WHO - Studiu Dizabilitati Educatie

7/30/2019 WHO - Studiu Dizabilitati Educatie

1/30

Chapter 7

Education


2/30

I joined a mainstream school near my house or easy access. Although I could go

to school on my wheelchair and could go back home with ease i any need arose, therewas not any type o accessibility within the school. Tere were stairs everywhere and noaccess to classes by any other means. Te best thing that could be done was to place myclassroom on rst oor which meant that I had 15 steps to conquer to get into or out omy class. Tis was usually done by having two people carry me up and down everyday. omake things really worse there were no accessible toilets. Tis meant that I either had notto use the toilet the whole day or go back home and lose my classes or the day.

Heba

I am 10 years old. I go to a regular school; I am in the 4th grade. We have a wonder-ul teacher, and she does everything to make me eel comortable. I use a wheelchair to get

around and have a special desk and a special wheelchair at school. When there was no eleva-tor in the school, my mother helped me to go up the stairs. Now there is an elevator, and I cango up by mysel and I like it a lot. We also have a teacher who uses a wheelchair, just like me.

Olga

[Being in an inclusive school] makes us learn how we can help each other and alsounderstand that education is or everybody. In my ormer school both pupils and teach-ers used to laugh at me when I ailed to say something, since I couldnt pronounce wordsproperly and they wouldnt let me talk. But in this school i students laugh at me, teachersstop them and they ask orgiveness.

Pauline

I did not have ormal education. Tere just wasnt acilities. It didnt make me eelgood. But I cant do much about that now. I just stayed at home. I was more or les seltaught. I can read and articulate mysel quite well. But the opportunities I would havewanted never occurred, so I was only able to reach a certain level, I could not get anyurther. Ideally I would have gone to university, studied history.

James

By the time I reached Standard 6, Id lost almost all o my sight. My dad didnt wantme to go to school once I was completely blind I think he was araid or me but anNGO convinced him to let me continue. Aer I graduated primary school my ather washappy or me to continue on to high school. Te NGO provided the unding or my ouryears o high school and they helped me with my cane, a Brailler, books, computerthings like that

Richard

I want to go to school because I want to learn, and I want to be educated, and I wantto dene my lie, to be independent, to be strong, and also to live my lie and be happy.

Mia


3/30

7EducationEstimates or the number o children (014 years) living with disabilitiesrange between 93 million (1, 2) and 150 million (3). Many children and adultswith disabilities have historically been excluded rom mainstream educationopportunities. In most countries early eorts at providing education or train-ing were generally through separate special schools, usually targeting specicimpairments, such as schools or the blind. Tese institutions reached onlya small proportion o those in need and were not cost-eective: usually inurban areas, they tended to isolate individuals rom their amilies and com-munities (4). Te situation began to change only when legislation started torequire including children with disabilities in educational systems (5).

Ensuring that children with disabilities receive good quality educationin an inclusive environment should be a priority o all countries. Te UnitedNations Convention on the Rights o Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) rec-ognizes the right o all children with disabilities both to be included in thegeneral education systems and to receive the individual support they require(see Box 7.1). Systemic change to remove barriers and provide reasonableaccommodation and support services is required to ensure that children withdisabilities are not excluded rom mainstream educational opportunities.

Te inclusion o children and adults with disabilities in education isimportant or our main reasons. Education contributes to human capital ormation and is thus a key

determinant o personal well-being and welare. Excluding children with disabilities rom educational and employment

opportunities has high social and economic costs. For example, adultswith disabilities tend to be poorer than those without disabilities, buteducation weakens this association (8).

Countries cannot achieve Education or All or the MillenniumDevelopment Goal o universal completion o primary education with-out ensuring access to education or children with disabilities (9).

Countries that are signatories to the CRPD cannot ull their responsi-bilities under Article 24 (see Box 7.1).

For children with disabilities, as or all children, education is vital initsel but also instrumental or participating in employment and other areaso social activity. In some cultures, attending school is part o becominga complete person. Social relations can change the status o people with

205
http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-


4/30

206

World report on disability

disabilities in society and arm their rights(10). For children who are not disabled, con-tact with children with a disability in an inclu-sive setting can, over the longer term, increaseamiliarity and reduce prejudice. Inclusive edu-cation is thus central in promoting inclusiveand equitable societies.

he ocus o this chapter is on the inclu-sion o learners with disabilities in the con-text o quality Education or All a globalmovement that aims to meet the learningneeds o all children, youth, and adults by2015 and on the systemic and institutionaltransormation needed to acilitate inclusiveeducation.

Educational participation

and children with disabilityIn general, children with disabilities are lesslikely to start school and have lower rates ostaying and being promoted in school (8, 11).Te correlations or both children and adultsbetween low educational outcomes and havinga disability is oen stronger than the correla-tions between low educational outcome and

other characteristics such as gender, ruralresidence, and low economic status (8).

Respondents with disability in the WorldHealth Survey experience signicantly lowerrates o primary school completion and ewermean years o education than respondents with-out disability (see Table 7.1). For all 51 countriesin the analysis, 50.6% o males with disabilityhave completed primary school, compared with61.3% o males without disability. Females withdisability report 41.7% primary school comple-tion compared with 52.9% o emales withoutdisability. Mean years o education are similarlylower or persons with disability compared withpersons without disability (males: 5.96 versus7.03 years respectively; emales: 4.98 versus 6.26years respectively). In addition, education com-pletion gaps are ound across all age groups andare statistically signicant or both sub-sampleso low-income and high-income countries.

urning to country-specic examples,evidence shows young people with disabilitiesare less likely to be in school than their peerswithout disabilities (8). Tis pattern is morepronounced in poorer countries (9). Te gap inprimary school attendance rates between disa-bled and non-disabled children ranges rom

Box 7.1. The rights and rameworks

The human right o all people to education was irst deined in the United Nations Universal Declaration o HumanRights o 1948 and urther elaborated in a range o international conventions, including the Convention on the

Rights o the Child and more recently in the CRPD.

In 1994 the World Conerence on Special Needs Education in Salamanca, Spain produced a statement and rame-

work or action The Salamanca Declaration encouraged governments to design education systems that respond

to diverse needs so that all students can have access to regular schools that accommodate them in child-centred

pedagogy (5).

The Education or All Movement is a global movement to provide quality basic education or all children, youth

and adults (6). Governments around the world have made a commitment to achieve, by 2015, the six EFA goals:

expand early childhood care and education; provide ree and compulsory education or all; promote learning

and lie skills or young people and adults; increase adult literacy by 50%; achieve gender parity by 2005, gender

equality by 2015; and improve the quality o education (6).

In Article 24 the CRPD stresses th e need or governments to ensure equal access to an inclusive education system

at all levels and provide reasonable accommodation and individual support services to persons with disabilitiesto acilitate their education (7).

The Millennium Development Goal o universal primary completion stresses attracting children to school and ensur-

ing their ability to thrive in a learning environment that allows every child to develop to the best o their abilities.
http://-/?-http://-/?-


5/30

207

Chapter 7 Education

10% in India to 60% in Indonesia, and or sec-ondary education, rom 15% in Cambodia to58% in Indonesia (see Fig. 7.1). Household datain Malawi, Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabweshow that between 9% and 18% o children oage 5 years or older without a disability hadnever attended school, but between 24% and39% o children with a disability had neverattended (1316).

Enrolment rates also dier according toimpairment type, with children with physicalimpairment generally aring better than thosewith intellectual or sensory impairments.For example in Burkina Faso in 2006 only10% o dea 7- to 12-year olds were in school,whereas 40% o children with physical impair-ment attended, only slightly lower than theattendance rate o non-disabled children (17).In Rwanda only 300 o an estimated 10 000dea children in the country were enrolled in

primary and secondary schools, with another9 in a private secondary school (18).

In India a survey estimated the share o disa-bled children not enrolled in school at more thanve times the national rate, even in the more pros-perous states. In Karnataka, the best perormingmajor state, almost one quarter o children withdisabilities were out o school, and in poorer suchstates as Madhya Pradesh and Assam, more thanhal (11). While the best-perorming districts inIndia had high enrolment rates or children with-out disabilities close to or above 90%, schoolattendance rates o children with disabilities neverexceeded 74% in urban areas or 66% in rural. Mostspecial education acilities are in urban areas (19,20), so the participation o children with disabili-ties in rural areas could be much worse than theaggregated data imply (19, 21).

