Training Human Factors Psychology Dr. Steve Background Four types of factors that lead to poor performance: Four types of factors that lead to poor performance:

TrainingTraining

Human Factors PsychologyHuman Factors Psychology

Dr. SteveDr. Steve

BackgroundBackground

• Four types of factors that lead to poor performance: Four types of factors that lead to poor performance: – The environment is in the wayThe environment is in the way

e.g. lack of proper tools to perform the jobe.g. lack of proper tools to perform the job

– Employees lack skill or knowledgeEmployees lack skill or knowledge this can can be caused by lack of feedbackthis can can be caused by lack of feedback

– There are no, few, or improper incentivesThere are no, few, or improper incentives doing a good job could result in gaining more workdoing a good job could result in gaining more work

– Employees are not internally motivatedEmployees are not internally motivated e.g. certain jobs that lack pride or meaning (flipping burgers)e.g. certain jobs that lack pride or meaning (flipping burgers)

Personnel SelectionPersonnel Selection• Can be seen as the first approach taken to maximize the skills Can be seen as the first approach taken to maximize the skills

and knowledge needed by an employee to perform a joband knowledge needed by an employee to perform a job• Focus on identifying reliable means of predicting future job Focus on identifying reliable means of predicting future job

performanceperformance• Methods include: interviews, work histories, background Methods include: interviews, work histories, background

checks, tests, references, & work sampleschecks, tests, references, & work samples

Personnel SelectionPersonnel Selection

• Can be seen in terms of signal detection theory:Can be seen in terms of signal detection theory:– hithit = hiring a person who will be good at the job = hiring a person who will be good at the job– missmiss = not hiring someone who would do a good job = not hiring someone who would do a good job– false alarmfalse alarm = hiring someone who ends up being = hiring someone who ends up being

unacceptable or doing a poor jobunacceptable or doing a poor job– correct rejectioncorrect rejection = not hiring someone who, in fact, = not hiring someone who, in fact,

would not do a good job if they had been hiredwould not do a good job if they had been hired

Basics of SelectionBasics of Selection• First a thorough job analysis is neededFirst a thorough job analysis is needed• Identify & prioritize KSAsIdentify & prioritize KSAs• Find the applicants who have the KSAs or Find the applicants who have the KSAs or

have the ability to acquire themhave the ability to acquire them• Want a measure that is highly correlated Want a measure that is highly correlated

with ultimate job performance (i.e., with ultimate job performance (i.e., criterion-related validity)criterion-related validity)

Selection Tests and Selection Tests and ProceduresProcedures

• Selection errors can have serious negative Selection errors can have serious negative consequences for the companyconsequences for the company– cost related to high turnovercost related to high turnover– legal problems legal problems

(e.g. adverse impact)(e.g. adverse impact)

– low employee moral or resentmentlow employee moral or resentment– supervisors having to spend too much time on supervisors having to spend too much time on

documentation of problemsdocumentation of problems

Commonly used Selection Commonly used Selection Test and ProceduresTest and Procedures

• Measures of Cognitive AbilityMeasures of Cognitive Ability– e.g. general ability, verbal ability, numerical ability, e.g. general ability, verbal ability, numerical ability,

perceptual speed, memory...perceptual speed, memory...– used as valid predictors of job performanceused as valid predictors of job performance

• Measures of Physical Ability and Measures of Physical Ability and Psychomotor SkillsPsychomotor Skills– e.g. static strength, dynamic strength, gross body e.g. static strength, dynamic strength, gross body

coordination, manual dexterity, stamina ...coordination, manual dexterity, stamina ...– e.g. UPS workere.g. UPS worker

Commonly used Selection Commonly used Selection Test and ProceduresTest and Procedures

• Personality AssessmentPersonality Assessment– clinical or personality dimensionsclinical or personality dimensions– e.g. MMPIe.g. MMPI

• Work SamplesWork Samples– applicants complete a sample of work applicants complete a sample of work

necessary for successful job performancenecessary for successful job performance– e.g. making a basket for an NBA playere.g. making a basket for an NBA player

