m. cincaZe, n. maisuraZe, g. manveliZe

zogadi da

araorganuli qimia

`teqnikuri universiteti”@

saqarTvelos teqnikuri universiteti

m. cincaZe, n. maisuraZe, g. manveliZe

zogadi da

araorganuli qimia

damtkicebulia stu-s

saredaqcio-sagamomcemlo

sabWos mier

Tbilisi

2009

obyfvlt,fht cf[tkv.qdfytkj ufsdfkbcobyt,ekbf evfqktcb

ghjatcbek-ntmybrehb cofdkt,bc cneltynt,bcfsdbc\ xdtyb vbpfyb b'j vfhnbdfl vbudtojlt,byf vfssdbc pjuflb lf fhfjhufyekb mbvbbc .bhbsflb cfrbs[t,b\

pjuflb mbvbbc yfobkib ufy[bkekbf mbvbbc .bhbsflb wyt,t,b lf rfyjyt,b= sfyfvtlhjdt it[tlekt,f fnjvbc lf vjktrekbc fqyfuj,fpt= mbvbehb htfmwbt,bc vbvlbyfhtj,bc rfyjypjvbtht,f= [cyfht,b\

fhfjhufyek yfobkib vjwtvekbf gthbjlekb cbcntvbc .bhbsflb s, p lf d tktvtynt,bc vbqt,f= mbvbehb sdbct,t,b lf ufvj'tyt,f\

cf[tkv.qdfytkjc lfhsekb fmdc cfuyj,hbdb cfhxtdb\

htwtyptynb mbv\ vtw\ ljmnjhb b\ ifsbhbidbkb

© sagamomcemlo saxli ,,teqnikuri universiteti’’, 2009

ISBN 978-9941-14-310-6 http://www.gtu.ge/publishinghouse/

yvela ufleba daculia. am wignis arc erTi nawili (iqneba es teqsti, foto,

ilustracia Tu sxva) aranairi formiT da saSualebiT (iqneba es eleqtronuli Tu

meqanikuri), ar SeiZleba gamoyenebul iqnas gamomcemlis werilobiTi nebarTvis

gareSe.

saavtoro uflebebis darRveva isjeba kanoniT.

2 3

SFDB 1\MBVBBC >BHBSFLB WYT<T<B LF RFYJYT<B

hfc itbcofdkbc mbvbf

mbvbf fhbc cf,eyt,bcvtn'dtkj vtwybtht,f= hjvkbc rdktdbccfufybf ybdsbtht,f\ mbvbf itbcofdkbc ybdsbtht,bc itlutybkj,fc=fqyfuj,fc= sdbct,t,c= vbqt,bc vtsjlt,c= ufhlfmvyt,c lf fvufhlfmvyfsf sfyv[kt, vjdktyt,c\

fnjvb lf vjktrekf

ybdsbtht,f vfnthbbc rjyrhtnekb ufvjcf[ekt,ff\ fnjveh-vjktrekehb vj.qdht,bc sfyf[vfl= ybdsbtht,f b'jaf fhf ecfc-hekjl= fhfvtl vbc vjktrekt,fvlt\ vjktrekf fhbc ybdsbtht,bcevwbhtcb yfobkfrb= hjvtkcfw ityfhxeyt,ekb fmdc fv ybdsbtht,bcitlutybkj,f lf mbvbehb sdbct,t,b\

vjktrekf sfdbc v[hbd itlut,f fnjvt,bcfufy\ fnjvb mbvbe-hfl ufye'jatkb evwbhtcb yfobkfrbf\ sfyfvtlhjdt ufyvfhnt,bs=fnjvb tktmnhjytbnhfkehb cbcntvff= hjvtkbw itlut,f lflt-,bsfl lfve[nekb fnjv,bhsdbcf lf vbc bhudkbd v,heyfdbefh'jabsfl lfve[nekb yfobkfrt,bc _ tktmnhjyt,bcfufy\

vjktrekt,b lf fnjvt,b bv'jat,f ufyeo'dtntk vj.hfj,fib\ mb-vbehb htfmwbt,bc lhjc vjktrekt,ib bhqdtdf fnjvt,c ijhbc fh-ct,ekb ,vt,b lf bvfdt fnjvt,bcufy ofhvjbmvyt,f f[fkb vjktrekt,b\

vfhnbdb ybdsbtht,bc vjktrekt,b itlut,f thsb lf bvfdttktvtynbc fnjvt,bcfufy= hsekb ybdsbtht,bc vjktrekt,b itl-ut,f c[dflfc[df tktvtynbc fnjvt,bcfufy\ vfhnbdb ybdsbtht,t,bf=vfufkbsfl= o'fk,flb (H2)= fpjnb (N2)= ;fyu,flb (O2)= ujubhlb(S)= hrbyf (Fe) lf c[df\ hsekb ybdsbtht,t,bf= vfufkbsfl= ceahbcvfhbkb (NaCl)= rfkbevbc ybnhfnb (KNO3)= cgbkty.bc cekafnb(CuSO4)= vfhbkv;fdf (HCl) lf c[df\

obyfvlt,fht cf[tkv.qdfytkj ufsdfkbcobyt,ekbf evfqktcb ghjat-cbek-ntmybrehb cofdkt,bc cneltynt,bcfsdbc\ xdtyb vbpfyb b'j vfhnbdflvbudtojlt,byf vfssdbc pjuflb lf fhfjhufyekb mbvbbc .bhbsflb cfrbs[t,b\

pjuflb mbvbbc yfobkib ufy[bkekbf mbvbbc .bhbsflb wyt,t,b lfrfyjyt,b= sfyfvtlhjdt it[tlekt,f fnjvbc lf vjktrekbc fqyfuj,fpt=mbvbehb htfmwbt,bc vbvlbyfhtj,bc rfyjypjvbtht,f= [cyfht,b\

fhfjhufyek yfobkib vjwtvekbf gthbjlekb cbcntvbc .bhbsflb s, plf d tktvtynt,bc vbqt,f= mbvbehb sdbct,t,b lf ufvj'tyt,f\

cf[tkv.qdfytkjc lfhsekb fmdc cfuyj,hbdb cfhxtdb\

htwtyptynb mbv\ vtw\ ljmnjhb b\ ifsbhbidbkb

4 5

mbvbehb tktvtynb

fnjvsf 'jdtk ufhrdtek cf[tc mbvbehb tktvtynb tojlt,f\fnjvbc .bhbsfl mbvbeh vf[fcbfst,tkc ofhvjflutyc fnjv,bhs-dbc lflt,bsb ve[nb= hjvtkbw hbw[j,hbdfl njkbf tktvtynbchbuj,hbdb yjvhbcf gthbjlek cbcntvfib= fvbnjv sfyfvtlhjdtufyvfhnt,bs= mbvbehb tktvtynb tc fhbc fnjvsf thsj,kbj,ffnjv,bhsdbc thsyfbhb lflt,bsb ve[nbs\ vfufkbsfl= 'dtkftktvtynb= hjvkbc fnjv,bhsdibw 11 ghjnjybf fhbc yfnhbevb(Na)+ 8 ghjnjybc itvwdtkb fnjvb ;fyu,flbf (O) lf f\i\

lqtbcfsdbc wyj,bkbf 116 tktvtynb\

fkjnhjgbf

tktvtynb sfdbceafk vlujvfhtj,fib ofhvjflutyc vfhnbdybdsbtht,fc\ thscf lf bvfdt tktvtync ite.kbf vjudwtc hfvlt-ybvt vfhnbdb ybdsbtht,f\ tktvtynbc sdbct,fc= ,eyt,fib bfhct,jchfvltybvt vfhnbdb ybdsbtht,bc cf[bs= fkjnhjgbf tojlt,f\bub ufvjodtekbf jhb vbptpbs| 1) vjktrekfib fnjvsf hbw[dbchfjltyj,bs\ vfufkbsfl= ;fyu,flb (O2) lf jpjyb (O3)+ 2) rhbcnf-kehb vtchbc c[dflfc[dfj,bs\ vfufkbsfl= fkvfcb= uhfabnb lfrfh,byb= hjvkt,bw tktvtyn yf[ibh,flbc (C) vbth ofhvjmvybkbvfhnbdb ybdsbtht,t,bf\

'dtkf tktvtync lf= itcf,fvbcfl= vfhnbd ybdsbtht,t,cfw 'j-aty kbsjyt,fl lf fhfkbsjyt,fl\ kbsjyt,b= xdtekt,hbd gbhj-,t,ib= rhbcnfkehb vtchbc vmjyt v'fhb ybdsbtht,t,bf (ufhlfdthw[kbco'kbcf _ Hg)= [jkj fhfkbsjyt,b ud[dlt,f cfvbdt fu-htufnek vlujvfhtj,fib\ vfufkbsfl= fpjnb (N2) _ fbhflbf= ajc-ajhb (P) _ v'fhb= ,hjvb (Br2) _ s[tdflb\

kbsjyt,c f[fcbfst,c ,pbydfht,f= ztlflj,f= ufzbvdbcf lf ufu-kbydbc rfhub eyfhb\ cbs,j- lf tktmnhjufvnfhj,f+ fhfkbsj-

yt,b vjrkt,ekbf 'dtkf ptvjfqybiyek sdbct,fc\ ufvjyfrkbcbfuhfabnb (rfhufl fnfht,c tktmnhjltyc) lf bjlb (rhbcnfke-hbf)\

yfhtdt,b lf mbvbehb yfthst,b

yfhtdb tojlt,f jhb fy vtnb ybdsbtht,bc ithtdbs vbqt,ekthsj,kbj,fc= hjvtkibw itvfdfk rjvgjytynt,c ityfhxeyt,ekbfmdc sfdbcb abpbrehb lf mbvbehb sdbct,t,b\ yfhtdbc itlutybkj,fitb.kt,f yt,bcvbthfl dwdfkjs\ yfhtdbc lf'jaf itvflutytk rjv-gjytynfl itb.kt,f vfhnbdb abpbrehb vtsjlt,bs\ yfhtdbc vjv-pflt,bcfc fh [lt,f cbs,jc ufvj'jaf fy isfysmvf\ yfhtdt,b jhudf-hbf| thsudfhjdfyb lf fhfthsudfhjdfyb\

thsudfhjdfyb tojlt,f yfhtdc= hjvtkibw vbrhjcrjgbsfw rbite.kt,tkbf yfhtdbc itvflutytkb ybdsbtht,t,bc lfyf[df\ thsu-dfhjdfybf= vfufkbsfl= cgbhnbc o'fk[cyfhb= ]fthb lf c[df\

fhfthsudfhjdfyb tojlt,f yfhtdc= hjvtkibw sdfkbs fy vbr-hjcrjgbs itcf.kt,tkbf yfhtdbc itvflutytkb ybdsbtht,t,bc lf-yf[df\ fhfthsudfhjdfybf hrbybc a[dybkbcf lf [bc yf[th[bc= wfh-wbcf lf ceahbc vfhbkbc= ptsbcf lf o'kbc yfhtdb lf c[df\

yfthsb tojlt,f jhb fy vtnb ybdsbtht,bc mbvbehb ehsbths-mvtlt,bc itltufl vbqt,ek sdbcj,hbdfl f[fk thsj,kbj,fc=hjvtkibw itvfdfk ybdsbtht,t,c lfrfhuekb fmdc gbhdfyltkbsdbct,t,b\ yfthsbc ofhvjmvybcfc vbbqt,f sdbcj,hbdfl f[fkb ybd-sbtht,f\ yfthsbc ofhvjmvybcfc ybdsbtht,t,b ufhrdtekb ojybsbsfyfafhlj,t,bs ethslt,f thsvfytsc\

mbvbehb yfthsbc lf'jaf cfo'bc ybdsbtht,t,fl vfhnbdb ab-pbrehb vtsjlt,bs fh itb.kt,f\

yfthsbc ofhvjmvybcfc cbs,j ufvjb'jaf fy isfbysmvt,f\

6 7

afhlj,bsb fnjvehb lf vjktrekehb vfcf

vjktrekt,bcf lf fnjvt,bcfsdbc lfvf[fcbfst,tkbf pjvf lfvfcf\ fnjvsf vfct,bc f,cjkenehb vybidytkj,t,b .fkbfy vwbhtcblbltt,bf= vfuhfv rdktdbc sfyfvtlhjdt vtsjlt,b vfsb lblb cb-pecnbs ufycfpqdhbc cfiefkt,fc b.ktdf\ o'fk,flbc fnjvbc vfcfnjkbf 1=674\10_27ru+ yf[ibh,flbcf _ 1=993\10_26ru\ fctsb hbw[dt,bscfhut,kj,f vje[th[t,tkbf= fvbnjv itvjqt,ekbf afhlj,bsbfnjvehb vfcbc wyt,f (Ar)\ tktvtynbc afhlj,bsb fnjvehb vfcfbpjvt,f yf[ibh,flthstekt,ib lf udbxdtyt,c= se hfvlty/thvtnbf tktvtynbc fnjvbc vfcf yf[ibh,flbc C12 bpjnjgbc fnjvbcvfcbc 1$12 yfobkpt\ vfc ufypjvbkt,f fhf fmdc\

vfufkbsfl= 999,1510993,112/1

10667,2)O(A 26

26

r

afhlj,bsb fnjvehb vfcbc ufvjsdkbcfc v[tldtkj,fib eylfvbdbqjs fvf se bv tktvtynbc bpjnjgehb itlutybkj,f lf uf-vjdsdfkjs cfiefkj afhlj,bsb fnjvehb vfcf\ tktvtynsf afh-lj,bsb fnjvehb vfcbc vybidytkj,t,b vj'dfybkbf vtyltkttdbcgthbjlek cbcntvfib\ fnjveh vfcfcsfy f[kjvlujv vstk hbw[dcvfcehb hbw[db tojlt,f\ bub udbxdtyt,c tktvtynbc fnjvuekibghjnjyt,bcf lf ytbnhjyt,bc /fvc\

afhlj,bsb vjktrekehb vfcf (Mr) udbxdtyt,c= hfvlty/thfqtvfnt,f fvf se bv vjktrekbc vfcf yf[ibh,flbc fnjvbc vfcbc1$12 yfobkc\ bub ufvjbsdkt,f vjktrekfib itvfdfkb 'dtkf fnjvbcafhlj,bsb fnjvehb vfct,bc /fvbs\

Mr(H2O) = 2.Ar(H) + Ar(O) = 2.1 + 16 = 18

vjkb _ ybdsbtht,bc hfjltyj,bc thstekb

thsteksf cfthsfijhbcj cbcntvfib (SI) ybdsbtht,bc hfjlt-yj,bc thstekfl vbqt,ekbf vjkb\

vjkb fhbc ybdsbtht,bc hfjltyj,f= hjvtkbw itbwfdc bvltycnhemnehek thstekc (vjktrekf= fnjvb= bjyb= tktmnhjyblf c[d\)= hfvlty fnjvcfw itbwfdc C12 yf[ibh,flbc bpjnjgbc 0=012 ru\

wyj,bkbf= hjv 'dtkf ybdsbtht,bc thsb vjkb itbwfdc vjktre-kt,bc thscf lf bvfdt hbw[dc= rth.jl= 6=02\1023 (fdjuflhjc hbw[db)\

ybdsbtht,bc vfcfc= fqt,ekc thsb vjkbc hfjltyj,bs=tojlt,f vjkehb vfcf\

dfktynj,f

mbvbehb ajhvekbc cojhfl lfothbcsdbc fewbkt,tkbf tk-tvtynsf dfktynj,bc fy ;fyudbc [fhbc[bc wjlyf\

dfktynj,f tojlt,f vjwtvekb tktvtynbc fnjvsf eyfhc=vbbthsjc fy xffyfwdkjc c[df tktvtynbc fnjvsf ufycfpqdhekbhbw[db\

dfktynj,bc thstekfl vbqt,ekbf o'fk,flbc fnjvbc dfkty-nj,f\ hflufyfw o'fk,flbc ths fnjvc fhf fmdc eyfhb= itbthsjcc[df tktvtynbc ths fnjvpt vtnb\ fmtlfy ufvjvlbyfhtj,c= hjvse hjvtkbvt tktvtynbc thsb fnjvb bthst,c o'fk,flbc 1 fnjvc=vfiby tc tktvtynb bsdkt,f thsdfktynbfyfl+ se bthst,c o'fk-,flbc 2 fnjvc _ jhdfktynbfyfl+ se bthst,c cfvc _ cfvdfkty-nbfyfl lf f\i\ vfu\= HCl-ib mkjhb thsdfktynbfybf= H2S-ib uj-ubhlb jhdfktynbfyb= NH3-ib fpjnb cfvdfktynbfyb= H2O-ib lf'dtkf ;fyu,flyfthsib ;fyu,flb jhdfktynbfybf lf vbcb lf[vf-ht,bs itb.kt,f ufydcfpqdhjs c[df tktvtynbc dfktynj,f\

fhct,j,c velvbddfktynbfyb lf wdfkt,fldfktynbfyb tktvty-nt,b\ velvbddfktynbfybf= vfufkbsfl= H= Li= Na= K (dfktynj,f

