5g/mol. 63. 681 59%O.

mHNO4. 79g/mol. 81. 012 66%O.

HNO4. peroxynitric acid. m.

mmellamime. N(CNH2)2N2CNH2. C3N3(NH2)3. 126g/mol. mC3N3(NH2)3*(HClO4)3(3CO2+3H2O+3N2+3HCl+3/2O2. 13.5mol*22.414l/mol / 427.5g/mol=707. 810 53l/kg. +11. 241 22%O.

. . () () () () ( ) .

. 28(, 1100g, 18.9%) 10(, 276g, 4.7%), ( , ) 45(, 12.5g, 0.3%) (, ) () () . (3 () ) 10(, 4396g, 76.1%) 5 3(, ) (. ) ( ).

HMX (, HEDM) HEDM.

(, ) . -ONO2, -NO2, -N-NO2, -N3, -NF2, CF(NO2)2.

() .

HAP(, hydroxyammonium perchlorate, ). 2.07g/cm3, 89.

cubane. melting point 130.5. color clear. toxixity none known. stability inert to light, water, air. decomposition >220. density 1.29g/cm3. heat of formation +144kcal/mol. strain energy +166kcal/mol.

m(, cubane, ). 130.5. . . , , . >220. 1.29g/cm3. +144kcal/mol. +166kcal/mol.

TNAZ. TriNitrotriAZine?. (NO2)2C(CH2)2NNO2. 1.84g/cm3, 101. HMX RDX .

HNIW(, HexaNitrohexaazaIsowurtzitane, CL-20) ( )next generation . HMX () () . (cage ) 1.98g/cm3 . 6 NNO2 . ( ). ( ) ( )()exhaust gas .

CL-20 : C6H6N12O12 ( 6CO + 6N2 + 3H2O + 3[O]

(, )() ( ) .

KDN(, potassium dinitamide, KN(NO2)2) . dinitramine . dinitramide N(NO2)2- resonance .

R-N=C=O -(HNO3, NO2BF4)( R-N(NO2)2 (MX)( MN(NO2)2. N2H5N(NO2)2

PBX(, Plastic Bonded eXplosive) RDX HMX ( ) . .

ADN (, ammonium dinitramide, NH4N(NO2)2). HAN(, hydroxylammonium nitrate, ). HAP(, hydroxyammonium perchlorate, ). TNAZ. high energy CL-20(, C6H6N12O12, HNIW). HEDM(, High Energy high Density Material, ). . . () (, insensitive propellant). (, insensitive munition). (, ) overall yield. minimum signature. Low Vulnerable . curative. RDX(, Research and Development eXplosive). structure modelling. energetic group () . cure catalyst. uncured. ( )heat of detonation. reactor. denitration. nitrolysis degradation. deterioration. crystallinity. cyclic ether. conformational modification. PSAN(, Phase Stabilized Ammonium Nitrate, ). AP(, Ammonium Perchlorate, ). (, packing fraction). binding agent, binder. dilatation. ( ) elongation(, ). atomizer, pulverizer fluidizer . sub-sieve-sizer. sub-mix. jet mixer quick-mix . quick mix process. turbulent mixing. () thermal cycling.

HTPB(, Hydroxyl Terminated PolyButadiene), PEG, PBAN(, Butadiene, Acrylic acid, acryloNitrile terPolymer), PBAA(,Butadiene, Acrylic Acid coPolymer), PU(, PolyUrethane), CTPB(, Carboxyl Terminated PolyButadiene), CTBN(, Carboxyl Terminated polyButadiene acryloNitrile) GAP(, PolyGlycidyl Azide, -(CH2CH(-CH2N3)O)n-), BAMO, PGN, Poly-G,Poly BAMO(, BisAzidoMethylOxetane)/NMMO(, NitratoMethylMethylOxetane) 1970() () .

HTPB(, Hydroxyl Terminated PolyButadiene) , (, ) .