• Structured InterviewsStructured Interviews

Future Trends in Human Future Trends in Human Performance InterventionPerformance Intervention

• Accelerating turnover of knowledgeAccelerating turnover of knowledge• Rapid advances in information technologyRapid advances in information technology• An increasingly diverse work forceAn increasingly diverse work force• Increasing international business competitionIncreasing international business competition

Performance SupportPerformance Support

Continuum of possible performance support Continuum of possible performance support mechanisms for learning how to use softwaremechanisms for learning how to use software

ClassroomTraining

OnlineTutorial

User Guides

Reference Manuals

Help Line

Online Help

Product Affordances

Far From Task Near to Task

Training Program DesignTraining Program DesignSimplified Instructional System Design (ISD) Simplified Instructional System Design (ISD)

modelmodel

• Phase I – Front-End AnalysisPhase I – Front-End Analysis– Needs AssessmentNeeds Assessment – to determine whether training is – to determine whether training is

the most appropriate methodthe most appropriate method Organizational AnalysisOrganizational Analysis – determine where in the – determine where in the

organization is training required, and whether training will be organization is training required, and whether training will be accepted by organizationaccepted by organization

Task AnalysisTask Analysis – determine training objectives by examining – determine training objectives by examining tasks necessary to perform jobtasks necessary to perform job

Trainee (Person) AnalysisTrainee (Person) Analysis – determine KSA’s of potential – determine KSA’s of potential trainees and who should receive trainingtrainees and who should receive training

– Functional SpecificationsFunctional Specifications – defines the training – defines the training objectives, performance requirements, and constraintsobjectives, performance requirements, and constraints

• Phase II – Design and DevelopmentPhase II – Design and Development– Generate Design ConceptsGenerate Design Concepts

Story-boarding, cost-benefit analysisStory-boarding, cost-benefit analysis

– Formative EvaluationFormative Evaluation Focuses on process and usability, provides feedback so Focuses on process and usability, provides feedback so

that design changes can be made prior to developmentthat design changes can be made prior to development

– Full-Scale DevelopmentFull-Scale Development Creating the medium to present the learning curriculumCreating the medium to present the learning curriculum


modelmodel

• Phase III – System EvaluationPhase III – System Evaluation– Develop Criteria Develop Criteria – should be consistent with training objectives– should be consistent with training objectives

Levels of Criteria (Kirkpatrick) for summative evaluationLevels of Criteria (Kirkpatrick) for summative evaluation– Reaction Reaction – feedback from trainees as to whether they liked the training– feedback from trainees as to whether they liked the training– Learning Learning – test whether trainees learned the material– test whether trainees learned the material– Behavioral Behavioral – determine whether training led to measurable changes in – determine whether training led to measurable changes in

performance on the jobperformance on the job– Results Results – utility of training or how much cost savings was derived – utility of training or how much cost savings was derived

from implementing trainingfrom implementing training

– Design Evaluation ProgramDesign Evaluation Program– Collect/Analyze DataCollect/Analyze Data– Modify training based on empirical dataModify training based on empirical data


modelmodel

Guidelines for Instructional Guidelines for Instructional Development*Development*

• Training Validity:Training Validity: Instructional events that comprise the training method Instructional events that comprise the training method should be consistent with the cognitive, physical, or psychomotor should be consistent with the cognitive, physical, or psychomotor processes that lead to masteryprocesses that lead to mastery

• Active Learning:Active Learning: Learner should be induced to produce the capabilityLearner should be induced to produce the capability– e.g. practice behaviors, recall info from LTM, apply principles in doing taske.g. practice behaviors, recall info from LTM, apply principles in doing task

• Feedback Delivery:Feedback Delivery: All available sources of relevant feedback should be All available sources of relevant feedback should be used, & should be accurate, credible, timely, informative & constructiveused, & should be accurate, credible, timely, informative & constructive

