Vinyl Chloride

Laxminarayan Institute of Technology 2015

Vinyl Chloride Monomer Page 1

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION[1,2]

Vinyl Chloride is an organochemical with the formula CH2CHCl that is also called as Vinyl

Chloride Monomer (VCM) or Chloroethene. It is one of the world’s most important commodity

chemicals. Chlorinating hydrocarbons is the basic idea behind the production of vinyl chloride

monomer (VCM).Chlorinated hydrocarbons (CHCs) is much more resilient to biodegradation,

unlike simple hydrocarbons. This is due mainly to the inherent strength of the C-Cl bond.

Consequently, man-made CHCs are beginning to accumulate in the environment. However,

production of VCM is essential to the production of polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Construction

materials made of PVC are light, low-maintenance, and long lasting. About 13 billion kilograms

of VCM are produced annually. About 25% of the world’s total chlorine production is required

for its production. VCM is among the top twenty largest petrochemicals (petroleum-derived

chemicals) in world production. The United States currently remains the largest VCM

manufacturing region. China is also a large manufacturer and one of the largest consumers of

VCM.

VCM is an OSHA regulated material. Chloroethylene is a colourless gas at normal

temperature and pressure. Industrially it is handled as liquid with boiling point 259.6K. No

Human contact with the material is allowed as it is highly toxic, flammable, and

carcinogenic. It can also be formed in the environment naturally when soil organisms break

down chlorinated solvents.

HISTORY

The early history of vinyl chloride has been documented by Justus von Liebig and

his student Henri Victor Regnault at the university of Giessen, Germany and Justus won

the distinction of being the first person to synthesis vinyl chloride. In the 1830s, he reacted

the so-called oil of the Dutch chemists, dichloroethane with alcoholic potash to make vinyl

chloride. Victor confirmed his discovery and was allowed to publish it as sole author in

1835.



In 1872, E. Baumann observed that white flakes precipitated from vinyl chloride

upon prolonged exposure to sunlight in a sealed tube. This material was further

investigated in the early 1900s by Ivan Ostromislensky, who named it Kauprenchlorid.

(cauprene chloride), and gave it the empirical formula (C2H3Cl)16. However, vinyl chloride

was of little commercial interest until Waldo Semon’s work with plasticized PVC for the

B. F. Goodrich Company beginning in 1926. Some years earlier, Fritz Klatte had

developed the first practical route to vinyl chloride while looking to find uses for acetylene

for Chemische Fabrik Griesheim-Elektron. This process, in which hydrogen chloride is

added to acetylene over a mercuric chloride catalyst, was patented in 1912, By 1926,

Griesheim Elektron had concluded that the patent held no commercial value and allowed it

to lapse. Klatte’s process eventually formed the basis of the vinyl chloride industry for

many years from its beginnings in the 1930s. From 1940-1950 on, acetylene could be

replaced by ethylene, from which vinyl chloride was produced by direct chlorination to 1,2

dichloroethane and subsequent thermal cracking.



CHAPTER TWO: HEALTH AND SAFETY FACTORS &

PROPERTIES[1]

HEALTH AND SAFETY FACTORS

1) OSHA lists vinyl chloride as a Class IA Flammable Liquid. Because of its low boiling point,

liquid VCM will undergo flash evaporation upon its release to atmospheric pressure. It has a

wide flammability range from 3.6 to 33% by volume in air. As a gas mixed with air, VCM is a

fire and explosion hazard on standing VCM can form peroxides, which may then explode.

2) Contact with liquid vinyl chloride can cause frostbite. Chronic exposure to vinyl chloride at

concentrations of 100 ppm or more is reported to have produced Raynaud’s syndrome. Chronic

exposure has also reported to have produced a rare cancer of liver (angiosarcoma) in a small

number of workers after continued exposure for many years to large amounts of vinyl chloride

gas.

3) Short term exposure is limited to 5 ppm averaged over any 15 min period. Contact with liquid

vinyl chloride is prohibited. Where concentrations cannot be lowered below the 1 ppm, the

employer must establish a regulated area with controlled access.

4) Vinyl chloride also poses a significant fire and hazard explosion. Large fires of compound are

very difficult to extinguish, while vapours represent a severe explosion hazard.

5) Because hazardous peroxide can form on standing vinyl chloride in air, especially in the

presence of iron impurities, vinyl chloride should be handled and transported under an inert

atmosphere. The presence of peroxide from vinyl chloride and air can initiate polymerization of

stored vinyl chloride.

6) Vapours of vinyl chloride are more than twice as dense as air and tend to collect in low lying

areas, increasing the risk of fire. Workers entering these low lying areas risks suffocation, which

can occur at levels above 18,000 ppm. The mild, sweet odour of vinyl chloride becomes

detectable around 250 ppm.



USES AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS

(1) Vinyl Chloride has gained worldwide importance because of its industrial use as the precursor to

PVC. It is also used in a wide variety of copolymers. The inherent flame retardant properties,

wide range of plasticized compounds and low cost of polymers from vinyl chloride have made it

a major industrial chemical.

(2) About 95% of current vinyl chloride production worldwide ends up in polymer or copolymer

applications.

(3) Vinyl chloride also serves as starting material for the synthesis of a variety of industrial

compounds, as suggested by the number of reaction in which it can participate, although none of

these applications will likely ever come anywhere near PVC in terms of volume.

(4) The primary nonpolymeric uses of vinyl chloride are in the manufacture of vinylidene chloride,

vinyl stearate and tetrachloroethylene.



PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF VINYL CHLORIDE:

PROPERTY VALUE

Molecular weight 62.4985

Melting point (1atm), K 119.36

Boiling point (1atm), K 259.25

Heat capacity at constant pressure, J/(mol.K) Vapour at 200C Liquid at 200C

53.1 84.3

Critical Temperature, K 432 Critical Pressure, MPa 5.67 Critical Volume, cm3/mol 1.79 Critical compressibility 0.283 Autoignition temperature, K 745 Acentric factor 0.100107 Dipole moment, C-m 4.84E-30 Enthalpy of fusion (melting point), kJ/mol. 4.744 Enthalpy of vapourisation (298.15), kJ/mol. 20.11 Enthalpy of formation (298.15K), kJ/mol. 41.95 Explosive limit in air, vol% Lower limit Upper limit

3.6 33

Gibbs energy of formation (298.15K), kJ/mol Vapour pressure, kPa -300C -200C -100C 00C Viscosity, mPa.s -400C -300C -200C -100C

49.3 78.4 119 175 0.345 0.305 0.272 0.244

Explosive limit in air, vol% 4-22

Table no: 1 Physical and chemical properties of vinyl chloride.



IMPORT DATA OF VINYL CHLORIDE[3]

SR.NO YEAR QUANTITY(TONNES)

1 2007 114988

2 2008 120303

2 2009 154636

4 2012 180202

5 2013 189036

Table No: 2 Import data of Vinyl Chloride.

Figure no.1: Projected Increase in Demand of Vinyl Chloride

y = 12654x - 3E+07R² = 0.9435

0

50000

100000

150000

200000

250000

300000

350000

2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 2024

quan

tity i

n to

ns

Year



MAJOR PRODUCERS OF VINYL CHLORIDE IN INDIA.

Sr.no. Industries Design capacity(TPA)

1. IPCL, Vadodara 57300

2. IPCL, Dahej 170000

3. NOCIL, 30,000

4. RIL, Hazira 270000

5. Finolex Pipes Limited, Ratnagiri 240000

6. DCW Ltd. 100000(MT)

Table no.3: Major Producers of Vinyl Chloride in India.



CHAPTER THREE: MANUFACTURING PROCESSES [2]

Early the Industrial production of vinyl chloride is based on only two reactions:

(1) Hydrochlorination of acetylene:

C2H2 + HCl CH2 = CHCl , ΔHᵒ= -99.2 KJ/mol

(2) Thermal cracking of 1, 2-dichloroethane:

CH2CH2 + Cl2 Cl-CH2 –CH2-Cl

Cl-CH2 –CH2-Cl CH2 = CHCl + HCl , ΔHᵒ=100.2 KJ/mol

Acetylene hydrochlorination was mainly used in the past, when acetylene produced via calcium

carbide from coal, was one of the most important basic feedstock for the chemical industry.

However with time and large scale production of ethylene-derived polymers, such as

polyethylene and polystyrene and the general trend toward natural gas, naphtha and gas oil as

basic feedstocks. The cracker capacity increased substantially and ethylene became readily

available at very competitive prices.

Besides the economical disadvantage of the higher priced hydrocarbon feed, the

acetylene hydrochlorination has the drawback of not being balanced on the chloride as a chlorine

source. With increasing demand for vinyl chloride and technical progress, the first balanced

processes were established in the 1940s and 1950s, when acetylene was partially replaced by

ethylene, which was converted to 1,2-dichloroethane and subsequent thermal cracking. The

hydrogen chloride from cracking could then be used for acetylene hydrochlorination:

C2H4 + Cl2 C2H4 Cl2

C2H4 Cl2 CH2 = CHCl + HCl



C2H2 + HCl CH2 = CHCl

C2H2 + C2H4 + Cl2 2CH2 = CHCl

By direct use of crack gas, without separation of ethylene and acetylene, this process still

pursued with some modifications. With the introduction of the first large scale oxy-EDC plant by

The Dow chemical in 1958, a balanced process based only on inexpensive ethylene became

available and found rapid acceptance within the chemical industry.

In this direct chlorination of ethylene, pyrolysis of EDC and

oxychlorination of ethylene are combined for the production of VCM, with no net consumption

or production of HCl.