ENTA(, Ethylene TetraNitrAmine, ETNA?) () . HNB(, HexaNitroBenzene) (, ) spontaneous ignition () .

HTPB- 22w% ( ) . 1~2w% ( ) . HTPB- (, ) 2~5% (, ). ( ) ( ) ( ) . 62.9%NH4ClO4, 22.0%Mg, 15.1%Binder. Mg(OH)2+2HCl(MgCl2+H2O.

(-RDX. (-RDX. (-RDX. . 1,3,5---. 1,3,5--1,3,5-. 2285kcal/kg. RDX -96kcal/kg(, -(Hf=-21.3kcal/mol) endothermic compound .

HMX, High Meltig (point )eXplosive. octogen. cyclotetramethylenetetramine. 1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazacyclooctane. HMX-I, HMX-II, HMX-III, HMX-IV. (-HMX 1.96g/cm3 metastable, (-HMX 1.87g/cm3 stable, (-HMX 1.82g/cm3 metastable, (-HMX 1.77g/cm3 unstable. HMX ( (-HMX(,HMX-I) . 180 RDX evaluation(, ) (-HMX 325.

Acetone RDX . 4.18gRDX/100gAcetone at 0, 5.38 at 10, 6.81 at 20, 8.38 at 30, 10.34 at 40, 12.80 at 50, 15.27 at 58. 12.7gRDX/100gCyclohexanone at 25, 27 at 97. 1.5gRDX/100gNitrobenzene at 25, 12.4 at 97.

copper chromate . Fe2O3(, ferric oxide), Cr2O3(, chromic oxide), MgO(, magnesium oxide) .

-12 ammonium trinitrate .

1,3,5-triazacyclohexanetrisulfonic acid. CH2(NSO3K)2(CH2)2NSO3K anhydrous (, ) 80% RDX .

mCH2(NNO2)2(CH2)2NNO2. CH2(NNO2)2(CH2)2(NNO2)2CH2. CH2(NSO3K)2(CH2)2NSO3K. (NO2)2C(CH2)2NNO2. N(CNH2)2N2CNH2.

Rocket () safe storage life, () safe use life, useful life . () ( ) decomposition fume () . 30 .

p 0.3%, k 0.1% . p . p (, )(, )(, ) temperature sensitivity. k (, ) temperature sensitivity.

strand burner .

AP . . . (, )sinusoidal. fatigue life. failure criteria. multiaxial . nozzle throat. refractory metal . overflow.

J.P.N . NC(, 12.2%N) 51.5%, NG 43.0%, DEP(, DiEthyl Phthalate) 3.25%, (, cetralite) 1.0%, K2SO4 1.25%, wax 0.08%, carbon black 0.2%, 0.6%.

(, , specific impulse). . 1 kg 1 (kg), s(, second, ) . (, specific propellant consumption) (, ) . . 5 1 270s , 2, 3 liquid oxygen 350s , 365s .

(, rocket). (, ) . , (, , exaust gas) (, ) . , (, ) , .

(, retro-rocket). . (, ) (, ) . (, , ) , . (, ) (, soft landing, ) (, ) .

. () nozzle . , F = ma(, F: , m: , a: ) nozzle () . nozzle () (, ) .

" . (, propellant) . () . () , ( ). , () nozzle nozzle , . (, ) heat engine . , . (, ) . , (, ) (, ) (, ) , (, ) nozzle . () , nozzle , . (, ) , (, ) (, ) . (, ) (, ) , (, ) . , () () 2(, :double base) ( ) (, :single base) . 2 () . 2 (, ) . . (, ) Isp . , (, ) . (, ) , . , , . . , . . , (, ) . (, plasma, ) . . () () . , . (, , photon, ) .

nozzle. (, rocket engine) nozzle . nozzle (, ) , (, ) , . . C.G.P. (, 18451913) , nozzle nozzle nozzle . nozzle (, ) nozzle , nozzle . 2 nozzle (, throat) , nozzle . , nozzle . , nozzle nozzle , nozzle . nozzle , . nozzle (, ) , . , (, ) nozzle . nozzle . ( )() , nozzle . , (, ) . ( ) (, ICBM ) , . (, ) () (, ) (, ) . , (, ) . () , . () () (, , Remote Control, RC) . () (, ) () 0(, ) , , () (, artificial satelite) () (, ) . (, ) , () . () () , .