8 9

'jdtksdbc thsbc njkbf)= Ca= Ba= Mg (dfktynj,f 'jdtksdbc jh-bc njkbf)= Al (dfktynj,f cfvbc njkbf)\ wdfkt,fldfktynbfybf=vfufkbsfl= yf[ibh,flb _ C (dfktynj,f itb.kt,f b'jc 2 lf 4)=ujubhlb _ S (dfktynj,f itb.kt,f b'jc 2= 4 fy 6)\

fv;fvfl dfktynj,bc wyt,f vtnfl ufafhsjdlf\ dfktynj,fcerfdibht,ty vjktrekfib fnjvt,c ijhbc mbvbehb ,vbc ,eyt,fc\fvbnjv vfc ufycfpqdhfdty hjujhw hbw[dc tktmnhjyekb o'db-kbcf (,vfsf hbw[dbc)= hjvkbsfw vjwtvekb fnjvb itthst,ekbfc[df fnjvsfy\

ybdsbtht,bc vfcbc velvbdj,bc rfyjyb

tc rfyjyb fqvjxtybk bmyf 1748-1756 o\ kjvjyjcjdbc= [jkj1789 otkc kfdefpbtc vbth thsvfytsbcfufy lfvjerblt,kfl\ tcrfyjyb fv;fvfl itvltuyfbhfl ajhvekbhlt,f| mbvbeh htfmwbfibitcek ybdsbtht,fsf vfcf 'jdtksdbc njkbf htfmwbbc itltuflvbqt,ekb ybdsbtht,t,bc vfcbcf\

fnjveh-vjktrekehb vj.qdht,bc sdfkcfphbcbs= ybdsbt-ht,bc vfcbc velvbdj,bc rfyjybc fhcb vlujvfhtj,c bvfib= hjvmbvbehb htfmwbt,bc lhjc fnjvt,b fh mht,f lf fh ofhvjbmvyt,ffhfahbcfufy= fhfvtl htfmwbfvlt lf htfmwbbc itvltu vfsb hfj-ltyj,f hxt,f ewdktkb\ hfvltyflfw fnjvt,c fmdc velvbdb vfcflf vfsb hfjltyj,f htfmwbbc itltufl fh bwdkt,f= ybdsbtht,bcvfcf htfmwbfvlt lf htfmwbbc itvltu hxt,f velvbdb\

vfcbc velvbdj,bc rfyjysfy vzblhj rfdibhibf tythubbc vel-vbdj,bc rfyjyb\ vfnthbbc sdbct,ff vj.hfj,f= hjvkbc hfjlt-yj,hbd cfpjvc ofhvjflutyc tythubf\ h\ vtbthvf lffvnrbwfvfnthbbc vj.hfj,bc c[dflfc[df ajhvbc trdbdfktynehj,f lfxfvjf'fkb,f rfyjyb= hjvtkbw wyj,bkbf tythubbc ufhlfmvybcf lfvelvbdj,bc rfyjybc cf[tkojlt,bs\ bub vlujvfhtj,c itvltuib|

tythubf fh ofhvjbmvyt,f fhfahbcfufy lf fhw erdfkjl mht,f=fhfvtl uflflbc thsb ajhvblfy vtjhtib\

fvudfhfl= ybdsbtht,bc vfcbc velvbdj,bc rfyjyb lf tythubbcvelvbdj,bc rfyjyb _ tc fhbc ,eyt,bc thsbfyb rfyjybc jhb v[fht_ vfnthbbcf lf vbcb vj.hfj,bc vfhflbcj,f\

itlutybkj,bc velvbdj,bc rfyjyb

itlutybkj,bc velvbdj,bc rfyjyb fqvjxtybkbf ahfyub vtw-ybthbc ghecnbc vbth lf itvltuyfbhfl ajhvekbhlt,f| 'jdtkmbvbehfl ceasf ybdsbtht,fc= lfvjerblt,kfl vbcb vbqt,bc[th[t,bcf= fmdc velvbdb sdbct,bsb lf hfjltyj,bsb itlutybkj,f\vfufkbsfl= hf upbsfw fh eylf vbdbqjs o'fkb= vbcb itlutybkj,fvelvbdbf\ bub itlut,f o'fk,flbcf lf ;fyu,flbcfufy (sdbcj,hbdbitlutybkj,f) fvfcsfy= vfcbc vb[tldbs o'fkib o'fk,flb itlbc11=19 %= ;fy,flb rb 88=81 %\

mbvbbc itvlujvvf ufydbsfht,fv udbxdtyf= hjv fhct,j,c hj-ujhw velvbdb= fctdt wdfkt,flb itlutybkj,bc vmjyt yfthst,b\velvbdb itlutybkj,bc vmjyt yfthst,c tojlt,f lfknjyblt,b=[jkj wdkflb itlutybkj,bc vmjyt yfthst,c _ ,thnjkblt,b\

trdbdfktynb lf trdbdfktynsf rfyjyb

tktvtynbc mbvbehb trdbdfktynb tojlt,f vbc bcts ojybshfjltyj,fc= hjvtkbw ethslt,f fy mbvbeh htfmwbt,ib xft-yfwdkt,f 1 ojybs yfobk o'fk,flc fy 8 ojybs yfobk ;fyu,flc\

trdbdfktynehb vfcf fhbc ybdsbtht,bc 1 trdbdfktynbc vfcf(ufypjvbkt,f u$vjkb)\ vjwtvek yfthsib tktvtynbc trdbdfkty-nehb vfcf njkbf tktvtynbc fnjvehb vfcbc (A) afhlj,bcf vbcdfktynj,fcsfy (v)\

10 11

Э = vA

trdbdfktynbc wyt,fc fmdc lblb vybidytkj,f= hfvltyflfw vbcbcfiefkt,bs ajhvekbhlt,f mbvbbc ths-thsb .bhbsflb rfyjyb_ trdbdfktynt,bc rfyjyb| mbvbehb tktvtynt,b thsvfytsc eths-lt,f vrfwhfl ufycfpqdhekb ojybsb hfjltyj,t,bs= fye trdbdf-ktynehb hfjltyj,bs= fye vjhtfubht ybdsbtht,fsf vfct,b bctittafhlt,f thsvfytsc= hjujhw vfsb trdbdfktynt,b _

m1 : m2 = Э1 : Э2

v;fdfc trdbdfktynehb vfcf njkbf v;fdfc vjktrekehb vfcbcitafhlt,bc vbc ae.bfyj,fpt\ vfufkbsfl=

Э (H2SO4) = 492

982

)SOH(M 42

Э (HCl) = 5,361

5,361

)HCl(M

ae.bc trdbdfktynehb vfcf njkbf ae.bc vjktrekehb vfcbcitafhlt,bc vbc vjktrekfib itvfdfk OH /ueat,bc hbw[dpt=fye= hfw bubdtf= kbsjybc ;fyudbs [fhbc[pt\ vfufkbsfl=

Э (NaOH) = 40140

Э (Ca(OH)2) = 372

74

vfhbkbc trdbdfktynb njkbf vfhbkbc vjktrekehb vfcbcitafhlt,bc kbsjysf fnjvt,bc hbw[dbcf lf dfktynj,bc yfv-hfdkpt\ vfufkbsfl=

Э (NaCl) = 5,57115,57

Э (Na2SO4) = 7121

142

fdjuflhjc rfyjyb

fbht,c ijhbc vbvlbyfht htfmwbt,bc itcofdkbcfc utb-ke-cfrvf fqvjfxbyf vjwekj,fsf sfyfafhlj,bc rfyjyb= hjvkbc sf-yf[vfl _ htfmwbfib vjyfobkt fbht,bc vjwekj,t,b bct ittafh-lt,f thsvfytsc lf htfmwbbc itltufl vbqt,ek fbhfl ybdsbt-ht,fsf vjwekj,t,c= hjujhw vfhnbdb vstkb hbw[dt,b\

fv rfyjybc fcf[cytkfl bnfkbtkvf vtwybthvf fdjuflhjv 1811otkc ufvjsmdf ]bgjstpf= hjvtkbw itvltuib lflfcnehlf wlbcvjyfwtvt,bs= [jkj rfyjyc fdjuflhjc rfyjyb tojlf| c[dflfc[dffbht,bc njkb vjwekj,t,b thsyfbh abpbreh gbhj,t,ib vj-ktrekt,bc njk hbw[dc itbwfdc\

hfvltyflfw yt,bcvbthb ybdsbtht,bc 1 vjkb itbwfdc vjktre-kt,bc lf fnjvt,bc thscf lf bvfdt hbw[dc= rth.jl= N = 6=02\1023

(fdjuflhjc hbw[db)= fvbnjv fbht,bc 1 vjkbc vbth lfrfdt,ekbvjwekj,t,b (v) thsyfbh abpbreh gbhj,t,ib njkbf lf yjhvf-kehb gbhj,t,bc lhjc (P0 = 760 vv dthw[kbco'kbc cdtnbc 1 fnv == 101=325 rgf lf t = 00C, T0 = 273,160 K) njkbf 22=4 kbnhbcf=hjvtkcfw vjkeh vjwekj,fc eojlt,ty\

fdjuflhjc rfyjyblfy ufvjvlbyfhtj,c fuhtsdt= hjv thsyfbhbvjwekj,bc vmjyt c[dflfc[df fbhbc vfct,b bct ittafhlt,f ths-vfytsc= hjujhw vfsb vjktrekehb vfct,b\

m1 : m2 = M1 : M2

ufycfpqdhekb vjwekj,bc thsb fbhbc vfcbc itafhlt,fcbvfdt vjwekj,bc vtjht fbhbc vfcfcsfy (fqt,ekbf bvfdt gbhj,t,-ib) tojlt,f gbhdtkb fbhbc cbvrdhbdt vtjhbc vbvfhs (fqbybiyt,fD fcjsb)\ fvbnjv=

MM

D1

2 cfblfyfw M1 = M2

. D

fmtlfy ufvjvlbyfhtj,c= hjv fbhbc vjktrekehb vfcf elhbcvbc cbvrdhbdtc vtjht fbhbc vbvfhs= ufvhfdkt,ekc fvfdt fbhbcvjktrekeh vfcfpt\

12 13

xdtekt,hbd fbhbc cbvrdhbdtc ufycfpqdhfdty 'dtkfpt vce,e-mb fbhbc _ o'fk,flbc vbvfhs\ o'fk,flbc vjktrekf itlut,f jhbfnjvbcfufy= fvbnjv vbcb vjktrekehb vfcf njkbf 2\1=00797==2=01595 u$vjkb (lfvhudfkt,ekfl elhbc 2-c)\ t\b\ cf,jkjjlvbdbqt,s= hjv M = 2DH2

+vfifcflfvt= fbhflb ybdsbtht,bc vjktrekehb vfcf elhbc vbc

ufjhrtwt,ek cbvrdhbdtc o'fl,flbc vbvfhs\

abpbrehb lf mbvbehb vjdktyt,b

'jdtkudfh wdkbkt,fc= hfw xdtyc ufhtvjvwdtk cfv'fhjib[lt,f= vjdktyf tojlt,f\ ybdsbtht,bc wdkbkt,fcsfy lfrfdibht-,ekb vjdktyt,b itb.kt,f lfd'js jh /ueafl| abpbreh lf mbvbehvjdktyt,fl\

vjdktyfc= hjvkbc lhjcfw bwdkt,f ybdsbtht,bc ajhvf fyfuhtufnekb vlujvfhtj,f= [jkj itlutybkj,f fh bwdkt,f= t\b\f[fkb ybdsbtht,f fh ofhvjbmvyt,f= abpbrehb vjdktyf tojlt,f\vfufkbsfl= o'kbc uf'bydf= 'byekbc lyj,f= o'kbc fjhsmkt,f=jhsmkbc rjyltycfwbf= ufdfhdfht,ekb vbybc vjqeydf _ abpbrehbvjdktyt,bf\

vjdktyfc= hjvkbc lhjcfw bwdkt,f ybdsbtht,bc itlutyb-kj,f= t\b\ f[fkb ybdsbtht,f ofhvjbmvyt,f= mbvbehb vjdktyftojlt,f\ vfufkbsfl= yf[ibhbc odf= hrbybc lf;fyudf _ mbvbehbvjdktyt,bf\ mbvbeh vjdktyt,c c[dfyfbhfl mbvbeh htfmwbt,ceojlt,ty\

mbvbehb htfmwbbc .bhbsflb nbgt,b

mbvbehb htfmwbt,b itb.kt,f c[dflfc[df ybiybs lfdf/ueajs\se htfmwbfsf rkfcbabrfwbfc cfae.dkfl lfdelt,s fqt,ek

lf vbqt,ek ybdsbtht,fsf hbw[dbc wdkbkt,fc= vfiby vbdbqt,shtfmwbt,bc js[ nbgc| itthst,bc= lfikbc= xfyfwdkt,bcf lfvbvjwdkbc htfmwbt,c\

itthst,bc htfmwbf tojlt,f bcts htfmwbfc= hjvkbc vbvlbyf-htj,bcfc jhb fy vtnb ybdsbtht,bcfufy vbbqt,f thsb f[fkb ybdsb-tht,f\

itthst,bc htfmwbff vfufkbsfl o'kbc ofhvjmvyf o'fk,flbcflf ;fyu,flbcfufy|

2H2 + O2 2H2Ofvjybevbc mkjhblbc ofhvjmvyf fvbfrbcf lf mkjho'fk,f-

lbcfufy|NH3 + HCl NH4Cl

lfikbc htfmwbf tojlt,f bcts htfmwbfc= hjvkbc vbvlbyf-htj,bcfc thsb ybdsbtht,bcfufy vbbqt,f hfvltybvt f[fkb ybdsbt-ht,f\ vfu rbhmdbc lfikbs vbbqt,f jhb f[fkb ybdsbtht,f xfevm-hfkb rbhb lf yf[ibh,flbc lbjmcblb|

CaCO3 CaO + CO2

dthw[kbco'kbc jmcblb uf[eht,bs lfbikt,f= hbc itltuf-lfw vbbqt,f dthw[kbco'fkb lf ;fyu,flb|

2HgO 2Hg + O2

cgbkty.bc ae.trfh,jyfnbc= fye vbythfk vfkfmbnbc lfikbsvbbqt,f cfvb f[fkb ybdsbtht,f _ fgbkty.bc jmcblb= yf[ibh,flbclbjmcblb lf o'fkb|

Cu2(OH)2CO3 2CuO + CO2 + H2Oxfyfwdkt,bc htfmwbf tojlt,f htfmwbfc vfhnbd lf hsek ybd-

sbtht,fc ijhbc= hjvkbc lhjcfw vfhnbdb ybdsbtht,bc fnjvt,bxffyfwdkt,c hsekb ybdsbtht,bc itvflutytk ths-thsb tktvty-nbc fnjvt,c\ vfufkbsfl=

14 15

Fe + CuSO4 FeSO4 + Cufv htfmwbfib hrbybc fnjvt,b xftyfwdkt,f cgbkty.bc fnj-

vt,c= fye f.tdt,c vfc cgbkty.bc cekafnbc [cyfhblfy\Zn + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2

ufypfdt,ek ujubhlv;fdfcsfy ehsbthsmvtlt,bcfc sesbbcfnjvt,bs xfbyfwdkt,f o'fk,flbc fnjvt,b\

vbvjwdkbc htfmwbf tojlt,f jh hsek ybdsbtht,fc ijhbcvbvlbyfht htfmwbfc= hjvkbc lhjcfw hsekb ybdsbtht,bc itvfl-utytkb fnjvt,b fy fnjvsf /ueat,b vbvjbwdkt,f\ vfufkbsfl=

AgNO3 + NaCl AgCl + NaNO3

CuSO4 + 2NaOH Cu(OH)2 + Na2SO4

mbvbehb htfmwbt,bc vbvlbyfhtj,bc lhjc ufvj'jabkb fyisfysmvekb cbs,jc vb[tldbs= htfmwbt,c 'jaty tupjsthvek lftyljsthvek htfmwbt,fl\

tupjsthvekbf htfmwbf= hjvtkbw cbs,jc ufvj'jabs vbvlb-yfhtj,c\ vfufkbsfl= yf[ibhbc odf tupjsthvekb ghjwtcbf\

C + O2 CO2 + Q, cflfw Q htfmwbbc cbs,jc ufvjcf[fdc\

tyljsthvekbf htfmwbf= hjvtkbw vbvlbyfhtj,c cbs,jc isfysm-vbs\ vfufkbsfl= fpjnblfy lf ;fyu,flblfy fpjnbc (II) jmcblbcofhvjmvyf vbvlbyfhtj,c cbs,jc isfysmvbs|

N2 + O2 2NO _ Qmbvbehb htfmwbt,b vbvlbyfhtj,bc vbvfhsekt,bc vb[tldbs

b'jaf itmwtdfl lf itemwtdfl htfmwbt,fl\htfmwbt,b= hjvkt,bw vbvlbyfhtj,c v[jkjl thsb vbvfhse-

kt,bs lf vsfdhlt,f vjhtfubht ufvjcfdfkb ybdsbtht,t,bc vskb-fyb ufhlfmvybs cf,jkjj ghjlemnfl= tojlt,f itemwtdflb htfm-wbt,b\ vfufkbsfl= rfkbevbc ybnhfnb uf[eht,bs bikt,f|

2KNO3 2KNO2 + O2

htfmwbf ito'lt,f vfiby= hjltcfw KNO3 vskbfyfl ufhlfbmv-

yt,f rfkbevbc ybnhbnfl lf ;fyu,flfl\htfmwbt,b ,jkjvlt vblbc bv itvs[dtdfib= hjltcfw htfmwbbc

itltufl ths-thsb ghjlemnb ufvjb'jaf fbhbc= yfktmbc fy yfr-kt,lbcjwbht,ekb ybdsbtht,bc cf[bs\ vfufkbsfl=

CaCO3 + 2HCl CaCl2 + H2O + CO2BaCl2 + K2SO4 BaSO4 + 2KCl2NaOH + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2H2O

itmwtdflbf htfmwbt,b hjvkt,bw thslhjekfl jhb ehsb-thscfobyffqvltuj vbvfhsekt,bs vbvlbyfhtj,c\ itmwtdflb htfm-wbt,b ,jkjvlt fh vblbc lf vsfdhlt,f mbvbehb ojyfcojhj,bclfv'fht,bs\ vfufkbsfl= fvbfrbc cbystpb itmwtdflb htfmwbff|

N2 + 3H2 2NH3

vjhtfubht ybdsbtht,fsf itlutybkj,fib v'jab fnjvt,bc;fyudbsb [fhbc[bc wdkbkt,bc vb[tldbs htfmwt,c 'jaty|