Direct chlorination: CH2 = CH2 + Cl2 C2H4Cl2

EDC pyrolysis: CH2 = CH2 + 2HCl + ½ O2 C2H4Cl2 + H2O

Oxychlorination: 2C2H4 Cl2 2CH2 = CHCl + 2HCl

Overall Reaction: 2CH2 = CH2 + ½ O2 + Cl2 2CH2 = CHCl + H2O



SELECTION OF PROCESS [1, 4] The normal method of producing acetylene was from calcium carbide. The high-energy

requirement for carbide production was a serious drawback to the continuing mass

production of vinyl chloride by this method. Along with that, the major issue with this

process is that fact that the catalyst used, mercuric chloride, is a very volatile compound

which causes environmental problem.

The relative inexpensiveness of ethane has lead to many

attempts to develop a process that will use ethane to directly produce vinyl chloride. In

this processes oxychlorination is required. Although possible, this process has not

progressed beyond the conceptual stage. This is due to the fact that the oxychlorination

reactor design presents a severe challenge in terms of materials of construction because

the reaction temperature may go up to 500oC. At this temperature chlorine becomes very

aggressive to most construction materials. Along with it, the major problem associated

with the use of ethane is its molecular symmetry. In particular, the addition of chlorine to

ethane gives rise to a wide product spectrum.

Ethylene can be converted to vinyl chloride in a single stage, i.e.,

without isolating the intermediate ethylene dichloride by either chlorination or

oxychlorination routes, as is the case with the balanced ethylene route. Direct

chlorination routes require a high temperature and a large excess of ethylene to minimize

soot formation. The common problems with the direct routes of production are poor

selectivities to vinyl chloride and substantial production of chlorinated by-products, many

of which have no direct commercial utility. Hence commercially mainly the balanced

method is used.



CHAPTER FOUR: PROCESS DESCRIPTION [1, 4]

The process chosen for vinyl chloride production is a combination of three processes,

direct chlorination, EDC pyrolysis and oxychlorination. This process is referred to as the

balanced process. Direct chlorination by itself is a process that operates at lower temperatures

and produces fewer by-products when compared to oxychlorination. Oxychlorination process

uses all the HCl produced during EDC pyrolysis in vinyl chloride production.

(1) Direct Chlorination: CH2 = CH2 + Cl2 C2H4 Cl2

(2) EDC Pyrolysis: CH2 = CH2 + HCl + ½ O2 C2H4 Cl2 + H2O

(3) Oxychlorination: C2H4 Cl2 2CH2 = CHCl + HCl

Overall: 2CH2 = CH2 + ½ O2 + Cl2 2CH2 = CHCl + H2O

On this basis, EDC production is about evenly split between direct chlorination and

oxychlorination, and there is no net production or consumption of HCl.

4.1 DIRECT CHLORINATION: Ethylene and chlorine combine in a homogeneous catalytic reaction to form EDC.

Normally, the reaction rate is controlled by mass transfer, with absorption of ethylene as the

limiting factor. Due to high selectivity, ferric chloride is the common catalyst of choice for

chlorination of ethylene. The catalytic reaction utilizes an electrophilic addition mechanism. The

catalyst polarizes chlorine and then the polarized chlorine molecule acts as an electrophilic

reagent to add Cl- to the double bond of Ethylene.

EQUATIONS:

1. FeCl3 + Cl2 FeCl4-Cl+

2. FeCl4- - Cl+ + CH2=CH2 FeCl3 + ClCH2CH2Cl



FIG.2: TYPICAL (GEON) BALANCED VINYL CHLORIDE PROCESS WITH

OXYGEN BASED OXYCHLORINATION.

oxyg

en

ethyle

ne

HCl

OxychlorinationReactor (503K)

Quench

Wet

Crud

e EDC

Deca

nter (7

00 C)

Vent

Gases

Wast

e wate

r

Light end separating Column (Distn. Column)

Light

ends

Ethyle

ne

chlor

ine

Direct chlorination Reactor (353K)

Heavy ends Seperator

EDC p

yrolys

isFu

rnace

(723K

)

EDC pyrolysisQuench(700C)

HClseperatingcolumn

Vinyl chloride Seperatingcolumn

EDC

recyc

le

Viny

l Ch

loride

produ

ct



Conversion of the limiting component is essentially 100% and selectivity to EDC is greater than

99%.The direct chlorination reaction is very exothermic and requires heat removal for

temperature control. Early direct chlorination reactors were operated at moderate temperatures of

50-650C to take advantage of lower by product formation, and utilized conventional water

cooling for heat of reaction were devised. A widely used method involves operating the reactor

at boiling point of EDC, allowing the pure product to vaporize and then recovering heat from the

condensing vapour or replacing one or more EDC fractionation column reboilers with the reactor

itself.

4.2 OXYCHLORINATION OF ETHYLENE : When compared with direct chlorination, the oxychlorination process is characterized

by higher capital investment, higher operating costs, and slightly less pure EDC product.

However, use of the oxychlorination process is dictated by the need to consume the HCl

generated in EDC pyrolysis.

In oxychlorination, ethylene reacts with dry HCl and either air or pure oxygen to

produce EDC and water. Various commercial oxychlorination processes differ from one another

to some extent, but in each case but in each case the reaction is carried out in the vapour phase in

either a fixed or fluidized bed reactor containing a modified Deacon catalyst. Oxychlorination

catalyst typically contains cupric chloride as the primary active ingredient, impregnated on a

porous support.

CuCl2 is widely recognized as the active chlorinating agent. The CuCl produced during the

ethylene chlorination step is rapidly reconverted to CuCl is thought to be advantageous because

it readily complexes with ethylene, bringing it into contact with CuCl 2 under reaction conditions,

and the presence of some CuCl is thought to be advantageous because it readily complexes with

ethylene, bringing it into contact with CuCl2 long enough for chlorination to occur. A very

simple represented of this heterogeneous catalytic cycle.

EQUATION:

1. CH2=CH2 + 2CuCl2 2CuCl + ClCH2CH2Cl

2. ½ O2 + 2CuCl CuOCuCl2

3. 2HCl + CuOCuCl2 2CuCl2 + H2O



Usually fixed bed multitubular reactor is used for oxychlorination. Fixed- vertical

tubes held in a tubesheet at top and bottom. Uniform packing of catalyst within the tube is

important to ensure uniform pressure drop, flow and residence time through each tube. Reaction

heat can be removed by the generation of steam on the shell side of the reactor or by some other

heat transfer fluid. Fixed bed oxychlorination generally operates at higher temperature (230-

3000C) and pressure (150-1400 KPa). In the air-based oxychlorination process with either a

fluidized or fixed bed reactor, ethylene air are fed in slight excess of stoichiometric requirements

to ensure high conversion of HCl and to minimize losses of excess ethylene that remains in the

vent gas after product condensation. Under these conditions, typical feedstock conversion are 94-

99% for ethylene and 98-99.5% for HCl.bed reactors resembles multitube heat exchangers, with

the catalyst packed in.

The use of oxygen instead of air in the oxychlorination process with either a fixed or

fluidized bed reactor, permits operation at lower temperatures and results in improved operating

efficiency and product yield.

4.3 PURIFICATION OF ETHYLENE DICHLORIDE FOR PYROLYSIS:

EDC used for pyrolysis to vinyl chloride must be high purity, typically greater

than 99.5% because the cracking process is highly susceptible to inhibition and fouling by trace

quantities of impurities. It must also be dry to prevent excessive corrosion downstream.

Direct chlorination usually produces EDC with purity greater than 99.5%,

so that except for removal of the FeCl3, little further purification is necessary. Ferric chloride can

be removed by adsorption of a solid or the EDC can be distilled from the FeCl3 in a boiling

reactor as noted above.

EDC from the oxychlorination process is less pure than EDC from direct chlorination and

requires purification by distillation. It is usually first washed with water and then with caustic

solution to remove chloral and other water extractable impurities. Subsequently, water and low

boiling impurities are taken overhead in a first distillation column and finally pure dry EDC is

taken overhead in a second column



4.4 ETHYLENE DICHLORIDE PYROLYSIS: Thermal pyrolysis or cracking of EDC to vinyl chloride and HCl occurs as a homogeneous, first

order, free radical chain reaction. The accepted general mechanism involves the four steps as

follow:

(1) Initiation: ClCH2CH2Cl ClCH2CH2 + Cl

(2) Propagation: Cl + ClCH2CH2Cl ClCH2CHCl + HCl

ClCH2C.HCl CH2 = CHCl + Cl

(3) Termination: Cl + ClCH2CH2 CH2 = CHCl + HCl

The endothermic cracking of EDC is relatively clean at atmospheric pressure and at

temperatures of 425-5500C. Commercial pyrolysis units, however, generally operate at pressure

of 1.4-3 MPa and at temperature of 475-5250C to provide for better transfer. EDC conversion per

pass through the pyrolysis reactor is normally maintained at 53-63%, with the residence time of

2-30s.

Quenching of pyrolysis reactor effluent quickly minimizes coke formation. Substantial

yield losses to heavy ends and tars can occur if cooling is done too slowly. Therefore the hot

effluent gases are normally quenched and partially condensed by direct contact with cold EDC in

a quench tower. Alternatively the pyrolysis effluent gases can first be cooled by heat exchange

with cold liquid EDC furnace feed in a transfer line exchanger prior to quenching in the quench

tower.

Although there are minor differences in the HCl-vinyl chloride recovery section from one

vinyl chloride producer to another, in general the quench column effluent is distilled to remove

first HCl and then vinyl chloride. The vinyl chloride is usually further treated to produce

specification product, recovered HCl is sent to the oxychlorination process and unconverted

EDC is purified for removal of light and heavy ends before it is recycled to the cracking furnace.

The light and heavy ends are either further processed, disposed of by incineration or other



methods or completely recycled by catalytic oxidation with heat recovery followed by chlorine

recovery as EDC.



CHAPTER FIVE: THERMODYNAMICS[5] The science of thermodynamics deals with energy and its transformation.