(, nozzle). () (, ) . . , , (, ) . (, ) nozzle . nozzle (, )nozzle , (, ) nozzle nozzle . (, ) .

[Laval, Carl Gustav Patrik de, 1845.5.9 ~ 1913.2.2]. , . : : . , 1872 (, Klosters-Bruck) . 1878 , 1882 1 4 2,000 (, ) . , (, ) , (, ) .

(, -, photon rocket]. ( ) . . 30km . ( ) 1953 O. , (, ) (, ) . (, ) (, ) , . (, ) .

(, ). . 13 (, , ) . . 1700 , 2 . (, ) , . , . (, ) , . , . , .

. Total Impulse: (, )

.

Specific Impulse: (, weight flow)() . Total Impulse(, ) . . , . Effective Velocity: .

Thrust : () , (, ) (, ) (, ). 2 nozzle(, Nozzle ) , 3 (, Ambient) .

Rocket , . (, payload) . Launch Vehicle (, ).

. (1) (, Thermal Rocket) - . - (, , , -> ) - (, solar sail) - (, Laser Rocket) (2) (, Electric Rocket) - (, , ) - (, , ) - (, Stationary Plasma Thruster, MHD ) (3) (, Nuclear Rocket)

. Thrust (, ) (, ) . (, ) (, ) (, ) . F = dm/dt * V + (, Pe-Pa)*A. (, )() . .

(, , ) Reusable Lauch Vehicles : Space Transportation System Expendable L/V .

. 2 . . , (, , ) . 2 specific impulse(, ). (, ) 40~80s (, )180~220s, (, )230~250s . (, ) () , . (, ) polymer matrix (, ) () . binder (, ) (, ) . .

Solid Propellant. Solid Rocket Motor. .

Shock wave(, )(, ). Oblique shock (, ) Normal shock . subsonic . supersonic . . 1, 2 . () Adiabatic process (, )Irreversible process. . . , Acoustic speed(, Sound of speed, ) ( ) . (, ) . .

Black powder . KNO3 75 : C 15 : S 10. . (, ) . 6KNO3+21C+3S(13CO+8N2+5K2CO3+K2SO4+2K2S

composite propellant. , .

Single base propellant . NC semicolloid (, )(, ) . Double base propellant colloid (, ) . (, ) (, ) . (, ) (, ) . Scavenger(, ) propellant , , , . Insensitive propellant (, ) (, ) .

(, ) (, ) .

/GOX ( ) A Study of the engine Performance parameters for a Low-thrust Rocket with Liquid Alcohol/Gaseous Oxygen Propellant

(, SRM; Solid-propellant Rocket Motor) () () () nozzle . , , nozzle, . (, ) . . (, ) () .

() r=aP (, ). r: (, cm /sec), a, n: (, ) () , P: () () (, psi ). , () () P . a n (, ). () () . (, ) (, ) .

(, delay time) (, ) . . . (, ) (, , ) . (, ) . . 1. Aluminium 35%, KClO 65%. 2. Boron 30%, KClO 70%. 3. Boron 30%, KClO 80%. 4. Magnesium 60% Teflon(, ?) 40%.

Sodium nitrate(, NaNO), Potassium nitrate(, KNO) . (, Ammonium nitrate, NHNO) . Ammonium perchlorate(, NHClO) . () (, ) . . . Lithium perchlorate(, LiClO) . http://nasdae.new21.org/starpia/starcafe/ro001.htm

() . *(, , specific impulse )

1 kg 1 (, ) (, kg, ). . (, specific propellant consumption) . - 270 , - 350 , - 365 .