• Self-efficacy:Self-efficacy: Instructional processes should enhance trainee self-Instructional processes should enhance trainee self-efficacy and expectations that the training will be successful and lead to efficacy and expectations that the training will be successful and lead to valued outcomesvalued outcomes

• Trainee Aptitude:Trainee Aptitude: Training methods should be adapted to differences in Training methods should be adapted to differences in trainee aptitudes and prior knowledgetrainee aptitudes and prior knowledge

*Adapted from research by Campbell

Training MediaTraining Media

• Audio-Visual (AV) MaterialAudio-Visual (AV) Material – videos, films, slide – videos, films, slide

presentations, used to present info multiple timespresentations, used to present info multiple times

Click for bad example of Audio Air Force Training Guide

AdvantagesAdvantages• Can be captivatingCan be captivating• Can combine with lectureCan combine with lecture• Training is consistentTraining is consistent• Inexpensive to deliverInexpensive to deliver• Can be dynamicCan be dynamic

DisadvantagesDisadvantages• Not interactiveNot interactive• No practice/feedbackNo practice/feedback• Difficult to update in some Difficult to update in some modalities (e.g., video)modalities (e.g., video)• High development costHigh development cost

Training MediaTraining Media• Interactive Multi-Media Interactive Multi-Media – – computer driven training system computer driven training system

using text, graphics, video, auditory informationusing text, graphics, video, auditory information– Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) / Computer-Based Training (CBT)Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) / Computer-Based Training (CBT)

AdvantagesAdvantages• Convenient deliveryConvenient delivery• Highly interactiveHighly interactive• Engaging/motivatingEngaging/motivating• Provides testing/feedbackProvides testing/feedback• MultimediaMultimedia

DisadvantagesDisadvantages• Can be resource-intensive Can be resource-intensive to developto develop• Requires multiple skills to Requires multiple skills to develop develop • Some skills not amenable to Some skills not amenable to CAI/CBTCAI/CBT

Example of CAI

• Simulation / Virtual RealitySimulation / Virtual Reality – imitation of the real environment– imitation of the real environment

Training MediaTraining Media

AdvantagesAdvantages• Realistic practice Realistic practice • Replay/critique performanceReplay/critique performance• Interactive, engaging, Interactive, engaging, dynamic, immersivedynamic, immersive• Safer than real environmentSafer than real environment• Event-based (trainer-Event-based (trainer-controlled)controlled)

DisadvantagesDisadvantages• Very costly to developVery costly to develop• Difficult to developDifficult to develop• Costly to implementCostly to implement• Limited by current Limited by current technologytechnology• Simulator/Cyber sicknessSimulator/Cyber sickness

Training Media and Training Media and Strategy Guidelines*Strategy Guidelines*

• Simulation:Simulation: effective for teaching many tasks and skills e.g., effective for teaching many tasks and skills e.g., perceptual motor skills, conceptual tasks, and team functionsperceptual motor skills, conceptual tasks, and team functions

• Computer-based instruction:Computer-based instruction: provide capability to review provide capability to review and branch and include skill diagnosis and remediationand branch and include skill diagnosis and remediation

• Sound:Sound: provides helpful cues in instructional presentationsprovides helpful cues in instructional presentations– these cues can be satisfied with relatively low fidelity but extremely high timely these cues can be satisfied with relatively low fidelity but extremely high timely

executionsexecutions

• Induce Motivation:Induce Motivation: Instruction should provide feedback Instruction should provide feedback control of both stimulus and reinforcement variablescontrol of both stimulus and reinforcement variables

• Reduce Cognitive Load: Reduce Cognitive Load: training features should limit the training features should limit the number of stimuli (and extraneous stimuli) presented at any number of stimuli (and extraneous stimuli) presented at any one time to avoid requiring inordinate attention from studentsone time to avoid requiring inordinate attention from students

*Guidelines are a subset adapted from Salvendy’s Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics

Link to decision aid for selecting training media

Transfer of TrainingTransfer of Training

Transfer of TrainingTransfer of Training – how well learning in one – how well learning in one environment, enhances performance in another.environment, enhances performance in another.