Thermodynamics finds extensive application in chemical engineering. In chemical processes like

synthesis ammonia from mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen, thermodynamics enables us to

determine the maximum yield of ammonia obtained under given condition of temperature and

pressure. Thermodynamics also helps to lay down the criteria for predicting feasibility or

spontaneity of a process, including a chemical reaction, under a given set of conditions. It also

helps to determine the extent to which a process, including a chemical reaction, can proceed

before attainment of equilibrium.

From the values of standard free energy change, we formulate an approximate criterion

for the feasibility of chemical reaction, which will be useful in preliminary exploratory work. It

would be worthwhile to have some idea about whether or not the equilibrium is favourable,

before we search for catalyst and other condition necessary to cause the reaction. If the reaction

is not thermodynamically feasible, there is no point in pursuing a long and expensive

experimental investigation on improving the rate of equation. Therefore, to determine the

feasibility of a chemical reaction Gibb’s free energy change of chemical reaction is determine

and the conditions for the feasibility of a chemical reaction are mentioned below:

ΔGo < 0, the reaction is promising.(543)

0 < ΔGo < 40,000 kJ/kmol, the reaction may or may not be possible and needs further study.

ΔGo > 40,000 kJ/kmol, the reaction is very unfavorable.

ΔGo = 0 (reaction is in a state of equilibrium), reaction proceeds t considerable extent before

equilibrium is reached.

Reactions:

1) CH2=CH2 + Cl2 Cl CH2-CH2 Cl

2) CH2=CH2 + 2 HCl + ½ O2 Cl CH2-CH2 Cl + H2O

1) Cl CH2-CH2 Cl CH2=CH Cl + HCl



Data: Enthalpy and free energy of various compounds at standard temperature.

COMPONENT Ho298 (

풌풄풂풍품풎풐풍

) Go298 (

풌풄풂풍품풎풐풍

)

Ethylene 54.19 50.7

Hydrogen chloride -22.063 -22.769

Ethylene dichloride -39.44 -19.506

Vinyl chloride 8.4 12.31

Water -68.311 -56.689

Now, T

TPT

oT

o

1

1 dTCΔHΔH

)(3

TT2

ΔβTTΔαΔH 31

321

21T

o1 TT

32'T

o

3T

2ΔβΔαTΔHΔH T .......(1) , where 'ΔH constant



POLYNOMIAL CONSTANTS FOR VARIOUS COMPONENTS[6]

Now,

Enthalpy and free energy of reaction is given by

Ho298 = ∑∆푯풑풓풐풅풖풄풕풔

ퟎ - ∑∆푯풓풆풂풄풕풂풏풕풔

ퟎ

Go298 = ∑∆푮풑풓풐풅풖풄풕풔ퟎ

- ∑∆푮풓풆풂풄풕풂풏풕풔ퟎ

COMPONENT ALPHA BETA GAMMA

Chlorine 0.2914E-5 0.0918 E-5 0.949E-3

Oxygen 0.291 E-5 0.1004 E-5 2.526 E-3

Water 0.3336 E-5 0.2679 E-5 2.6105 E-3

Ethylene 0.3338 E-5 0.9479 E-5 1.596 E-3

Hydrogen chloride 0.2916 E-5 0.0905 E-5 2.0938 E-3

Vinyl chloride 0.4236 E-5 0.8735 E-5 1.6492 E-3

Hydrogen 0.2762 E-5 0.0956 E-5 2.466 E-3

Carbon monoxide 0.2911 E-5 0.0877 E-5 3.0851 E-3

Carbon dioxide 0.2937 E-5 0.3454 E-5 1.428 E-3

Ethylene dichloride 37.275 0.14362 1.04 E-5

Reaction ∆∝ ∆휷 ∆휸

Direct chlorination 37.27499 0.1436 -2.5346E-3

Oxychorination 37.279 0.1435 -4.426E-3

Pyrolysis -37.2749 -0.1436 3.723E-3



For Direct Chlorination:

Put T = 298 K

∆퐻 = ∆퐻′ + 37.2749 × 298 +0.1436 × 298

2 +−0.1436 × 298

3

∴ ∆퐻′ = −391.9 ∗ 10 푘푗/퐾푚표푙푒

∴ ∆퐻′ = − 391900푘퐽

Since, RT

ΔHdT

dlnK o

..........................(1)

This gives,

AT2RΔβlnT

RΔα

RTΔHlnK

'

Also, RTlnKΔG 298o

∆퐺 = 퐷푇 + ∆퐻 − ∆훼 푇푙푛푇 − ∆훽 − ∆훾 ………… (2)

At T = 298K

−293.86 × 10

= 퐷 × 298 − 391.9 × 10 − 37.2749 × 298푙푛298−. 1436 × 298

2

+2.5346 × 10 × 298

6

REACTIONS ∆Ho298 (

푱풌풎풐풍

) ∆Go298 (

푱풌풎풐풍

)

Direct Chlorination -391.91E6 -293.86E6

Oxychlorination -493.176 E6 -340.54 E6

Pyrolysis 107.897 E6 37.868 E6



퐷 = 329.152 × 10

Putting D in eqn (2), At T = 353K

∆퐺 = −293.861 × 10 퐽 푘푚표푙.퐾⁄

As the free energy is negative, therefore the reaction is feasible.

2) Oxychlorination

Similarily,

∴ ∆퐻′ = −493154퐾퐽/kmolK.

∴ 퐷 = 512.272


∆퐺 = −492.937 × 10 퐽 푘푚표푙.퐾⁄


3) Pyrolysis

Similarily,

We get, ∆퐻′ =

∴ 퐷 = 126949.91


∆퐺 = −30.87 × 10 퐽 푘푚표푙.퐾⁄




CHAPTER SIX: MATERIAL BALANCE [7]

Production capacity of vinyl chloride is 100 tonnes/day. Molecular weight of vinyl

chloride is 62.5. Thus production capacity is 66.66 kmoles/hr.

Basis : 1 hour of operation.

∴ 푐푎푝푎푐푖푡푦 표푓 푝푙푎푛푡 = 100푇표푛푛푒푠 표푓 푣푖푛푦푙 푐ℎ푙표푟푖푑푒

푑푎푦

= 100 × 1000 × .

= 4166.667 Kg/hr.

= 66.666 Kmoles

Now, the conversion of EDC after pyrolysis is 58%.

∴ 퐸푡ℎ푦푙푒푛푒 푑푖푐ℎ푙표푟푖푑푒 푟푒푞푢푖푟푒푑 = ..

= 114.9425 kmol/hr

= 11379.31 Kg/hr.

50% of Ethylene dichloride is formed from oxychlorination and rest from direct chlorination.

MASS BALANCE ON DIRECT CHLORINATION REACTOR:

Ethylene and chlorine dissolve in the liquid phase and combine in homogeneous catalytic

reaction to form Ethylene dichloride.

The limiting reactant is ethylene with 100% conversion.

∴ Ethylene required = 114.9425

2

= 57.47126퐾푚표푙ℎ푟 .

Chlorine is taken in 3.5% excess.

∴ Chlorine required = 57.47126 × 1.035



= 59.4268 Kmol/hr.

∴ 퐶ℎ푙표푟푖푛푒 푂푢푡 = 59.4268 − 57.47126

= 2.011494 Kmol/hr.

∴ 퐸푡ℎ푦푙푒푛푒 푑푖푐ℎ푙표푟푖푑푒 표푏푡푎푖푛푒푑 = 57.47126 퐾푚표푙/ℎ푟

Now taking mass balance on the reactor:

REACTANTS IN:

COMPONENT KMOLES MOLECULAR WEIGHT MASS (KG)

Ethylene 57.47126 28 1609.195

Chlorine 59.4268 71 4223.276

TOTAL 116.954 5832.471

PRODUCTS LEAVING:

COMPONENT KMOLES MOLECULAR WEIGHT MASS (KG)

Ethylene dichloride 57.47126 99 5689.655

Chlorine 2.011494 71 142.8161

TOTAL 59.48276 5832.471 Therefore mass in = mass out

MASS BALANCE ON OXYCHLORINATOR REACTOR:

∴ Ethylene dichloride obtained =114.9425

2 = 57.4716 퐾푚표푙/ℎ푟

The conversion for ethylene is 96% and for Hydrogen chloride is 98%

∴ Amount of Ethylene required =57.47126

0.96



= 59.8659 퐾푚표푙/ℎ푟

∴ Amount of Hydrogen chloride required =57.47126 × 2

0.98 = 117.2883 퐾푚표푙/ℎ푟

Pure O2 is taken as reactant and it is taken in 20% excess

∴ Amount of Oxygen required =57.47126 × 1.2

2 = 34.48276 퐾푚표푙/ℎ푟

∴ HCl remained unconverted = 117.2883−114.9425 = 2.345766 퐾푚표푙/ℎ푟

∴ Amount of Heavies formed = 59.8659− 57.47126

= 2.39464 퐾푚표푙/ℎ푟

REACTANTS ENTERING:

COMPONENTS KMOLES MOLECULAR WEIGHT MASS (KG)

Ethylene 59.8659 28 1676.245

HCl 117.2883 36.5 4281.023

Oxygen 34.48276 32 1103.448

TOTAL 211.637 7060.716

PRODUCTS LEAVING:

COMPONENTS KMOLES MOLECULAR WEIGHT

MASS (KG)


Water 57.47126 18 1034.483

Byproducts 2.394636 133.5 319.6839

Therefore, mass in = mass out



MATERIAL BALANCE ON WET CRUDE EDC DECANTER:

From literature, it is given that for 1Kg of vinyl chloride formed, vent gases out are

CO2 out = 0.0116 Kg

CO out = 0.0032 Kg

H2O out = 0..07Kg

O 2 out = 0.04 Kg

∴ 퐹표푟 4166.667 퐾푔ℎ푟 표푓 푣푖푛푦푙 푐ℎ푙표푟푖푑푒

CO2 out = 48.33333 Kg = 1.09848485 Kmol.