Partly as a result o building rural schoolsand eliminating tuition ees, Ethiopia nearly

Table 7.1. Education outcomes or disabled and not disabled respondents

Individuals Low-income countries High-income countries All countries

Not

disabled

Disabled Not

disabled

Disabled Not

disabled

Disabled

Male

Primary school completion 55.6% 45.6%* 72.3% 61.7%* 61.3% 50.6%*

Mean years o education 6.43 5.63* 8.04 6.60* 7.03 5.96*

Female



1849



5059



60 and over


Mean years o education 3.76 3.21 5.36 4.60* 4.58 3.89*

Note: Estimates are weighted using WHS post-stratied weights, when available (probability weights otherwise) and

age-standardized.

* t-test suggests signicant dierence rom Not disabled at 5%.

Source (12).
http://-/?-http://-/?-


6/30

208


doubled its net enrolment ratio, rom 34% in1999 to 71% in 2007 (22). But there are no reli-able data on the inclusion or exclusion o disad-vantaged groups in education (23). A nationalbaseline survey in 1995 estimated the numbero children with disabilities o school age ataround 690 000 (24). According to Ministry oEducation data, there were 2276 children withdisabilities in 1997 or just 0.3% o the total attending 7 special boarding schools, 8 specialday schools and 42 special classes. en yearslater there were still only 15 special schools, butthe number o special classes attached to regulargovernment schools had increased to 285 (25).

Even in countries with high primaryschool enrolment rates, such as those in easternEurope, many children with disabilities do notattend school. In 2002 the enrolment rates odisabled children between the ages o 7 and 15

years were 81% in Bulgaria, 58% in the Republico Moldova, and 59% in Romania, while thoseo children not disabled were 96%, 97%, and93%, respectively (26). Fig. 7.2 conrms the siz-able enrolment gap or disabled young peoplebetween the ages o 16 and 18 years in selectedcountries o eastern Europe.

So, despite improvements in recent dec-ades, children and youth with disabilities areless likely to start school or attend school thanother children. Tey also have lower transitionrates to higher levels o education. A lack o edu-cation at an early age has a signicant impacton poverty in adulthood. In Bangladesh thecost o disability due to orgone income roma lack o schooling and employment, both opeople with disabilities and their caregivers, isestimated at US$ 1.2 billion annually, or 1.7%o gross domestic product (27).

Fig. 7.1. Proportion o children aged 611 years and 1217 years with and without a disability

who are in school

Children aged 611 years

Proportionattendingschool(%)

0

20

40

60

80

100

0

20

40

60

80

100

ThePlurinational

State of Bolivia

Burundi Cambodia Chad Colombia India Indonesia Jamaica Mongolia Mozambique Romania South Africa Zambia

Proportionattendingschool(%)

ThePlurinational

State of Bolivia

Burundi Cambodia Chad Colombia India Indonesia Jamaica Mongolia Mozambique Romania South Africa Zambia

Not disabled Disabled

Children aged 1217 years

Source (8).
http://-/?-http://-/?-


7/30

209

Chapter 7 Education

Understanding educationand disability

What counts as disability or special educationalneed and how these relate to diculties chil-dren experience in learning is a much debatedtopic or policy-makers, researchers, and thewider community (28).

Data on children with disabilities who havespecial education needs are hampered by di-erences in denitions, classications, and cat-egorizations (29, 30). Denitions and methodsor measuring disability vary across countriesbased on assumptions about human dierenceand disability and the importance given to thedierent aspects o disability impairments,activity limitations and participation restric-tion, related health condition, and environ-mental actors (see Chapter 2). Te purposeand underlying intentions o classicationsystems and related categorization are multipleincluding: identication; determining eligibil-ity; administrative; and guiding and monitor-ing interventions (29, 30). Many countries aremoving away rom medically-based models oidentication o health condition and impair-ments, which located the dierence in the indi-vidual, towards interact ional approaches withineducation, which take into consideration theenvironment, consistent with the InternationalClassifcation o Functioning, Disability andHealth (ICF) (28, 29).

Tere are no universally agreed denitionsor such concepts as special needs educationand inclusive education, which hampers com-parison o data.

Te category covered by the terms specialneeds education, special educational needs,and special education is broader than edu-cation o children with disabilities, becauseit includes children with other needs orexample, through disadvantages resultingrom gender, ethnicity, poverty, war trauma,or orphanhood (8, 31, 32). Te Organizationor Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD) estimates that between 15% and 20%

o learners will have a special educational needat some point in their school career (33). Tischapter ocuses on the education o learnerswith disabilities, rather than on those coveredin the broader denition o special needs. Butnot every person with a disability necessarilyhas a special educational need.

Te broad sense o inclusion is that theeducation o all children, including those withdisabilities, should be under the responsibilityo the education ministries or their equivalent,with common rules and procedures. In thismodel education may take place in a range osettings such as special schools and centres,special classes in integrated schools or regularclasses in mainstream schools ollowing theprinciple o the least restrictive environment.Tis interpretation assumes that all childrencan be educated and that regardless o the set-ting or adaptations required, all students shouldhave access to a curriculum that is relevant andproduces meaningul outcomes.

A stricter sense o inclusion is that all chil-dren with disabilities should be educated inregular classrooms with age-appropriate peers.Tis approach stresses the need or the wholeschool system to change. Inclusive education

Fig. 7.2. School enrolment rates o children

aged 1618 years in selected

European countries

0

20

40

60

80

100

Bulgaria Georgia Romania Republic of Moldova

Proportionofchildrenenrolled(%)

Disabled

Not disabled

Source (26).


8/30

210


entails identiying and removing barriers andproviding reasonable accommodation, ena-

bling every learner to participate and achievewithin mainstream settings.Policy-makers need increasingly to dem-

onstrate how policies and practice lead togreater inclusion o children with disability andimproved educational outcomes. Current statis-tical data collected on the numbers o disabledpupils with special educational needs by set-ting provide some indications on the situationin countries and can be useul or monitoringtrends in provision o inclusive education ithere is a clear understanding o which groupso pupils are included in data collection (28).Data and inormation useul in inorming andshaping policy would ocus more on the qual-ity, suitability, or appropriateness o the edu-cation provided (28). Systematic collection oqualitative and quantitative data, which can beused longitudinally, is required or countries tomap their progress and compare relative devel-opments across countries (28).

Approaches to educatingchildren with disabilities

Tere are dierent approaches around theworld to providing education or people withdisabilities. Te models adopted include specialschools and institutions, integrated schools,and inclusive schools.

Across European countries 2.3% o pupilswithin compulsory schooling are educated ina segregated setting either a special schoolor a separate class in a mainstream school (seeFig. 7.3). Belgium and Germany rely heavily onspecial schools in which children with specialneeds are separated rom their peers. Cyprus,Lithuania, Malta, Norway, and Portugal appearto include the majority o their students in regu-lar classes with their same-age peers. A reviewo other OECD countries shows similar trends,with a general movement in developed countriestowards inclusive education, though with some

exceptions (31). In developing countries themove towards inclusive schools is just starting.

Te inclusion o children with disabili-ties in regular schools inclusive schools iswidely regarded as desirable or equality andhuman rights. Te United Nations Educational,Scientic and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)has put orward the ollowing reasons or devel-oping a more inclusive education system (35). Educational. Te requirement or inclusive

schools to educate all children togethermeans that the schools have to developways o teaching that respond to individualdierences, to the benet o all children.

Social. Inclusive schools can change atti-tudes towards those who are in someway dierent by educating all childrentogether. Tis will help in creating a justsociety without discrimination.

Economic. Establishing and maintainingschools that educate all children togetheris likely to be less costly than setting up acomplex system o dierent types o schoolsspecializing in dierent groups o children.

Inclusive education seeks to enable schoolsto serve all children in their communities (36).In practice, however, it is dicult to ensurethe ull inclusion o all children with dis-abilities, even though this is the ultimate goal.Countries vary widely in the numbers o chil-dren with disabilities who receive educationin either mainstream or segregated settings,and no country has a ully inclusive system. Aexible approach to placement is important:in the United States o America, or example,the system aims to place children in the mostintegrated setting possible, while providing ormore specialized placement where this is con-sidered necessary (37). Educational needs mustbe assessed rom the perspective o what is bestor the individual (38) and the available nan-cial and human resources within the countrycontext. Some disability advocates have madethe case that it should be a matter o individual
http://-/?-http://-/?-


9/30

211

Chapter 7 Education

choice whether mainstream or segregated set-tings meet the needs o the child (39, 40).