Issues of training efficiency:Issues of training efficiency:1.1. What provides best learning in shortest time?What provides best learning in shortest time?2.2. What will lead to longest retention?What will lead to longest retention?3.3. What is most cost effective?What is most cost effective?

%Transfer%Transfer = = control time – transfer timecontrol time – transfer time

control timecontrol time X 100 =X 100 = time savingstime savingscontrol timecontrol time X 100X 100

time savingstime savingstraining timetraining timeTraining Effectiveness Ratio (TER) =Training Effectiveness Ratio (TER) =

Negative TransferNegative Transfer

Negative TransferNegative Transfer – learning in one environment interferes – learning in one environment interferes with performance in the other.with performance in the other.

• caused when one learns different response to same or caused when one learns different response to same or similar stimulus. similar stimulus. • old response competes with new response for same old response competes with new response for same stimulus.stimulus.• must unlearn old responsemust unlearn old response

• ex: when switching from Lotus 1-2-3 to Excel software, ex: when switching from Lotus 1-2-3 to Excel software, the spreadsheets look the same, but require different the spreadsheets look the same, but require different commands for creating formulas and specifying cell commands for creating formulas and specifying cell ranges.ranges.

Guidelines for Enhancing Guidelines for Enhancing TransferTransfer

• Generalizability:Generalizability: Provide practice in a variety of stimulus situations Provide practice in a variety of stimulus situations so that a student may generalize their knowledgeso that a student may generalize their knowledge

• Transfer Goal:Transfer Goal: Use a rote or algorithmic approach if near transfer is Use a rote or algorithmic approach if near transfer is the goal of instructionthe goal of instruction

• Visual Demonstrations:Visual Demonstrations: Training which incorporates visual Training which incorporates visual demonstrations provides positive transfer to real-world situationsdemonstrations provides positive transfer to real-world situations

• Guided Training (training wheels):Guided Training (training wheels): Gradually decrease the amount Gradually decrease the amount of cues, prompts, and guides such that none (that would not be found of cues, prompts, and guides such that none (that would not be found on the job) remain at the end of trainingon the job) remain at the end of training

• Functional vs. Physical fidelity:Functional vs. Physical fidelity: functional fidelity appears to be a functional fidelity appears to be a stronger influence in transferring knowledge from the learning stronger influence in transferring knowledge from the learning environment to the operational setting environment to the operational setting

Training System FidelityTraining System Fidelity• FidelityFidelity – realism of the training device– realism of the training device• Physical FidelityPhysical Fidelity – how realistic training device appears– how realistic training device appears• Functional FidelityFunctional Fidelity – how well device trains concepts– how well device trains concepts

Fidelity Issues:Fidelity Issues:1.1. ExpenseExpense – more realism, greater cost – more realism, greater cost2.2. NecessityNecessity – many tasks can be learned as well or better – many tasks can be learned as well or better

by simplifying task in training (lowered fidelity)by simplifying task in training (lowered fidelity)3.3. Negative transferNegative transfer – if training environment is very close – if training environment is very close

to real environment, then things that are different may to real environment, then things that are different may lead to negative transfer.lead to negative transfer.

Training TechniquesTraining Techniques

• OverlearningOverlearning - - practice above & beyond that necessary practice above & beyond that necessary for errorless performancefor errorless performance– Increases resistance to extinction (improves retention)Increases resistance to extinction (improves retention)– Increases the ease of “re-learning”Increases the ease of “re-learning”– Decreases reaction timeDecreases reaction time– May lead to automaticityMay lead to automaticity