1) fnjvsf ;fyudbsb [fhbc[bc itewdktkfl vbvlbyfht htfm-wbt,fl\ vfufkbsfl=

CaCO3 CaO + CO2 lf2) ;fyudbsb [fhbc[bc wdkbkt,bs vbvlbyfht htfmwbt,fl= fye

;fyudf-fqlutybc htfmwbt,fl\ vfufkbsfl=Al0 + Fe2

+3O3_2 Al2

+3O3_2 + Fe0

16 17

SFDB ^^\L\B\ VTYLTKTTDBC GTHBJLEKJ<BC RFYJYB LF

TKTVTYNSF GTHBJLEKB CBCNTVF

fnjveh-vjktrekehb vj.qdht,bc itvlujv= mbvbfib elbltcfqvjxtyfc ofhvjflutylf l\b\ vtyltkttdbc gthbjlekj,bc rfyj-yb= hjvtkbw cfae.dtkb uf[lf hjujhw mbvbehb tktvtynt,bcitcofdkbc= fctdt ybdsbtht,fsf fqyfuj,bc xfvj'fkb,t,bcf lf vbcbitvlujvb ufydbsfht,bc\ gthbjlekj,bc rfyjyb lf tktvtynsf gt-hbjlekb cbcntvf mbvbehb vtwybtht,bc evybidytkjdfytcb vbq-otdff\ bcbyb sfyfvtlhjdt mbvbbc cfae.dtkc ofhvjflutyty\

fqvjxtybk tktvtynsf hbw[dbc phlfv lqbc otchbuib lff't-yf vfsb rkfcbabrfwbbcf lf ufhrdtek cbcntvfib vj'dfybc fewb-kt,kj,f\ ,tdhb vtwybthb veifj,lf tktvtynsf rkfcbabrfwbbccfrbs[pt= vfuhfv eitltujl\

tktvtynsf chek'jabkb vtwybthekb rkfcbabrfwbf vjf[-lbyf hecvf vtwybthvf l\ b\ vtyltkttdvf\ vfy [fyuh.kbdb lf lf.f-,ekb vtwybthekb veifj,bc itltufl fqvjfxbyf gthbjlekj,bcrfyjyb\

veifj,lf hf tktvtynsf rkfcbabrfwbfpt= vtyltkttdb abm-hj,lf bvfpt= se tktvtynsf hjvtkb sdbct,f eylf fthxbf= hjvkbcvb[tldbsfw vjf[ltylf tktvtynsf rkfcbabrfwbfc lf hjvtkbweahj pecnfl lf erts ufvj[fnfdlf tktvtynt,c ijhbc rfdibhc\fcts sdbct,fl vfy fbhxbf fnjvbc vfcf= hflufy= vbcb fphbs= coj-htl tktvtynbc tc sdbct,f b'j= hjvtkptw eylf 'jabkb'j lf-vjrblt,ekb 'dtkf lfyfhxtyb sdbct,f\ vfhskfw= ufyfkfuf hf vty-ltkttdvf tktvtynt,b fnjvehb vfcbc phlbc vb[tldbs= itfvxybf=hjv mbvbehfl vcufdcb tktvtynt,b vtjhlt,f ufhrdtekb bynth-dfkbc itvltu\ vfy tc rfyjypjvbtht,f 1869 otkc rfyjybc cf[bsxfvjf'fkb,f\ rfyjyc vbcwf itvltub ajhvekbht,f| vfhnbdb ybd-sbtht,t,bc sdbct,t,b= fuhtsdt mbvbeh tktvtynsf yfthst,bc ajhvt,b

lf sdbct,t,b gthbjlek lfvjrblt,ekt,fibf tktvtynsf fnjvehbvfcbc cblbltcsfy\ vtyltkttdvf itflubyf tktvtynsf gthbjlekbcbcntvf= hfw gthbjlekj,bc rfyjybc uhfabrek ufvjcf[ekt,fcofhvjflutyc\

tktvtynsf gthbjlekb cbcntvf itlut,f gthbjlt,bcf lf/ueat,bcufy\

vpfhlb fnjvehb vfcbc vb[tldbs ufykfut,ek tktvtynsf ]j-hbpjynfkeh vorhbdc= hjvtkbw bo't,f nent kbsjyt,bs (thsitvs[dtdfib o'fk,flbs) lf vsfdhlt,f bythnekb fbht,bs= gt-hbjlb tojlt,f\

gthbjlek cbcntvfib cek 7 gthbjlbf\ fmtlfy= ^= ^^ lf ^^^-ctojlt,f vwbht gthbjlt,b+ ^&= & lf &^ gthbjlt,c _ lblb gt-hbjlt,b= [jkj &^^ gthbjlc _ lfechekt,tkb gthbjlb\

^ gthbjlib jhb tktvtynbf= ^^ lf ^^^ gthbjlt,ib 8_8= ^& lf&-ib _ 18_18= &^ gthbjlib _ 32\ &^ gthbjlib kfysfybc (La) itvl-ujv 14 tktvtync hbuj,hbdb yjvhbs 58-71 @kfysfyjblt,b# toj-lt,f\ &^ gthbjlib 14 tktvtynb= hbuj,hbdb yjvhbs 90-103= itfl-utyc @fmnbyjblt,bc# /ueac\

gthbjlek cbcntvfib dthnbrfkehfl ufykfut,ek tktvtyn-sf vorhbdt,c /ueat,b tojlt,f\ cbcntvfib hdf /ueabf\ sbsjtekb/ueab b'jaf jh mdt/ueafl| vsfdfh (fye F) lf sfyfeh (fye <)mdt/ueafl\ vsfdfh mdt/ueaib itlbc hjujhw vwbht= bct lblbgthbjlbc tktvtynt,b= [jkj sfyfeh mdt/ueaib v[jkjl lblbgthbjlbc tktvtynt,b\ fvfcsfyfdt= vsfdfhb lf sfyfehb mdt/ueabctktvtynt,b sfdbfysb mbvbehb sdbct,t,bs vybidytkjdyfl ufyc[dfd-lt,f thsvfytsbcufy\ fct vfufkbsfl= &^^ /ueabc vsfdfhb mdt/ue-abc tktvtynt,b fhfkbsjyt,bf| F, Cl, Br, I, [jkj sfyfehb mdt/ue-abc tktvtynt,b rb kbsjyt,b| Mn, Tc, Re\

gthbjlek cbcntvfib tktvtynsf sdbct,t,bc wdkbkt,f [lt,fjhb vbvfhsekt,bs _ vfhw[yblfy vfh/dybd ̂ -lfy &^^ /ueabcfrty+nbgehb kbsjyt,b sfdvj'hbkbf gthbjlekb cbcntvbc vfhw[tyf

18 19

yfobkib+ nbgehb fhfkbsjyt,b rb rblehf /ueat,ib= vfh/dybd+ ief/ueat,ib vjsfdct,ekbf ufhlfvfdfkb nbgbc tktvtynt,b\

'jdtkb gthbjlb bo't,f nbgehb kbsjybs\ vjvltdyj tkt-vtynt,ib kbsjyehb sdbct,t,b cecnlt,f lf .kbthlt,f fhfkb-sjyehb sdbct,t,b\ rfyjypjvbthfl bwdkt,f fv gthbjlt,ib tkt-vtynsf yfthst,bc sdbct,t,bw= rth.jl= ae.bc sdbct,t,blfy fvaj-nthek lf fmtlfy v;fdeh sdbct,t,pt uflfcdkbs\

tktvtynsf sdbct,t,b bwdkt,f fuhtsdt vtjht vbvfhsekt,bs|dthnbrfkehfl sbsjtekb mdt/ueabc afhukt,ib\ mdt/ueat,ibtktvtynsf fnjvehb vfcbc phlbc gfhfktkehfl ptdblfy mdtdbs.kbthlt,f kbsjyehb sdbct,t,b lf cecnlt,f fhfkbsjyehb sdb-ct,t,b\ vfufkbsfl= ^ /ueabc vsfdfh mdt/ueaib kbsjyehb sdb-ct,t,b 'dtkfpt eahj .kbthfl fmdc ufvj[fnekb ahfywbevc (Fr)='dtkfpt cecnfl kbsbevc (Li)\ &^^ /ueabc vsfdfh mdt/ueaib=bctdt= hjujhw c[df mdt/ueat,ib= ptdblfy mdtdbs fhfkbsjyehbsdbct,t,b cecnlt,f= 'dtkfpt fmnbehb fhfkbsjybf asjhb (F)lf 'dtkfpt cecnb _ bjlb (I)\

tktvtynsf gthbjlekj,bc rfyjybc vybidytkj,f

vtyltkttdbc tktvtynsf gthbjlekj,bc rfyjyc lblb vybid-ytkj,f fmdc\ vfy lfcf,fvb vbcwf sfyfvtlhjdt mbvbfc= vnrbwt otc-hbub itbnfyf mbvbehb tktvtynt,bc cbcntvfnbrfib lf gbhdtkflufvjfhrdbf vfs ijhbc fhct,ekb cfthsj rfyjypjvbthb rfdibhb\

tktvtynsf gthbjlekj,bc rfyjybc lf[vfht,bs it.kj vty-ltkttdvf bv lhjbcfsdbc /th rbltd ewyj,b tktvtynt,bcfsdbcsfdbceafkb e/ht,bc lfnjdt,f (yjvhbs 21= 31 lf 32) lf vfsb sdb-ct,t,bc obyfcofhvtn'dtkt,f\ vtyltkttdvf fv tktvtynt,c eojlftrf-,jhb= trf-fkevbyb lf trf-cbkbwbevb\ tc tktvtynt,b fqvj-xtybk bmyf .fkbfy vfkt= vtyltkttdbc cbwjw[ktibdt\ trf-,jhc

eojltc _ crfylbevb (Sc)= trf-fkevbyc _ ufkbevb (Ga)= [jkjtrf-cbkbwbevc _ uthvfybevb (Ge)\ fv tktvtynt,bc fqvjxtyf gt-hbjlekj,bc rfyjybc lblb ufvfh/dt,f b'j= dbyfblfy vtyltkttdbcvbth yfobyfcofhvtn'dtkb sdbct,t,b pecnfl lftvs[df tmcgt-hbvtynbs lflutybkc\

gthbjlekj,bc rfyjybc cfae.dtkpt uf[lf itcf.kt,tkbtktvtynsf fnjvehb vfct,bc lfpecnt,f\ vfyltkttdbc vbth itc-ojht,ekb bmyf 20 tktvtynbc fnjvehb vfcf= hbc itltuflfw fvtktvtynt,vf sfdbfysb flubkb lfbrfdtc gthbjlek cbcntvfib\

20 21

SFDB ^^^\FHFJHUFYEK YFTHSSF >BHBSFLB RKFCT<B

hsekb fhfjhufyekb ybdsbtht,t,b .bhbsflfl b'jaf js[rkfcfl\ tctybf| jmcblt,b= v;fdt,b= ae.tt,b lf vfhbkt,b\

jmcblt,b

jhb tktvtynbcfufy itvlufh yfthsc= hjvtksfufy ths-thsb;fyu,flbf lf hjvkbc ;fyudbc [fhbc[b (-2)-bc njkbf= jmcblbtojlt,f\ vfu\= CuO= Na2O, P2O5, Fe2O3, MgO, CO2, CaO, SO2, SO3

lf f\i\tktvtynsf ;fyu,flyfthst,bc ufycfresht,ek /ueac vbtresd-

yt,f kbsjysf gthjmcblt,b Na2O2, CaO2, K2O2, BaO2 lf f\i\ vfsufyb[bkfdty hjujhw o'fk,flbc gthjmcblbc H2O2-bc vfhbkt,c\gthjmcblt,ib ;fyu,flbc fnjvt,b mbvbehfl lfrfdibht,ekbf fhfvfhnj c[df tktvtynbc fnjvt,sfy= fhfvtl thsvfytssfyfw (ofh-vjmvybfy t\o\ gthjmcblek /ueac _O_O_)\ gthjmcblt,ib ;fyu,f-lbc ;fyudbsb [fhbc[b (-1)-bc njkbf\ vfu\, yfnhbevbc gthjmcblbNa_O_O_Na\

jmcblt,b jhudfhbf| vfhbkofhvjvmvytkb lf vfhbkfhofhvjvmv-ytkb\

vfhbkofhvjvmvytkb jmcblt,bf| N2O, NO, SiO\ bcbyb fhvjyfobktj,ty bcts mbvbeh htfmwbt,ib= hjvtksf itltufl ofh-vjbmvyt,f vfhbkt,b\ vfhbkofhvjvmvytkb jmcblt,b sfdbc v[hbdb'jaf cfv /ueafl| ae.t= v;fdf lf fvajnthek jmcblt,fl\

ae.t jmcblt,b tojlt,f bcts jmcblt,c= hjvtksfw ittcf,f-vt,f ae.tsf rkfcbc ]blhfnyfthst,b lf hjvtksf ehsbthsmvt-lt,bs v;fdt,sfy ofhvjbmvyt,f vfhbkb lf o'fkb\ ae.t jmcblt,cvbtresdyt,f kbsjysf jmcblt,b\ vfu\| CaO, Li2O, MgO, Na2O, FeOlf f\i\

v;fdf jmcblt,b tojlt,f bcts jmcblt,c= hjvtksfw ittcf,fvt,fv;fdfsf rkfcbc ]blhfnyfthst,b lf hjvtksf ehsbthsmvtlt,bsnentt,sfy ofhvjbmvyt,f vfhbkb lf o'fkb\ v;fdf jmcblt,c c[df-yfbhfl eojlt,ty v;fdfsf fy]blhblt,c (cbn'df @fy]blhblb# eo'-kjc ybiyfdc)\ v;fdf jmcblt,c ofhvjmvybc fhfkbsjyt,b lf wdfkt-,flb ;fyudbsb [fhbc[bc vmjyt kbsjyt,b= evfqktcb ;fyudbsb [f-hbc[bs\ vfu\= v;fdf jmcblt,bf| CO2, N2O5, SO2, SO3, P2O5, CrO3,Mn2O7 lf f\i\

fvajnthekb tojlt,f bcts jmcblt,c= hjvkt,bw gbhj,t,bcvb[tldbs fv;qfdyt,c hjujhw ae.t jmcblbc= bct v;fdf jmcblbc sdb-ct,t,c\ fvajnthekb jmcblt,bf vfu\| BeO, ZnO, Al|2O3, Cr2O3 lf f\i\

jmcblt,bc cf[tkojlt,t,b

tktvtynb= hjvtkbw fv;qfdyt,c velvbd ;fyudbs [fhbc[c= ofh-vjmvybc v[jkjl ths jmcblc= hjvtkcfw fv tktvtynbc jmcblbtojlt,f\ vfu\= Na2O _ yfnhbevbc jmcblb= CaO _ rfkwbevbc jm-cblb lf f\i\

se tktvtync f[fcbfst,c wdfkt,flb ;fyudbsb [fhbc[b lfofhvjmvybc hfvltybvt jmcblc= vfiby cf[tkojlt,bc itvltu hj-vfekb wbahbs ahx[bkt,ib vbtsbst,f tktvtynbc ;fyudbsb [f-hbc[b\ vfu\= FeO _ hrbyf (^^)-bc jmcblb= Fe2O3 _ hrbybc (^^^)-bcjmcblb\

ae.t jmcblt,b v'fhb= fhffmhjkflb yfthst,bf\ v;fdf jmcblt,bud[dlt,f cfvbdt fuhtufnek vlujvfhtj,fib| fbhflb _ CO2, SO2+s[tdflb _ Na2O3, Mn2O7+ v'fhb _ P2O5, SiO2\

22 23

jmcblt,bc vbqt,bc otct,b

jmcblt,b vbbqt,f|1\ itcf,fvbcb vfhnbdb ybdsbtht,bc ehsbthsmvtlt,bs ;fyu,flsfy|

CuO2OCu2 2

522 OP2O5P4

322 OAl2O3Al4 2\ hsekb ybdbstht,t,bc odbs ;fyu,flib|

22 SO2CuO2O3CuS2 OH2COO2CH 2224

22 SO2ZnO2O3ZnS2 3\ ;fyu,flitvwdtkb hsekb ybdsbtht,t,bc sthvekb lfikbs|

OHMgO)OH(Mg 22 OHSiOSiOH 2232

23 COCaOCaCO OH3OAl)OH(Al2 2323

ae.t jmcblt,bc mbvbehb sdbct,t,b

1\ ae.t jmcblt,blfy nent lf nenfvbof kbsjyt,bc jmcblt,behsbthsmvtlt,ty o'fksfy lf ofhvjmvybfy itcf,fvbc= o'fkib[cyfl ]blhjmcblt,c (nentt,c)|

NaOH2OHONa 22

22 )OH(Ca2OHCaO 2\ ae.t jmcblt,b ehsbthsmvtlt,ty v;fdt,sfy= hbc itltuf-

lfw ofhvjbmvyt,f vfhbkb lf o'fkb|OH)NO(CuHNO2CuO 2233

OHMgSOSOHMgO 2442 3\ ae.t jmcblt,b ehsbthsmvtlt,c v;fdf jmcblt,sfy vfhbkt-

,bc ofhvjmvybs|

32 CaCOCOCaO

3222 SiONaSiOONa

v;fdf jmcblt,bc mbvbehb sdbct,t,b

1\ v;fdf jmcblt,b (ufhlf SiO2-cf) ehsbthsmvtlt,ty o'fksfylf ofhvjmvybfy itcf,fvbc v;fdt,c|

3252 HNO2OHON

4223 SOHOHSO

3252 HPO2OHOP

2\ v;fdf jmcblt,b ehsbthsmvtlt,ty nentt,sfy= hbc itltuf-lfw ofhvjbmvyt,f fv v;fdehb jmcblbc itcf,fvbcb v;fdfc vfhbkblf o'fkb|

OHCaCO)OH(CaCO 2322 OHSiONaNaOH2SiO 2322

3\ v;fdf jmcblt,b ehsbthsmvtlt,ty ae.t jmcblt,sfy vfhb-kt,bc ofhvjmvybs|

4223 SONaONaSO

32 CaSiOCaOSiO

fvajnthekb jmcblt,bc mbvbehb sdbct,t,b

fvajnthekb jmcblt,b [fcbfslt,f hjujhw ae.t= bct v;fdfjmcblt,bc mbvbehb sdbct,t,bs\ gbhj,t,bc vb[tldbs= bcbyb itlbfyhtfmwbfib hjujhw v;fdfcsfy= bct nentcsfy lf jhbdt itvs[dt-dfib ofhvjmvybfy vfhbkcf lf o'fkc\ v;fdt,sfy ehsbthsmvtlt-,bcfc bcbyb fv;qfdyt,ty ae.t jmcblbc sdbct,t,c|