Dea students and those with intellec-tual impairments argue that mainstreamingis not always a positive experience (41, 42).Supporters o special schools such as schoolsor the blind, dea, or deaflind particularlyin low-income countries, oen point to the actthat these institutions provide high-qualityand specialized learning environments. TeWorld Federation o the Dea argues that oenthe best environment or academic and socialdevelopment or a Dea child is a school whereboth students and teachers use sign languageor all communication. Te thinking is thatsimple placement in a regular school, without

meaningul interaction with classmates andproessionals, would exclude the Dea learnerrom education and society.

Outcomes

Te evidence on the impact o setting on edu-cation outcomes or persons with disabilities isnot conclusive. A review o studies on inclusionpublished beore 1995 concluded that the studieswere diverse and not o uniormly good quality(43). While placement was not the critical actorin student outcomes, the review ound: slightly better academic outcomes or stu-

dents with learning disabilities placed inspecial education settings;

Fig. 7.3. Delivery o education by type o model or selected European countries

0 20 40 60 80 100

Proportion of pupils (%)

Wales

Scotland

England

Switzerland

Sweden

Spain

Slovenia

Portugal

Poland

Norway

Netherlands

MaltaLuxembourg

Lithuania

Ireland

Iceland

Hungary

Greece

Germany

France

Finland

Estonia

Denmark

Czech Republic

Cyprus

Bulgaria

Belgium (Wa)

Belgium (Fl)

Austria

Special schools Special classes in integrated schools

Inclusive classes

Note: The data reer to pupils who have been

ofcially identied as having SEN. However, manymore pupils may receive support or their special

educational needs but they are not counted. The

only comparable data is the percentage o pupils

who are educated in segregated settings. The

European Agency or Development in Special N eeds

Education has an operational denition or segrega-

tion: education where the pupil with special needs

ollows education in separate special classes or

special schools or the largest part (80% or more) o

the school day, which most countries agree upon

and use in data collection.

Denmark: data only collected or pupils with exten-

sive support needs who are generally educated in

segregated settings; up to 23 500 receive support inthe mainstream schools. Finland: data do not include

126 288 learners with minor learning difculties

(e.g. dyslexia) who receive part-time special needs

education in the mainstream schools. Ireland: no

data available or pupils with SEN in mainstream sec-

ondary schools. Germany and the Netherlands: no

data available on numbers o pupils in special classes

in mainstream schools. Hungary, Luxembourg and

Spain: special schools includes special classes in

mainstream schools. Poland: special classes in main-

stream schools do not exist. Sweden, Switzerland:

data indicate that pupils are educated in segregated

settings, however data are not collected on those

who receive support in inclusive settings.Source (28, 34).


10/30

212


higher dropout rates or students withemotional disturbances who were placed

in general education; better social outcomes or students withsevere intellectual impairments who weretaught in general education classes.

While children with hearing impairmentsgained some academic advantage in mainstreameducation, their sense o sel suered. In general,students with mild intellectual impairmentsappeared to receive the most benet rom place-ment in supportive general education classes.

A review o research rom the United Stateson special needs education concluded that theimpact o the educational setting whetherspecial schools, special classes, or inclusiveeducation on educational outcomes could notbe denitely established (44). It ound that: most o the studies reviewed were not o

good quality methodologically, and depend-ent measures varied widely across studies;

the researchers oen had diculty separat-ing educational settings rom the types andintensity o services;

the research was requently conductedbeore critical policy changes took place;

much o the research ocused on how toimplement inclusive practices, not ontheir eectiveness.

Tere are some indications that the acquisi-tion o communication, social, and behaviouralskil ls is superior in inclusive classes or schools.Several researchers have documented such pos-itive outcomes (4548). A meta-analysis o theimpact o setting on learning ound a small-to-moderate benecial eect o inclusive edu-cation on the academic and social outcomes ospecial needs students (49). A small numbero studies have conrmed the negative impacto placement in regular education where indi-vidualized supports are not provided (50, 51).

Te inclusion o students with disabilitiesis generally not considered to have a negativeimpact on the educational perormance o stu-dents without disabilities (5254). Concerns

about the impact o inclusion o children withemotional and behavioural diculties were

more oen expressed by teachers (53).But where class sizes are large and inclusionis not well resourced, the outcomes can be di-cult or all parties. Tere will be poor outcomesor children with disabilities in a general classi the classroom and teacher cannot provide thesupport necessary or their learning, develop-ment, and participation. Teir education willtend to end when they nish primary school,as conrmed by the low rates o progressionto higher levels o education (55). In Uganda,when universal primary education was rstintroduced, there was a large inux o previ-ously excluded groups o children, includingthose with disabilities. With ew additionalresources schools were overwhelmed, report-ing problems with discipline, perormance, anddrop-out rates among students (56).

A proper comparison o learning outcomesbetween special schools and the inclusion ochildren with disabilities in mainstream schoolshas not been widely carried out, beyond the ewsmaller studies already mentioned. In developingcountries, almost no research comparing out-comes has been conducted. Tere is thus a needor better research and more evidence on socialand academic outcomes. Box 7.2 presents datarom a longitudinal study in the United Stateson the educational and employment outcomeso dierent groups o students with disabilities.

Barriers to education forchildren with disabilities

Many barriers may hinder children with dis-abilities rom attending school (5961). In thischapter they are categorized under systemicand school-based problems.

System-wide problems

Divided ministerial responsibilityIn some countries education or some or allchildren with disabilities alls under separate
http://-/?-http://-/?-


11/30

213

Chapter 7 Education

Box 7.2. Transition rom school to work in the United States

All secondary education students with documented disabilities in the United States are protected by Se ction 504o the Vocational Rehabilitation Act and the American Disabilities Act. A subgroup o students with disabilities

also meets the eligibility requirements under Part B o the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). In

the ormer category are students whose disability does not adversely aect their ability to learn, and who can

progress through school with reasonable accommodations that enable them to have access to the same resources

and learning as their peers. The students eligible under Part B o the IDEA are entitled to a ree and appropriate

public education, which is deined through their individualized education plan. This case study reers to students

with such a plan.

The National Longitudinal Transition Study 2 (NLTS2) provides data about students with disabilities covered by

IDEA. The NLTS2 was launched ater a nationally representative survey in 2000 o a sample o 11 272 students

aged 1316 years who were receiving special education. O this sample o disabled students, 35% were living

in disadvantaged households with annual incomes o US$ 25 000 or less. In addition, 25% were living in single-

parent households. O all sample students, 93.9% were attending regular secondary schools in 2000, 2.6% were

attending special schools, and the remainder attending alternative, vocational, or other schools.

Graduation rates

The ollowing igure shows the proportion o students aged 1421 years who inished high school and the

proportion who dropped out, over 10 years.

Proportion o exiting students with disabilities, aged 1421 years, who graduated, received

a certifcate, or dropped out, 19962005

Proportionofstudents(%)

Graduated with a diploma Received certicate

Dropped out

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1996

97

1997

98

1998

99

1999

00

2000

01

2001

02

2002

03

2003

04

2004

05

2005

06

Source (57).

Post-school outcomes

According to NLTS2, 85% o young people with disabilities were engaged in employment, post-secondary edu-

cation, or job training in the our years since leaving school. O the sample students, 45% had enrolled in some

type o post-secondary education, compared with 53% o students in the general population. Among those inpost-secondary education, 6% had enrolled in business, vocational, or technical schools, 13% in a two-year college

course, and 8% in a our-year college or university. O young people within the same age ranges in the general

population, 12% were enrolled in two-year colleges and 29% in our-year institutions (58).

About 57% o the young people with disabilities aged 1721 years were employed at the time o the 2005 ollow-

up, compared with the 66% among the same age group in the general population. Young people with intellectual

impairments or multiple impairments were the least likely to be engaged in school, work, or preparation or work.

continues ...


12/30

214


ministries such as Health, Social Welare, or SocialProtection (El Salvador, Pakistan, Bangladesh)or distinct Ministries o Special Education. Inother countries (Ethiopia and Rwanda) respon-sibilities or the education or disabled childrenare shared between ministries (25).