Per

form

ance

Practice Trials

Overlearning

• Embedded TrainingEmbedded Training – controlled exercises called up and – controlled exercises called up and worked on by trainees operating actual equipment (in worked on by trainees operating actual equipment (in training mode)training mode)– Provides employees opportunities to practice skills in a variety of Provides employees opportunities to practice skills in a variety of

common situations to build automaticitycommon situations to build automaticity– Allows employees to practice skills relevant to situations that might Allows employees to practice skills relevant to situations that might

occur infrequently on the job (meltdown at nuclear power plant).occur infrequently on the job (meltdown at nuclear power plant). Sometimes referred to as “stimulation” because rather than simulate Sometimes referred to as “stimulation” because rather than simulate

the equipment it injects signals (stimuli) into the actual equipmentthe equipment it injects signals (stimuli) into the actual equipment


• Part-Task TrainingPart-Task Training – learn individual – learn individual components of task separately, then join together components of task separately, then join together later (later (segmentationsegmentation))1.1. Identify task components that are NOT interdependentIdentify task components that are NOT interdependent

2.2. Identify most important componentsIdentify most important components

3.3. De-emphasize certain componentsDe-emphasize certain components


Ejector seat training is only one part of learning to fly

• Guided Training (Guided Training (training training wheelswheels)) – prevents learner from – prevents learner from making catastrophic errorsmaking catastrophic errors– Avoids confusion in learning Avoids confusion in learning

complex taskscomplex tasks– Don’t eliminate errors altogether Don’t eliminate errors altogether

(they’re learning material), but (they’re learning material), but keep from making errors that keep from making errors that impair learningimpair learning


• Above Real-Time TrainingAbove Real-Time Training – practice trials that are – practice trials that are faster than would be experienced on the jobfaster than would be experienced on the job– Difficulty of practice assumed to make actual task seem Difficulty of practice assumed to make actual task seem

easier.easier. Like swinging a weighted baseball bat in warm-ups then switching Like swinging a weighted baseball bat in warm-ups then switching

to standard bat in the gameto standard bat in the game

– Equivocal results in the researchEquivocal results in the research Violates other principles for enhancing transfer (“train as you Violates other principles for enhancing transfer (“train as you

fight”)fight”)


Top 5 Specific Top 5 Specific Instructional Guidelines*Instructional Guidelines*

• Use Advance OrganizersUse Advance Organizers: : At beginning of training, the material/media At beginning of training, the material/media should clearly inform the trainee of the learning objectivesshould clearly inform the trainee of the learning objectives

• Provide Knowledge of ResultsProvide Knowledge of Results: : During practice provide students with During practice provide students with immediate knowledge of results about correct and incorrect answersimmediate knowledge of results about correct and incorrect answers

• Develop Mental ModelsDevelop Mental Models: : Emphasize distinctive features which can be Emphasize distinctive features which can be remembered in the form of mental pictures instead of abstract wordsremembered in the form of mental pictures instead of abstract words– e.g. diagrams, pictures, charts, acronymse.g. diagrams, pictures, charts, acronyms

• Segment TrainingSegment Training: : Break down the overall learning task into manageable Break down the overall learning task into manageable steps or unit when any of the following conditions exist:steps or unit when any of the following conditions exist:– lower ability students, complex material, & overall task composed of small partslower ability students, complex material, & overall task composed of small parts

• Part-task / Whole-task TrainingPart-task / Whole-task Training: : Provide learner practice on specific Provide learner practice on specific components of the task for: a) simple task-practice in entirety, & b) complex components of the task for: a) simple task-practice in entirety, & b) complex task-practice in parts and then in entiretytask-practice in parts and then in entirety

*Guidelines are a subset adapted from Salvendy’s Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics

Human Factors Application Human Factors Application to Athletic Trainingto Athletic Training

• Demonstration of human factors research Demonstration of human factors research tools (eye tracking) for improving tools (eye tracking) for improving psychomotor performance (golf, basketball)psychomotor performance (golf, basketball)

Click here for link to PBS program,Scientific American Frontiers

Documents

Training Human Factors Psychology Dr. Steve Background Four types of factors that lead to poor performance: Four types of factors that lead to poor performance: