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UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA
MOHSEN BOHLULI
FP 2014 53
EFFECTIVNESS OF SILT PIT AS A SOIL, WATER AND NUTRIENT CONSERVATION METHOD IN NON-TERRACED OIL PALM PLANTATIONS
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EFFECTIVNESS OF SILT PIT AS A SOIL, WATER AND NUTRIENT
CONSERVATION METHOD IN NON-TERRACED OIL PALM
PLANTATIONS
By
MOHSEN BOHLULI
Thesis submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra
Malaysia in fulfilment of the requirements of the Degree for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
November 2014
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All material contained within the thesis, including without limitation text, logos, icons,
photographs and all other artwork, is copyright material of Universiti Putra Malaysia unless
otherwise stated. Use may be made of any material contained within the thesis for non-
commercial purposes from the copyright holder. Commercial use of material may only be
made with the express, prior, written permission of Universiti Putra Malaysia.
Copyright © Universiti Putra Malaysia
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Abstract of thesis presented to the senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfillment of
the requirements of the degree for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
EFFECTIVNESS OF SILT PIT AS A SOIL, WATER AND NUTRIENT
CONSERVATION METHOD IN NON-TERRACED OIL PALM
PLANTATIONS
By
MOHSEN BOHLULI
Novamber 2014
Chairman: Christopher Teh Boon Sung, PhD.
Faculty: Agriculture
Oil palm plantation activities have expanded to include marginal lands such as steep land
areas. The problems of steep lands are soil erosion, loss of fertilizers, poor soil water
storage and low productivity. In Malaysia, optimum yield production can be achieved by
a combination of land area expansion and yield intensification. Silt pit is one of the best
management ways to increase oil palm production in steep lands through soil, water and
nutrient conservation. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness
of various dimensions of silt pit to conserve soil, water and nutrients in a non-terraced oil
palm plantation. The effectiveness of silt pit as a soil, water and nutrient conservation
method was also compared against control which had no conservation practices. Two
field experiments were set up in oil palm sites at Tuan Mee in Sg.Buloh, Selangor and
Felda Tekam in Pahang. Each field experimental design had five treatments with three
blocks (replications). The treatments were control (no silt pit) and four silt pit sizes with
different volume and opening areas including: H1 (1×3×1 m), H2 (1.5×3×1 m), H3
(2×3×1 m) and H4 (2×3×0.5 m). Soil samples were taken once every two months for a
year at each site. Each sampling set included the soil outside, sediments and below the
sediment inside the silt pit. The soil samples were analyzed for soil chemical and physical
properties which were: soil pH, cation exchange capacity, Ca, Mg, K, N, P and total C.
Soil physical analysis included bulk density, aggregate stability, dry aggregation and soil
water retention. Soil water content was measured daily up to 0.90 m from soil surface.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used with split-split block experimental design. In
Tuan Mee H1 conserved more soil water content in oil palm active root zone compared
with other treatments. This is because pits with smaller opening area had bigger W:F ratio
which caused higher lateral water infiltration through silt pit’s walls than water
percolation through silt pit’s floor area. Among the silt pits, the narrowest pit showed the
best effect to improve soil chemical parameters inside and outside of the pit in Tuan Mee.
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This is because the silt pit with narrower opening area helped the water head to be higher
than other wider pits and redistributed dissolved nutrients in top soil. Nonetheless, the
same amount of trapped nutrients inside the pit would be leached over a smaller floor
area. Hence, the nutrients are concentrated over a smaller soil area in narrow silt pit
compared with other treatments. In Tuan Mee silt pits were not able to affect soil physical
characteristics. That was because soil physical parameters change slower than soil
chemical characteristics and it will take more time to see significant changes on soil
physical properties. Silt pits were not effective in terms of soil water content, soil
chemical and physical properties improvement in Tekam because there were no run-off
and sediments to be trapped in silt pits as sources of redistributed water and nutrients into
the soil.
Abstrak tesis yang dibentangkan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai
memenuhi keperluan ijazah untuk ijazah Doktor Falsafah
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KEBERKESANAN SILT PIT SEBAGAI TANAH, AIR DAN NUTRIEN DAN
PEMULIHARAAN KAEDAH TANPA TERES BAGI PERLADANGAN
KELAPA SAWIT
Oleh
MOHSEN BOHLULI
November 2014
Pengerusi: Christopher Teh Boon Sung, PhD.
Fakulti: Pertanian
Aktiviti penanaman kelapa sawit telah diperluaskan termasuk kawasan tanah marginal
seperti kawasan tanah curam. Kira-kira satu per tiga daripada kawasan semenanjung
Malaysia adalah terdiri daripada kawasan berbukit-bukau. Masalah bagi kawasan tanah
curam adalah seperti hakisan tanah, kehilangan baja, masalah penyimpanan air tanah dan
produktiviti rendah. Di Malaysia, pengeluaran hasil optimum dapat dicapai dengan
gabungan perluasan tanah dan peningkatan hasil yang intensif. Silt pit adalah salah satu
cara pengurusan yang terbaik untuk meningkatkan pengeluaran kelapa sawit di tanah
curam melalui tanah, air dan pemuliharaan nutrien. Matlamat utama kajian ini adalah
untuk menilai keberkesanan pelbagai dimensi silt pit untuk memelihara tanah, air dan
nutrien dalam ladang kelapa sawit bukan teres. Keberkesanan silt pit sebagai tanah, air
dan pemuliharaan nutrien juga dibandingkan dengan kawalan yang tidak mempunyai
amalan pemuliharaan. Dua kawasan eksperimen telah dijalankan di kawasan kelapa sawit
di Tuan Mee di Sg.Buloh, Selangor dan Felda Tekam di Pahang. Setiap reka bentuk
eksperimen di ladang mempunyai lima rawatan dengan tiga blok (replikasi). Rawatan
kawalan (tiada silt pit) dan empat saiz silt pit dengan jumlah dan pembukaan kawasan-
kawasan yang berlainan termasuk: H1 (1 × 3 × 1 m), H2 (1.5 × 3 × 1 m), H3 (2 × 3 × 1
m ) dan H4 (2 × 3 × 0.5 m). Sampel tanah telah diambil sekali setiap dua bulan dalam
setahun di setiap kawasan. Setiap set termasuk pensampelan tanah di luar, sedimen dan
sedimen di dalam silt pit. Sampel tanah dikaji untuk kimia tanah dan fizikal tanah: pH
tanah, kapasiti pertukaran kation, Ca, Mg, K, N, P dan jumlah C. Analisis fizikal tanah
adalah termasuk ketumpatan pukal, kestabilan agregat, agregat kering dan pengekalan air
tanah . Kandungan air tanah diukur secara harian sehingga 0.90 m dari permukaan tanah.
Analisis varians (ANOVA) digunakan dengan split-split block reka bentuk eksperimen.
Di Tuan Mee H1 menyimpan lebih banyak kandungan air tanah di zon akar aktif kelapa
sawit berbanding dengan rawatan lain. Ini kerana pit yang mempunyai kawasan
pembukaan yang lebih kecil mempunyai nisbah W: F yang besar menyebabkan
penyusupan air yang lebih tinggi melalui dinding sisi silt pit itu daripada serapan air
melalui kawasan lantai silt pit ini. Antara silt pit, pit yang paling sempit menunjukkan
kesan yang terbaik untuk memperbaiki parameter kimia tanah di dalam dan di luar pit di
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Tuan Mee. Ini kerana silt pit dengan kawasan pembukaan sempit membantu permulaan
air lebih tinggi daripada pit lain yang lebih luas dan pengagihan nutrien terlarut di tanah
atas. Namun demikian, jumlah nutrien yang sama terperangkap di dalam pit itu akan
terlarut lesap di kawasan lantai yang lebih kecil. Oleh itu, nutrien adalah pekat di kawasan
tanah yang lebih kecil dalam silt pit sempit berbanding rawatan lain. Di Tuan Mee, silt
pit tidak dapat memberi kesan kepada ciri-ciri fizikal tanah. Itu adalah kerana tanah
parameter fizikal menukar secara perlahan daripada ciri-ciri kimia tanah dan ia akan
mengambil lebih banyak masa untuk melihat perubahan yang besar ke atas sifat-sifat
fizikal tanah. Silt pit tidak berkesan dari segi kandungan air tanah, kimia tanah dan
peningkatan ciri-ciri fizikal di Tekam. Tanah di Tekam telah dilindungi dengan baik oleh
perlindungan vegetatif yang tinggi dan cerun yang rendah. Oleh itu, tidak ada larian air
dan sedimen yang terperangkap dalam silt pit sebagai sumber agihan air dan nutrien ke
dalam tanah.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Dr. Christopher
Teh Boon Sung, for the continuous support of my Ph.D study and research, for his
patience, motivation, enthusiasm, and immense knowledge. His guidance helped me in
all the time of research and writing of this thesis. I could not have imagined having a
better advisor and mentor for my Ph.D study.
Besides my supervisor, I would like to thank the rest of my supervisor committee: Prof.
Dr. Ahmad Husni Mohd Hanif and Prof. Dr. Zaharah A. Rahman, for their
encouragement, insightful comments, and hard questions.
I would also like to thank Mr. Goh Kah Joo from Applied Agriculture Research (AAR)
Sdn. Bhd and staff of AAR for providing the required materials, their value advices and
comments.
I would like to thank managements and staff of Federal Land Development Authority
(Felda), Tuan Mee estate and Felda Tekam plantation, , for providing the experimental
sites and supports with workers and comments. I am indebted to them for their help.
My sincere thank also goes to the laboratory and supporting staff at the Dept. of Land
Resource Management, Universiti Putra Malaysia for their help during my study and
research.
My high appreciation goes to Universiti Putra Malaysia for giving me an opportunity to
do my PhD in Malaysia.
Last but not the least, I would like to thank my family: my parents for giving birth to me
at the first place and my brothers and sister for supporting me spiritually throughout my
life.
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This thesis was submitted to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia and has been
accepted as fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. The
members of the Supervisory Committee were as follows:
Christopher Teh Boon Sung, PhD
Senior Lecturer
Faculty of Agriculture
Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Chairman)
Ahmad Husni Mohd Hanif, PhD
Associate Professor
Faculty of Agriculture
Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Member)
Zaharah A.Rahman, PhD
Professor
Faculty of Agriculture
Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Member)
BUJANG KIM HUAT, PhD Professor and Dean
School of Graduate Studies
Universiti Putra Malaysia
Date:
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Declaration by graduate student
I hereby confirm that:
this thesis is my original work;
quotations, illustrations and citations have been duly referenced;
this thesis has not been submitted previously or concurrently for any other degree at
any other institutions;
intellectual property from the thesis and copyright of thesis are fully-owned by
Universiti Putra Malaysia, as according to the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Research)
Rules 2012;
written permission must be obtained from supervisor and the office of Deputy Vice-
Chancellor (Research and Innovation) before thesis is published (in the form of
written, printed or in electronic form) including books, journals, modules,
proceedings, popular writings, seminar papers, manuscripts, posters, reports, lecture
notes, learning modules or any other materials as stated in the Universiti Putra
Malaysia (Research) Rules 2012;
there is no plagiarism or data falsification/fabrication in the thesis, and scholarly
integrity is upheld as according to the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Graduate Studies)
Rules 2003 (Revision 2012-2013) and the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Research)
Rules 2012. The thesis has undergone plagiarism detection software.
Signature: _______________________ Date: 04/11/2014
Name and Matric No.: Mohsen Bohluli (GS24107)
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Declaration by Members of Supervisory Committee
This is to confirm that:
the research conducted and the writing of this thesis was under our supervision;
supervision responsibilities as stated in the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Graduate
Studies) Rules 2003 (Revision 2012-2013) are adhered to.
Signature:
Name of Chairman
of Supervisory
Committee:
Christopher Teh Boon Sung
Signature:
Name of Member of
Supervisory
Committee:
Ahmad Husni Mohd Hanif
Signature:
Name of Member of
Supervisory
Committee:
Zaharah A.Rahman
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page ABSTRACT i
ABSTRAK iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v
APPROVAL vi
DECLARATION viii
LIST OF TABLES xii
LIST OF FIGURES xv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xix
CHAPTER
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Problem Statement 1
1.2 Objectives of Study 5
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 6
2.1 Oil Palm in Malaysia 6
2.2 Oil Palm and Soil Erosion 8
2.3 Oil Palm Water Requirement and Water Stress 13
2.4 Contour Trenches and Silt Pits
2.4.1 Dimension and Distances Between Trenches
2.4.2 Continous Vs Staggered Contour Trenches
2.5 Pit and Silt Pit
2.5.1 Pits
2.5.2 Silt Pit
2.6 Summery of the Literature Review
16
17
19
24
24
26
29
3 MATERIALS AND METHODS 31
3.1 Site Description 31
3.2. Sampling 38
3.3. Soil Chemical and Physical Analyses
3.4 Measurement of Soil Water Content
39
40
3.5. Amount of Sediments Trapped 41
3.6. Statistical Analysis 41
3.7. HYDRUS 2D Model 42
3.8. KINEROSE2 Model
45
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 46
4.1 Rain in Experimental Sites
4.2. Initial soil characteristics in experimental sites
4.3. Effect of Silt Pits on Soil Water Content
4.4. Run-off Simulation by KINEROS 2 Model
4.5. Simulation by HYDRUS 2D Model
46
47
47
57
60
4.6. Effect of Silt Pits on Amount of Sediment Trapped 71
4.7. Effect of Silt Pits on Soil Chemical Properties 76
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4.7.1. Effect of Silt Pits on Soil Carbon
4.7.2. Effect of Silt Pits on Soil Total Nitrogen
4.7.3. Effect of Silt Pits on Soil Base Cations
4.7.4. Effect of Silt Pits on Soil Phosphorous Content
4.7.5 Effects of Silt Pits on Soil Cation Exchange Capacity and pH
4.8. Effects of Silt Pits on Soil Physical Properties
4.9. Cost and Benefit Analysis
80
85
89
98
102
104
109
5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH 111
5.1. Conclusion 111
5.2. Recommendations for future research 113
REFERENCES 114
BIODATA OF STUDENT 131
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 132
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LIST OF TABLES
Table
Page
2.1 Run-off, soil erosion, dissolved solutes and sediment losses via run-off in
Southeast Asia rainforest
9
2.2 soil erosion and nutrient losses in surface water from spatial components of
an oil palm plantation on a Typic Hapludult in Malaysia
11
2.3 Soil erosion losses under oil palm in Malaysia
13
2.4 Yield of oil palm with different irrigation methods
15
2.5 interval trench spacing by hillslope
18
2.6 Effect of continues contour trenches on surface run-off and soil loss
18
2.7 The treatments by Pradhan and Rajbans
23
2.8 Surface run-off losses under different conservation practices
27
2.9 Totl mean soil losses under different treatments
28
2.10 Effectiveness of bund terraces and silt pits on overland flow and sediment
load
28
2.11 Effectiveness of ridge terrace and silt pit on soil water content
30
3.1
Treatments including different sizes, opening area and wall-to-floor area
ratio
34
3.2
Soil hydraulic parameters for the analytical functions of HYDRUS 2D for
12 textural classes of the USDA soil textural triangle.
44
4.1 Soil characteristics of Tuan Mee and Tekam experimental sites 48
4.2 Average daily and percentage increase in soil water content for the 0.90 m
soil profile due to different silt pit treatments in Tuan Mee
49
4.3 Simulated run-off over 3 different slopes by Kinerose 2 model in Tuan Mee
and Tekam experimental sites
58
4.4 Releasing time (hr) of total trapped water in H1 into the different soils for
different amounts of run-off
65
4.5 Releasing time (hr) of total trapped water in H2 into the different soils for
different amounts of run-off
65
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4.6 Releasing time (hr) of total trapped water in H3 into the different soils for
different amounts of run-off
66
4.7 Releasing time (hr) of total trapped water in H4 into the different soils for
different amounts of run-off
67
4.8 The percentage of occupied initiate volume of silt pit treatments by
sediment over one year in Tuan Mee
72
4.9 Analysis of variance for the soil chemical properties outside of silt pits
(Tuan Mee)
76
4.10 Soil chemical changes outside of the silt pits, across time and depth (Tuan
Mee).
77
4.11 Analysis of variance for the soil chemical properties inside of silt pits (Tuan
Mee)
77
4.12 Soil chemical parameters inside of the silt pits, across time and depth (Tuan
Mee)
78
4.13 Analysis of variance for the soil chemical properties of trapped sediments
inside of silt pits (Tuan Mee)
78
4.14 Soil chemical parameters in trapped sediments inside of the silt pits, across
time (Tuan Mee).
79
4.15 Average nutrients of five times random samplings in run-off and collected
water inside the silt pit
79
4.16 Average of soil organic C during experiment period in different sampling
areas (Tekam)
85
4.17 Average of soil total N (%) during experiment period in different sampling
areas (Tekam).
89
4.18 Average of soil total K (cmol/kg) during experiment period in different
sampling areas (Tekam)
97
4.19 Average of soil total Ca (cmol/kg) during experiment period in different
sampling areas (Tekam)
97
4.20 Average of soil total Mg (cmol/kg) during experiment period in different
sampling areas (Tekam)
98
4.21 Average of soil phosphorous (mg Kg-1) during experiment period in
different sampling areas (Tekam)
100
4.22 Analysis of variance for soil physical properties outside of silt pits in Tuan
Mee
105
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4.23 Soil physical properties outside of silt pits, across time and depths (Tuan
Mee)
105
4.24 Analysis of variance for soil physical properties outside of silt pits in
Tekam.
108
4.25 Soil physical properties outside of silt pits, across time and depths (Tekam)
108
4.26 Required fertilizer for production of 30 t ha-1 yr-1 of EFB in Malaysia
109
4.27 Effects of silt pits on increasing soil nutrients
110
4.28 Cost and benefit analysis table 110
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1.1 Silt pits collect the run-off and sediments flowing over the slope and
redistribute collected water and nutrients into the root zone of oil palms in
non-terraced slops of oil palm plantations
4
2.1 Worldwide trend of oil palm’s fruit yield, plantation area and oil production
from 1961 to 2006
7
2.2 Output of Malaysian palm oil
7
2.3 Effect of irrigation and fertilizer application on bunch weight in the fifth year
of harvest in Ecuador
16
2.4 Continuous Vs. staggered trenches
20
2.5 Stragged contour trenches with trapezoid cross section combined with tree
and grass plantation on embankment
21
2.6 Application of staggered contour trenches for water harvesting in order to
reviving dying springs in Himalaya
22
2.7 Ground cover changes and collected water after application of mentioned
trenches in figure 2.6
22
2.8 Planting pits along contour lines in arid steeply slopes
25
2.9 Basic design of planting pits in arid and semi-arid areas
26
3.1 Illustration of Tuan Mee experimental site
32
3.2 Illustration of Tekam experimental site
33
3.3 Field layout of the experiment
34
3.4 Silt pit across section and 3D illustration of dimensions
35
3.5 H1 (1×3×1 m) had the smallest volume and floor area and the biggest wall-
to-floor area ratio.
36
3.6 H2 (1.5×3×1 m) 37
3.7 H3 (2×3×1 m) 37
3.8 H4 (2×3×0.5 m) was the shallowest silt pit treatment with a 0.5 m depth
and the smallest wall-to-floor area ratio and the biggest opening area.
38
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3.9 Cross section of a silt pit. Sampling areas were outside (OS) and inside (IS)
of the silt pit as well as trapped sediments of the silt pit (Sed)
39
3.10 Calibration of moisture probe through linear relationship of actual volumetric
soil water content and readings of moisture probe
41
3.11 Sp as the slope of the soil water retention curve at a point halfway between θr
and θs
44
4.1 Total rainfall during the experiment in Tuan Mee (Jan-Dec 2010)
46
4.2 Total rainfall during the experiment in Tekam (Jul-Dec 2010 to Jan-Jun 2011)
47
4.3 Monthly average of total soil water content up to 0.90 m soil depth (Tuan
Mee, from Jan to Dec 2010)
49
4.4 Trend of average daily soil water content around silt pit treatments up to 0.90
m soil profile (Tuan Mee)
51
4.5 Monthly average of total soil water content up to 0.90 m soil depth (Tekam)
52
4.6 Changes of the soil water from the soil surface up to 0.90 m depth (Tekam)
53
4.7 Comparison of measured cumulative infiltration in both experimental sites
54
4.8 Comparing the soil structure between Tekam and Tuan Mee
55
4.9 Ground cover at experimental sites
56
4.10 Hydrograph of 10 mm simulated rain in 30 min for Tuan Mee and Tekam
57
4.11 Measured runoff and sediments for a high intensity simulated rain of 36 cm
hr-1 in Tuan Mee and Tekam.
59
4.12 Simulated temporal changes to water head (height of stored water from the
bottom of silt pit) in the silt pit
61
4.13 Simulated volumetric soil water content at the various distances from the silt
pit walls. Soil water content shown here is for 0.50 m soil depth and at 72
hours of simulation time
62
4.14 Simulated amount of water output from walls and floors of the silt pit
treatments. Value in parenthesis indicates total wall-to-floor area ratio (W:F)
of a silt pit treatment
63
4.15 Initial water head inside of simulated silt pits for different run-off
64
4.16 Water holding ability of silt pits for 10 m3 ha-1 of simulated run-off
68
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4.17 Water holding ability of silt pits for 20 m3 ha-1 of simulated run-off
68
4.18 Water holding ability of silt pits for 50 m3 ha-1 of simulated run-off
69
4.19 Water holding ability of silt pits for 75 m3 ha-1 of simulated run-off
69
4.20 Water holding ability of silt pits for 100 m3 ha-1 of simulated run-off
70
4.21 Water holding ability of silt pits for 150 m3 ha-1 of simulated run-off
70
4.22 Water holding ability of H3 for 200 m3 ha-1 of simulated run-off
71
4.23 Volume of collected sediments inside the silt pit treatments (Tuan Mee)
72
4.24 Exponential regression (3rd month onwards) between occupied volume of silt
pits and months after silt pit construction for estimating the time that silt pits
would become full by sediments
74
4.25 Comparing a deep silt pit with a shallow silt pit 18 months after their
construction
75
4.26 Changes of soil organic C in Tuan Mee due to different silt pit sizes over time
outside of silt pits
81
4.27 Comparing ground cover around H1
82
4.28 Changes in soil organic C in Tuan Mee due to different silt pit sizes over time
for trapped sediments inside pits
83
4.29 Changes of soil organic C in Tuan Mee due to different silt pit sizes over time
inside of silt pits at depth
84
4.30 Changes in soil N in Tuan Mee over time and outside of silt pits
86
4.31 Changes in soil N in Tuan Mee over time inside of silt pits
88
4.32 Changes in soil K in Tuan Mee due to different silt pit treatments over time
outside of pits
90
4.33 Changes in soil K in Tuan Mee due to different silt pit treatments over time
inside of pits
91
4.34 Changes of Ca in Tuan Mee due to different silt pit treatments outside of the
pits
93
4.35 Changes of Mg in Tuan Mee due to different silt pit treatments outside of the
pits
94
4.36 Changes of Ca in Tuan Mee due to different silt pit treatments inside of the
pits
95
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4.37 Changes of Ca in Tuan Mee due to different silt pit treatments inside of the
pits
96
4.38 Changes of phosphorous across all times outside of silt pits in Tuan Mee
99
4.39 Changes of phosphorous in trapped sediments inside of pits over time in Tuan
Mee
100
4.40 Changes of phosphorous inside the pits in Tuan Mee
101
4.41 Changes of soil pH
103
4.42 Total Ca, Mg and K content inside of silt pits over time and across depths in
Tuan Mee
104
4.43 Average of mean weight diameter (MWD) of soil aggregates for outside of
different silt pits in Tuan Mee
106
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
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ANOVA Analysis of Variance
APOC American Palm Oil Council
ARS Agricultural Research Service’s
CEC Cation Exchange Capacity
EFB Empty Fruit Bunches
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FFB Fresh Fruit Bunches
H Pressure head
H1 1×3×1 m silt pit treatment
H2 1.5×3×1 m silt pit treatment
H3 2×3×1 m silt pit treatment
H4 1×3×0.5 m silt pit treatment
I Pore-connectivity
IS Inside the Silt Pit
K Unsaturated hydraulic conductivity
Ks Saturated hydraulic conductivity
𝐾𝑖𝑗𝐴 Components of dimensionless anisotropy tensor
LSD Least Significant Difference
MPOB Malaysian Palm Oil Board
MWD Mean Weight Diameter
n Number of fractions
NWP Netherlands Water Partnership
OS Outside the Silt Pit
Qr Residual water content
Qs Saturated water content
RBT Average weight of fresh fruit bunches
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RCBD Randomized Completely Block Design
S Sink term
Sp Slope of the soil water retention curve at a point halfway between θr
and θs
SAS Statestical Analytical System
Sed Trapped Sediments
SWRC Southwest Watershed Research Center
t Time
TBS Number of fresh fruit bunches
USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture
VAM Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizas
W Soil total weight
Wi Weight of aggregates between two sieves
W:F Wall-to-floor area ratio
WOCAT World Overview of Conservation Approaches and Technologies
WUE Water Use Efficiency
Xi Average size between two fractions
α and n Empirical coefficients of the hydraulic functions in soil water retention
|ℎ| Pressure
θ Volumetric water content
θ(h) Water content
θs Saturated water content
θr Residual water content
Θ Dimensionless normalized volumetric soil water content
CHAPTER 1
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INTRODUCTION
1.1 Problem Statement
The demand for edible vegetable oils is expected to double from 120 to 240 million t yr-
1 from 2009 to 2050 (Corley, 2009). Among the major vegetable oils, palm oil has the
lowest production cost and highest productivity; therefore, it will cause an increase in oil
palm plantation area by up to 12 million ha (or about 300,000 ha yr-1) over the next 40
years. If all land expansion takes place in Malaysia and Indonesia, land area of oil palm
would increase by 140% from 8.4 in 2007 to 20.4 million ha in 2050 (FAO, 2008).
However, only 7.8 million ha (23%) of the land area of Malaysia are classified as suitable
land for long term agricultural activities, and 18.3 million ha (56%) must remain as forests
(Lee and Panton,1971). But it was reported by MPOB (2012) that only oil palm area have
reached 5 million ha in 2011, a 3% increase compared to 4.85 million ha in 2010.
The lack of more suitable agricultural lands has caused oil palm plantation activities to
inevitably expand into marginal lands, such as steep land area. The main problems of
steep lands are soil erosion, loss of fertilizers and poor soil water storage. Agricultural
activities and cultivation on steep slopes can severely increase soil erosion. Soil erosion
in association with heavy rains could cause barren lands after few years (Pratt and
Gwynne, 1978; Pomeroy and Service, 1986; Kjekshus, 1997).
The longer and steeper the slope, the higher the erosion and the run-off. Run-off washes
out the applied fertilizers as solution or in complex form with soil particles. Accelerated
soil erosion on steep slopes would result in soil fertility reduction, fresh and ground water
pollution and other environmental hazards. Soil erosion reduces oil palm production not
only by decreasing soil fertility and its organic matter content but also by reducing soil
water infiltration, soil water content and soil water holding capacity. Hartemink (2006)
reported that the erosion under natural forests is less than 1 t ha-1 yr-1 while the maximum
soil erosion under oil palm plantations is 78 and 28 t ha-1 yr-1 for Oxisols and Ultisols,
respectively.
Moreover, oil palm is planted in tropical regions where rainfall is approximately uniform
throughout the year. Despite an average annual rainfall of over 2500 mm in many areas
in Malaysia (Dale 1959), there is still water shortage for oil palms (Goh et al., 1994). Oil
palm needs adequate amount of water as it grows quickly and has a high biomass, fruit
and oil production. Oil palm requires 1300-1500 mm of water annually, and matured oil
palms must be irrigated by 300-350 L day-1 water per palm during the dry period.
However, providing 1500 mm of water for oil palm growth on rain-fed oil palm
plantations or steep slopes needs much more rain because the majority of precipitation is
lost as runoff. Insufficient soil water content is critical during 24 (flowers sex selection),
18 (floral abortion) and 6 (pollination) months before fruit maturity of oil palm. Water
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stress causes more number of male flowers, less number of fruits in each fresh fruit bunch
and less oil content (Gawankar et al., 2003).