CO out = 13.33333 Kg = 0.47619048 Kmol.

H2O out = 291.1667Kg = 16.230 Kmol.

O 2 out = 166.6666 Kg = 5.20833 Kmol.

EDC coming in = EDC coming out = 57.47126 kmol/hr

REACTANTS ENTERING DECANTER:


MASS (KG)

Ethylene dichloride 57.47126

99 5689.655

Water 57.47126

18 1034.483

Byproducts 2.394636

133.5 319.6839

TOTAL 117.3372

7043.822



PROCUCTS LEAVING THE DECANTER:


MASS (KG)


99 5689.655

Water 47.4482759

18 854.069

Carbon dioxide 1.09848485

44 48.33333

Carbon monoxide 0.47619048

28 13.33333

Water vapours 16.2037037

18 291.6667

Light ends 0.1872

133.5 24.9912

Oxygen 5.20833

32 166.6666

TOTAL 128.093449

7088.715


MATERIAL BALANCE ON LIGHT END DISTILLATION COLUMN:

Light end mainly consists of ethyl chloride. 99.8% Light ends are separated from the top

of the distillation column, while 99.6% EDC is separated from the bottom of the

distillation column.

For a distillation column,

F = D + W

F xf = D xd + W xw

For this distillation column;

xd = 0.9968, xw = 0.002

Taking overall balance over distillation column.

57.65846= D + W ..............(1)



Now taking balance on ethylene dichloride

57.47126 = 0.9968 × D + 0.002 W ..............(2)

Solving equation 1 and 2 simultaneously, we get

D = 57.47126 Kmol/hr

W = 0.1872 Kmol/hr

FEED ENTERING THE DISTILLATION COLUMN:


MASS (KG)


Light ends .18272 64.5 12.0744

TOTAL 57.65846 5701.73

TOP PRODUCT FROM DISTILLATION COLUMN:


MASS (KG)


99 22.75862

Light products 0.186826

64.5 12.05025

TOTAL .416711 34.80887

BOTTOM PRODUCTS FROM DISTILLATION COLUMN:


MASS (KG)


99 5666.897

Light products 0.000374

64.5 0.024149

TOTAL 57.24175 5666.921149



Total mass out = Top product from stripping column + bottom product from stripping column

Therefore mass in = mass out.

MATERIAL BALANCE OVER HEAVY END SEPERATOR:

Assuming 100% conversion in heavy end separator. The heavy ends mainly consists of

1,1,2-trichloroethane (molecular wt. =133.5).

Total EDC entering the separator = 57.47126 + 57.47126

= 114.9425 kmol/hr

FEED ENTERING THE SEPERATING COLUMN:


MASS (KG)


99 11379.31

Chlorine 2.011494

71 142.8161

Heavy ends 0.58

133.5 77.43

TOP PRODUCT FROM SEPERATING COLUMN:

COMPONENTS KMOLES MOLECULAR

WEIGHT

MASS (KG)


99 11379.31

Chlorine 2.011494

71 142.8161

TOTAL 116.95399 11522.1261



BOTTOM PRODUCTS FROM SEPERATING COLUMN:


WEIGHT

MASS (KG)

Heavy ends 0.58 133.5 77.43

MATERIAL BALANCE OVER EDC PYROLYSIS FURNACE:

Conversion for EDC in pyrolysis furnace is 58%.

∴ Vinyl chloride obtained = 0.58 × 114.9425

= 66.666Kmol/hr.

∴ HCl obtained = 66.666 푘푚표푙/ℎ푟

∴ Ethylene dichloride unconverted = 114.9425− 66.666

= 48.27586 Kmol/hr

FEED TO THE PYROLYSIS FURNACE:


MASS (KG)


Chlorine 2.011494

71 142.8161

TOTAL 116.95399 11522.1261



PRODUCT FROM PYROLYSIS FURNACE:


MASS (KG)

Vinyl chloride 66.666 62.5 4166.667

HCl 66.666 36.5 2433.333


Chlorine 2.011494

71 142.8161

TOTAL 183.6207

11522.13


MATERIAL BALANCE OVER PYROLYSIS QUENCH:

The converted products from pyrolysis furnace are cooled by direct quenching into the

liquid. So the total mass coming in is equal to the total mass coming out.

MATERIAL BALANCE OVER HCl SEPERATING COLUMN:

Products from pyrolysis quench consist mainly of vinyl chloride, Ethylene dichloride and HCl.

Considering 100% conversion in separating column. Total HCl and Cl2 separated from the top of

separating column.

FEED TO THE HCl SEPERATING COLUMN:


MASS (KG)

Vinyl chloride 66.666 62.5 4166.667

HCl 66.666 36.5 2433.333


Chlorine 2.011494

71 142.8161

TOTAL 183.6207

11522.13



TOP PRODUCT FROM HCl SEPERATING COLUMN:


MASS (KG)

HCl 66.666 36.5 2433.333

Chlorine 2.011494

71 142.8161

TOTAL 68.677494 2576.149

BOTTOM PRODUCTS FROM SEPERATING COLUMN:


MASS (KG)

Vinyl chloride 66.666 62.5 4166.667


TOTAL 114.94186 8945.977

Total mass out = Top product from separating column + bottom product from separating column


TOTAL RECYCLE:

Now the top product from the seperating column is combined along with the Hydrogen

gas to convert unconverted chlorine to HCl. This combined stream is returned to the reactor as a

recycle stream. This total recycle stream is joined along with the make up streams of the

reactants and this combined stream is fed to the reactor.



MATERIAL BALANCE OVER VINYL CHLORIDE SEPERATOR

(DISTILLATION COLUMN):

99.5% Vinyl chloride as MVC is separated from the top of the distillation column, while 99.8%

Ethylene dichloride is separated from the bottom of the distillation column.

For a distillation column,

F = D + W

F xf = D xd + W xw

For this distillation column;

xd = 0.995, xw = 0.0002, xf = 0.58

Taking overall balance over distillation column.

114.94186 = D + W ..............(1)

Now taking balance on vinyl chloride

66.666= 0.9968 × D + 0.002 W ..............(2)

Solving equation 1 and 2 simultaneously, we get

D = 66.66667 Kmol/hr

W = 48.27586 Kmol/hr

FEED ENTERING THE DISTILLATION COLUMN:


Vinyl chloride 66.666 62.5 4166.667


TOTAL 114.94186 8945.977



TOP PRODUCT FROM DISTILLATION COLUMN:


Vinyl chloride 66.33333 62.5 4145.833


TOTAL 66.42989 4155.392

BOTTOM PRODUCTS FROM DISTILLATION COLUMN:


WEIGHT

MASS (KG)

Vinyl chloride 48.17931 62.5 4769.752


TOTAL 48.51264 4790.585




CHAPTER SEVEN: ENERGY BALANCE[9]

POLYNOMIAL GAS CONSTANTS FOR ALL THE

COMPONENTS[6,8]:

Table No. 4: Polynomial constants for the components

The enthalpy is calculated as follows:

퐻 = ∫ 푛 × 퐶푝 × 푑푇.

퐻 = 푛 × (퐴 + 퐵 × 푇 + 퐶 × 푇 )푑푇.

= 34.48276∫ (0.291퐸 + 0.1004퐸 푇 + 2.526퐸 푇 )dT

= 79176.40872 J/hr.

= 79.176408 kJ/hr.

COMPONENT A B C

Chlorine 0.2914E-5 0.0918 E-5 0.949E-3

Oxygen 0.291 E-5 0.1004 E-5 2.526 E-3

Water 0.3336 E-5 0.2679 E-5 2.6105 E-3

Ethylene 0.3338 E-5 0.9479 E-5 1.596 E-3

Hydrogen chloride 0.2916 E-5 0.0905 E-5 2.0938 E-3

Vinyl chloride 0.4236 E-5 0.8735 E-5 1.6492 E-3

Hydrogen 0.2762 E-5 0.0956 E-5 2.466 E-3

Carbon monoxide 0.2911 E-5 0.0877 E-5 3.0851 E-3

Carbon dioxide 0.2937 E-5 0.3454 E-5 1.428 E-3

Ethylene dichloride 37.275 0.14362 1.04 E-5

Ethyl Chloride 0.456 E-5 1.2962 E-5 1.5992 E-3

1,1,2 trichloroethane 34.934 .8505 -2.3306 E-3



HEAT BALANCE ON OXYCHLORINATION REACTOR:

Oxygen and ethylene enters the reactor at 308K, while the recycle HCl enters the reactor at

343K. An exothermic reaction takes place in the reactor, during which a lot of heat is evolved.

This heat has to be removed from the reactor.

HEAT ENTERING THE REACTOR:

COMPONENT KMOLES/HR ENTHALPY (KJ/HR)

Oxygen 34.48276 79.17641

Ethylene 59.8659 86.85221

HCl 117.2883 902.4308

TOTAL 1068.459

HEAT LEAVING THE REACTOR:


Ethylene dichloride 57.47126437 1136.71732

Water 57.47126437 4990.56532

Oxygen 5.20833 437.62937

Ethylene 2.394636015 127.131438

HCl 2.345765893 163.378356

TOTAL 6855.42181

Now the heat of reaction can be given as follows:

∆퐻 = −493.304 × 10 퐽/푘푚표푙

= −493.304 × 10 푘퐽/푘푚표푙



For 28.732 kmol/hr of Ethylene dichloride formed

∆퐻 = −493.304 × 10 ×57.47126437 = −28350.80442 × 10 푘퐽/ℎ푟

Total heat to be removed from the reactor can be calculated as follows:

= 퐻표푢푡 − 퐻푖푛 − ∆퐻

= 6855.42181 - 1068.459 + 28350.80442 × 10

= 28356.591 × 10 푘퐽/ℎ푟

This heat can be removed with the help of cooling water.