OHZnSOSOHZnO 2442

OH3AlCl2HCl6OAl 2332

24 25

nentt,sfy ehsbthsmvtlt,bcfc bcbyb fv;qfdyt,ty v;fdfjmcblbc sdbct,f|

OHZnONaNaOH2ZnO 222 wbyrfnb yfnhbevbc

fitkqj,

yrfnb]blhjmcbwb ntnhf bc-

[cyfhib

Na422 )OH(ZnNaOHNaOH2ZnO

OHNaAlO2NaOH2OAl 2Na

232 fnbvtnffkevby bc-

fkevbyfnb ]blhjmcb ntnhf bc-Na

4232 )OH(AlNa2OH3NaOH2OAl

fkevbyfnb f]blhjmcblbfrdfntnh bc-Na

224232 )OH()OH(AlNa2OH7NaOH2OAl

jmcblt,bc uhfabrekb ajhvekt,b

Na2O CaO Al2O3 SO3

ONaNa\

/ Ca = O

O

O

O

\\/

Al

\//

Al

O

O||S||O

P2O5 O

O

\\//

POP//\\

O

O__

v;fdt,b

v;fdf tojlt,f bcts hsek ybdsbtht,fc= hjvkbc vjktrekfitlut,f kbsjybc fnjvbs xfyfwdkt,bc eyfhbc vmjyt o'fk,flbcfnjvbcf lf v;fdfc yfisbcufy\ v;fdfc yfisb tojlt,f v;fdfibo'fk,flbc fnjvt,sfy ,vek fnjvc fy fnjvsf /ueac\ vfc fmdcefh'jabsb ;fyudbsb [fhbc[b lf bub njkbf o'fk,flbc fnjvsfhbw[dbcf\

itlutybkj,bc vb[tldbs fhxtdty ;fyu,flbfy lf e;fyu,fljv;fdt,c\ e;fyu,flj v;fdt,bf| HF, HCl, HBr, HI, H2S lf f\i\ ;fyu,flbfybv;fdt,bf| H2CO3, HNO3, H3PO4, H2SO4 lf f\i\

v;fdt,c ufyfc[dfdt,ty fuhtsdt ae.bfyj,bc lf cb.kbthbcvb[tldbs\

xdtekt,hbd gbhj,t,ib v;fdt,b fy cbs[tf (H2SO4, HNO3, HBrlf f\i\)= fy v'fhb ybdsbtht,f (H3PO4, H2SiO3, H3BO3).

v;fdt,bc cf[tkojlt,f

;fyu,flbfyb v;fdt,bc cf[tkojlt,f bofhvjt,f fhfkbsjybc cf-[tkojlt,bcfufy cbn'df o'fk,flbc lfvfnt,bs| HF _ asjho'fk-,flv;fdf= fye vkqj,b v;fdf+ HCl _ mkjho'fk,flv;fdf= fye vfhbk-v;fdf+ HBr _ ,hjvo'fk,flv;fdf+ HI _ bjlo'fk,flv;fdf+ H2S _ujubhlo'fk,flv;fdf\

;fyu,flbfyb v;fdfc cf[tkojlt,f ofhvjlut,f v;fdfc ofhvjvmv-ytkb tktvtynbc cf[tkojlt,bcfufy= vfu\= H2CO3 _ yf[ibhv;fdf\vfuhfv se tktvtynb thsb lf bubdt ;fyudbc [fhbc[bs ofhvjmvybchfvltybvt ;fyu,flbfy v;fdfc= hjvkt,bw thsvfytsbcufy o'fk,flbcflf ;fyu,flbc fnjvsf hbw[dbs ufyc[dfdlt,f= vfiby ;fyu,flbc lfo'fk,flbc fnjvbc yfrkt,b hbw[dbc itvwdtkb v;fdfc cf[tkoj-lt,fc tvfnt,f ghtabmcb @vtnf#+ vtnb hb[wdbc itvwdtkc _ @jh-sj#\ vfu\| HPO3 _ vtnfajcajhv;fdf lf H3PO4 _ jhsjajc-

26 27

ajhv;fdf+ H2SiO3 _ vtnfcbkbwbevv;fdf lf H4SiO4 _ jhsjcbkb-wbevv;fdf\

se thsb lf bubdt tktvtynb ofhvjmvybc jh v;fdfc c[dflfc[df;fyudbsb [fhbc[bs= vfiby bv v;fdfc= hjvtkibw v;fdfc ofhvjvmv-ytkb tktvtynbc ;fyudbsb [fhbc[b lf,fkbf= tktvtynbc cf[tk-ojlt,fc tvfnt,f ceabmcb @jdfyb#= [jkj bv v;fdfc= cflfw tktvty-nbc ;fyudbsb [fhbc[b vfqfkbf= tktvtynbc cf[tkojlt,fc tvfnt-,f cbn'df v;fdf\ vfu\|

2

3ONH

_ fpjnjdfyb v;fdf=

3

5ONH

_ fpjnv;fdf\

3

4

2 OSH

_ ujubhljdfyb v;fdf= 4

6

2 OSH

_ ujubhlv;fdf\

v;fdt,bc vbqt,bc [th[t,b

e;fyu,flj v;fdt,b vbbqt,f|1\ itcf,fvbcb vfhnbdb ybdsbtht,t,bc eiefkj itthst,bs= fye

cbystpbs= lf vbqt,ekb ghjlemnbc o'fkib uf[cybs|HCl2ClH 22 SHSH 22

2\ itcf,fvbc vfhbkpt .kbthb fy yfrkt,fl fmhjkflb v;fdfcvjmvtlt,bs|

HCl2SONaSOHNaCl2 4242 SHFeClHCl2FeS 22

;fyu,flbfyb v;fdt,b vbbqt,f|1\ itcf,fvbcb jmcblbc= fye itcf,fvbcb fy]blhblbc= o'fksfy

ehsbthsmvtlt,bs|

3252 HNO2OHON

4223 SOHOHSO

2\ itcf,fvbc vfhbkpt .kbthb fy yfrkt,fl fmhjkflb v;fdfcvjmvtlt,bs|

34423 HNONaHSOSOHNaNO

3232 SiOHNaCl2HCl2SiONa

v;fdt,bc mbvbehb sdbct,t,b

1\ v;fdt,b ehsbthsmvtlt,c kbsjyt,sfy\ kbsjyt,bc cnfylfh-nek tktmnhjlek gjntywbfksf hbuib o'fk,flbc vfhw[ybd vj-sfdct,ekb kbsjyt,b ufypfdt,ekb v;fdt,blfy (ufhlf HNO3-cf)f.tdt,c o'fk,flc\ vfu\|

22 HZnClZnHCl2 2442 HMgSOMgSOH

fv htfmwbfib o'fk,flbc bjyt,b fqlut,f lf lfv;fyufdt,bf\ v;f-dt,blfy o'fk,flc dth f.tdt,c cnfylfhnekb tktmnhjlekb gj-ntywbfkt,bc hbuib o'fk,flbc vfh/dybd vlujvb kbsjyb\ o'fk,f-lb fh ufvjb'jaf kbsjyt,bc ufypfdt,ek lf rjywtynhbht,ek fpjn-v;fdfcsfy lf rjywtynhbht,ek ujubhlv;fdfcsfy ehsbthsmvtlt-,bc lhjcfw\ fv itvs[dtdfib fqlut,f fpjnb N+5 lf ujubhlb S+6.

OH2NO2)NO(CuHNO4Cu 22233 \rjyw

OH4NO2)NO(Cu3HNO8Cu3 2233 \ufyp

OH2SOCuSOSOH2Cu 22442 \rjyw

OH4SCaSO3SOH4Ca 2442 \rjyw

2\ v;fdt,b ehsbthsmvtlt,c kbsjysf jmcblt,sfy= hbc itlt-uflfw ofhvjbmvyt,f vfhbkb lf o'fkb|

OH)NO(MgMgOHNO2 2233 OH3)SO(FeOFe2SOH3 23423242

28 29

3\ v;fdt,b itlbc htfmwbfib ae.tt,sfy vfhbkbcf lf o'kbcofhvjmvybs (ytbnhfkbpfwbbc htfmwbf)|

OH2MgCl)OH(MgHCl2 222 OH2SONaNaOH2SOH 24242

4\ v;fdt,b esbthsmvtlt,ty vfhbkt,sfy bv itvs[dtdfib= se ht-fmwbbc itltufl vbbqt,f fmhjkflb fy e[cyflb v;fdf= fy e[cyflbvfhbkb|

HCl2SONaNaCl2SOH 4242

32423242 SiOHSOKSiOKSOH 5\ pjubthsb v;fdf fhfvluhflbf lf fldbkfl bikt,f\ pjub

bikt,f uf[eht,bs|

2232 COOHCOH

22Ct

32 SiOOHSiOH0

6\ v;fdf vjmvtlt,c bylbrfnjhpt| kfrvecbc keh/ [cyfhc fy

mfqfklc fobskt,c= atyjkanfktbybc eathj [cyfhc athc fhewdkbc= vtsbkyfhby/c fdfhlbcaht,c\

v;fdt,bc ae.byj,f

v;fdt,bc ae.bfyj,f ufybcfpqdht,f o'fk,fl fnjvt,bc hbw[-dbs= hjvtksfw eyfhb fmds= xfbyfwdkjy kbsjybc fnjvt,bs\ uf-yfc[dfdt,ty thsae.bfy= jhae.bfy lf f\i\ v;fdt,c\ vfu\| thsae.bfybv;fdt,bf _ HCl, HBr, HNO3 lf f\i\ jhae.bfybf _ H2SO3, H2CO3,H2SO4 lf f\i\ cfvae.bfyb v;fdt,bf _ H3PO4, H3AsO4 lf f\i\

H3PO3 _ jhsjajcajhjdfyb v;fdf vfhsfkbf cfv o'fk,flcitbwfdc= vfuhfv jhae.bfybf= dbyfblfy kbsjybc fnjvbs xfyfwdkt-,bc eyfhb v[jkjl jh o'fk,flc fmdc|

HO

HO

\/

PO..H _

_

v;fdt,bc uhfabrekb ajhvekt,b

H2CO3 H2SO4 H3PO4

OCOHOH

/\

_

_

OO

SOHOH //

\\/\

_

_OP

/

\

OHOHOH

_

_

_

_

ae.tt,b

ae.t tojlt,f hsek ybdsbtht,fc= hjvkbc vjktrekf itlut,fkbsjybc thsb fnjvbcf lf vfcsfy lfrfdibht,ekb thsb fyhfvltybvt ]blhjmcbkbc (OH) /ueabcufy\ vfu\= ae.tt,bf Cu(OH)2,KOH, Ca(OH)2, Fe(OH)3 lf c[df\

fhct,j,c o'fkib [cyflb lf o'fkib e[cyflb ae.tt,b\ o'fkib[cyfl ae.tc nent tojlt,f\ nentt,c ofhvjmvybc gthbjlekcbcntvbc ^ lf ^^ /ueabc vsfdfhb mdt/ueabc kbsjyt,b= Be lfMg-bc ufhlf\

ae.tt,bcsdbc lfvf[fcbfst,tkbf v;fdehj,f= hjvtkbw ufyb-cfpqdht,f vbc vjktrekfib itvfdfkb ]blhjmcbkbc /ueabc hfj-ltyj,bs\ vfu\= thsv;fdehb ae.tt,bf NaOH, KOH= jhv;fdehbfCa(OH)2, Ba(OH)2 lf f\i\

ae.tt,b c[dflfc[df itathbkj,bc vmjyt v'fhb ybdsbtht,t,bf\vfu\| Ca(OH)2, Zn(OH)2, NaOH _ stshbf= Cu(OH)2 _ wbcathb=Fe(OH)3 _ vehf obstkb lf f\i\

ae.tt,bc cf[tkojlt,f bofhvjt,f kbsjybc cf[tkojlt,bcflf cbn'df ]blhjmcblbcfufy\ vfu\| Ca(OH)2 _ rfkwbevbc ]blhj-mcblb= Mg(OH)2 _ vfuybevbc ]blhjmcblb\ se kbsjyb ofhvjmvybchfvltybvt ae.tc= vfiby cf[tkojlt,fib esbst,ty kbsjybc ;fyu-dbc [fhbc[c\ vfu\| Fe(OH)2 _ hrbyf (^^)-bc ]blhjmcblb= Fe(OH)3

_ hrbyf (^^^)-bc ]blhjmcblb\

30 31

pjubthsb ae.bcsdbc ufvjb'tyt,f c[df cf[tkojlt,fw\ vfu\|NaOH _ yfnhbevbc nent= vodfyt yfnhb (ntmybrehb cf[tk-ojlt,ff rfecnbrehb cjlf)= Ca(OH)2 xfvmhfkb rbhb= NH4OH _fvjybevbc nent (ybiflehbc cgbhnb)\

ae.tt,bc vbqt,bc [th[t,b

1\ nentt,b vbbqt,f itcf,fvbcb kbsjyt,bc o'fksfy ehsb-thsmvtlt,bs|

22 HNaOH2OH2Na2

222 H)OH(CaOH2Ca 2\ itcf,fvbc kbsjysf jmcblt,bc o'fksfy ehsbthsmvtlt,bs|

KOH2OHOK 22

22 )OH(BaOHBaO 3\ o'fkib [cyflb ae.tt,b vbbqt,f itcf,fvbcb vfhbkbc o'fk-

[cyfhpt nenbc vjmvtlt,bs|

4224 SONa)OH(MgNaOH2MgSO

NaCl3)OH(FeNaOH3FeCl 33 fv [th[bs vbbqt,f nentw|

NaOH2CaCO)OH(CaCONa 3232

ae.tt,bc mbvbehb sdbct,t,b

1\ 'dtkf ae.t ehsbthsmvtlt,c v;fdfcsfy= hbc itltuflfw ofh-vj bmvyt , f vf hbk b l f o' f k b (ytbnhfkbpfwbbc htfmwbf)|

OH2FeClHCl2)OH(Fe 222

OHKNOHNOKOH 233

2\ nentt,b ehsbthsmvtlt,c vfhbkt,sfy|

4224 SONa)OH(CuCuSONaOH2 4224 SOK)OH(ZnZnSOKOH2

3\ nentt,b ehsbthsmvtlt,c v;fdf jmcblt,sfy|

OHCaSiOSiO)OH(Ca 2322

OHBaSOSO)OH(Ba 2432 4\ o'fkib e[cyflb ae.t uf[eht,bs bikt,f|

OH3OFe)OH(Fe2 232t

30

OHCuO)OH(Cu 2t

20

5\ nentt,b ehsbthsmvtlt,c bv kbsjyt,sfy= hjvtksfitcf,fvbcb jmcblt,b lf ]blhjmcblt,b fvajnthekbf|

222 HZnONaZnNaOH2

2422 H)OH(ZnNaOH2ZnNaOH2

222 H3KAlO2OH2Al2KOH2

22242 H3)OH()OH(AlK2OH10Al2KOH2ae.t athc ewdkbc bylbrfnjhc| kfrvecbc mfqfklc fy [cyfhc

fkeh/t,c= atyjkanfktbybc eathj [cyfhc ;jkjcahfl qt,fdc=vtsbkyfhby/c f'dbskt,c\

fvajnthekb ]blhjmcblt,b

fvajnthekb tojlt,f ]blhjmcblc= hjvtkbw fv;qfdyt,chjujhw ae.bc= bct v;fdfc sdbct,t,c\ fvajnthekb ]blhjmcb-lt,bf= vfu\| Zn(OH)2. Al(OH)3, Be(OH)2, Cr(OH)3 lf f\i\ bcbybo'fkib e[cyflb ae.tt,bf lf vbbqt,bfy itcf,fvbcb vfhbkbco'fk[cyfhpt nenbc vjmvtlt,bs|

4224 SONa)OH(BeNaOH2BeSO

NaCl3)OH(AlNaOH3AlCl 33

32 33

fvajnthekb ]blhjmcblb ae.bc sdbct,fc fv;qfdyt,c v;fdt,-sfy ehsbthsmvtlt,bcfc|

OH2BeClHCl2)OH(Be 222

OH6)SO(AlSOH3)OH(Al2 2342423 fvajnthekb ]blhjmcblb v;fdfc sdbct,fc fv;qfdyt,c ne-

ntt,sfy ehsbthsmvtlt,bcfc|

OH2BeONaNaOH2)OH(Be 2222 thbkfnb, yfnhbevbc

bsitkqj,

thbkfnbmcb,ntnhf]blhj yfnhbevbc

[cyfhib422 )OH(BeNaNaOH2)OH(Be

OH2KAlOKOH)OH(Al 2K

23 fnbvtnffkevby bc-

bsitkqj,

nbmcbfkevbyfntnhf]blhj bc-

[cyfhib

K43 )OH(AlKKOH)OH(Al

ae.tt,bc uhfabrekb ajhvekt,b

Na OH Ca(OH)2 Fe(OH)3

Na _ O _ HHO

HO

\/

Ca_

_

HOHOHO

\

/Fe

_

_

_

_

vfhbkt,b

vfhbkt,b tojlt,f hsek ybdsbtht,t,c= hjvtksf vjktre-kt,b itlut,f kbsjybc fnjvbcf lf v;fdfc yfisbcfufy\

itlutybkj,bc vb[tldbs fhxtdty| cfiefkj= fye yjhvfkehvfhbkt,c= v;fdf= ae.t= jhvfu= ithtek lf rjvgktmceh vfhbkt,c\

se v;fdfc vjktrekfib xfyfwdkt,bc eyfhbc vmjyt o'fk,flbc'dtkf fnjvb xfyfwdkt,ekbf kbsjybc fnjvt,bs= fcts vfhbkc

cfiefkj= fye yjhvfkehb tojlt,f\ cfiefkj vfhbkt,bf= vfu\|Na2SO4, K2CO3, Ca3(PO4)2 lf f\i\

v;fdf vfhbkt,bc ufypfdt,ekb [cyfht,b ufhlf kbsjyt,bcf lfv;fdehb yfisbc bjyt,bcf= itbwfdc fuhtsdt o'fk,flbc bjyt,cfw\vfufkbsfl= v;fdf vfhbkt,bf| KHCO3, NaHSO4, NaH2PO4, CaHPO4

lf c[df\thsae.bfyb v;fdf dth ofhvjmvybc v;fdf vfhbkt,c\ae.t vfhbkt,b bctsb vfhbkt,bf= hjvtksf o'fk[cyfht,b

kbsjybc bjyt,bcf lf v;fdehb yfisbc ufhlf itbwfdc ]blhjmcblbjyt,c\ ae.t vfhbkt,bf| CaOHCl, AlOHSO4, MgOHNO3 lf c[df\

thsv;fdehb ae.tt,b ae.t vfhbkt,c dth ofhvjmvybc\se vfhbkb itlut,f ths v;fdeh yfissfy lfrfdibht,ekb jhb

c[dflfc[df kbsjybc rfsbjybcfufy= vfc jhvfuc eojlt,ty\ vfu\|KAl(SO4)2, KClMgCl2, KaNaSO4 lf c[df\

hjltcfw vfhbkb itbwfdc ths rfsbjysfy lfrfdibht,ek jhbc[dflfc[df v;fdfc fybjyc _ vfc ithtekb tojlt,f\ vfu\| CaClNO3,AlClSO4 lf f\i\

bcts vfhbkt,c= hjvkbc itvflutykj,fib itlbc rjvgktmcehbbjyt,b= rjvgktmcehb tojlt,f\ vfu\| K3[Fe(CN)6], K4[Fe(CN)6],[Ag(NH3)2]Cl lf c[df\

vfhbkt,bc cf[tkojlt,t,b

cfiefkj vfhbkt,bc cf[tkojlt,f ofhvjlut,f v;fdfc cf[tk-ojlt,blfy= hjvtkcfw tvfnt,f kbsjybc lfcf[tkt,f\ vfu\| Na2CO3