In India children with disabilities in spe-cial schools all under the responsibility o theMinistry o Social Justice and Empowerment,while children in mainstream schools comeunder the Department o Education in theMinistry o Human Resource Development (32).Tis division reects the cultural perception thatchildren with disabilities are in need o welarerather than equality o opportunity (11). Tisparticular model tends to urther segregate chil-dren with disabilities, and shis the ocus romeducation and achieving social and economicinclusion to treatment and social isolation.

Lack o legislation, policy,targets, and plansWhile there are many examples o initiativesto include children with disabilities in educa-tion, a lack o legislation, policy, targets andplans tends to be a major obstacle in eortsto provide Education or All (62). Te gaps inpolicy that are commonly encountered includea lack o nancial and other targeted incentivesor children with disabilities to attend school and a lack o social protection and support

services or children with disabilities and theiramilies (63).

A review o 28 countries participatingin the Education or All Fast rack InitiativePartnership ound that 10 had a policy commit-ment to include children with disabilities andalso had some targets or plans on such issuesas data collection, teacher training, access toschool buildings, and the provision o addi-tional learning materials and support (64).For example Ghana has enrolment targets,including one that all children with nonseverespecial educational needs should be educatedin mainstream schools by 2015. Djibouti andMozambique mention targets or children inregular schools. Kenya is committed to increas-ing the gross enrolment rate o disabled childrento 10% by 2010 and also has targets or trainingteachers and providing equipment. However,while a urther 13 countries mentioned disa-bled children they provided little detail o theirproposed strategies and ve countries did notreer to disability or inclusion at all.

Inadequate resourcesLimited or inappropriate resources are regardedas a signicant barrier to ensuring inclusive edu-cation or children with disabilities (65). A studyin the United States ound that the average costor educating a child with a disability was 1.9times the cost or a child without a disability, with

Young people with learning, cognitive, behavioural, or emotional impairments were 45 times more likely to havebeen involved with the criminal justice system than young people in the general population.

Young people with intellectual impairments were the least likely to have graduated with a diploma and had the

lowest employment rates among all disability categories . Dropouts were ar less likely to be engaged in pos t-school

work or education and 10 times more likely than students with disabilities who inished high school to have been

arrested.

O the students with visual or hearing impairments, more than 90% received a regular diploma and were twice

as likely as other students with a disability to have enrolled in some type o post-secondary school.

For some students, such as those with emotional disturbances, the educational outcomes are disturbingly low.

Research is required to ind orms o curricula, pedagogies, and assessment methods that take better account o

students diverse needs within education and in the transition to work.

... continued


13/30

215

Chapter 7 Education

the multiplier ranging rom 1.6 to 3.1 dependingon the type and extent o the disability (66). In

most developing countries it is dicult to reachall those in need even when educational systemsare well planned and support inclusion.

National budgets or education are oen lim-ited and amilies are requently unable to aordthe costs o education (9, 17, 67). Tere are short-ages o resources such as ew schools, inadequateacilities, insufcient qualied teachers and a lacko learning materials (6). An assessment in 2006on the status o El Salvadors capacity to createinclusive educational opportunities or studentswith disabilities ound that there was limitedunding to provide services to all students withdisabilities (68).

Te Dakar Framework or Action rec-ognizes that achieving Education or All willrequire increased nancial support by coun-tries and increased development assistancerom bilateral and multilateral donors (67). Butthis has not always been orthcoming, restrict-ing progress (17).

School problems

Curriculum and pedagogyFlexible approaches in education are neededto respond to the diverse abilities and needs oall learners (69). Where curricula and teachingmethods are rigid and there is a lack o appro-priate teaching materials or example, whereinormation is not delivered in the most appro-priate mode such as sign language and teachingmaterials are not available in alternative ormatssuch as Braille children with disabilities areat increased risk o exclusion (69). Assessmentand evaluation systems are oen ocused onacademic perormance rather than individualprogress and thereore can also be restrictiveor children with special education needs (69).Where parents have anxieties about the qualityo mainstream schools, they are more likely topush or segregated solutions or their childrenwith disabilities (17).

Inadequate training andsupport or teachers

eachers may not have the time or resourcesto support disabled learners (70). In resource-poor settings classrooms are requently over-crowded and there is a severe shortage o welltrained teachers capable o routinely handlingthe individual needs o children with dis-abilities (71, 72). Te majority o teachers lacksign-language skills creating barriers or Deapupils (73). Other supports such as classroomassistants are also lacking. Advances in teachereducation have not necessarily kept pace withthe policy changes that ollowed the SalamancaDeclaration. For example, in India the pre-service training o regular teachers includes noamiliarization with the education o childrenwith special needs (64).

Physical barriersPhysical access to school buildings is an essen-tial prerequisite or educating children withdisabilities (65). Tose with physical disabili-ties are likely to ace diculties in travellingto school i, or example, the roads and bridgesare unsuitable or wheelchair use and the dis-tances are too great (17). Even i it is possibleto reach the school, there may be problems ostairs, narrow doorways, inappropriate seating,or inaccessible toilet acilities (74).

LabellingChildren with disabilities are oten categorizedaccording to their health condition to deter-mine their eligibility or special educationand other types o support services (29). Forexample, a diagnosis o dyslexia, blindness, ordeaness can acilitate access to technologicaland communication support and specializedteaching (75). But assigning labels to childrenin education systems can have negative eectsincluding stigmatization, peer rejection, lowersel-esteem, lower expectations, and limitedopportunities (29). Students may be reluctantabout revealing their disabil ity due to negative


14/30

216


attitudes, thus missing out on needed sup-port services (76). A study in two states o the

United States examined the responses o 155preschool teachers to the inclusion o childrenwith disabilities (77). wo distinct versions oa questionnaire were created, including shortsketches describing children with disabilities.One included a labelling version that usedterms such as cerebral palsy. he other did notuse labels, but simply described the children.he teachers who completed the non-labellingversion were more positive about includingdisabled children than those who completedthe labelling version. his suggested that alabel can lead to more negative attitudes andthat adults attitudes were critical in develop-ing policies on the education o children withdisabilities.

Attitudinal barriersNegative attitudes are a major obstacle to theeducation o disabled children (78, 79). In somecultures people with disabilities are seen as aorm o divine punishment or as carriers obad ortune (80, 81). As a result, children withdisabilities who could be in school are some-times not permitted to attend. A community-based study in Rwanda ound that perceptionso impairments aected whether a child witha disability attended school. Negative commu-nity attitudes were also reected in the languageused to reer to people with disabilities (82, 83).

Te attitudes o teachers, school admin-istrators, other children, and even amilymembers aect the inclusion o children withdisabilities in mainstream schools (74, 84).Some school teachers, including head teach-ers, believe they are not obliged to teach chil-dren with disabilities (84). In South Arica it isthought that school attendance and completionare inuenced by the belie o school admin-istrators that disabled students do not have auture in higher education (85). A study com-paring Haiti with the United States ound that

teachers in both countries generally avouredtypes o disabilities they perceived to be easier

to work with in mainstream settings (36).Even where people are supportive o stu-dents with disabilities, expectations might below, with the result that little attention is paidto academic achievement. eachers, parents,and other students may well be caring but atthe same time not believe in the capacity othe children to learn (86, 87). Some amilieswith disabled students may believe that specialschools are the best places or their childrenseducation (76).

Violence, bullying, and abuseViolence against students with disabilities byteachers, other sta, and ellow students iscommon in educational settings (20). Studentswith disabilities oen become the targets oviolent acts including physical threats andabuse, verbal abuse, and social isolation. Teear o bullying can be as great an issue orchildren with disabilities as actual bullying(88). Children with disabilities may preer toattend special schools, because o the ear ostigma or bullying in mainstream schools (88).Dea children are particularly vulnerable toabuse because o their difculties with spokencommunication.

Addressing barriersto education

Ensuring the inclusion o children withdisabilities in education requires both sys-temic and school level change (89). As withother complex change, it requires vision,skills, incentives, resources, and an actionplan (90). One o the most important ele-ments in an inclusive educational systemis strong and continuous leadership at thenational and school levels something thatis cost-neutral.


15/30

217

Chapter 7 Education

System-wide interventions

LegislationTe success o inclusive systems o educationdepends largely on a countrys commitment toadopt appropriate legislation, develop policiesand provide adequate unding or implementa-tion. Since the mid-1970s Italy has had legisla-tion in place to support inclusive education orall children with disabilities resulting in highinclusion rates and positive educational out-comes (33, 91, 92).

New Zealand shows how government min-istries can promote an understanding o theright to education o disabled students by: publicizing support available or disabled

children reminding school boards o their legal

responsibilities reviewing inormation provided to parents reviewing complaints procedures (93).