. (, ingredient) (, ) , . missile () () composite (, solid )propellent . () (, ) , , (, ) . , , , , . . , 7MPa(, 1000 psi) (, )180~290() . (, ) . Li, C. H. N, O +, () (, ). (, ) (, ) . (, ) , () . ignition pressurization . (, ) integrity . minimum smoke smokeless . , , , (, ), (, ), cost . . , , , , . () .

(, aluminized composite propellant) (, ) HTPB(, hydroxy-terminated polybutadiene) . PBAN(, poiybutadiene-acrylonitrile-acrylic acid) CIPB(, carboxy-terminated poiybutadiene) . () () . (, clean solid propellant, ) .

-high energy fuel. (, )(, ) . LOX(, Liquid OXygen)/() (, )RP-1, LOX/ LH2, N2O4/N2H4 (, CH3)2NNH2, (, AP, Ammonium Perchlorate)/ polymer fuel, / . , ()gelated , 50% , () liquified methane, , , . , FLOX, , , . elastomer, , . , , . (, ), , .

, , , , . monopropellant(, m ) bipropellant . system (, ) . () , () , , . (, CH3NO3, ) . H2O2 N2H4 . 2(, ) .

(, ). 260~478() . . (, ) . (, ) . "hypergolic" .

30 cryogenic propellant storable propellant . 39 . (, ) . ICBM (, ) . (, ) (, ) (, ) .

37.24m, 17.25m, 24m 72t. 170t 830 7.5 . 3.6m, 45.6m 590t. . 1126, () 1463 . (, ) (, ) . (, ) , 1 450 . 170t. 1 1490t.

lignin. . C18H24O11 C40H45O18 . 2530%, 2025% . . , . . pulp , .

hemicellulose. . . . 5 . . 2 . .

lignan. n- n- 2 . n- (n- ) , . , , . . . , .

inulin. . , . . . 4% . . .

pectic substances. . D- , , . , , (, , ) (, , , emulsifier) (dry, dried ) , . , , . . : , , . : , . : , . : , , . : , , .

mB4-2 single stage rocket motor. (, ) Estes industries penrose, Co. (, )(, ) U.S.A. 69.7mm. 17.5mm. 12.5mm. nozzle 3.0mm. 2.5mm. 8. 211 34cm3. 22.0mm. 3.0mm. 1mm 3.5mm. 31.5mm. 7.0mm. 1.5mm. . . (, ) . (, ) . (, )(, ) . . 4 . 1 3 Kraft (, ) .

mmodel rocket rocket motor . V, (r2h=3. 865 63cm3. 6. 24g. (=1. 614 23g/cm3. (, ) 1.2s. 2. 625 00cm/s. (, ) (, ( ) 5.00Ns. 4.15N. momentum P=mv[kg(m/s]=Ft[kg(m/s]. 10000/2 5000/2?

m 1.20cm. 0.80cm. nozzle 0.4cm. 3.5cm.

m (, , ) hygroscopy caking . anti-caking agent . Dodecane(, , C12H26) 1%~5% . (, , ) . () (, ) . nonpolar (, ) . (, ) coating . -10 216.

CnH2n+2(, Alkane); b.p, m.p, 1g () . CH4; -162(, +73), -182, 55.6kJ/g(, 13. 288 72kcal/g). C2H6; -89(, +47), -183, 52.0kJ/g. C3H8; -42(, +41.5), -188, 50.0kJ/g. C4H10; -0.5(, +32.5), -138, 49.3kJ/g. C5H12; 32(, 37), -130, 48.7kJ/g. C6H14; 69(, 29), -95, 48.2kJ/g. C7H16; 98(, 28), -91. C8H18; 126(, 25), -57. C9H20; 151(, 23), -51. C10H22; 174(, 22), -30. C11H24; 196(, 20), -26. C12H26; 216(, 20), -10. C13H28; 236(, 18), -6. C14H30; 254(, 17), +6. C15H32; 271(, 16), +10. C16H34; 287, +18.