Cp = 4.186 kJ/kg, ∆T = 200C.

푄 = 푚퐶푝∆푇

28356.591 × 10 = 푚 × 4.186 × 20

m = 94.130 kg/s of cooling water will be required.



HEAT BALANCE ON THE OXYCHLORINATION QUENCH:

Products from oxychlorination reactor are cooled quickly by quenching with water.

Products from oxychlorinator reactor enters the quench tower at 503K

And leaves at 329.8K.

HEAT ENTERING THE QUENCH:



Water 57.47126437 4990.56532

Oxygen 5.20833 437.62937

Ethylene 2.394636015 127.131438

HCl 2.345765893 163.378356

TOTAL 6855.42181

HEAT LEAVING THE QUENCH:



Water 57.47126437 687.689687

Oxygen 5.20833 60.3044058

Ethylene 2.394636015 17.5185104

HCl 2.345765893 22.513194

TOTAL 1006.20999 Therefore, total heat removed by water = Hin - Hout

= 6855.42181 – 1006.20999



= 5849.21191 As, Quenching is carried in water Cp = 4.184 kJ/kg. ∆T = 400C


5849.21191 = 푚 × 4.186 × 40

m = 34.9498 kg/hr of cooling water will be required.

Therefore, 34.9498 kg of quenching water required.

HEAT BALANCE OVER EDC DECANTER:

Since, the temperature change in the decanter is zero, therefore the heat added or heat removed from the decanter is zero. Therefore there is no need to determine heat balance over the decanter.

HEAT BALANCE OVER LIGHT END SEPARATING COLUMN:

Total feed entering to column = 57.47126 + 0.1872

= 57.65846 kmol/hr.

Mol fraction of Ethylene dichloride = 57.65846 / 57.47126

= 0.996

Therefore, Temperature of feed = 355.67K

HEAT ENTERING THE SEPARATING COLUMN:



282.7743

Ethyl chloride 0.1872

1.830573

TOTAL 284.6049



Temperature of the top product is 296.8K.

HEAT LEAVING THE SEPARATING COLUMN FROM TOP:


Ethylene dichloride 0.229885 -1.15341

Ethyl chloride 0.186826 -1.85831

TOTAL -3.01172 Temperature of the bottom product is 356.5K.

Bottom product mainly consists of Ethylene dichloride

Therefore, heat leaving from bottom product = 4.2675 kJ/hr.

The heat balance over distillation column is

F . hf + Qr = D . hd + W . hw + Qc

For R = 30 and 50C water for condensing vapour.

푄푐 = 푉푛. ℷ푐

푉푛 = (푅 + 1).퐷

푄푐 =673448.28 푘퐽/ℎ푟

284.6049 + 푄푟 = -3.01172+4.2675+673448.28

푄푟 = 673164.92 푘퐽/ℎ푟

This much amount of heat is supplied to the reboiler by condensing steam in the reboiler at

1000C

ℷ푐 = 2676 푘퐽/푘푔

∴ 푄푟 = 푚. ℷ푐



∴ 푚 =673164.92

2676.0

푚 = 0.06988 푘푔/푠푒푐

Therefore, 0.06988kg/sec steam is required in reboiler

BALANCE OVER DIRECT CHLORINATION REACTOR:

Chlorine and ethylene enters the reactor at 308K. Ethylene dichloride and chlorine leaves

the reactor at 503K. An exothermic reaction takes place in the reactor, during which a lot of heat

is evolved. This heat has to be removed from the reactor with the help of coolent.

HEAT ENTERING THE REACTOR:


Ethylene 57.47126 83.37812

Chlorine 59.48276 51.35576

TOTAL 134.7339

HEAT LEAVING THE REACTOR:



Chlorine 2.011494253 18.8686657

TOTAL 249.004748

∆퐻 = −391.84 × 10 푘퐽/푘푚표푙

Therefore, for 28.732 kmol/hr Ethylene dichloride formed

∆퐻 = −391.84 × 10 × 57.47126



= −22516.692 × 10 푘퐽/ℎ푟

Total heat to be removed from the reactor can be calculated as follows:

= 퐻표푢푡 − 퐻푖푛 − ∆퐻

= 249.004 – 134.7339 + 22516.692E3

= 22516.806 퐸3 푘퐽/ℎ푟

This heat can be removed with the help of cooling water.

Cp = 4.186 kJ/kg, ∆T = 200C.


22516806 = 푚 × 4186 × 20

m = 269.08kg/hr of cooling water will be required.


Total feed entering to column = 172.1839 +2.011494 + 0.58

= 174.775kmol/hr.

Therefore, Temperature of feed mixture = 353 × 0.3466 + 356.59 × 0.637

+238.4 × 0.012 + 347 × 0.0035

= 353.57 K

Temperature of top product mixture = 356.59×0.987 + 347×0.0035

= 354.57



HEAT ENTERING THE SEPARATING COLUMN:



Chlorine 2.011494 11.18269

1,1,2-trichloroethane 0.58 2.144423

TOTAL 828.1569

HEAT LEAVING THE SEPARATING COLUMN AS TOP PRODUCT:



Chlorine 2.011494 11.49121

TOTAL 846.3409

Temperature of product leaving from the bottom = 347.195K

HEAT LEAVING THE SEPARATING COLUMN AS BOTTOM

PRODUCT:


1,1,2-trichloroethane 0.58 2.179632


TOTAL 8.858432




F . hf + Qr = D . hd + W . hw + Qc

For R = 30 and 50C water for condensing vapour. 푄푐 =

푉푛. ℷ푐

푉푛 = (푅 + 1).퐷

푄푐 = 2025.081푘퐽/ℎ푟

828.1569 + 푄푟 = 846.3409+8.854 + 2025.081

푄푟 = 2052.839푘퐽/ℎ푟


1000C



∴ 푚 =2052.839

2676.0

푚 = 0.7571 푘푔/ℎ푟

Therefore, .7571kg/hr steam is required in reboiler.



ENERGY BALANCE OVER THE PYROLYSIS FURNACE:

Ethylene dichloride and chlorine enters the furnace at 354.83K, while the products from

furnace leaves at temperature 723K. The reaction is endothermic and heat is supplied by

condensing steam.

HEAT ENTERING THE PYROLYSIS FURNACE:



chlorine 2.011494 11.49121

TOTAL 568.8009

HEAT LEAVING THE PYROLYSIS FURNACE:


Vinyl chloride 66.66666667 12752.28

Chlorine 2.011494253 221.5939

HCl 66.66666667 16189.96


TOTAL 31491.13

∆퐻 = 107.507 × 10 푘퐽/푘푚표푙

Therefore, for 33.33 kmol/hr Ethylene dichloride formed

∆퐻 = 107.507 × 10 × 66.66

= 7166.416 퐸3 퐽/ℎ푟



Total heat to be supplied to the reactor can be calculated as follows:

= 퐻표푢푡 − 퐻푖푛 + ∆퐻

= 34491.13-568.8009+ 3583208.31

= 7200.3389 퐸3 푘퐽/ℎ푟

This heat will be supplied bysteam at 4 bar condensing at 1430C

ℷ푐 = 2737.6 푘퐽/푘푔

Therefore, amount of steam required is


∴ 푚 =7200338.9

2737.6

푚 = 0.7306 푘푔/푠

Therefore, 0.7306 kg/s steam is required in reboiler.

HEAT BALANCE ON THE OXYCHLORINATION QUENCH:

Products from pyrolysis furnace are cooled quickly by quenching with water. Products

from pyrolysis furnace enters the quench tower at 723K

And leaves at 343K.



Vinyl chloride 66.66666667 12752.28

Chlorine 2.011494253 221.5939

HCl 66.66666667 16189.96


TOTAL 31491.13





Vinyl chloride 66.66666667 503.9714916

Chlorine 2.011494253 8.757366433

HCl 66.66666667 639.8249739


TOTAL 1335.828555

Therefore, total heat removed by water = Hin - Hout

= 31491.13– 1335.82

= 30155.31 kJ/hr

As, Quenching is carried in water

Cp = 4.184 kJ/kg. ∆T = 400C


30155.31 = 푚 × 4.186 × 40

m = 0.04668 kg/sec of cooling water will be required.

Therefore, 0.04668 kg/sec of quenching water required.



ENERGY BALANCE OVER COOLER:

The product mixture from quenching are cooled to 259K with the help of coolant and then distilled.

HEAT ENTERING THE COOLER:


Vinyl chloride 66.66666667 503.9714916

Chlorine 2.011494253 8.757366433

HCl 66.66666667 639.8249739


TOTAL 1335.828555

HEAT LEAVING THE COOLER:


Vinyl chloride 66.66666667 -328.703417

Chlorine 2.011494253 -5.71177223

HCl 66.66666667 -417.309656


TOTAL -898.173198

Total heat that must be removed is:

= 퐻푖푛 − 퐻표푢푡

= 1355.82 + 898.173

= 2253.993푘퐽/ℎ푟



This heat will be removed by refrigerant vapourising in cooler.

Therefore, amount of refrigerant required is


∴ 푚 =2253.993

380.1

푚 = 5.93푘푔/ℎ푟

Therefore, 0.00163 kg/s refrigerant is required.