In Malaysia, optimum yield production can be increased by a combination of land area
expansion and yield intensification. Management is said to be often more important than
soil type in determining the yield potential of oil palm at a given site (Goh et al., 1994).
Removing the limitations and deficits of oil palm plantations through agronomic
management can increase the oil palm production immediately through increasing the
bunch weight and oil content of fruits. Furthermore, agronomic practices constantly
increase the oil palm production via extending the weight of bunches. This is because
production of a ripe bunch from floral initiation takes 3 to 4 years before harvesting
(Donough et al., 2006). However, newly planted oil palms are not productive for first 1-
3 years. Therefore, yield intensification would be cheaper, faster and more beneficial than
developing new oil palm plantations. Application of soil and water conservation practices
(terracing and silt pits) and oil palm residue mulches (empty fruit bunches, pruned oil
palm fronds and Eco-mat) are the most common methods of oil palm yield intensification
which have been practiced for several decades in Malaysia.
Terraces are constructed with the purpose of reducing run-off and soil erosion across the
hill slopes (Troeh et al., 2004; Morgan, 2005). Despite significant effects of terracing to
reduce run-off and erosion for slopes of 6-20o (Abo Hammad et al., 2006), on gentler
slopes, terracing loses its efficiency and should be replaced by other conservation
practices (Corley and Thinker, 2003). Despite of advantages of terracing, soil compaction
and removing of fertile layer of top soil during construction of terraces reduce soil
productivity (Hamdan et al., 2000). Compaction and removing of soil layers across
terraces cause negative effects on soil physical properties, such as reduction of hydraulic
conductivity, aggregate stability and water retention capacity (Ramos et al., 2007). Hill
terracing is not recommended on sandy, shallow soil or soil with high fraction of stones
(Troeh et al., 2004). Negative effects of terracing on soil productivity have forced some
oil palm plantations to employ mulches and silt pits on non-terraced slopes.
Empty fruit bunches (EFB) have been applied as a mulch and fertilizer because of their
high nutrient concentration and ability to conserve high soil water content in top soil. One
tonne of EFB has been estimated to supply an equivalent of 7.0, 2.8, 19.3 and 4.4 kg of
urea, phosphate, rock, muriate of potash and kieserite, respectively (Singh et al., 1999).
Application of different rates of EFB has been frequently studied. Zin and Tarmizi (1983)
recommended 30-50 and 50-100 t ha-1 y-1 of EFB. Loong et al. (1987), Jantaraniyom et
al. (2001) and Etta et al. (2007) reported 37, 35 and 40-60 t ha-1 yr-1 of EFB as suitable
rates, respectively.
Along with the ability of EFB to increase soil nutrient and soil water content, it has a fast
decomposition rate. Zaharah and Lim (2000) found that EFB lost 50 and 70% of its dry
matter due to decomposition in 3 and 8 months after application, respectively. However,
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application of EFB could only be implemented on field that are near oil palm mills
because of difficulties of storage and high expenses of transportation and field application
of the bulky EFB (Teh et al., 2011).
Difficulties of application of EFB motivated the development of Eco-mat. Eco-mat is a
compressed EFB in the form of carpet-like material (Yeo, 2007). Therefore, field
application, transportation and storage of Eco-mat are easier and cheaper than EFB.
Pruned oil palm frond is another oil palm residue which is commonly used as mulch in
oil palm plantations. Stacking the pruned fronds on the soil surface will reduce soil
erosion and run-off. The decomposed fronds are a source of nutrients release into the soil.
Husin et al. (1987) determined that one tonne of applied pruned frond on soil surface
released 7.5, 1.0, 9.8 and 2.8 kg of N, P, K and Mg, respectively. Although pruned oil
palm fronds provide high amount of nutrients (Chan et al., 1980), they are less effective
to reduce run-off and soil erosion and to increase soil water content compared with other
soil and water conservation practices in non-terraced oil palm plantations (Moradi et al.,
2012).
Silt pit is one of the recommended soil-water conservation methods in Malaysia (Teh et
al., 2011). Goh et al. (1994) mentioned that maximum oil palm yield production in
Malaysia can be increased by yield intensification through land management practices,
such as silt pits. Silt pits are long, narrow and deep close-ended trenches which are dug
between oil palm planting rows to hold surface run-off during rainy days.
Silt pits function by reducing soil erosion, controlling run-off and sedimentation,
increasing oil palm yield through supplying more water specially during dry weather,
protecting and increasing soil fertility through reduction of nutrient loss and redistribution
of eroded nutrients back into the soil. Silt pit redistributes collected water and nutrients
into the oil palm root zone rather than being lost through deep percolation. Figure 1.1
shows the function of silt pit to collect run-off and sediments and redistribute water and
nutrients into the soil of non-terraced slopes of oil palm plantations.