_ yf[ibhv;fdf yfnhbevb= K2SO4 _ ujubhlv;fdf rfkbevb lf f\i\e;fyu,flj v;fdt,bc vfhbkt,bc cf[tkojlt,f ofhvjlut,f fhf-

kbsjyt,bc cf[tkojlt,blfy= hjvtkcfw tvfnt,f ceabmcb @jdfyb# lfkbsjybc cf[tkojlt,f\ vfu\| K2SO4 _ ujubhlv;fdf rfkbevb lf f\i\

eahj vtnfl ufdhwtkt,ekbf vfhbkt,bc cfthsfijhbcj cf-[tkojlt,t,b\ bub ofhvjlut,f kbsjybc cf[tkojlt,bcf lf v;fdfc

34 35

yfisbc kfsbyehb cf[tkojlt,blfy\ gbhdtkfl fcf[tkt,ty kb-sjyc= [jkj itvltu v;fdfc yfisc\ e;fyu,flj v;fdfsf vfhbkt,bcitvs[dtdfib fhfkbsjybc cf[tkojlt,fc tvfnt,f ceabmcb @lb#\vfu\| NaCl _ yfnhbevbc mkjhblb\

bv ;fyu,flbfyb v;fdt,bc vfhbkt,bc cf[tkojlt,fc= hjvkt,bwofhvjmvybkbf thsb lf bvfdt tktvtynbcfufy c[dflfc[df ;fyudbsbhbw[dbs= lf,fkb ;fyudbsb hbw[dbc vmjyt fhfkbsjybc itvwdtkv;fdfc vfhbkbc cf[tkojlt,fc tvfnt,f ceabmcb @bnb#= [jkj vf-qfkb ;fyudbsb hbw[dbc itvwdtk v;fdfc vfhbkt,bc cf[tkojlt,fclf,jkjt,f @fnb#\ vfu\|NaNO2 _ yfnhbevbc ybnhbnb= NaNO3 _yfnhbevbc ybnhfnb\

se kbsjyb fv;qfdyt,c lf;fyuekj,bc c[dflfc[df [fhbc[c=vfiby fv erfyfcrytkc vbesbst,ty ahx[bkt,ib hjvfekb wbahbs\vfu\| FeSO4 _ hrbybc (^^) cekafnb= Fe2(SO4)3 _ hrbybc (^^^) cekafnb\

v;fdf vfhbkbc cf[tkojlt,f ofhvjlut,f itcf,fvbcb cfiefkjvfhbkbc cf[tkojlt,bcfufy cbn'df @]blhj#-c lfvfnt,bs\ vfu\|NaHCO3 _ yfnhbevbc ]blhjrfh,jyfnb= NaH2PO4 _ yfnhbevbclb]blhjajcafnb\

ae.t vfhbkt,bc cf[tkojlt,f bofhvjt,f fctdt cfiefkj vf-hbkbc cf[tkojlt,blfy lfvfnt,ekb cbn'df @]blhjmcbc# lfvf-nt,bs\ vfu\| AlOHSO4 _ fkevbybc cekafn ]blhjmcblb= Al(OH)2Cl_ fkevbybc mkjhbl lb]blhjmcblb\

vfhbkt,bc vbqt,bc [th[t,b

vfhbkt,b vbbqt,f|1\ v;fdfc vjmvtlt,bs fmnbeh kbsjyt,sfy|

2442 HZnSOZnSOH

23 H3AlCl2Al2HCl6

2\ v;fdt,bc ehsbthsmvtlt,bs ae.t jmcblt,sfy|

OH)NO(CuCuOHNO2 2233

OHSOKOKSOH 242242 3\ v;fdt,bc ehsbthsmvtlt,bs ae.tt,sfy|

OHNaClNaOHHCl 2

OH2CuSO)OH(CuSOH 24242 4\ v;fdt,bc ehsbthmvtlt,bs vfhbkt,sfy|

2223 COOHCaClCaCOHCl2

32423242 SiOHSONaSiONaSOH 5\ nentt,bc ehsbthsmvtlt,bs v;fdf jmcblt,sfy|

OHCONaCONaOH2 2322

OHCaSOSO)OH(Ca 2432 6\ ae.t lf v;fdf jmcblbc ehsbthsmvtlt,bs|

32 CaSiOSiOCaO

3222 SiONaSiOONa 7\ kbsjybc ehsbthsmvtlt,bs vfhbksfy|

CuFeSOCuSOFe 44

Hg)NO(Zn)NO(HgZn 2323 8\ kbsjybc ehsbthsmvtlt,bs fhfkbsjysfy|

FeSSFe

22 CuClClCu 9\ vfhbkt,bc ehsbthsmvtlt,bs|

33 NaNOAgClNaClAgNO

NaCl2BaSOBaClSONa 4242 10\ nenbc ehsbthsmvtlt,bs fvajnthek kbsjyt,sfy|

222 HZnONaZnNaOH2

222 H3NaAlO2OH2Al2NaOH2

36 37

11\ pjubthsb v'fhb v;fdf jmcblbc itkqj,bs vfhbkt,sfy= cfblfyfwbcbyb f.tdt,ty fmhjkfl v;fdf jmcblt,c|

2332 COCaSiOCaCOSiO

23322 COCaSiOCONaSiO 12\ nentt,bc ehsbthsmvtlt,bs vfhbkt,sfy|

4224 SONa)OH(CuCuSONaOH2

KCl)OH(MgMgClKOH2 22 13\ fvbfrbcf lf v;fdt,bc ehsbthsmvtlt,bs vbbqt,f fvjybevbc vfhb-kt,b|

ClNHHClNH 43

vfhbkt,bc abpbrehb sdbct,t,b

vfhbkt,b v'fhb= rhbcnfkehb ybdsbtht,t,bf\ o'fkib [cyf-lj,bc vb[tldbs bcbyb itb.kt,f lfd'js [cyfl= vwbhtl [cyfl lfghfmnbrekfl e[cyfl vfhbkt,fl\

o'fkib rfhufl b[cyt,f fpjnv;fdfc lf .vfhv;fdfc vfhbkt,b=vfhbkv;fdfc vfhbkt,b ufhlf AgCl-cf lf Hg2Cl2 -cf\ nent vfhb-kt,bcf lf fvjybevbc vfhbkt,b 'dtkf [cyflbf\

vfhbkt,bc mbvbehb sdbct,t,b

vfhbkt,bcfsdbc 'dtkfpt lfvf[fcbfst,tkbf jbyehb vbvjwd-kbc htfmwbt,b sdbs vfhbkt,sfy= ae.tt,sfy lf v;fdt,sfy\ tc vb-vjwdkbc htfmwbt,b ,jkjvlt vblbc bv itvs[dtdfib= hjwf htfm-wbbc ths-thsb ghjlemnb ufvjb'jaf yfktmbc= fbhflb ybdsbt-ht,bc fy vwbhtl lbcjwbht,flb ybdsbtht,bc cf[bs\

1\ vfhbkb lf v;fdf|

HCl2BaSOSOHBaCl 4422

2232 COOHNaCl2HCl2CONa2\ vfhbkb lf nent|

22 )OH(CuKCl2KOH2CuCl

33 )OH(FeNaCl3NaOH3FeCl3\ vfhbkb lf vfhbkb|

33 NaNOAgClNaClAgNO

NaCl2CaCOCONaCaCl 3322 4\ vfhbkb itlbfc htfmwbt,ib kbsjysfy\ cnfylfhnekb tktmn-hjlekb gjntywbfkt,bc hbuib 'jdtkb obyfvlujvb kbsjyb f.t-dt,c itvlujvc vfhbksf [cyfht,blfy\

Hg)NO(Zn)NO(HgZn 2323

CuFeSOCuSOFe 44 5\ vfhbkt,b uf[eht,bs bikt,f|

23 COCaOCaCO

2223 ONO4PbO2)NO(Pb2 6\ vfhbkt,b ehsbthsmvtlt,ty o'fksfy lf ofhvjmvybfy rhbc-nfk]blhfnt,c|

bfvfybif,OH5CuSOOH5CuSO 2424

fibhbsf,OH2CaSOOH2CaSO 2424

38 39

vfhbkt,bc uhfabrekb ajhvekt,b

Na2SO4 K2CO3 Al2(SO4)3

O

O

\\//

S/ONa\ONa

_

_ OC

/OK\OK

_

_

O\\O//

S

O\\O//

S

O\\O//

S

/O\\O/O/

Al

\O\/O\O/

Al

_

_

ytbnhfkbpfwbbc htfmwbf

ae.tcf lf v;fdfc ijhbc htfmwbfc= hjvkbc itltuflfw vbb-qt,f ytbnhfkehb ghjlemnt,b _ o'fkb lf vfhbkb= ytbnhf-kbpfwbbc htfmwbf tojlt,f\

ytbnhfkbpfwbbc htfmwbbc fhcb vlujvfhtj,c bvfib= hjvv;fdfc o'fk,fl bjyb _ H+ ethslt,f ae.bc ]blhjmcbl bjyc _ (OH)_=hbc itltuflfw ofhvjbmvyt,f ytbnhfkehb ghjlemnb o'fkb|

OHOHH 2

fv ufynjkt,fc tojlt,f ytbnhfkbpfwbbc itvjrkt,ekb bjye-hb ufynjkt,f= cflfw o'fk,fl bjybc (H+) mdti buekbc[vt,f 'dtkfv;fdf= OH_

-bjybc mdti _ 'dtkf ae.t\ytbnhfkbpfwbbc htfmwbf jhudfhbf _ chekb lf fhfchekb\chekb ytbnhfkbpfwbbc fewbkt,tkb gbhj,ff o'fk,fl

bjyt,bc hbw[db njkb b'jc ae.bc ]blhjmcbl bjyt,bcf (H+ =OH_)\ chekb ytbnhfkbpfwbbc itltufl ofhvjbmvyt,f cfiefkj=fye yjhvfkehb vfhbkt,b\

OHNaClHClNaOH 2OH2CaSOSOH)OH(Ca 24422

fhfchek ytbnhfkbpfwbfc vfiby fmdc flubkb= hjltcfw v;fdfco'fk,fl bjyt,bc (H+) hbw[db njkb fh fhbc ae.bc ]blhjmcblbj yt , bcf (OH_)= t\b\ H OH \ fhfchekb ytbnhfkbpfwbbc it-ltufl vbbqt,f v;fdf fy ae.t vfhbkb\ v;fdf vfhbkt,b ofhvjbmvyt,fvfiby= hjwf H+ > OH_\ vfu\|

4242 NaHSOOHSOHNaOH

42432 CaHPOOH2POH)OH(Ca v;fdf vfhbkt,b vbbqt,f vfhbkpt itcf,fvbcb v;fdfc vjmvt-

lt,bs|

23223 )HCO(CaCOOHCaCO

44242 KHSO2SOHSOK hjwf OH_ >H+= vfiby ofhvjbmvyt,f ae.t vfhbkb|

CaOHClOHHCl)OH(Ca 22

42423 AlOHSOOH2SOH)OH(Al ae.t vfhbkt,b vbbqt,f fuhtsdt vfhbkpt itcf,fvbcb ae.bc

vjmvtlt,bs|

422 CuOHSO2)OH(CuCuCl

3223 CaOHNO2)OH(Ca)NO(Ca

v;fdf lf ae.t vfhbkt,bc uflf'dfyfcfiefkj vfhbkt,ib

bvbcfsdbc= hjv v;fdf vfhbkb uflfdb'dfyjs cfiefkj fye yjh-vfkeh vfhbkib= cfzbhjf vfcpt dbvjmvtljs itcf,fvbcb ae.bs|

4224 SONaOHNaOHNaHSO OH2CaCO2)OH(Ca)HCO(Ca 23223

ae.t vfhbkbc cfiefkj vfhbkib uflfcf'dfyfl cfzbhjf vfcptdbvjmvtljs itcf,fvbcb v;fdbs|

22 CaClOHHClCaOHCl

3422424 )SO(AlOH2SOHAlOHSO2

40 41

v;fdf lf ae.t vfhbkt,bc uhfabrekb ajhvekt,b

NaHSO4 Ca(HCO3)2Na-bc ]blhjcekafnb Ca-bc ]blhjrfh,jyfnb

O\\O//

S/OH\ONa

_

_

OC

OC

/OH\O/O

Ca

\OH

_

_

Ca(H2PO4)2 CaOHClCa-bc lb]blhjajcafnb Ca-bc ]blhjmcbmkjhblb

/OHOPOH

\O/O

Ca

OPOH\OH

_

__

__

_

Cl\OH/

Ca

AlOHSO4 Cu2(OH)2CO3Na-bc ]blhjmcbcekafnb Cu-bc ae.t rfh,jyfnb

O\\O//

S/O\O

AlHO _ OC

HO\/O/

Cu

\O\HO/

Cu

_

_

v;fdt,b= vfsb fy]blhblt,b lf fybjyt,b

v;fdfcajhvekf

HFHClHBrHI

H2S

H2CO3

H2SiO3HNO3HNO2HPO3

H4P2O7

H3PO4

H2SO4

H2SO3H2CrO4H2Cr2O7

HClOHClO2HClO3HClO4

v;fdfccf[tkojlt,f

anjho'fk,flv;fdfmkjho'fk,flv;fdf,hjvo'fk,flv;fdfbjlo'fk,flv;fdfujubhlo'fk,flv;fdf

yf[ibhv;fdf

cbkbwbevv;fdffpjnv;fdffpjnjdfyb v;fdfvtnfajcajhv;fdfgbhjajcajhv;fdf

jhsjajcajhv;fdf

ujubhlv;fdf

ujubhljdfyb v;fdfmhjvv;fdf,bmhjvv;fdfmdtmkjhjdfyb v;fdfmkjhjdfyb v;fdfmdtmkjhv;fdfmkjhv;fdf

itcf,fvbcbfy]blhblb

------

CO2

SiO2N2O5N2O3P2O5P2O5

P2O5

SO3

SO2CrO3CrO3Cl2OClO2Cl2O6Cl2O7

itcf,fvbcbfybjyb

F_

Cl_Br_

I_

S2_

HS_

CO32_

HCO3_

SiO32_

NO3_

NO2_

PO3_

P2O74_

H2P2O72_

PO43_

HPO42_

H2PO4_

SO42_

HSO4_

SO32_

CrO42_

Cr2O72_

ClO_

ClO2_

ClO3_

ClO4_

fybjybccf[tkojlt,f

anjhblbmkjhblb,hjvblbbjlblbcekablb]blhjcekablbrfh,jyfnb]blhjrfh,jyfnbcbkbrfnbybnhfnbybnhbnbvtnfajcafnbgbhjajcafnblb]blhjgbhjajcafnbajcafnb]blhjajcafnblb]blhjajcafnbcekafnb]blhjcekafnbcekabnbmhjvfnblbmhjvfnb]bgjmkjhbnbmkjhbnbmkjhfnbgthmkjhfnb

42 43

1932 otkc hecvf vtwybtht,vf l\l\ bdfytyrjv lf t\y\ ufgjyvfitmvytc fnjv,bhsdbc fqyfuj,bc ghjnjyek-ytbnhjyekb stj-hbf= hjvkbc sfyf[vflfw _ 'dtkf fnjvbc fnjv,bhsdb itlut,f Zghjnjybcf lf (A-Z) ytbnhjyt,bcfufy= cflfw Z fhbc tktvtynbchbuj,hbdb yjvthb gthbjlek cbcntvfib= A _ vfcehb hbw[db (vf-cehb hbw[db fnjveh vfcfcsfy 'dtkfpt f[kjc vlujvb vstkb hb-w[dbf) lf bub njkbf ghjnjyt,bcf lf ytbnhjyt,bc /fvbcf|

A = P + nvfufkbsfl= tktvtyn Na-bc hbuj,hbdb yjvthb gthbjlek

cbcntvfib _ Z = 11= vfcehb hbw[db njkbf 23-bc\ t\b\ Na-bcfnjv,bhsdib vjsfdct,ekb bmyt,f 11 ghjnjyb (P)= vbc ufhitvjbvj.hfdt,c 11 tktmnhjyb (e)= [jkj ytbnhjyt,bc hbw[db njkbbmyt,f n = A _ Z = 23 _ 11 = 12\

ufvjrdktdt,vf udbxdtyf= hjv ,eyt,fib fhct,j,c thsb lf bubdttktvtynbc fnjvt,b= hjvtksf fnjv,bhsdt,b itbwfdc ghjnjyt,bcthscf lf bvfdt hfjltyj,fc (t\b\ thsyfbhbf fnjv,bhsdbc ve[nb)=vfuhfv ytbnhjyt,bc c[dflfc[df hbw[dc (hfw bodtdc vfcbs ufyc[df-dt,fc)\ thsb lf bvfdt tktvtynbc fnjvsf cf[tc[dfj,fc= hjvkt,cfwfnjv,bhsdbc thsyfbhb ve[nb fmdc lf ufyc[dfdlt,f vfcehbhbw[dbs= bpjnjgt,b tojlt,f\ vfufkbsfl= wyj,bkbf o'fk,flbccf vb bpj n j gb| gh j s bevb _ )P(H1