Temperature of feed mixture = 259.15K

Temperature of top product mixture is 189.5K and Temperature of bottom product mixture is

301.14 K

HEAT ENTERING THE HCl SEPARATING COLUMN:


Vinyl chloride 66.66666667 -328.703417

Chlorine 2.011494253 -5.71177223

HCl 66.66666667 -417.309656


TOTAL -898.173198



HEAT LEAVING THE HCl SEPARATING COLUMN AS TOP PRODUCT:


HCl 66.66666667 -384.5732

Chlorine 2.011494253 -6.682579

TOTAL -391.255768

HEAT LEAVING THE HCl SEPARATING COLUMN AS BOTTOM

PRODUCT:



Vinyl chloride 48.27586207 158.76068

TOTAL 615.01159

The heat from top gases can be removed by refrigerant at T = 170K

ℷ푐 = 504.5kJ/kg

For R = 30


푉푛 = (푅 + 1).퐷

푄푐 = 17179.92 푘퐽/ℎ푟


F . hf + Qr = D . hd + W . hw + Qc

−898.173 + 푄푟 = -399.255+ 615.01159+ 17179928

푄푟 = 18301.87푘퐽/ℎ푟




1000C



∴ 푚 =18301.87

2676.0

푚 = 6.839 푘푔/푠푒푐


ENERGY BALANCE OVER VINYL CHLORIDE DISTILLATION COLUMN:

HEAT ENTERING THE VINYL CHLORIDE DISTILLATION COLUMN



Vinyl chloride 48.27586207 158.76068

TOTAL 615.01159

TOTAL HEAT LEAVING FROM THE TOP OF THE DISTILLATION COLUMN = -197073.4 kJ/hr

TOTAL HEAT LEAVING FROM THE BOTTOM OF THE DISTILLATION COLUMN = 239.95 kJ/hr

The heat from top gases can be removed by refrigerant at T = 170K

ℷ푐 = 504.5kJ/kg

For R = 30




푉푛 = (푅 + 1).퐷

푄푐 = 45871279.08푘퐽ℎ푟


F . hf + Qr = D . hd + W . hw + Qc

615.01159 + 푄푟 = -197073.4 + 239.95 +45871279.08

푄푟 = 45665399 푘퐽/ℎ푟


1000C



∴ 푚 =45665399

2676.0

푚 = 4.74 푘푔/푠푒푐




CHAPTER EIGHT: DESIGN OF REACTOR[10,11,12,13] AIM:- TO DESIGN FIXED BED MULTITUBULAR REACTOR

Figure no.3: Diagram of Multitubular reactor.

REACTION OCCURING:

CH2=CH2 + 2 HCl + ½ O2 Cl CH2-CH2 Cl + H2O

CONDITIONS:-

1) Reaction temperature = 2300C

2) Reactor pressure = 6 atm

3) Catalyst: Deacon Catalyst with higher loading of CuCl2



(1) VOLUME OF REACTOR:

The design equation is given as:

푊퐹 =

푑푥−푟

The rate expression for the given oxychlorination reaction is given by:

C2H4 Cl2 2CH2 = CHCl + HCl

r = k [C2H4 Cl2]

Activation Energy= 58kcal/mol

푟 =0.14푃 (1 − 푥)

푥 (1− 0.67푃 − 0.52푃 ) − 푥. 2(푑 + 2) + 3.13 − 0.67(푑 + 2) 푃 + 0.71푃 + 푋

Where,

푋 = {(푑 + 2) + 3.13(푑 + 2)푃 + 1.23푃 }

W = weight of catalyst

F = flow rate of ethylene

For synthesis of ethylene dichloride diluted with inert gas

Constants d = 8.78

P = 6 atm.

푟 =5.04(1− 푥)

−21.74푥 − 22.56푥 + 362.936 푊퐹 =

−21.74푥 − 22.56푥 + 362.9365.04(1− 푥) 푑푥

For conversion of 99%, x = 0.99

Therefore, Integrating equation between 0 to 0.99



푊퐹 =

−21.74푥 − 22.56푥 + 362.9365.04(1− 푥)

.

푑푥

푊퐹 = 4225푘푔 푐푎푡푎푙푦푠푡/푘푚표푙/ℎ푟

Flow rate of ethylene = F = 59.8659 kmol/hr

∴ 푊 = 4225 × 59.8659

= 252933.4275푘푔 표푓 푐푎푡푎푙푦푠푡

There are two reactors in parallel.

∴ 푊푒푖푔ℎ푡 표푓 푐푎푡푎푙푦푠푡 푝푒푟 푟푒푎푐푡표푟 = 252933.4275

2 = 126466.71푘푔

As density = 3054 kg/m3

∴ 푉표푙푢푚푒 표푓 푐푎푡푎푙푦푠푡 푟푒푞. =12466.7

3054 = 41.410 m3

(2) TUBE DIAMETER AND LENGTH:

Internal diameter = 3” =7.62 cms

= 0.0762 m

Tube thickness = 3 mm = 0.003 m.

∴ 푂푢푡푠푖푑푒 푑푖푎푚푒푡푒푟 = 퐷푖 + 2 × 푡

=7.62 + 2(0.3)

= 8.22 cm

= 0.0822 m.

Considering length of each tube = L = 5 m



(3) NUMBER OF TUBES:

푉표푙푢푚푒 표푓 푒푎푐ℎ 푡푢푏푒 = 3.14 × 퐷

4 × 퐿

Where, Di = Internal diameter of tube

L = length of each tube

푉표푙푢푚푒 표푓 푒푎푐ℎ 푡푢푏푒 = 3.14 × 0.0762

4 × 5

= 0.0228 m3

푁푢푚푏푒푟 푡푢푏푒푠 푝푒푟 푟푒푎푐푡표푟 = 41.4100.0228

= 1826 tubes

(4) SHELL DIAMETER:

We take triangular spacing, therefore the area occupied by each tube is given by

푎 = 0.866 × 푠

Where, s is pitch of tubes

푠 = (1.25 × 퐷 )

Therefore, Area required for N number of tubes

= 푁 × 0.866 × 푠

To provide pass partition, the actual area of the tube sheet, for locating the tubes will be

greater than the area given by the above equation, so we have to divide it by proportionality

factor, B = 0.95.

This area corresponds to the area of the shell

∴ 퐴 = . × = × . ×



퐷 =4 × 1826 × 0.866 × (1.25 × 0.0762)

3.14 × 0.95

퐷 = 19.1431

D = 4.37m

Thus diameter of shell is 4.37 meters.

(4) COOLING ARRANGEMENT:

Water is used for cooling. The inlet for it is at the bottom and outlet at the top.

(i) Heat to be removed (from energy balance)

= 28356591.56 푗/ℎ푟

About 10% of this heat is lost

∴ 푙표푠푠푒푠 = 2.35659 × 10 퐽/ℎ푟

∴ 푇표푡푎푙 ℎ푒푎푡 푡표 푏푒 푟푒푚표푣푒푑 = 25520.9324 ×10

2 퐽/ℎ푟

= 12760.4662 × 10 퐽/ℎ푟

This amount of heat is removed by cooling water

Cp = 4.186 kJ/kg

∆푇 = 20°퐶

∴ 푄 = 푚퐶 ∆푇

12760.4662 × 10 = 푚 × 4.186 × 20

∴ 푚 = 42.3384푘푔/푠

Therefore, water flow rate to reactor is 42.3385 kg/s.



(ii) Area available for heat transfer:

For single tube = 3.14DoL

Therefore, total area for heat transfer from 1826 tubes

= 1826 × 3.14 × 0.0762 × 5

= 2184.51 m

(iii) Determination of overall heat transfer coefficient:

The gas side heat transfer coefficient is given by

ℎ = 0.813 ×푘퐷 × exp − 6 ×

퐷퐷 ×

퐷 × 퐺휇

.

Where, Dp = Diameter of catalyst particals

kg = Thermal conductivity of gas mixture

G = mass flow rate of gas mixture

휇 = viscosity of gas mixture

Now, for a fixed bed with = 0.16

And G = 0.0024 gm/cm2

K = 0.02 Cal/sec.m.K

Putting these values in equation for hi , we have

hi = 0.1593 cal/s.m2.K

hi = 0.6665W/m2.K

Since, the internal heat transfer coefficient is controlling factor we take

hi = U = 0.6665W/m2.K



Q = U. A.(∆T)lm

Temperature in reactor = 2300C

Temperature of inlet water = 300C

Temperature of outlet water = 500C

∴ (∆푇) =(230− 30) − (230− 50)

ln 200180

∴ (∆푇) = 189.82퐾

Therefore, minimum area required for heat transfer

∴ 퐴 =푄

푈. (∆푇)

푏푢푡,푄 =25520932.4

2 × 3600

∴ 푄 = 3544.5739 × 10 퐽/푠

∴ 퐴 = 2085 푚

This area is less than the available area therefore cooling is possible.



MECHANICAL DESIGN:

(1) SHELL THICKNESS

Pressure = 1atm + static head

= 1 kg/cm2 + 0.5 kg/cm2

= 1.5 kg/cm2

Considering the stresses due to support we will overdesign it for pressure of 2.5kg/cm2

∴ 푠ℎ푒푙푙 푡ℎ푖푐푘푛푒푠푠 = 푡 =푃퐷

2푓푗 − 푃 + 퐶

Where, f is allowable stress of material = 1210 kg/cm2

J is joint efficiency = 0.85

푡 =2.5 × 473

2 × 1210 × 0.85 − 2.5 + .3

= ..875cm

= 9 mm.

2) CONICAL BOTTOM:

For better distribution of gasses conical bottom is used. It consists of a gas inlet at its apex.

푡 =푃퐷 . 푧

2푓푗 + 퐶

P = Design pressure

= 1.1 × working pressure

= 1.1 × 6



= 6.6 kg/cm2

Z = factor depending on apex angle = 3.2

We will have apex angle as 600

푡 =6.6 × 473 × 3.22 × 1210 × 0.85 + .3

= 50 mm.