A survey o low-income and middle-incomecountries ound that i political will is lacking,legislation will have only a limited impact (31).Other actors leading to a low impact includeinsucient unding or education, and a lack oexperience in educating people with disabilitiesor special educational needs.

PolicyClear national policies on the education o chil-dren with disabilities are essential or the devel-opment o more equitable education systems.UNESCO has produced guidelines to assistpolicy-makers and managers to create poli-cies and practices supportive o inclusion (94).Clear policy direction at the national level hasenabled a wide range o countries to undertakemajor educational reorms including Italy,the Lao Peoples Democratic Republic, Lesotho,and Viet Nam (see Box 7.3).

In 1987 Lesotho started work on a serieso policies on special education. By 1991 ithad established a Special Education Unit and

launched a national programme o inclusiveeducation (95). A 1993 study carried out in

a quarter o the countrys primary schools,involving interviews with more than 2649teachers, ound that 17% o children in Lesothohad disabilities and special educational needs(95). Te national programme or inclusiveeducation was launched in 10 pilot schools,one in each district o the country. rainingin inclusive teaching was developed or teach-ers in these schools, and or student teachers,with the help o specialists and people with dis-abilities themselves. A recent study on inclusiveeducation in Lesotho ound variability in theway that teachers addressed the needs o theirchildren (96). Tere was a positive eect onthe attitudes o teachers, and without a ormalpolicy it is unlikely that improvements wouldhave occurred.

National plansCreating or amending a national plan o actionand establishing inrastructure and capacity toimplement the plan are key to including childrenwith disabilities in education (79). Te implica-tions o Article 24 o the CRPD are that institu-tional responsibility or the education o childrenwith disabilities should remain within theMinistry o Education (97), with coordination,as appropriate, with other relevant ministries.National plans or Education For All should: reect international commitments to the

right o disabled children to be educated; identiy the number o disabled children

and assess their needs; stress the importance o parental support

and community involvement; plan or the main aspects o provision

such as making school buildings acces-sible, and developing the curriculum,teaching methods, and materials to meeta diversity o needs;

increase capacity, through the expansion oprovision and training programmes;

make available sucient unds;
http://-/?-http://-/?-


16/30

218


conduct monitoring and evaluation, andimprove the qualitative and quantitativedata on students (64).

FundingTere are basically three ways to nance specialneeds education, whether in specialized insti-tutions or mainstream schools: through the national budget, such as set-

ting up a Special National Fund (as inBrazil), inancing a Special EducationNetwork o Schools (as in Pakistan), or asa ixed proportion o the overall education

budget (0.92% in Nicaragua and 2.3% inPanama);

through nancing the particular needs oinstitutions or materials, teaching aids,training, and operational support (as inChile and Mexico);

through nancing individuals to meet theirneeds (as in Denmark, Finland, Hungary,and New Zealand).

Other countries, including Switzerland andthe United States, use a combination o undingmethods that include national nancing that

Box 7.3. Inclusion is possible in Viet Nam but more can be done

In the early 1990s Viet Nam launched a major programme o reorm to improve the inclusion o students with

disabilities in education. The Centre or Special Education worked with an international nongovernmental organi-zation to set up two pilot projects, one rural and one urban. Local steering committees or each project were

active in raising awareness in the community and conducting house-to-house searches or children who were

missing rom oicial school lists. The pilot projects identiied 1078 children with a wide range o impairments

who were excluded.

Training was provided to administrators, teachers, and parents on:

the beneits o inclusive education

special education services

individualized educational programmes

carrying out accommodation and environmental modiications

assessment

amily services.

In addition, technical assistance was given in such areas as mobility training or blind students and training orparents on exercises to improve mobility or children with cerebral palsy.

Four years later, an evaluation ound that 1000 o the 1078 children with disabilities had been successully included

in general education classes in local schools an achievement welcomed by both teachers and parents. With

international donor support a similar programme was conducted in three other provinces. Within three years

attendance rates in regular classes o children with disabilities increased rom 30% to 86%, and eventually 4000

new students were enrolled in neighbourhood schools.

Follow-up evaluations ound that teachers were more open to including students with disabilities than previously

and were b etter equipped and more knowledgeable about inclusive practices. Teachers and parents had also

raised their expectations o children with disabilities. More important, the children were better integrated into

their communities. The average cost o the programme or a student with disabilities in the inclusive setting was

US$ 58 per year, compared with US$ 20 or a student without disabilities and US$ 400 or education in segre gated

settings. This sum did not cover specialized equipment such as hearing aids, wheelchairs, and Braille printers,

which many students with disabilities required and whose cost was prohibitive or most amilies.

Despite the progress, only around 2% o preschool and primary schools in V iet Nam are inclusive, and 95% o

children with disabilities still do not have access to school (90). But the success o the pilot projects has helped

change attitudes and policies on disability and has le d to greater eorts on inclusion. The Ministry o Education

and Training has committed itsel to increase the percentage o children with disabilities being educated in regular

classes. New laws and policies that support inclusive education are being implemented.


17/30

219

Chapter 7 Education

can be used exibly or special needs educationat the local level. Te criteria or eligibility o

unding can be complex. Whichever undingmodel is used, it should: be easy to understand be exible and predictable provide sucient unds be cost-based and allow or cost control connect special education to general

education be neutral in identication and placement

(98, 99).

One system or comparing data on resourcesbetween countries categorizes students accord-ing to whether their needs arise rom medicalconditions, behavioural, or emotional condi-tions, or socioeconomic or cultural disadvan-tages (31). Te resources dedicated to childrenwith medical diagnoses remain the most con-stant across ages. Tose allocated to childrenwith socioeconomic or cultural disadvantages

are more heavily concentrated among youngerage groups, and drop o sharply by secondary

school (100). Te decline in resources or thesecategories may reect higher drop-out rates orthese groups, especially in the later stages osecondary school, implying that the system isnot meeting their educational needs.

Table 7.2 summarizes the data or a rangeo Central and South American countries,making comparisons with similar data romNew Brunswick province in Canada, the UnitedStates, and the median o the OECD countries.It is clear that the Central and South Americancountries are providing resources or studentswith disabilities in the pre-primary and pri-mary years. But there is a rapid all-o o pro-vision in the early secondary school period andno provision at all in the later secondary period.Tis contrasts with the OECD countries, whichprovide education or students with disabilitiesacross the ull age range, even though the pro-vision is reduced at older ages.

Table 7.2. Percentage o students with disabilities receiving educational resources by country

and by level o education

Country Compulsoryeducation (%)

Pre-primary(%)

Primary(%)

Lowersecondary (%)

Uppersecondary (%)

Belize 0.95 0.96

Brazil 0.71 1.52 0.71 0.06

Chile 0.97 1.31 1.17 1.34

Colombia 0.73 0.86 0.84 0.52 N/A

Costa Rica 1.21 4.39 1.01 1.48 N/A

Guyana 0.15 N/A 0.22 N/A N/A

Mexico 0.73 0.53 0.98 0.26

Nicaragua 0.40 0.64 0.40

Paraguay 0.45 N/A 0.45 N/A N/A

Peru 0.20 0.94 0.30 0.02 N/A

Uruguay 1.98 1.98

United States o America 5.25 7.38 7.39 3.11 3.04New Brunswick province,Canada

2.89 2.19 3.80 3.21

Median o OECD countries 2.63 0.98 2.43 3.11 1.37

Note: Mexico is an OECD country. Only partial data are available or countries listed in italics.

N/A not applicable.

not available/never collected.

Source (31, 101).
http://-/?-http://-/?-


18/30

220


Ensuring children with disabilities are ableto access the same standard o education as

their peers oen requires increased nancing(17). Low-income countries will require long-term predictable nancing to achieve this. Inthe Lao Peoples Democratic Republic, Savethe Children and the Swedish InternationalDevelopment Cooperation Agency providedlong-term unding and technical support or anInclusive Education Project rom 19932009.Te project resulted in a centralized, nationalapproach to the development o policy andpractice in inclusive education. Services beganin 1993, when a pilot school opened in the capi-tal, Vientiane. Tere are now 539 schools across141 districts providing inclusive education andspecialized support or more than 3000 chil-dren with disabilities (102).