1 + ltbnthbevb _ )D(H21 lf

nhbsbevb _ )T(H31 \ ghjsbevc thsb ghjnjyb fmdc lf ytbnhjyb

fhf fmdc+ ltbnthbevc fmdc thsb ghjnjyb lf thsb ytbnhjyb=[jkj nhbsbevc _ thsb ghjnjyb lf jhb ytbnhjyb\ bpjnjgt,cofhvjmvybc tktvtynb ;fyu,flbw\ wyj,bkbf vbcb cfvb bpjnjgbvfcbs _ 16= vfcbs _ 17 lf vfcbs _ 18 )O,O,O( 18

817

816

8 + O168 fmdc 8P

lf 8n+ O178 fmdc 8P lf 9n+ O18

8 fmdc 8P lf 10n\gthbjlek cbcntvfib vjwtvekb tktvtynt,bc fnjvehb vf-

ct,b ofhvjflutyc vfsb 'dtkf bpjnjgbc ,eyt,hbdb yfhtdbc cf-iefkj vfceh hbw[dc= ,eyt,fib vfsb ghjwtynekb itvwdtkj,bcufsdfkbcobyt,bs\ vfufkbsfl= kbsbevb ,eyt,fib fhct,j,c jhbbpjnjgbc cf[bs _ Li7

3 _ 92=7% lf Li63 _ 7=3%\ fmtlfy ufvjvlbyf-

ht= kbsbevbc cfiefkj fnjvehb vfcf bmyt,f|

SFDB ^&\FNJVBC FQYFUJ<F

*^* cfereybc ,jkjvlt fnjvc sdkblyty ufye'jatk yfob-kfrfl= tktvtynbc lf'jabc pqdhfl\ vfuhfv *^*_** cfereytt,bcvb/yfpt lfuhjdlf vstkb hbub afmnt,b= hjvtksf f[cyf ite.-kt,tkb bmyt,jlf= se fh xfsdkblyty= hjv fnjvb hsekb fqyf-uj,bc b'j\ tc afmnt,b b'j tktmnhjkbpbc vjdktyf= rfsjlehbc[bdt,b= hflbjfmnbdj,f lf c[df\

1911 otkc wyj,bkvf byukbctkvf vtwybthvf htpthajhlvf=tmcgthbvtynekb vjyfwtvt,bc cfae.dtkpt lf'hlyj,bs= vjudf-ojlf fnjvbc fqyfuj,bc gkfytnfhekb vjltkb= hjvkbc sfyf[-vflfw fnjvb ofhvjflutyc hsekb fqyfuj,bc vmjyt tktmnhj-ytbnhfkeh cbcntvfc\ bub itlut,f vtnfl vwbht pjvbc lflt,bsfllfve[nekb fnjv,bhsdbcf lf tktmnhjyekb ufhcbcfufy\ fnjvbchflbecb lff[kjt,bs 10_8 cv-bf= fnjv,bhsdbc hflbecb rb 10_13 cv\t\b\ fnjv,bhsdb pjvbs 100 000-/th vwbhtf fnjvbc pjvfcsfy it-lfht,bs\

fnjv,bhsdb sfdbc v[hbd itlut,f tktvtynfhekb yfobkfrt-,bc _ ghjnjyt,bcf (P) lf ytbnhjyt,bcfufy (n)\

ghjnjyb fhbc lflt,bsfl lfve[nekb yfobkfrb= hjvkbc vfcf1= 0073 v\f\t\ lf ve[nb elhbc +1-c\ ytbnhjyb ytbnhfkehb yfob-kfrbf\ vbcb vfcf njkbf 1=0087 v\f\t\= [jkj ve[nb yekbc njkbf\

tktmnhjyek ufhcib vj.hfj,c efh'jablfy lfve[nekb yf-obkfrt,b _ tktmnhjyt,b (e)\ tktmnhjybc ve[nb njkbf -1-bc=vfcf rb _ 0\0054 v\f\t\ tc bvltyfl vwbht cblbltf= hjv euekdt-,tk'jabkbf lf xfsdkbkbf yekbc njkfl\ fvltyfl= fnjvbc sbsm-vbc vstkb vfcf sfdvj'hbkbf ,bhsdib\

fnjvb tktmnhjytbnhfkehb yfobkfrbf= hflufy hfvltyb ghj-njybw fhbc vjsfdct,ekb fnjv,bhsdib= bvltybdt tktmnhjyb,heyfdc vbc ufhitvj\

44 45

fnjvib tktmnhjybc vlujvfhtj,fc f[fcbfst,ty js[b mdfy-nehb hbw[dbs\ tctybf|

n _ vsfdfhb mdfynehb hbw[db

_ jh,bnfkehb mdfynehb hbw[dbm _ vfuybnehb mdfynehb hbw[dbs _ cgbyehb mdfynehb hbw[db

vsfdfhb mdfynehb hbw[db _ n fqybiyfdc tythutnbrekbljybc yjvthc= ufycfpqdhfdc tktmnhjybc tythubfc fnjvib lfbqt,c yfnehfkeh hbw[dsf vorhbdbc vybidytkj,t,c n = 1, 2, 3, 4,...\ vbcb vybidytkj,f lfvjrblt,ekbf tktmnhjybc lfijht,fptfnjv,bhsdblfy\ bub f[fcbfst,c bv tktmnhjybc tythubfc= hjvtk-cfw ezbhfdc vjwtvekb tythutnbrekb ljyt\ 'dtkfpt vwbhttythubf uffxybf gbhdtkb tythutnbrekb ljybc tktmnhjyt,c\t\b\ bv ljybc= hjvtkbw 'dtkfpt f[kjf fnjv,bhsdsfy\ fnjv-,bhsdblfy hfw eahj lfijht,ek tythutnbrek ljytptf vjsfd-ct,ekb tktmnhjyb= vbs eahj vtnbf vbcb tythubf\

tktmnhjyt,bc tythubfpt= fye vsfdfh mdfyneh hbw[dpt lf-vjrblt,ekt,bs fhxtdty K, L, M, N, O, P, Q tythutnbrek ljytt,c=hjvkt,bw vsfdfhb mdfynehb hbw[dbc itvltu vybidytkj,t,c gf-ce[j,c|

K tythutnbrekb ljybcfsdbc n = 1L tythutnbrekb ljybcfsdbc n = 2M tythutnbrekb ljybcfsdbc n = 3N tythutnbrekb ljybcfsdbc n = 4O tythutnbrekb ljybcfsdbc n = 5P tythutnbrekb ljybcfsdbc n = 6Q tythutnbrekb ljybcfsdbc n = 7fnjvib tythutnbrekb ljytt,bc hbw[db njkbf bv gthbjlbc

yjvhbc= hjvtkibw tktvtynb bv'jat,f\ ^ gthbjlbc tktvtynt,cthsb tythutnbrekb ljyt fmdc+ ^^ gthbjlbc tktvtynt,c _ jhb+^^^ gthbjlbcfc _ cfvb lf f\i\

Ar (Li) = 7 (0,927) + 6 (0073) = 6, 94fhct,j,c bctsb fnjvt,b= hjvkt,cfw thsyfbhb vfcehb hb-

w[dt,b fmdc= vfuhfv bcbyb ufyc[dfdlt,bfy fnjv,bhsdbc ve[nbc cb-lblbs\ fcts fnjvt,c bpj,fht ,b tojlt,f\ vfufkbsfl=

Ca,K,Ar 4020

4019

4018 \

bpj,fht,c fnjv,bhsdib ghjnjyt,bcf lf ytbnhjyt,bc cf-thsj hbw[db thsyfbhb fmdc= vfuhfv bcbyb ghjnjyt,bc (Z) lf yt-bnhjyt,bc (n) hbw[dbs ufyc[dfdlt,bfy\

wyj,bkbf fuhtsdt c[dflfc[df tktvtynbc fnjvt,b= hjvtksffnjv,bhsdib vjsfdct,ekbf ytbnhjyt,bc njkb lf ghjnjyt,bcc[dflfc[df hfjltyj,f\ vfs bpjnjyt,b tojlt,f\ vfufkbsfl=

Se,Ge,Zn 7434

7232

7030 (30 P, 40 n) (32 P, 40 n) (34 P, 40 n)

fnjvsf tktmnhjyekb ufhct,bc fqyfuj,f

fnjvb hsekb fqyfuj,bc vmjyt tktmnhjytbnhfkehb cbc-ntvff\ bub itlut,f lflt,bsfl lfve[nekb fnjv,bhsdbcf lf vbcbhudkbd vj.hfdb efh'jabsfl lfve[nekb tktmnhjyt,bcfufy\tktmnhjyt,bc hbw[db fnjvib elhbc fnjv,bhsdbc ve[nbc cb-lbltc (ghjnjyt,bc hfjltyj,fc)\ vfifcflfvt= tktvtynbc hbuj,-hbdb yjvthb gthbjlek cbcntvfib udbxdtyt,c hjujhw fnjv,bhs-dbc lflt,bsb ve[nbc (ghjnjybc) hbw[dc= fctdt fnjv,bhsdbc ufh-itvj vj.hfdb tktmnhjyt,bc hfjltyj,fcfw\

mdfynehb vtmfybrbc sdfkcfphbcbs= tktmnhjyc f[fcbfst,chjujhw rjhgecrekehb= fctdt nfkqehb ,eyt,f\ bub vj.hfj,cfnjvbc vstk vjwekj,fib lf ofhvjmvybc t\o\ tktmnhjyekqhe,tkc= hjvtkbw fqothc tktmnhjybc vlujvfhtj,fc fnjvib\tktmnhjyekb qhe,kbc cbvrdhbdt fnjvehb cbdhwbc c[dflfc[dfyfobkib c[dflfc[dff\ cbdhwbc bv yfobkc= hjvtkibw 'dtkfptvtnbf tktmnhjybc 'jaybc fk,fsj,f= t\b\ 'dtkfpt vtnbf tktmn-hjyekb qhe,kbc cbvrdhbdt= jh,bnfkb tojlt,f\

46 47

mdtljytt,b sfdbc v[hbd itlut,f jh,bnfkt,bcfufy\ s mdtljytitlut,f 1s-jh,bnfkbcufy= p mdtljyt 3p-jh,bnfkbcfufy= d mdt-ljyt _ 5d-jh,bnfkbcfufy lf f mdtljyt _ 7f-jh,bnfkbcufy\ uf-vjrdktdt,bs lflutybkbf= hjv s-jh,bnfkc fmdc cathjc ajhvflf cbdhwtib vbvfhsekt,f fh f[fcbfst,c\ p-jh,bnfkt,c fmdc ]fy-ntkbc= fye vjwekj,bsb hdbfybc ajhvf lf cfvbdt p-jh,bnfkbehsbthsgthgtylbrekfhekbf= fvbnjv vfs ufyb[bkfdty cbdh-

yf[\ 1\ s, p, d tktmnhjyekb jh,bnfkt,bc ajhvf lfcbdhwbsb jhbtynfwbf

tythutnbrek ljytpt tktmnhjyt,bc vfmcbvfkehb hfjlt-yj,f ufybcfpqdht,f ajhvekbs N = 2n2= cflfw N _ tktmnhjyt,bchfjltyj,ff= n _ tythutnbrekb ljybc yjvthb= fye vsfdfhb mdfy-nehb hbw[db\

hjwf n = 1 N = 2 .12 = 2; t\b\ gbhdtk tythutnbrek ljytptvfmcbvfkehfl itb.kt,f ,heyfdltc 2 tktmnhjyb\

n = 2 N = 2.22 = 8; t\b\ vtjht tythutnbrek ljytptvfmcbvfkehfl itb.kt,f ,heyfdltc 8 tktmnhjyb\

n = 3 N = 2.32 = 18; t\b\ vtcfvt tythutnbrek ljytpt itb.kt,f,heyfdltc 18 tktmnhjyb\

n = 4 N = 2.42 = 32; t\b\ vtjs[t tythutnbrek ljytpt itb.kt,f,heyfdltc 32 tktmnhjyb lf f\i\

ihtc= hjvtkptw ,heyfdc 2n2 tktmnhjyb= tojlt,f lfchekt-,ekb= fye xfrtnbkb iht\

jh,bnfkehb= fye sfyfehb mdfynehb hbw[db _ udf.ktdcofhvjlutyfc jh,bnfkbc ajhvfpt lf tktmnhjybc tythubfpt=tythutnbrekb ljybc afhukt,ib\ bub bqt,c vybidytkj,t,c| 0= 1=2= 3= 4= \\\\ (n _ 1)-vlt= cflfw n vsfdfhb mdfynehb hbw[dbf\ hjwf=

n = 1 n = 2 n = 3 n = 4 = 0 = 0,1 = 0,1,2 = 0,1,2,3tythubbc itcf,fvbcfl tythutnbrekb ljytt,b= lfo't,ekb n=

= 2-lfy= b'jaf mdtljytt,fl= hjvtksf hbw[db vsfdfhb mdfynehbhbw[dbc vybidytkj,bc njkbf| ^ tythutnbrek ljytc fmdc thsbmdtljyt= vtjhtc _ 2= vtcfvtc _ 3 lf f\i\ vbqt,ekbf mdtljytt,bcfqybidyf kfsbyehb fcjt,bs| lf s, p, d, f f\i\jh,bnfkehb mdfynehb itcf,fvbcb tythutnbrekb

hbw[db mdtljytt,b

= 0 s = 1 p = 2 d = 3 f

PxPz P y

dz2 dxz dx2-y2

dyz dxy

48 49

tktmnhjyb cfobyffqvltuj cgbyt,bs = p mdtljytc fmdc cfvbjh,bnfkb lf vfcpt vjsfdclt,f 6 tktmnhjyb= d-pt 10 tktmnhjyblf f-pt _ 14 tktmnhjyb\

evwbhtcb tythubbc ghbywbgbc sfyf[vfl| fnjvib tktmnhj-ybc 'dtkfpt eahj vluhfl vlujvfhtj,fc ittcf,fvt,f vbcb itcf.kjvbybvfkehb tythubf\ t\b\ mdtljytt,pt tktmnhjyt,bc ufyfobkt-,bcfc /th itbdct,f bc mdtljytt,b= hjvlt,cfw vbybvfkehb tythubffmdc\ tythubbc phlbc vb[tldbs rb mdtljytt,b itvltuyfbhfl fhbcufykfut,ekb|

1s<2s<2p<3s<3p<4s<3d<4p<5s<4d<5p... lf f\i\rktxrjdcrbv lfflubyf= hjv fnjvib jh,bnfkt,bc itdct,f [lt-

,f vsfdfhb lf sfyfehb mdfynehb hbw[dt,bc (n + )-bc /fvbcphlbc vb[tldbs\ cojhtl fvbs fb[cyt,f bc afmnb= hjv /th bdct,f4s mdtljyt (n = 4, = 0, n + = 4+0 = 4) lf itvltu 3d ljyt (n = 3, = 2, n+ + = 3+2 = 5)\

se c[dflfc[df jh,bnfkt,bc (n + )-bc /fvb thsyfbhbf= vfibygbhdtk hbuib tktmnhjyt,bs itbdct,f bc jh,bnfkb= hjvkbcn-bw (vsfdfhb mdfynehb hbw[db) vwbhtf\

]eylbc otcbc sfyf[vfl| tythutnbrekb mdtljytt,bc afhu-kt,ib fnjvbc vluhfl vlujvfhtj,fc ittcf,fvt,f tktmnhjysfbctsb ufyfobkt,f= hjvkbc lhjcfw fnjvbc cgbyehb mdfynehbhbw[dt,bc /fvbc f,cjkenehb vybidytkj,t,b vfmcbvfkehbf\ t\b\thsb lf bubdt mdtljybc sfdbceafkb jh,bnfkt,bc itdct,f vj[-

lt,f fct _

lf fhf fct _ s

p

p

s

wbsb rjjhlbyfnt,bc qth.bc vbvfhs\ d- lf f-jh,bnfkt,c fmdceahj hsekb utjvtnhbekb ajhvf\

vfuybnehb mdfynehb hbw[db _ m ufycfpqdhfdc tktmn-hjyekb jh,bnfkt,bc jhbtynfwbfsf hbw[dc vfuybneh dtkib\vfuybnehb mdfynehb hbw[db lfvjrblt,ekbf jh,bnfkeh mdfy-neh hbw[dpt lf bwdkt,f _ -lfy + -vlt\ vfuybnehb mdfynehbhbw[dbc vybidytkj,fsf hfjltyj,f ufvjbsdkt,f ajhvekbs (2+1)=cflfw _ jh,bnfkehb mdfynehb hbw[dbf\

hjwf = 0, t\b\ udfmdc s mdtljyt lf itcf,fvbcfl s jh,bnfkb=vfiby m-bc vybidytkj,fsf hfjltyj,f njkb bmyt,f (2.0 + 1) = 1,t\b\ s jh,bnfkc fmdc thsb jhbtynfwbf= hjvtkbw cmtvfnehflthsb e/htlbs fqbybiyt,f _ +

hjwf = 1, t\b\ udfmdc p mdtljyt= hjvtkcfw ittcf,fvt,f 3pjh,bnfkb= vfiby m-bc vybidytkj,fsf hfjltyj,f njkb bmyt,f(2.1 + 1) = 3, t\b\ p jh,bnfkt,c fmdc cfvb jhbtynfwbf vfuybneh

dtkib lf cmtvfnehfl cfvb e/htlbs ufvjbcf[t,f _ zyx ppp

\

fyfkjubehfl= d jh,bnfkt,bcsdbc udtmyt,f m-bc [esbvybidytkj,f= t\b\ [esb jhbtynfwbf cbdhwtib lf ufvjbcf[t,fitvltuyfbhfl|

f jh,bnfkt,bcsdbc udtmyt,f m-bc 7 vybidytkj,f= hfw cmt-vfnehfl itvltuyfbhfl ufvjbcf[t,f|

cgbyehb mdfynehb hbw[db _ s f[fcbfst,c tktmnhjybc ,he-ydfc cfresfhb qth.bc ufhitvj= cffsbc bchbc vbvfhsekt,bs lfcfobyffqvltujl lf bqt,c vybidytkj,t,c 2