(3) TOP HEAD (TORISPHERICAL HEAD):

Here, t is thickness of head

Ri is internal crown radius

ri is internal knuckle radius

ho is height of head

Sf is straight flange portion = 3t

Crown radius = Do =outside diameter of shell

So we have crown radius = Ri =473 + 2(0.1)

= 473.2 cm

Knuckle radius = 6% Di = 0.06 × 4.73

= 0.2838 m

Now,

푡 = + 퐶

Where w = stress intensity factor

= 3 +



=14 3 +

4.73. 2838

=1.77

∴ 푡 =6.6 × 473 × 1.772 × 1210 × 0.85 + .3

∴ 푡 =30 mm

Sf = 3t = 3× 30

= 90 mm

ho =

r = r + t = .2838 + 30

∴ h = 31.38cm

(4) TUBE SHEET:

It is a flat plate having provision for making a gasketed joint around the periphery. A large

number of holes are drilled in the tube sheet according to the pitch requirements of the tubes. The

common method of fixing the tube in these holes consists of expanding the ends of the tubes.

The relation giving effective tube sheet thickness is

푡 = 퐹퐺 .

Where, F is constant which varies according to the type heat exchanger.

G is mean gasket diameter

P is design pressure

And 퐹 =



For k = 0.055

F = 0.9

푡 = 0.9 × 4730.25 × 6.6

1210

푡 = 15 푚푚

(5) GASKET DESIGN:

dd =

y − Pmy − P(m + 1)

Where, P is internal design pressure

Y is minimum design yield stress = 260 kg/cm2

m = 2.75

The thickness of gasket is taken as = 2mm

dd =

260 − 6.6 × 2.75260− 6.6(2.75 + 1)

= 1.028

∴ d = 1.028 × 4.73

= 4.862 m.

Mean gasket diameter = G = . .

G = 4.79m

Minimum gasket width = . .

= 0.066 m.



(6) BOLT AND FLANGES:

Diameter of bolt selected = 20 mm

Bolt spacing = 2.5× d = 2.5× 20

= 50 mm.

Bolt circle diameter = outer diameter of gasket + 2 × diameter of bolt + 0.015

= 4.862 +2 × 0.02 +0.015

= 4.9 m

∴ 푛푢푚푏푒푟 표푓 푏표푙푡푠 푟푒푞푢푖푟푒푑 푤푖푡ℎ 푏표푙푡 푠푝푎푐푖푛푔 5푐푚 = 3.14 퐷

5

= 3.14 × 4.9 × 10

5

= 307 bolts

Flange thickness:

푡 = 퐺P

K. f

푘 =1

0.3 + 1.5푊. ℎ퐻.퐺

Where, W is total bolt load

h is radial distance from gasket load reaction to bolt circle.

H is total hydrostatic end force

f is permissible stress

As, K = 4.4



∴ 푡 = 4796.6

4.4 × 1210

∴ 푡 = 16.86 푐푚

∴ 푑푖푎푚푒푡푒푟 표푓 푓푙푎푛푔푒 = 푏표푙푡 푐푖푐푙푒 푑푖푎푚푒푡푒푟 + 2(푑푖푎푚푒푡푒푟 표푓 푏표푙푡)

= 4.73 + 2 × 0.02

= 47.7 cm = 18 inch

(8) NOZZLE DESIGN:

(a) Water nozzle

Flow rate of water = 9 kg/s

Density of water = 998 kg/cm2

So, the selected nozzle size is

Nominal diameter = 10.16 cm

Outside diameter = 11.36cm

푡 =푃퐷푖

2푓푗 − 퐶

Thickness = 15 mm

Height of nozzle = 15.24 cm



CHAPTER NINE: COST ESTIMATION AND ECONOMICS[14] DETERMINING PURCHASED EQUIPMENT COST (PEC):-

Cost index of 2007-2008 = 582

Cost index of 2015 = 1024

Fixed Capital Investment for that year: 9.46E+07 Rs

Hence, Fixed Capital Investment for 2015: (1024 × 9.46E+07)/ 582

= 1.66E+08 Rs

Estimation of total investment cost:

1. Direct cost:

Purchased equipment cost(PEC) = 15-40% FCI

= 5.82E+07 Rs

Installation cost (IC) = 35-45% PEC

= 2.33E+07 Rs

Instrument and control installed (I&CI) = 6-30% PEC

= 1.75E+07 Rs

Piping installation cost (PIC) = 10-75% PEC

= 3.49E+07 Rs

Electrical installation cost (EIC) = 10-40% PEC

= 2.33E+07 Rs

Building process and auxiliary (BP&A) = 10-65% PEC

= 3.49E+07 Rs



Service facilities (SF) = 30-75% PEC

= 4.08E+07 Rs

Yard improvement (YI) = 10-15% PEC

= 8.74E+06 Rs

Land (L) = 4-8% PEC

= 4.66E+06 Rs

TOTAL DIRECT COST (TDC): 2.46E+08 Rs

2. Indirect cost:

Expenses which are not directly involved with material and labour of actual installation or complete facility. Engineering and supervision (E&S) = 5-30% DC

= 7.39E+07 Rs

Construction expenses (CE) = 10% DC = 2.46E+07 Rs

Contractor's fee (CF) = 2-7% DC = 1.72E+07 Rs

Contingency (Cntg.) = 8-20% DC = 4.93E+07 Rs

TOTAL INDIRECT COST (TIC): 1.65E+08 Rs

3. Fixed capital investment:

TCI = FCI + WCI

= 4.11E+08 Rs

4. Working capital investment (WCI) : 10-20% FCI= 6.17E+07 Rs

5. Total capital investment(TCI): FCI + WCI = 4.73E+08 Rs



Estimation of total product cost (TPC):

1) Fixed charge:

Depreciation: 10% FCI (machinery) = 4.11E+07 Rs

Insurances : 0.4-1% of FCI = 4.11E+06 Rs

Local taxes (LT) = 3-4% FCI = 1.65E+07 Rs

TOTAL FIXED CHARGES (TFC): 1.11E+08 Rs But, Fixed charges = 10-20% TPC TOTAL PRODUCT COST: 1.11E+09 Rs

2) Direct production:

Raw material (RM) = 10-50% TPC

= 3.33E+08 Rs

Maintenance: 2-10% of FCI = 2.47E+07 Rs

Operating labour (OL) = 10-20% TPC

= 1.67E+08 Rs Direct supervisory & electric labour (DS&EL) = 10-25% OL

= 2.50E+07 Rs Laboratory charges (LC) = 10-20% OL

= 2.50E+07 Rs

Utilities = 10-20% TPC = 1.67E+08 Rs

Patent and royalties (P&R) = 2-6% TPC = 4.44E+07 Rs

Operating supplies (OS) = 10-20% of Maintainance = 3.70E+06 Rs

PLANT OVERHEAD COST (POC) = 50-70% (OL+OS+M)

= 1.17E+08 Rs



TOTAL DIRECT COST= 7.89E+08 Rs

3) General expenses:

Administration cost (AC) = 40-60% OL = 9.16E+07 Rs

Research and development cost( R&DC) = 3% TPC =3.33E+07 Rs Distribution and selling price (D&SP) = 2-30% TPC

=1.67E+08 Rs

GENERAL EXPENSES (GE): 2.92E+08 Rs Therefore, Manufacturing cost = Total Direct Cost + TFC + POC MC = 1.02E+09 Rs Therefore, Total production cost = MC + GE T ProC = 1.31E+09 Rs

Gross earning and rate of return: The plant is working for say: 300 days SP = 50 Rs/kg Total income (Rs) = Capacity × No. Of working Days × Capacity

= 1.50E+09 Rs Gross income = Total income – TPC GI= 1.91E+08 Rs Tax (%) = 45 Net profit= GI – GI × Tax = 1.05E+08 Rs Rate of Return= Net Profit ×100 / Total Capital Investment =22.22% Payback Period = 1/ rate of return

= 4.50 years



CHAPTER TEN: PROCESS CONTROL AND

INSTRUMENTATION[15,16}:

The process information segment such as temperature, flow rate etc are communicated

between process plant and PLC control Unit.

Sr.No

Control Equipment SENSOR INFORMATION COMMUNICATED

1 Oxychlorination Reactor (i)Thermocouple (ii)composition measurement

(i) measuring temperature of ethylene dichloride.

(ii)For measuring composition of feed stream.

2 Direct chlorination reactor

(i) Thermocouple (ii)composition measurement

(i) measuring temperature of ethylene dichloride.


3 Quench (i)Thermocouple (ii)Flowmeter

(i)For measuring Temperature of Ethylene dichloride.

(ii)for measuring flow rate of the outlet.

4 Distillation column (i)Flowmeter (ii)composition measurent

(i)for measuring flow rate of the outlet.

(ii)For measuring composition of feed.

5 EDC Still (i)Flowmeter (ii)composition measurent

i)for measuring flow rate of the feed.

(ii)For measuring composition of feed.

6 Tubular pyrolysis furnace

(i)Thermocouple (ii)Flowmeter

(iii)composition measurent

(i)For measuring Temperature of Ethylene dichloride.

(ii)for measuring flow rate of the outlet.

(ii)For measuring composition of product stream.



7 Heat exchanger (i)Thermocouple

(ii)Flowmeter

(i)For measuring Temperature of Ethylene dichloride. (ii)for measuring flow rate of the water.

8 Quench (i)Thermocouple

(ii)Flowmeter

(i)For measuring Temperature of vinyl chloride. (ii)for measuring flow rate of the outlet stream.

9 HCL separator

(Distillation column)

(i)Flowmeter

(ii)composition measurent

(i)for measuring flow rate of the feed stream. (ii)For measuring composition of feed stream.

10 Vinyl chloride separator (Distillation column)

(i)Flowmeter (ii)composition measurent

(i)for measuring flow rate of the feed stream.


Table No.: 5 Process Information communicated between process plant and PLU control unit.