While the costs o special schools andinclusive schools are dicult to determine it isgenerally agreed that inclusive settings are morecost-eective (33). Inclusion has the best chanceo success when school unding is decentral-ized, budgets are delegated to the local level, andunds are based on total enrolment and otherindicators. Access to small amounts o exibleunds can promote new approaches (103).

School interventions

Recognizing and addressingindividual diferencesEducation systems need to move away rommore traditional pedagogies and adopt morelearner-centred approaches which recognizethat each individual has an ability to learnand a specic way o learning. Te curricula,teaching methods and materials, assessmentand examination systems, and the manage-ment o classes all need to be accessible andexible to support dierences in learning pat-terns (19, 69).

Assessment practices can acilitate orhinder inclusion (103). Te need to attain aca-demic excellence oen pervades school cultures,so policies on inclusion need to ensure that allchildren reach their potential (104). Streaming

into ability groups is oen an obstacle to inclu-sion whereas mixed-ability, mixed-age class-

rooms can be a way orward (17, 69). In 2005 theEuropean Agency or Development in SpecialNeeds Education studied orms o assessmentthat support inclusion in mainstream settings(105). Involving 50 assessment experts in 23countries, the study addressed how to move roma decit mainly medically-based approach toan educational or interactive approach. Te ol-lowing principles were proposed: Assessment procedures should promote

learning or all students. All students should be entitled to be part o

all assessment procedures. Te needs o students with disabilities

should be considered within all generalassessment policies as well as within poli-cies on disability-specic assessment.

Te assessment procedures should comple-ment each other.

Te assessment procedures should aim topromote diversity by identiying and valu-ing the progress and achievements o eachstudent.

Inclusive assessment procedures shouldexplicitly aim to prevent segregation byavoiding as ar as possible orms o label-ling. Instead, assessments should ocus onlearning and teaching practices that lead tomore inclusion in a mainstream setting.

Individualized education plans are a useultool or children with special educational needsto help them to learn eectively in the leastrestrictive environments. Developed through amultidisciplinary process, they identiy needs,learning goals and objectives, appropriateteaching strategies, and required accommo-dations and supports. Many countries such asAustralia, Canada, New Zealand, the UnitedKingdom and the United States have policiesand documented processes or such plans (106).

Creating an optimum learning environ-ment will assist children in learning andachieving their potential (107). Inormationand communication technologies, including


19/30

221

Chapter 7 Education

assistive technologies, should be used when-ever possible (69, 108). Some students with dis-

abilities might require accommodations suchas large print, screen readers, Braille and signlanguage, and specialized soware. Alternativeormats o examination may also be needed,such as oral examinations or non-readers.Learners with diculty in understanding asa result o intellectual impairments may needadapted teaching styles and methods. Techoices regarding reasonable accommodationswill depend on the available resources (71).

Providing additional supportso ensure the success o inclusive educationpolicies some children with disabilities willrequire access to additional support services(5). Te additional costs associated with theseis likely to be oset in part by savings rom stu-dents in specialized institutions transerring tomainstream schools.

Schools should have access to specialisteducation teachers where required. In Finlandthe majority o schools are supported by at leastone permanent special education teacher. Teseteachers provide assessments, develop individ-ualized education plans, coordinate services,and provide guidance or mainstream teach-ers (109). In El Salvador support rooms havebeen set-up in mainstream primary schools toprovide services to students with special edu-cation needs, including those with disabilities.Te services include assessments o students,instruction on an individual basis or in smallgroups, support or general education teachers,and speech and language therapy and similarservices. Support room teachers work closelywith parents, and receive a budget rom theMinistry o Education or training and salaries.In 2005 about 10% o the schools nationwidehad support rooms (68).

eaching assistants also known as learn-ing support assistants, or special needs assis-tants are increasingly used in mainstreamclassrooms. Teir role varies in dierent set-tings, but their main unction is to support

children with disabilities to participate inmainstream classrooms they should not be

regarded as substitute teachers. Teir success-ul deployment requires eective communica-tion and planning with the classroom teacher, ashared understanding o their role and respon-sibilities, and ongoing monitoring o the waysupport is provided (110, 111). Tere is a dangerthat extensive use o teaching assistants maydiscourage more exible approaches and side-line disabled children in class (93). Special needsassistants should not hinder children with dis-abilities rom interacting with non-disabledchildren or rom engaging in age-appropriateactivities (88).

Early identication and intervention canreduce the level o educational support chil-dren with disabilities may require throughouttheir schooling and ensure they reach theirull potential (107). Children with disabilitiesmay require access to specialist health andeducation proessionals such as occupationaltherapists, physiotherapists, speech therapists,and educational psychologists to support theirlearning (107). A review o early childhoodinterventions in Europe stressed the need orproper coordination among health, education,and social services (112).

Making better use o existing resources tosupport learning is also important, particu-larly in poorer settings. For example, whileschools in poor rural environments may havelarge class sizes and ewer material resources,stronger community involvement and posi-tive attitudes can overcome these barriers (65).Many teaching materials that signicantlyenhance learning processes can be locally made(103). Special schools, where they exist, can bevaluable or disability expertise (early identi-cation and intervention) and as training andresource centres (5). In low-income settingsitinerant teachers can be a cost-eective meanso addressing teacher shortages, assisting chil-dren with disabilities to develop skills such asBraille l iteracy, orientation and mobility anddeveloping teaching materials (113).


20/30

222


Building teacher capacityTe appropriate training o mainstream teach-ers is crucial i they are to be condent andcompetent in teaching children with diverseeducational needs. Te principles o inclu-sion should be built into teacher trainingprogrammes, which should be about attitudesand values not just knowledge and skills (103).Post-qualication training, such as that oeredat Ethiopias Sebeta eacher raining Institute,can improve provision and ultimately therate o enrolment o students with disabilities(see Box 7.4).

eachers with disabilities should beencouraged as role models. In Mozambique acollaboration between a teacher training col-lege and a national disabled peoples organi-zation, ADEMO, trains teachers to work withlearners with disabilities and also providesscholarships or students with disabilities totrain as teachers (116).

Several resources can assist teachers towork towards inclusive approaches or studentswith disabilities such as: Embracing diversity: Toolkit or creating

inclusive, learning riendly environments

contains nine sel-study booklets to assistteachers to improve their skills in diverseclassroom settings (107).

Module 4: Using ICTs to promote educationand job training or persons with disabili-ties in Toolkit o best practices and policyadvice provides inormation on how inor-mation and communication technologiescan acilitate access to education or peoplewith disabilities (108).

Education in emergencies: Including every-one: INEE pocket guide to inclusive educa-tion provides support or educators workingin emergency and conict situations (117).

eacher training should also be supportedby other initiatives that provide teachers withopportunities to share expertise and experi-ences about inclusive education and to adaptand experiment with their own teaching meth-ods in supportive environments (69, 102).

Where segregated schools eature promi-nently, enabling special education teachers tomake the transition to working in an inclu-sive system should be a priority. In extend-ing inclusive education, special schools and

Box 7.4. Teacher education in Ethiopia

Teacher training on special educational needs has been conducted in Ethiopia since the 1990s, a ocus or much

international support. Until the early 1990s, teacher education on special educational needs was primarily throughshort nongovernmental organization-unded work shops. This approach did not produce lasting changes in teach-

ing and learning processes. Nor did it enable the government to be sel-reliant in training special education sta.

Starting in 1992, with support rom the Finnish government, a six-month training course was launched at a teacher

training institute (114). This was part o a drive to support existing special schools, introduce more special classes,

and increase the number o learners within mainstream classes with support rom itinerant teachers. Fit y teachers

received university education rom Finnish universities 6 in Finland itsel, 44 through distance learning, which

cost around 10% o the direct education.

Short support courses were d eveloped at Addis Ababa Universit y, and a special centre, the Sebeta Teacher Training

Institute, was created as part o Sebeta School or the Blind. Between 1994 and 1998, 115 people graduated as

special education teachers, and thousands o mainstream teachers received in-ser vice training. But the acilities

do not train enough teachers to meet the ull demand or inclusive education (115).

Other regular colleges and universities in Ethiopia now oer special needs e ducation courses to all students, andSebeta continues to oer a 10-month course to qualiied teachers. As a result o Sebetas training programme,

there has been an e xpansion in the numbers o special classes and disabled children attending school. But using

Ministry o Education statistics, it is estimated that only 6000 identiied disabled children have access to education

o a primary school population o nearly 15 million (64).
http://-/?-http://-/?-


21/30

223

Chapter 7 Education

mainstream schools have to collaborate (62). Inthe Republic o Korea at least one special school

in each district is selected by the government towork closely with a partner mainstream school,to encourage inclusion o disabled childrenthrough various initiatives such as peer supportand group work (76).