1± \ tktvtynsf fnjvt,ibtktmnhjyt,bc ufyfobkt,fc ufycfpqdhfdc gfekbc ghbywbgb=tythubbc vbybvevbc ghbywbgb= ]eylbc otcb lf rktxrjdcrbc otcb\

gfekbc ghbywbgbc sfyf[vfl| fh itb.kt,f ths jh,bnfpt ,he-yfdltc jhb bctsb tktmnhjyb= hjvlt,cfw js[bdt mdfynehb hb-w[db thsyfbhb tmyt,f\ fmtlfy ufvjvlbyfht= dbyfblfy s mdtljytcfmdc thsb jh,bnfkb= vfcpt itb.kt,f vjsfdcltc vfmcbvev 2

50 51

pjubthsb tktvtynbcsdbc mdtljytt,bc tktmnhjyt,bs itd-ct,f vbvlbyfhtj,c ptvjs ufy[bkekb ghbywbgt,blfy ufhrdtekbuflf[hbs\ vfufkbsfl= mhjvbcf lf cgbkty.bc fnjvt,ib [lt,f tk-tmnhjyt,bc uflfcdkf (xfdfhlyf) 4s mdtljyblfy 3d-pt= hbc it-ltuflfw fv tktvtynt,bc tktmnhjyek ajhvekt,c fmdc itvltubcf[t|

24Cr - 1s22s22p63s23p64s13d5

29Cu - 1s22s22p63s23p64s13d10

bvbc vb[tldbs= se hjvtkb jh,bnfkb (s, p, d, f) erfdbf fnjvbc,jkj tktmnhjyc= ufyfc[dfdt,ty s, p, d lf f tktvtynt,c\ ^f lf ^^f

mdt/ueabc tktvtynt,b vbtresdyt,f s-tktvtynt,c\ tktvtynt,b^^^f-lfy &^^f mdt/ueabc xfsdkbs vbtresdyt,f p-tktvtynt,c= ^,-lfy &^^, mdt/ueabc xfsdkbs _ d-tktvtynt,bf= [jkj kfysfyjb-lt,b lf fmnbyjblt,b _ f-tktvtynt,c ofhvjflutyc\

fnjvbc fqyfuj,f lf gthbjlekj,bc rfyjyb

fnjvbc fqyfuj,bc itcofdkfv lfudfyf[f= hjv tktvtynt,bcsdbct,t,b .bhbsflfl ufybcfpqdht,f fhf fnjvehb vfcbs= fhfvtlfnjvbc ,bhsdbc ve[nbc cblblbs\ fnjvbc ,bhsdbc ve[nbc cblb-ltptf lfvjrblt,ekb tktvtynbc 'dtkf sdbct,f lf fuhtsdt vbcbvlt,fhtj,f gthbjlek cbcntvfib\ fvfcsfy lfrfdibht,bs= wdkb-kt,f ufybwflf l\b\ vtyltkttdbc gthbjlekj,bc rfyjybc ajhve-kbht,fvfw| tktvtynbc sdbct,t,b= fuhtsdt vfsb yfthst,bc ajhvt,blf sdbct,t,b gthbjlek lfvjrblt,ekt,fibf vfsb fnjvbc ,bhsdbcve[nbc cblbltcsfy\

vtyltkttdbc tktvtynsf gthbjlekb cbcntvf pecnfl uf-vj[fnfdc gthbjlekj,bc rfyjyc lf= fvfcsfy thsfl= tktvtynbcfnjvbc fqyfuj,fc\

fnjvbc fqyfuj,bc stjhbf rfhufl [cybc gthbjlek cbcntvfibtktvtynsf sdbct,t,bc gthbjlek wdkbkt,t,c\ fnjvbc ,bhsdbc

gbhdtk itvs[dtdfib cgbyehb mdfynehb hbw[dt,bc /fvbc f,-cjkenehb vybidytkj,t,b vfmcbvfkehbf ( 2

121

21

21 1s )\

vtjht itvs[dtdfib rb /fvehb cgbyehb mdfynehb hbw[dt,bc f,-cjkenehb vybidytkj,f yfrkt,bf ( 2

1s )\fnjvib tktmnhjyt,bc ufyfobkt,fc tythutnbrekb ljytt-

,bcf lf mdtljytt,bc vb[tldbs ufvjcf[fdty tktmnhjyekb ajh-vekt,bs\

[ibhfl tktmnhjyekb qhe,kt,bc cnhemnehfc ufvjcf[fdtytythutnbrekb= fye mdfynehb e/htlt,bs\ tc fhbc uhfabrekbtktmnhjyekb ajhvekt,b= cflfw e/htlb jh,bnfkbf= bcfhb _tktmnhjyb= bchbc vbvfhsekt,f _ cgbyb\

ufydb[bkjs= hjujh [lt,f fnjvsf tktmnhjyekb ajhve-kt,bc itlutyf|

jh,bnfkb vbybvfkehb tythubbs _ tc fhbc 1s jh,bnfkb\o'fk,flbc fnjvbcsdbc bub lfrfdt,ekbf thsflthsb tktmnhj-ybs= fvbnjv o'fk,flbc fnjvbc tktmnhjyek ajhvekfc tmyt,ffctsb cf[t| 1s1= uhfabrekb tktmnhjyekb ajhvekf rb bmyt,f

n = \1s jh,bnfkbc itdct,f vsfdhlt,f He-ib (Z = 2)\ vbcb tktmn-

hjyekb ajhvekff 1s2= uhfabrekb tktmnhjyekb ajhvekf bm-yt,f \

vjvltdyj tktvtynt,ibw tktmnhjyt,bs mdtljytt,bc itdct-,bc sfyvbvltdhj,f tmdtvlt,fht,f gfekbcf lf evwbhtcb tythubbcghbywbgc lf vbvlbyfhtj,c ]eylbc otcbcf lf rktxrjdcrbc otcbclfwdbs\

'jdtkbdt ptvjsmvekbc ufsdfkbcobyt,bs= fpjnbc fnjvbctktmnhjyek ajhvekfc tmyt,f itvltub cf[t| N (Z = 7) 1s22s22p3=uhfabrek tktmnhjyek ajhvekfc rb fctsb|

s

n = 2

p

s

n = 1

52 53

,bhsdbc ve[nbc cblblbc phlfcsfy thsfl bphlt,f tktmnhj-yt,bc hfjltyj,f (1-lfy 8-vlt) ufht ihtib= hbc ufvjw tktvty-nt,bc sdbct,t,bc wdkbkt,f rdkfd vrdtshfl vbvlbyfhtj,c\

fnjvbc fqyfuj,f rfhufl [cybc vsfdfhb lf sfyfehb mdt/ue-at,bc fhct,j,fc\ tc lf'jaf ufygbhj,t,ekbf bvbs= hjv tktvty-nt,c tythutnbrekb ljytt,b tktmnhjyt,bs c[dflfc[dfyfbhfltdct,f\ rth.jl= vsfdfhb mdt/ueabc tktvtynt,c tdct,f s mdtljyt(s tktvtynt,c) fy p mdtljyt (p tktvtynt,c) ufht ihbcf\ sfyfehbmdt/ueabc tktvtynt,c tdct,f ufhtcobyf ihbc d mdtljyt (d tkt-vtynt,b)= [jkj kfysfyjblt,c lf fmnbyjblt,c itcf,fvbcfl 4f lf5f mdtljytt,b\

fvudfhfl= sbsjtek mdt/ueaib ufthsbfyt,ekbf tktvtynt,b=hjvtksf fnjvt,cfw fmdc tktmnhjyekb ihtt,bc vcufdcb fqyf-uj,f\ fvfcsfy= vsfdfhb mdt/ueabc tktvtynt,bc ufht ihbc tk-tmnhjyt,bc hbw[db tvs[dtdf /ueabc yjvthc= [jkj sfyfehbmdt/ueabc tktvtynt,bc fnjvt,c rb fmdc jhb fy thsb tktmnhjyb\cojhtl tc ufyc[dfdt,f fqyfuj,fib ufyfgbhj,t,c vfsb sdbct,t,bcc[dflfc[dfj,fc= hbc ufvjw bcbyb vjsfdct,ekb fhbfy thsb lf bubdt/ueabc c[dflfc[df mdt/ueaib\ fct vfufkbsfl= &^^ /ueabc vsfdfhmdt/ueaib vjsfdct,ekbf ]fkjutyt,b= hjvtksf fnjvt,c ufhtihtpt fmdc 7 tktmnhjyb= [jkj sfyfeh mdt/ueaib vjsfdct,ekMn-bc mdt/ueabc tktvtynt,c _ 2 tktmnhjyb\ gbhdtkb nbgehbfhfkbsjyt,bf= [jkj vtjht _ kbsjyt,b= vfuhfv fv /ueabc tkt-vtynt,c cfthsj sdbct,fw fmdc= rth.jl bc= hjv vfsb fnjvt,bhtfmwbfib vjyfobktj,c 7-7 tktmnhjybs= t\b\ mbvbehb ,vf ofhvj-bmvyt,f 7- tktmnhjybs (ufvjyfrkbcbf F)\ fvbs fhbc ufygbhj,t-,ekb vfsb vcufdct,f= vfuhfv bjlbc fnjvc cfdfktynj tktmnhjyt-,b fnjv,bhsdblfy eahj lfijht,ekb fmdc= dblht asjhc= hbc uf-vjw bjlbc fnjvc cecnfl fmdc itrfdibht,ekb tc tktmnhjyt,b lffvbnjv bjlbc fnjvt,b fldbkfl ufcwtvc tktmnhjyt,c lf ite.kbfkbsjyehb sdbct,t,bc ufvjv;qfdyt,f= hfcfw dth dbn'dbs asjhpt\

fctsbdt rfyjypjvbtht,f itbvxytdf lfyfhxty /ueat,ibw\ fct-sb vblujvbs fb[cyt,f H-bc vlt,fhtj,f thslhjekfl gthbjlekb

ve[nbc cblblbc phlf 1-lfy 116-vlt bodtdc tktvtynt,bc ufhttythutnbrekb ljybc fqyfuj,bc gthbjlek ufyvtjht,fc lf hfl-ufy tktvtynt,bc sdbct,t,b .bhbsflfl lfvjrblt,ekbf ufht ihbctktmnhjyt,bc hfjltyj,fpt= fvbnjv bcbyb gthbjlekfl vtjh-lt,f\ fvfibf gthbjlekb cbcntvbc abpbrehb fhcb\

vfufkbsbcsdbc ufydb[bkjs ^^= ^^^ lf ^& gthbjlt,bc lfcf-o'bcib vjsfdct,ekb tktvtynt,b _ Li _ 2\1= Na _ 2\8\1= K _ 2\8\8\1\vfs ufht ihtpt fhbc 1s tktmnhjyb lf fvbnjvfw fv;qfdyt,tyvcufdc sdbct,t,c\ bcbyb tktmnhjyekb ihbc lfcfchekt,kfl fl-dbkfl ufcwtvty fv ths tktmnhjyc= hfw ufyfgbhj,t,c vfs kb-sjyeh sdbct,t,c= [jkj fv gthbjlbc ,jkjib vjsfdct,ek tkt-vtynt,c ufht ihtpt fmds 8 tktmnhjyb (s2p6)\ vfsb ufht iht lfc-hekt,tkbf\ tc tktvtynt,b bythnekb fbht,bf (Ne, Ar, Kr)\

vwbht gthbjlt,ib fnjvuekbc lflt,bsb ve[nbc cblblbcphlfcsfy thsfl ufht ihtpt tktmnhjyt,bc hbw[db bphlt,f (1-lfy 2-vlt ^ gthbjlib lf 1-lfy 8-vlt ^^ lf ^^^ gthbjlt,ib)= hfw[cybc tktvtynt,bc sdbct,t,bc wdkbkt,fc kbsjyehblfy (gthbj-lt,bc lfcfo'bcib) fhfkbsjyt,bcfrty (gthbjlt,bc ,jkjc)\ gt-hbjlt,bc lfcfo'bcib= ufhlf ^ gthbjlbcf= vjsfdct,ekbf nentkbsjyt,b= itvltu kbsjyehb sdbct,t,b sfylfsfyj,bs cecnlt,flf bphlt,f fhfkbsjyehb sdbct,t,b\ cfdfktynj ihtib tktmn-hjyt,bc hbw[dbc phlfcsfy thsfl vwbhlt,f tktmnhjyt,bc uf-wtvbc eyfhb lf bphlt,f tktmnhjyt,bc vbthst,bc eyfhb\ hfweahj fldbkfl ufcwtvc tktvtynbc fnjvb tktmnhjyt,c= vbs ea-hj vrdtshfl tmyt,f ufvjv;qfdyt,ekb kbsjyehb sdbct,t,b+ hfweahj fldbkfl vbbthst,c tktvtynbc fnjvb tktmnhjyt,c= vbseahj vrdtshfl tmyt,f ufvjv;qfdyt,ekb fhfkbsjyehb sdbct,t,b\

lblb gthbjlbc keo vorhbdt,ib fnjvuekbc ve[nbc cblblbcphlbcfc ufht ihtib tktmnhjyt,bc hfjltyj,f hxt,f velvbdblf nbkb 2-bc fy 1-bc= fvbnjv= cfyfv ,jkjc obyf ihbc itdct,fvbvlbyfhtj,c= tktvtynt,bc sdbct,t,b fv hbut,ib ufycfresht,bsytkf bwdkt,f+ [jkj lblb gthbjlt,bc rtyn vorhbdt,ib fnjvbc

54 55

vbc fqvlutyb sdbct,f= fye _ hfw eahj vwbhtf bjybpfwbbc tythubf=vbs eahj fldbkfl ufcwtvc fnjvb tktmnhjyt,c lf vbs eahjrfhub fqvlutybf\

bjybpfwbbc tythubbc cblblt lfvjrblt,ekbf fnjvbc hflb-ecpt= ,bhsdbc ve[npt lf tktmnhjyek rjyabuehfwbfpt\

nent kbsjyt,bc bjybpfwbbc tythubf eahj yfrkt,bf= dblhtnentvbofsf kbsjyt,bc= hflufy ntne kbsjyt,bc fnjvt,c cf-dfktynj s tktmnhjyt,b ufeo'dbkt,tkb fmdc= nentvbofsf kb-sjyt,c rb _ ufo'dbkt,ekb\

thsb gthbjlbc tktvtynt,bcsdbc bjybpfwbbc tythubf bph-lt,f vfhw[yblfy vfh/dybd= hflufy bphlt,f fnjv,bhsdbc ve[nb\

mdt/ueat,ib bjybpfwbbc tythubf vwbhlt,f ptvjlfy mdtvjs=hflufy bphlt,f vfy.bkb tktmnhjycf lf fnjv,bhsdc ijhbc= hbcufvjw fnjv,bhsdb cecnfl bpblfdc ufht ihbc tktmnhjyc lf fvb-njv eahj vwbht tythubff cfzbhj tktmnhjybc vjcfo'dtnfl\

bjybpfwbbc tythubf ufdktyfc f[ltyc tktvtynt,bc mbvbehsdbct,t,pt= rth.jl= hfw eahj vwbhtf bjybpfwbbc tythubf= vbsvrdtshfl fmdc ufvjcf[ekb tktvtync kbsjyehb sdbct,t,b lf gb-hbmbs\

fnjvt,c ite.kbf fhf vfhnj ufcwtc= fhvtl itbthsjc rbltwtktmnhjyt,b\ tythubfc= hjvtkbw ufvjb'jaf fnjvsfy thsbtktmnhjybc vbthst,bcfc= tojlt,f tktmnhjybcflvb cohfadf\

tktmnhjybcflvb cohfadf= bjybpfwbbc tythubbc vcufdcfl=ufvjbcf[t,f tktmnhjydjknt,ib\ tktmnhjybcflvb cohfadbc cb-lblt 'dtkf tktvtynbcfsdbc fh fhbc wyj,bkb= hflufy vbcb uf-pjvdf cfrvfjl .ytkbf\

tktmnhjybcflvb cohfadf bcts tktvtynt,c f[fcbfst,c= hj-vtksf fnjvt,bc ufht tythutnbrek ljytpt 4-pt vtnb cfdfktynjtktmnhjyb vj.hfj,c\ fnjvbc vbth tktmnhjyt,bc vbthst,bcfcofhvjbmvyt,f efh'jabsfl lfve[nekb bjyb\ fv lhjc tc fnjvt,bfqlut,f lf ;fyufdc c[df fnjvt,c\ tktmnhjyt,bc vbthst,f lfvf[f-cbfst,tkbf fhfkbsjyt,bc fnjvt,bcfsdbc\ tktmnhjybcflvb

cbcntvbc ^ lf &^^ /ueaib\ ^ /ueabc vsfdfhb mdt/ueabc tktvty-nt,bc vcufdcfl vfc ufht cfdfktynj ihtpt fmdc thsb tktmnhjyb\mbvbeh htfmwbt,ib vjyfobktj,bc lhjc fldbkfl ufcwtvc fv thstktmnhjyc lf uflflbc +1 ve[nbfy bjyib= fvbnjv o'fk,flb eylfvlt,fhtj,ltc ^ /ueaib\ vtjht v[hbd= o'fk,flbc fnjvc lfche-kt,ekb (2-tktmnhjybfyb) ihbc itcfmvytkfl czbhlt,f thsbtktmnhjyb\ vfc eyfhb fmdc itbthsjc thsb tktmnhjyb &^^ /ue-abc vsfdfhb mdt/ueabc tktvtynt,bc _ ]fkjutyt,bc vcufdcfl\o'fk,flb fv itvs[dtdfib fv;qfdyt,c fhfkbsjyeh sdbct,t,c= fvb-njv bc eylf vlt,fhtj,ltc &^^ /ueabc vsfdfh mdt/ueaib\ fmtlfyufvjvlbyfht= ufcfut,bf= hfnjv fhbc o'fk,flb vjsfdct,ekbthslhjekfl gthbjlekb cbcntvbc ^ lf &^^ /ueaib\

gthbjlek cbcntvfib tktvtynt,b js[ flubkfc fh fhbc ufy-kfut,ekb fnjvehb vfcbc phlbc vb[tldbs\ tctybf| Ar (39= 948) lfK (39= 102)+ Co (58= 933) lf Ni (58=71)+ Te (127=6) lf J(126= 9)=Th (232=0) lf Pa (231= 0)\ fv uflf[dtdt,c rfhufl [cybc fnjvbc fqyf-uj,f= hjvkbc sfyf[vflfw= tktvtynbc sdbct,t,b lfvjrblt,ekbffnjvbc ,bhsdbc ve[nbc cblbltpt\ fnjvbc ,bhsdbc ve[nbc cb-lblbc phlbc vb[tldbs rb bcbyb cojhfl fhbfy ufykfut,ekb gt-hbjlek cbcntvfib\

bjybpfwbbc tythubf= tktmnhjybcflvb cohfadf lftktmnhjefh'jabsj,f

fnjvbc ths-ths vybidytkjdfy vf[fcbfst,tkc ofhvjflutycbjybpfwbbc tythubf\ tc bc tythubff= hjvtkbw cfzbhjf yjhvfkehvlujvfhtj,fib v'jab fnjvblfy tktmnhjybc vjcfo'dtnfl lfecfchekjl lblb vfy.bkbs lfcfijht,kfl\ bjybpfwbbc tythubfcufvjcf[fdty tktmnhjydjknt,bs lf f[fcbfst,c tktmnhjybc uf-wtvbc eyfhc\ bjybpfwbbc tythubfpt vybidytkjdfyobkfl fhbc lf-vjrblt,ekb mbvbehb ,vbc [fcbfsb lf cbvnrbwt= fuhtsdt= fnj-