Although silt pit has been practiced for several decades in oil palm plantations, there are
few studies about the soil and water improvement through this method specially in
comparison with other practices in nutrient and water conservation efficacy. It is
commonly believed that the larger and deeper silt pit would increasingly store and return
more water (Luna, 1989; National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management,
2010). However, silt pit must be able to capture maximum run-off and also redistribute
collected water into the oil palm shallow active root zone rather than the water being lost
through deep percolation through the floor of pit. The water must be also stored for longer
time to be used by oil palms during dry periods. Hence, the main questions in this study
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are: how does the silt pit size (dimensions) affect the effectiveness of pits to conserve soil
water and nutrients? Is the larger and deeper the silt pit, the better?
Effectiveness of a silt pit size was evaluated by determining how much improvement the
silt pit doing to the soil in terms of: trapping sediments and run-off (controlling soil
erosion), increasing soil water content, improving soil chemical (C, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, CEC
and pH) and soil physical properties.
Figure 1.1. Silt pits collect the run-off and sediments flowing over the slope and
redistribute the collected water and nutrients into the root zone of oil palms in non-
terraced slopes of oil palm plantations.
1.2 Objectives of Study
The main objectives of this study were:
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1) To evaluate the effectiveness of silt pit on soil and water conservation in two non-
terraced oil palm plantations,
2) To evaluate the effectiveness of silt pit on improvement of soil nutrients content and
soil chemical properties in terms of: increasing C, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, CEC and pH in
two non-terraced oil palm plantations,
3) To evaluate the effectiveness of silt pit on soil physical properties in two non-
terraced oil palm plantations,
4) To determine the effect of various silt pit dimensions on their ability to conserve
soil, water and nutrients in these two non-terraced oil palm plantations, and
5) To expand the findings of this study on soil water holding time of silt pits on other
slopes, through simulations of different silt sizes by HYDRUS 2D model.
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BIODATA OF STUDENT
The student, Mohsen Bohluli was born on 9 July 1981 in a city in west of Iran. He finished
his high school in same city. After his secoundry education, he enrolled for Diploma of
Associate's Degree in University of Ilam in 1999 and graduated in Technology of Range
and Watershed Management in 2001. In 2004, he completed his bachelor degree in
Natural Resources (Watershed Management) Engineering in University of Yazed and
owned second place in Comprehensive Government Master Examination in whole
country and continued his master degree in University of Tehran. He became graduated
from University of Tehran in Natural Resources Engineering in 2006. Bohluli became a
lecturer at Azad University of Iran from 2006 to 2008. He also cooperated with Tagh Saz
Road & Construction Co. as a hydrologist from 2004 to 2007. His interest in learning
encouraged him to continue his PhD in Universiti Putra Malaysia.
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LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
1) MORADIDALINI, A., BOHLULI, M., TEH, C.B.S. & GOH, K.J. 2011.
Effectiveness of silt pits as a soil nutrient and water conservation method for
non-terraced slopes. In: Hamdan J. & Shamshudin, J. (Eds.). Advances in
tropical soil science. Vol. 1. Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, pp. 71-91.
2) BOHLULI, M., TEH, C.B.S., HUSNI, M.H.A. & ZAHARAH, A.R. 2012. The
effectiveness of silt pit as a soil, nutrient and water conservation method in non-
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terraced oil palm plantations. In: Rasidah, W.K., Rosazlin, A., Osumanu, A.H.,
Fakhri, M.I., Malik, Z., Hamzah, A., Ahmad, R. & Vijayanathan, J. (Eds.).
Proceedings of the Soil Science Conference of Malaysia 2012. Soil quality
towards sustainable agriculture production. Malaysian Soil Science Society, Sg.
Buloh.
3) MOHSEN, B., TEH, C.B.S., HUSNI, M.H.A. & ZAHARAH, A.R. 2012.
Simulation by HYDRUS 2D model on silt pit efficiency on conserving soil
water. In: International Agriculture Congress 2012. Transforming Agriculture
for Future Harvest. 4-6 September 2012, Putrajaya. (Proceedings in CD)
4) BOHLULI, M., TEH, C.B.S., HUSNI, M.H.A., ZAHARAH, A.R. 2014. Silt pit
efficiency in conserving soil water as simulated by HYDRUS 2D model.
Pertanika Journal of Tropical Agriculture. Vol 37(3) Agu 2014. (In press).
5) BOHLULI, M., TEH, C.B.S., HUSNI, M.H.A. & ZAHARAH, A.R. 2014.
Review on the use of silt Pits (contour trenches) as a soil and water conservation.
In: Hamdan J. & Shamshudin, J. (Eds.). Advances in tropical soil science. Vol.
3. Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang. (In press).
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