m(, ) (, )nomenclature. AlkanesCnH2n+2. methaneCH4, ethaneC2H6, propaneC3H8, butaneC4H10, pentaneC5H12, hexaneC6H14, heptaneC7H16, octane C8H18, nonaneC9H20, decaneC10H22, undecaneC11H24, dodecaneC12H26, tridecaneC13H28, tetradecaneC14H30, pentadecaneC15H32, hexadecaneC16H34, heptadecaneC17H36, octadecaneC18H38, nonadecaneC19H40, eicosaneC20H42.

m () () (, ) , , , , , , 7 . , . () hexane (, ), heptane (, ) . () , (, ) . () (, , , (, ) ) (, ).

(, )(, ). 1 1 24 () . 2 1 1 . 3 ', , , , , , '(, 7 ) . 4 (, ).

( )(rocket engine, rocket propellant) 1954 ( ) ( ) Orville Carlisle (, , ) (, model airplane) Robert (design, ) . ( ) . ( , ) ( )(, ) () (). . ( ) ( ) (). () () (, , ). G. Harry Stine . G. Harry Stine 1957 NAR(, National Association of Rocketry, m ) . G. Harry Stine Model Missiles(, ), Inc. . ( )() 0.52(, 0.5s2s) . 0.5s2s( ) (m) . () () ( )(, delay element, , , ) . (, ). . D12-8 (, type, ) D12-5 3 . D: D12-6. D: (, Newton-Second, Ns), 12: (, Newton), 6: (, ).

() . () (, CG, Center of Gravity) () (, CP, Center of Pressure). ( ) ( ) . (, ) 12 . (, ) (, ). . () () () () () .

. (, Thrust) () Newton . (, ) (, Itotal, Total Impulse) (, Isp, Specific Impulse) . (, , ) Newton-second(, -) (, second). (, ) (, t) . () 10 Newton-second(, 10Ns) 5 Newton(, 5N) 2(, 2s) 2 Newton(, 2N) 5(, 5s) (, ) (. 10 Newton 1 ). (, , ) . (, rocket engineering) ( ) . Isp = Itotal / Wtotal (, sec, s). (, ) . (, ) (, ) 240s280s . , 70s80s ( ) .

. ( ) (, ) . () (, ) 75%, 10%, 15% . . ( ) 200sec . ( ) . ( ) (, , , ...) () () (, polymer) () . . (, , combustion chamber) () . (, , ) . (, ) (, ) (, inner wall, ) (, , refractory) (, ). ( ) (, ) . () (, ) (, crosslinking reaction) . ( ) .

(, Composite Propellant) . () () ( )(, , ) . . (, ) (, thrust) . () ( ) . ( ) . . 'C' . (, ) . . http://space.kyunghee.ac.kr/~singi/study4.htm

mnitromethane. (, )molecular formula CH3NO2. (, )molecular weight 60.0g/mol. 101. 1.129(, at 25). 6000m/s. (, ). () aliphatic nitro compound . . (, ) Alkali (, ) . . . () castor oil model aircraft (, , liquid propellant) . . 8 . composition C4 primer . . .

nitroparaffin. ()saturated () . . RNO2(, R ) . . (, ) gas phase method . 810 45 (, )mononitro compound . . . 1-, 2-, . , . . (, , ) . (, )tetranitromethane(, TNM, C(, NO2)4) hexanitroethane(, C2(, NO2)6) rocket propellant , , 2, 2- cetane value .

m . . . Nitrocellulose soak(, ) . Nitrocellulose .

carbon tetrachlororide. 4 (, 4 )(, ) (, ). (, ) CCl4. 153.82, 22.86, 76.679, 1.542. (, ) . () random . irradiation . . CS2+2Cl2(CCl4+2S? , C-Cl 1.77. , extraction() . (, ) (, ) , phosgen(, COCl2) (, ) . .

(, chloroform). () CH4 3 . (, ). CHCl3 . 119.38, 63.5, 61.2, 1.49845(, 15). () , , . , . 1.44858(, D). (, ), . (, ) .