Removing physical barriersPrinciples o universal design should underliepolicies o access to education. Many physicalbarriers are relatively straightorward to over-come: changing physical layout o classroomscan make a major dierence (118). Incorporatinguniversal design into new building plans ischeaper than making the necessary changes toan old building and adds only around 1% to thetotal construction cost (119).

Overcoming negative attitudesTe physical presence o children with dis-abilities in schools does not automaticallyensure their participation. For participationto be meaningul and produce good learningoutcomes, the ethos o the school valuingdiversity and providing a sae and supportiveenvironment is critical.

Te attitudes o teachers are critical in ensur-ing that children with disabilities stay in schooland are included in classroom activities. A studycarried out to compare the attitudes o teacherstowards students with disabilities in Haiti andthe United States showed that teachers are morelikely to change their attitudes towards inclusioni other teachers demonstrate positive attitudesand a supportive school culture exists (36). Fearand a lack o condence among teachers regard-ing the education o students with disabilities canbe overcome: In Zambia teachers in primary and basic

schools had expressed interest in includ-ing children with disabilities, but believedthat this was reserved or specialists. Manyhad ears that such conditions as albinismwere contagious. Tey were encouraged todiscuss their negative belies and to writeabout them reectively (120).

In Uganda teachers attitudes improvedsimply by having regular contact with chil-

dren with disabilities (56). In Mongolia a training programme on inclu-sive education was run or teachers and par-ents with the support o specialist teachers.Te 1600 teachers trained had highly positiveattitudes towards the inclusion o childrenwith disabilities and towards working withthe parents: the enrolment o children withdisabilities in preschool acilities and primaryschools increased rom 22% to 44% (121).

The role o communities,

amilies, disabled people, andchildren with disabilities

CommunitiesApproaches involving the whole communityreect the act that the child is an integralmember o the community and make it morelikely that sustainable inclusive education orthe child can be attained (see Box 7.5).

Community-based rehabilitation (CBR)projects have oen included educational activi-ties or children with disabilities and share thegoal o inclusion (5, 125). CBR-related activitiesthat support inclusive education include reer-ring children with disabilities to appropriateschools, lobbying schools to accept childrenwith disabilities, assisting teachers to supportchildren with disabilities, and creating linksbetween amilies and communities (59).

CBR workers can also be a useul resourceto teachers in providing assistive devices,securing medical treatment, making the schoolenvironment accessible, establishing links todisabled peoples organizations, and ndingemployment or vocational training placementsor children at the end o their school education.

Examples o innovative practices that linkCBR to inclusive education can be ound inmany low-income countries: In the Karamoja region o Uganda, where

most people are nomads and only 11.5%o the population are literate, childrens
http://-/?-http://-/?-


22/30

224


domestic duties are essential to the sur-vival o their amilies. In this region a pro-ject called Alternative Basic Education orKaramoja has been set up. Tis commu-nity-based project has pushed or inclusionin education (126). It encourages the par-ticipation o children with disabilities andschool instruction in the local language. Tecurriculum is relevant to the communityslivelihood, containing instruction on suchtopics as livestock and crop production.

Te Oriang project in western Kenya hasintroduced inclusive education in ve pri-mary schools. echnical and nancialassistance is provided by Leonard Cheshire

Disability (60). Te support includes train-ing new teachers and working with students,parents, teachers, and the wider communityto change attitudes and build the right struc-tures or delivering inclusive education. Teproject benets 2568 children, o whom 282have a mild to severe disability (127).

ParentsParents should be involved in all aspects olearning (128). Te amily is the rst sourceo education or a child, and most learningoccurs at home. Parents are requently activein creating educational opportunities or theirchildren, and they need to be brought on board

Box 7.5. Sport or children with disabilities in Fiji

Since March 2005 the Fiji Paralympic Committee (FPC) and the Australian Sports Commission have worked

together to provide inclusive sport activities or children with disabilities in Fijis 17 special education centres.

These activities are par t o the Australian Sports Outreach Program, an Australian government initiative that seeks

to help individuals and organizations deliver high-quality, inclusive sport-based programmes that contribute to

social development.

FPCs grassroots programmes are designed to increase the variety and quality o sport choices available or

children in Fijian schools. Its activities include:

Paciic Junior Sport a games-based programme that provides opportunities or children to participate anddevelop their skills;

qito lai lai(childrens games) or smaller children;

arranging or sport ederations such as those o gol, table tennis, tennis, and archery to run sessions in schools;

supporting schools so that students can play popular sports, such as ootball, volleyball, and netball, andparalympic sports such as b occia, goalball, and sitting volleyball;

managing regional and national sport tournaments, as well as estivals in which students test their skills inootball, netball, and volleyball against children rom mainstream schools;

providing role models through the athlete ambassador programme, in which athletes with a disability regularlyvisit schools, including mainstream schools.

Sport can improve the inclusion and well-being o people with a disability:

by changing what communities think and eel about people w ith a disability and in that way reducing stigmaand discrimination;

by changing what people with a disability think and eel about themselves and in that way empoweringthem to recognize their own potential;

by reducing their isolation and helping them integrate more ully into community lie;

by providing opportunities which assists young people to develop healthy body systems (musculoskeletal,cardiovascular) and improve coordination.

As a result o FPCs work, each Friday aternoon across the country more than 1000 children with a disability areplaying a sport. As the FPCs sport development oicer p oints out, when people see children with a disability

playing sport, they know that they are capable o doing many dierent things.

Source (122124).


23/30

225

Chapter 7 Education

to acilitate the process o inclusion. In severalcountries individual parents, oen with the

support o parents associations, have takentheir governments to court, sett ing precedentsthat opened regular schools to children withdisabilities. Inclusion Panama pressured thePanamanian government to change the lawrequiring children with disabilities to be edu-cated in a separate system. In 2003, as a resulto its campaign, the government introduceda policy to make all schools inclusive. NFU, aparents organization in Norway, has lent sup-port to parents in Zanzibar to collaborate withthe education ministry in introducing inclusiveeducation. In 2009 a parents organization inLebanon persuaded a teachers training collegeto conduct its practical training or teachers inthe community instead o in institutions.

Disabled peoples organizationsDisabled peoples organizations also have a rolein promoting the education o disabled children or example, working with young disabledpeople, providing role models, encouragingparents to send their children to school andbecome involved in their childrens education,and campaigning or inclusive education. TeSouthern Arica Federation o the Disabled,or instance, has set up a range o programmesinvolving people with disabilities, including itschildren and youth programme, running orthe past 15 years. Te programme ocuses on allaspects o discrimination and abuse o childrenwith disabilities and their exclusion rom edu-cation and other social activities. However suchorganizations requently lack the resources andcapacity to develop their role in education.

Children with disabilitieshe voices o children with disabilities them-selves must be heard, though they requentlyare not. In recent years children have beenmore involved in studies o their experi-ences o education. he results o such child-inormed research are o great beneit oreducational planners and policy-makers andcan be a source o evidence as educational

systems become more inclusive. Child-to-child cooperation should be better used topromote inclusion (94).

Audiovisual methods have been particularlyeective in bringing out the views o children ina range o socioeconomic settings (129, 130). Young people in nine Commonwealth

countries were consulted about their viewson the CRPD through a series o ocusgroups. Te right to education eaturedin the top three issues in three quarters othese groups (131).

In a reugee programme in Jhapa, Nepal,children with disabilities were ound to bea neglected and vulnerable group (132). Aull-time disability coordinator or the pro-gramme was thereore appointed to under-take participatory action research. Disabledchildren talked about their amily lives anddescribed how they were taunted i theyle their homes. Both children and parentslisted education as the top priority. Aer 18months more than 700 children had beenintegrated into schools, and sign-languagetraining had been introduced in all reugeecamps, or Dea and non-dea children.

In September 2007 the PortugueseMinistry o Education organized a Europe-wide consultation in collaboration withthe European Agency or Development inSpecial Needs Education (133). Te youngpeople consulted avoured inclusive educa-tion, but insisted that each person shouldbe able to choose where to be educated.Acknowledging that they gained socialskills and experience o the real world ininclusive schools, they also said that indi-vidualized specialist support had helpedthem to prepare or higher education.