DIRECT DIGITAL FEEDFORWARD FEEDBACK CONTROL OF

DIRECT CHLORINATION REACTOR FOR EXOTHERMIC REACTION:

The direct digital control for direct chlorination reaction is given in fig. shown below. The

Temperature and composition of feed to the reactor is controlled and monitored by feedforward controller

which is monitored by computer.This controller measures the readings and compare it with set point and

minimizes error and feed flow and temperature is controlled.

The temperature of reaction mixture and coolant is measured by thermocouple and compared with

set point through feedback controller monitored by computer. The error is generated which is minimized

by controller and controller gives signals to the transducer which regulate the flow rate of coolant and

temperature of both reaction mixture and coolant is determined.



Fig.4: Direct digital control feedforward feedback control of direct chlorination reactor for

exothermic reaction



CHAPTER ELEVEN:PLANT LAYOUT AND SITE

SELECTION[17]:

The location of the plant can have a crucial effect on the profitability of a project, and the

scope for future expansion. Many factors must be considered when selecting a suitable site, the

principal factors to consider are:

1. Location, with respect to the marketing area.

2. Raw material supply.

3. Transport facilities.

4. Availability of labour.

5. Availability of utilities: water, fuel, power.

6. Availability of suitable land.

7. Environmental impact, and effluent disposal.

8. Local community considerations.

9. Climate.

10. Political and strategic considerations.



RAW MATERIALS:

The availability and price of suitable raw materials will often determine the site location.

Plants producing bulk chemicals are best located close to the source of the major raw material;

where this is also close to the marketing area.

TRANSPORT:

The transport of materials and products to and from the plant will be an overriding

consideration in site selection. If practicable, a site should be selected that is close to at least two

major forms of transport: road, rail, waterway (canal or river), or a sea port. Road transport is

being increasingly used, and is suitable for local distribution from a central warehouse. Rail

transport will be cheaper for the long-distance transport of bulk chemicals. Air transport is

convenient and efficient for the movement of personnel and essential equipment and supplies,

and the proximity of the site to a major airport should be considered.

UTILITIES (SERVICES):

Chemical processes invariably require large quantities of water for cooling and general

process use, and the plant must be located near a source of water of suitable quality. Process

water may be drawn from a river, from wells, or purchased from a local authority. At some sites,

the cooling water required can be taken from a river or lake, or from the sea; at other locations

cooling towers will be needed. Electrical power will be needed at all sites.It is suitable get steam

supply from common boiler such type of facility is available in gujrat G.I.D.C ankleshwar.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND EFFLUENT DISPOSAL:

All industrial processes produce waste products, and full consideration must be given to

the difficulties and cost of their disposal. The disposal of toxic and harmful effluents will be

covered by local regulations, and the appropriate authorities must be consulted during the initial

site survey to determine the standards that must be met. An environmental impact assessment

should be made for each new project, or major modification or addition to an existing process.



LOCAL COMMUNITY CONSIDERATIONS:

The proposed plant must fit in with and be acceptable to the local community. Full

consideration must be given to the safe location of the plant so that it does not impose a

significant additional risk to the community. On a new site, the local community must be able to

provide adequate facilities for the plant personnel: schools, banks, housing, and recreational and

cultural facilities. VCM is mostly required for production of PVC so plant must be situated near

PVC manufacturing plant. Such type of industries mostly found in Gujarat.

LAND (SITE CONSIDERATIONS):

Sufficient suitable land must be available for the proposed plant and for future expansion.

The land should ideally be flat, well drained and have suitable load-bearing characteristics. A full

site evaluation should be made to determine the need for piling or other special foundations.

CLIMATE:

Adverse climatic conditions at a site will increase costs. Abnormally low temperatures

will require the provision of additional insulation and special heating for equipment and pipe

runs. Stronger structures will be needed at locations subject to high winds (cyclone/hurricane

areas) or earthquakes.

POLITICAL AND STRATEGIC CONSIDERATIONS:

Capital grants, tax concessions, and other inducements are often given by governments to

direct new investment to preferred locations; such as areas of high unemployment. The

availability of such grants can be the overriding consideration in site selection.



Fig 5: General Plant Layout for a Chemical Industry.

Cooling towers

Control

Room

Mainten-ance

Building

Fire Station

Med-ical

Cent-re

Quality Control

Laboratory

Wash and Changing Room

W. B.

Cante-

en

Training

Centre

Administration Building Power

Station

Parking

Space

Sec-urity

Green Belt

Tank Yard

Main Plant

ETP

Storage

Building

Utilities

Genera-

Future

Expa-

nsion

Scrap Yard

Research and

Develo-pment Centre



STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION[18]:

Vinyl chloride is stored as a liquid at -14°C to -22°C. The presently accepted upper limit of

safety as a health hazard is 500 ppm. Often, the storage containers for the product vinyl chloride

are high capacity spheres with 56 ppm of hydroquinone stabilizer. The spheres have an inside

sphere and an outside sphere. Several inches of empty space separate the inside sphere from the

outside sphere. This void area between the spheres is purged with an inert gas such as nitrogen.

As the nitrogen purge gas exits the void space it passes through an analyzer that is designed to

detect if any vinyl chloride is leaking from the internal sphere. If vinyl chloride starts to leak

from the internal sphere or if a fire is detected on the outside of the sphere then the contents of

the sphere are automatically dumped into an emergency underground storage container.

Transporting VCM presents the same risks as transporting other flammable gases such as

propane, butane (LPG) or natural gas (for which the same safety regulations apply).The

equipment used for VCM transport is specially designed to be impact and corrosion

resistant.Vinyl Chloride may contain acetylene as impurity hence contact with copper,

magnesium, silver, etc. Any contact with any ignition source or heat is avoided. A distance from

oxidizing agents, caustic soda and reactive metals is kept. Goggles, self-contained breathing

apparatus and rubber over clothing are to be worn while contacting with it. VCM stabilized

liquid is shipped in spherical refrigerated steel tanks. Between loads, the vessel tank must be

carefully dried, then purged with nitrogen. VCM in a gaseous form must be controlled carefully

under refrigeration. Vinyl chloride tends to acquire an electrostatic charge during movement and,

therefore, as a safeguard all pipe work and equipment in transfer system need to be grounded and

earthed. Safety valves should be provided only on bulk containers and tank cars to avoid build up

of excessive pressure. In an area where vinyl chloride monomer is handled, all the electrical

equipments and fittings must be flame proof type. In an area where vinyl chloride monomer is

handled, all the electrical equipments and fittings must be flame proof type.



ENVIRONMENT EFFECTS[18,19]:

If released to soil, VCM is expected to have high mobility. Volatilization from moist soil

surfaces is expected to be an important fate process based on its vapor pressure. If VCM is

released into water, it is not expected to adsorb to suspended solids and sediment in the water.

The biodegradation half-life of vinyl chloride in aerobic and anaerobic waters was reported as 28

and 110 days, respectively. Volatilization from water surfaces is expected to be an important fate

process. The estimated volatilization half-lives for a model river and model lake are 1 hour and 3

days, respectively. VCM is practically non-toxic to fish on an acute basis. If released to air,

VCM will exist solely as a gas in the ambient atmosphere. It will be degraded in the atmosphere

by reaction with photochemically produced hydroxyl radicals.

MARKING AND LABELLING[19]: All containers of vinyl chloride shall bear an identifying label as depicted in IS: 1260

(Part I)–1973*. Containers of vinyl chloride shall labelled as follows: VINYL CHLORIDE DANGER

EXTREMELY FLAMMABLE AND TOXIC LIQUID AND GAS UNDER PRESSURE KEEP THE CONTAINER CLOSED IN A COOL PLACE. KEEP AWAY FROM HEAT, SPARKS, FLAME AND OXIDIZING AGENTS. INJURIOUS TO HEALTH—AVOID CONTACT. AVOID CONTACT WITH SKIN AND PROLONGED BREATHING OF THE

VAPOUR. USE WITH ADEQUATE VENTILATION. GROUND THE CONTAINER WHEN EMPTYING.



REFERENCES: (1) “ Encyclopedia of chemical technology, Fifth edition, vol. 25”, Kirk Othmer, Page no. 628-651 (2) “Ulman’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Vol.8”, Ulman, Page no. 56-57 (3) “Encyclopedia of Chemical processing & Design”, John J. Mcketta. Page no. 313-320 (4) Chemical Weekly, February 22, 2011, pageno-253-254

(5) “Physical chemistry”, Puri Sharma and Pathania

(6) “Perrys Chemical Engineering handbook”, Robert H. Perry, D W Green and J O

Maloney.

(7) “Handbook of chemistry and physics”, Yawns

(8) “Stichiometry”, Bhutt and Vora.

(9) “Transport Processes and Separation Process Principles, Fourth Edition”, Christie John Geankoplis, Page no. 61, 291, 706.

(10) “Process Equipment Design”, M.V. Joshi, Page no. 139, 236.

(11) “Chemical Engineers Handbook”, Page no. 4-25.

(12) “Chemical Equipment Design”, B C Bhattacharya, Page no. 35, 49, 103

(13) “Chemical Reaction Engineering, Third Edition”, Octave Levenspiel.

(14) “Plant design & economics for chemical engineers”, Max Peters & Klaus Timmerhaus.

(15) “Process Automation and modelling”, R. P. Vyas, Page no. 365

(16) “Process control and Instrumentation”, R. P. Vyas, Page no. 229.

(17) Industrial Engineering & Management by, O.P.Khanna & A. Sarup, Ganpatrai Pub. Page no. 4.1-4.30



(18) Indian Standard “CODE OF SAFETY FOR VINYL CHLORIDE (VCM)”

Chemical Hazards Sectional Committee, (July 1981).

(19) Occidental Chemical Corporation, Product Stewardship Summary “Vinyl Chloride Monomer” (2008), Page no 3 &4.

Documents

Vinyl Chloride