Conclusion andrecommendations

Children with disabilities are less likely thanchildren without disabilities to start school andhave lower rates o staying and being promoted


24/30

226


in school. Children with disabilities shouldhave equal access to quality education, because

this is key to human capital ormation and theirparticipation in social and economic lie.While children with disabilities have his-

torically been educated in separate specialschools, inclusive mainstream schools in bothurban and rural areas provide a cost-eectiveway orward. Inclusive education is better ableto reach the majority and avoids isolating chil-dren with disabilities rom their amilies andcommunities.

A range o barriers within education poli-cies, systems and services limit disabled chil-drens mainstream educational opportunities.Systemic and school-level change to removephysical and attitudinal barriers and providereasonable accommodation and support ser-vices is required to ensure that children withdisabilities have equal access to education.

A broad range o stakeholders policy-makers, school administrators, teachers,amilies, and children with and without dis-abilities can contribute to improving educa-tional opportunities and outcomes or childrenwith disabilities, as outlined in the ollowingrecommendations.

Formulate clear policies andimprove data and inormation

Develop a clear national policy on the inclu-sion o children with disabilities in educationsupported by the necessary legal rame-work, institutions, and adequate resources.Denitions need to be agreed on what con-stitutes inclusive education and specialeducational needs, to help policy-makersdevelop an equitable education system thatincludes children with disabilities.

Identiy, through surveys, the level andnature o need, so that the correct supportand accommodations can be introduced.Some students may require only modica-tions to the physical environment to gainaccess, while others will require intensiveinstructional support.

Establish monitoring and evaluation sys-tems. Data on the numbers o learners with

disabilities and their educational needs,both in special schools and in mainstreamschools, can oen be collected throughexisting service providers. Research isneeded on the costeectiveness and e-ciency o inclusive education.

Share knowledge about how to achieveeducational inclusion among policy-makers, educators, and amilies. Fordeveloping countries the experience oother countries that have already movedtowards inclusion can be useul. Modelprojects o inclusive education could bescaled up through local-to-regional-to-global networks o good practice.

Adopt strategies topromote inclusion

Focus on educating children as close to themainstream as possible. Tis includes, inecessary, establishing links between specialeducation acilities and mainstream schools.

Do not build a new special school i no spe-cial schools exist. Instead, use the resourcesto provide additional support or childrenwith disabilities in mainstream schools.

Ensure an inclusive educational inrastruc-ture or example, by mandating minimumstandards o environmental accessibility toenable access to school or children with dis-abilities. Accessible transport is also vital.

Make teachers aware o their responsi-bilities towards all children and build andimprove their skills or teaching childrenwith disabilities. Educating teachers aboutincluding children with disabilities shouldideally take place in both pre-service andin-service teacher education. It should havea special emphasis on teachers in ruralareas, where there are ewer services orchildren with disabilities.

Support teachers and schools to move awayrom a one-size-ts-all model towardsexible approaches that can cope with


25/30

227

Chapter 7 Education

diverse needs o learners or example,individualized education plans can ensure

the individual needs o students with dis-abilities are met. Provide technical guidance to teachers that

can explain how to group students, dier-entiate instruction, use peers to provideassistance, and adopt other low-cost inter-ventions to support students having learn-ing diculties.

Clariy and reconsider policies on theassessment, classication, and placemento students so that they take into considera-tion the interactional nature o disability,do not stigmatize children, and benet theindividuals with disabilities.

Promote Dea childrens right to educa-tion by recognizing linguistic rights. Deachildren should have early exposure to signlanguage and be educated as multilingualsin reading and writing. rain teachers insign language and provide accessible edu-cational material.

Provide specialist services,where necessary

Increase investment in school inrastruc-ture and personnel so that children withdisabilities that are identied as havingspecial educational needs obtain the neededsupport, and continue to receive that sup-port during their education.

Make available speech and language ther-apy, occupational therapy, and physiother-apy to learners with moderate or signicant

disabilities. In the absence o specialistproviders, use existing community-based

rehabilitation services to support childrenin educational settings. I these resourcesare absent, an attempt should be made todevelop these services gradually.

Consider introducing teaching assistantsto provide special support to children withdisabilities, while ensuring that this doesnot isolate them rom other students.

Support participation

Involve parents and amily members.Parents and teachers should jointly decideon the educational needs o a child. Childrendo better when amilies get involved, andthis costs very little.

Involve the broader community in activi-ties related to the education o childrenwith disabilities. Tis is likely to be moresuccessul than policy decisions handeddown rom above.

Develop links between educational ser-vices and community-based rehabil itation and other rehabilitation services, wherethey exist. In this way, scarce resourcescan be used more eciently, and educa-tion, health care, and social services canbe properly integrated.

Encourage adults with disabilities anddisabled peoples organizations to becomemore involved in promoting access to edu-cation or children with disabilities.

Consult and involve children in decisionsabout their education.

Reerences

1. Global burden o disease: 2004 update. Geneva, World Health Organization, 2008.2. World population prospects: the 2008 revision population database: highlights. United Nations, Department o Economic

and Social Aairs, 2009 (http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_highlights.pd, accessed

12 Januar y 2011).

3. The State o the Worlds Children 2006: excluded and invisible. New York, United Nations Childrens Fund, 2005.

4. The present situation o special education. Paris, United Nations Educational, Scientic and Cultural Organization, 1988.

5. Education or All. Salamanca ramework or action. Washington, United Nations Educational, Scientic and Cultural

Organization, 1994.

6. The Dakar ramework or action: Education or All: meeting our collective commitments. Adopted by the World Education

Forum, Dakar, United Nations Educational, Scientic and Cultural Organization, 2628 April 2000. Paris, 2000a.
http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_highlights.pdfhttp://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_highlights.pdf


26/30

228


7. Convention on the Rights o Persons with Disabilities. New York, United Nations, 2006.

8. Filmer D. Disability, poverty, and schooling in developing countries: results rom 14 household surveys. The World Bank

Economic Review, 2008,22:141-163. doi:10.1093/wber/lhm021

9. Education or All Global Monitoring Report. Paris, United Nations Educational, Scientic and Cultural Organization, 2009.

10. Nott J. Impaired identities? Disability and personhood in Uganda and implications or an international policy on disability.

Oslo, Department o Social Anthropology, University o Oslo, 1998.

11. People with disabilities in India: rom commitments to outcomes. Washington, Human Development Unit, South Asia Region,

World Bank, 2009.

12. World Health Survey. Geneva, World Health Organization, 20022004 (http://www.who.int/healthino/survey/en/,

accessed 20 August 2009).

13. Loeb ME, Eide AH, eds. Living conditions among people with activity limitations in Malawi: a national representative study.

Oslo, SINTEF, 2004.

14. Eide AH, van Rooy G, Loeb ME. Living conditions among people with disabilities in Namibia: a national, representative study.

Oslo, SINTEF, 2003.

15. Eide AH, Loeb ME, eds. Living conditions among people with activity limitations in Zambia. Oslo, SINTEF, 2006.

16. Eide AH et al. Living conditions among people with disabilities in Zimbabwe: a representative, regional study. Oslo, SINTEF,

2003.

17. Reaching the marginalized EFA Global Monitoring Report 2010. Paris, United Nations Educational, Scientic and Cultural

Organization, 2010.

18. Karangwa E, Kobusingye M. Consultation report on education o the Dea in Rwanda. Kigali, Ministr y o Education, 2007.

19. Porter GL. Disability and inclusive education. Paper prepared or the InterAmerican Development Bank seminar, Inclusion

and Disability, Santiago, 2001 (http://www.disabilityworld.org/05-06_01/children/inclusiveed.shtml, accessed 1 May

2009).

20. Summary report. Violence against children. UN Secretary-Generals report on violence against children. Thematic group on

violence against children. Findings and recommendations. New York, United Nations Childrens Fund, 2005.

21. Singal N. Inclusive education in India: international concept, national interpretation. International Journal o Disability

Development and Education, 2006,53:351-369. doi:10.1080/10349120600847797

22. Education or All global monitoring report 2009. Regional overview: sub-Saharan Arica. Paris, United Nations Educational,

Scientic and Cultural Organization, 2009 (http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0017/001784/178418e.pd, accessed 20

August 2009).

23. Tirussew T. Overview o the development o inclusive education in the last teen years in Ethiopia. In: Savolainen H,

Documents

WHO - Studiu Dizabilitati Educatie