56 57

w[hbkblfy xfyc= hjv fnjvsf tktmnhjyekb cnhemnehbcufhsekt,fcsfy thsfl sbsjtek gthbjlib tktvtynt,bc tktmn-hjefh'jabsj,bc cblblt bphlt,f= wfkrtek /ueat,ib rbrkt,ekj,c\ fvbc vb[tldbs= gbhdtkb /ueabc s-tktvtynt,b (ne-nt kbsjyt,b) [fcbfslt,f vwbht tktmnhjefh'jabsj,bs= [jkjvtidblt /ueabc p-tktvtynt,b (]fkjutyt,b) elbltcb tktmn-hjefh'jabsj,bs\ 'dtkfpt vwbht tktmnhjefh'jabsj,f f[f-cbfst,c kbsbevc (1=0) lf 'dtkfpt lblb _ asjhc (4=0)\

SFDB &\MBVBEHB <VBC NBGT<B

ybdsbtht,fsf sdbct,t,b= vfsb htfmwbbceyfhbfyj,f lfvjrblt-,ekbf vjktrekbc itlutybkj,fpt= fqyfuj,fcf lf fnjvt,c ijhbcmbvbehb ,vbc nbgpt\ fvbnjv mbvbehb ,vbc cfrb[b sfyfvtlhjdtmbvbbc ths-ths wtynhfkeh cfrbs[c ofhvjflutyc\

mbvbehb ,vf fqb.dht,f jhb fnjvbc ehsbthsmvtlt,bcfc\ bcvbcrbs[df| hfnjv thslt,f fnjvt,b vjktrekt,fl~ hf .fkbs fhbc fn-jvt,b itrfdibht,ekb vjktrekt,ib~ hjujhbf fv .fkbc ,eyt,f~

fqcfybiyfdbf= hjv mbvbehb ,vbc ,eyt,bc lflutybc cfrbs[bcuflfo'dtnf v[jkjl vfiby uf[lf itcf.kt,tkb= hjltcfw fqvjf-xbytc fnjvt,bc tktmnhjyekb fqyfuj,f\ 'jdtkbdt fvfy lfflubyftktmnhjyt,bc aeylfvtynehb hjkb mbvbehb ,vbc ofhvjmvyfib\

hjujhw wyj,bkbf= fnjvt,c ufht tythutnbrek ljytpt fmdc1-lfy 8-vlt tktnhjyb\ se ufht ljytpt fnjvt,c fmdc 2n2 tktmn-hjyb= fcts ljytc ]mdbf lfchekt,ekb\ lfchekt,ekb ljytt,b[fcbfslt,f lblb cbvnrbwbs\ fctsb ljytt,b fmdc bythnekbfbht,bc fnjvt,c\ c[df tktvtynt,bc fnjvt,c ufht tythutnbrekbljyt fhf fmdc lfchekt,ekb\ mbvbehb ehsbthsmvtlt,bc lhjc[lt,f tythutnbrekb ljytt,bc lfchekt,f= hfw vbbqotdf tk-tmnhjyt,bc ufwtvbs= tktmnhjyt,bc vbthst,bs fy cfpbfhj

cohfadbc hbw[j,hbdb vybidytkj,bc phlfcsfy thsfl bphlt,ftktvtynbc ;fyudbsb eyfhb\

tktvtynbc fnjvbc eyfhc vjktrekfib sfdbcrty vbbpbljcc[df fnjvbc tktmnhjyt,b= tktmnhjefh'jabsj,f tojlt,f\

tktmnhjefh'jabsj,bc pjvfl bsdkt,f bc tythubf= hjvtkbwnjkbf bjybpfwbbc tythubbc (I) lf tktmnhjybcflvb cohfadbc(E) hbw[j,hbd vybidytkj,fsf /fvbc yf[tdhbc|

x = 2

EI cflfw= x- tktmnhjefh'jabsj,ff\

f,cjkenehb tktmnhjefh'jabsj,bc yfwdkfl b[vfht,fafhlj,bsb tktmnhjefh'jabsj,f= hjvkbc thstekfl vbxyte-kbf kbsbevbc tktmnhjefh'jabsj,f\ c[df tktvtynt,bctktmnhjefh'jabsj,f ufvjbsdkt,f vfsb f,cjkenehb tktmn-hjefh'jabsj,bc afhlj,bs kbsbevbc tktmnhjefh'jab-sj,fcsfy\ gjkbyubc vbth ,vbc tythubbc cfae.dtkpt ufycfpqdhekbmyf tktvtynt,bc tktmnhjefh'jabsj,f (w[h\ 1)\

tktvtynt,bc afhlj,bsb tktmnhjefh'jabsj,fgjkbyubc vb[tldbs

H2,1Li Be B C N O F1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0 3,5 4,0Na Mg Al Si P S Cl0,9 1,2 1,5 1,8 2,1 2,5 3,0K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br0,8 1,0 1,3 1,5 1,6 1,5 1,5 1,8 1,8 1,9 1,6 1,6 1,8 1,8 2,0 2,4 2,8Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I0,8 1,0 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 1,9 2,2 2,2 2,2 1,9 1,7 1,7 1,8 1,9 2,1 2,5Cs Ba La-Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Rb Bi Po At0,7 0,9 1,1-1,2 1,3 1,5 1,7 1,9 2,2 2,2 2,2 2,4 1,9 1,8 1,8 1,9 2,0 2,2Fr Ra Ac Th Pa U Np-Lw0,7 0,9 1,1 1,3 1,5 1,7 1,3

w[hbkb 1\

58 59

mbs\ fvfdt lhjc= fqb.dht,f ufypbldbc.fkt,b fv fnjvt,bc ,bhsdt,c ijhbclf tktmnhjyt,c ijhbc\ vjkt-rekt,bc vluhflb vlujvfhtj,f vbbq-otdf vfiby= hjwf vbpbldbc .fkt,b uf-lffzfh,t,c ufypbldbc .fkt,c\ tc gf-ce[j,c ,vbc ufycfpqdhek cbuh.tc\t\b\ fnjvt,bc ufycfpqdhek vfy.bkptvbf[kjdt,bcfc [lt,f vfsb tktmnhj-yekb qhe,kt,bc (jh,bnt,bc) uflf-afhdf= hbc itltuflfw ofhvjbmvyt,fvjktrekehb qhe,tkb= bc sfdclt,fjhbdt ,bhsdbc wtynht,c ijhbc lffmdc ufphlbkb tktmnhjyekb cbvrd-

hbdt= fvbnjv ,bhsdt,c ijhbc vfy.bkb vjktrekfib yfrkt,bfo'fk,flbc jhb fnjvbc hflbecbc /fvpt (r(H)= 0,053 y\v\+ eylf'jabkb'j 0=106 y\v\ fhbc 0=074 y\v\)\ b[\ yf[\ `2\

fvudfhfl= rjdfktynehb ,vbc fq.dhbcfc [lt,f fnjvt,bc tk-tmnhjyekb qhe,kt,bc uflfafhdf= hfcfw sfy f[kfdc tythubbcufvj'jaf= hbc ufvjw fnjvsf itthst,bcfc vjktrekfib cbcntvbccfthsj tythubf vwbhlt,f\

hjwf mbvbehb ,vf jhb fnjvbc sbsj s tktmnhjyekb jh-,bnfkbc uflfafhdbs [jhwbtklt,f= vbbqt,f (cbuvf) ,vf= cflfwtktmnhjyekb qhe,kt,bc vfmcbvfkehb uflfafhdf [jhwbtklt,ffnjvsf itvfthst,tkb [fpbc ufcodhbd\ -,vf ofhvjbmvyt,f fu-htsdt bv itvs[dtdfib= hjwf ,vbc ofhvjmvyfib vjyfobktj,c thsbfnjvbc s-jh,bnfkb lf vtjht fnjvbc p-jh,bnfkb\ hjwf ,vf jhbp jh,bnfkbs [jhwbtklt,f= vfiby vfsb uflfafhdf itb.kt,fvj[ltc hjujhw fnjvt,bc itvfthst,tkb [fpbc ufcodhbd= fctdtfv [fpbc gthgtylbrekfhekfl= cb,hn'bc jhbdt v[fhtc= hbc it-ltuflfw gbhdtk itvs[dtdfib ofhvjbmvyt,f (cbuvf) ,vf= [jkjvtjht itvs[dtdfib (gb) ,vf\

yf[\ 2\ o'fk,flbc vjkt-rekfib tktmnhjyekbqhe,kt,bc uflfafhdf

o'dbkt,bc ofhvjmvybs\ sfyfvtlhjdt ofhvjlutyt,bc sfyf[vfl=mbvbeh ,vfc fmdc tktmnhekb ,eyt,f= vfuhfv bc [jhwbtklt,fc[dflfc[dfyfbhfl\ fvbc vb[tldbs fhxtdty mbvbehb ,vbc cfv.bhbsfl cf[tc| rjdfktynehc= bjyehc lf kbsjyehc\

bjyehb ,vbc stjhbf vjojlt,ekb bmyf 1916 otkc uthvfytkbvtwybthbc rjctkbc vbth= [jkj bvfdt otkc fvthbrtkvf vtwybthvfkebcvf ofvjf'tyf rjdfktynehb ,vbc stjhbf= hjvkbc sfyf[vfl=mbvbehb ,vf [jhwbtklt,f cfpbfhj tktmnhjyekb o'dbkt,bcofhvjmvybs= hjvtkbw thslhjekfl tresdybc jh fnjvc\

rjctkbcf lf kebcbc stjhbfpt lf'hlyj,bs fqvjwtylf mb-vbehb ,vbc sfyfvtlhjdt stjhbf= t\o\ dfktynehb ,vbc stjhbf\

mdfynehb vtmfybrbc ofhvjlutyt,bc ufydbsfht,fv w[fl'jufpbfht,ekb tktmnhjyekb o'dbkbc [fh/pt mbvbehb ,vbc ofh-vjmvybc vbptpb\ se fnjvib tktmnhjyt,c ufydb[bkfds hjujhwtktmnhjyek qhe,kt,c= vfiby cfpbfhj o'dbkbc ofhvjmvyf itb.-kt,f ofhvjdblubyjs= hjujhw fv tktmnhjyekb qhe,kt,bc uf-lfafhdbc itltub\

,bhsdt,c ijhbc fhct,ekb zfh,b tktmnhjyekb cbvrdhbdtf[ltyc vfs ijhbc ufypbldbc .fkt,bc rjvgtycfwbfc\ fvudfhfl= .f-kt,c= hjvkt,bw epheydtk'jac ,vt,bc ofhvjmvyfc= fmdc tktmn-hjcnfnbrehb [fcbfsb\

cfpbfhj tktmnhjyekb o'dbkt,bs lfv'fht,ek mbvbeh ,vfctojlt,f rjdfktynehb= fye fnjvehb ,vf\

rjdfktynehb ,vf ufydb[bkjs o'fk,flbc vjktrekt,bc ofh-vjmvybc vfufkbspt\ o'fk,flbc vjktrekfib mbvbehb ,vbc .fkfmdfynehb vtmfybrbc gjpbwbblfy 1927 otkc vjudwtc byukbctkvfvtwybtht,vf ]tbnkthvf lf kjyljyvf\ o'fk,flbc vjktrekf itl-ut,f 4 vbrhj yfobkfrbcfufy| jhb ,bhsdbcf lf jhb tktmnhjybcf-ufy (o'fk,flbc fnjv,bhsdb itvjafhukekbf cathekb s tktmn-hjyekb qhe,kbs)+ fnjvt,bc cfrvfj vfy.bkpt vbf[kjt,bcfcfqb.dht,f vbpblekj,bc .fkt,b= thsb v[hbd= gbhdtkbc ,bhsdcflf vtjhbc tktmnhjyek qhe,tkc ijhbc lf= vtjht v[hbd= gbhb-

60 61

Cl2-bc ofhvjmvyf

mkjhbc fnjvbc hbuj,hbdb yjvthbf _ Z-17= tktmnhjyekbajhvekff 1s22s22p63s23p5= vbcsdbc cfdfktynjf vtcfvt iht

3p

3s

hjujhw d[tlfds= mkjhbc fnjvc cfdfktynj ihtib fmdc cfvbo'dbkb lf thsb ufeo'dbkt,tkb tktmnhjyb\ mbvbehb ,vbc ofh-vjmvyf [lt,f jhb fnjvbc ufeo'dbkt,tkb tktmnhjyt,bc ufo'-dbkt,bc [fh/pt= hjvtkbw cfpbfhj [lt,f jhbdt fnjvbcsdbc=hbc itltuflfw lfchekt,ekb hdftktmnhjybfyb (s2p6) iht tmyt,fmkjhbc jhbdt fnjvc lf tc cfpbfhj o'dbkb sfyf,hfl tresdybcjhbdt fnjvc\

2Cl:Cl:Cl::ClCl:

se v[tldtkj,fib vbdbqt,s= hjv Cl2-bc ofhvjmvyf [jhwb-tklt,f p- tktmnhjyekb jh,bnfkt,bc uflfafhdbs= vfiby cmtvf-nehfl itb.kt,f fct ufvjdcf[js|

Cl Cl

ptvjs erdt bsmdf= hjv se fnjvt,c ijhbc ofhvjbmvyt,f thsbrjdfktynehb ,vf= vfiby vfc tojlt,f vfhnbdb (thsvfub) ,vf= [jkjse vtnb= vfiby vfc tojlt,f /thflb\ rth.jl= se fnjvt,c ijhbcofhvjbmvyt,f jhb mbvbehb ,vf vfc jhvfub ,vf tojlt,f= se cfvb _cfvvfub lf f\i\ thsvfub ,vf ufvjbcf[t,f thsb [fpbs= jhvfub _jhbs lf f\i\

jhb d-jh,bnfkbc uflfafhdbs ofhvjbmvyt,f hjujhw lf ,vt,b= fctdt itb.kt,f ofhvjbmvyfc vtcfvt nbgbc ,vf _ (ltknf)\fv erfyfcrytk itvs[dtdfib [lt,f d-tktmnhjyekb jh,bnfkt,bcjs[upbc uflfafhdf\

ptvjs fqybiyekb ,vt,bc ofhvjmvyf cmtvfnehfl ufvjcf[ekbfyf[\32-pt\

1s1 1s1

1s2

+

yf[\ 3\ tktmnhjyekb jh,bnfkt,bc uflfafhdf

rjdfktynehb ,vbc ufvjcf[df itb.kt,fc[dflfc[dfyfbhfl| f) cfdfktynj tktmnhj-yt,bc othnbkt,bc cf[bs xfothbc upbs mb-vbehb cbv,jkjcsfy (vfu\= H. + .H; H:H) fy,) mdfynehb e/ht,bc cf[bs

[ibhfl rjdfktynj,fc ufvjcf[fdty [f-pbs H_H\

se fnjvt,c ijhbc ofhvjbmvyt,f thsb rjdfktynehb ,vf= vf-iby vfc vfhnbdb ,vf tojlt,f= [jkj se vtnb _ /thflb ,vf\

ufydb[bkjs mkjhbcf lf fpjnbc vjktrekbc ofhvjmvyf\

62 63

jhb -,vbs\ cfvvfub ,vbc ufvj fpjnbc vjktrekf eahj vnrbwtf=dblht H2, Cl2 lf c[df\ (yf[\ 4)

ufyfc[dfdt,ty rjdfktynehb ,vbc jh cf[tc| gjkfhekc lf fhf-gjkfhekc\ fhfgjkfhekb rjdfktynehb ,vbc lhjc cfpbfhj tk-tmnhjyekb o'dbkbs ofhvjmvybkb tktmnhjyekb qhe,tkbcbdhwtib sfyf,hfl fhbc ufyfobkt,ekb jhbdt fnjvbc ,bhsdt,cijhbc\ fhfgjkfhekb rjdfktynehb ,vbs thsvfytsc erfdibh-lt,f thsb lf bubdt tktvtynbc fnjvt,b (vfu\= H2, F2, Cl2, O2, N2 lfc[df)\

gjkfhekb rjdfktynehb ,vbc itvs[dtdfib ,vbc tktmnhj-yekb qhe,tkb uflfotekbf eahj tktmnhjefh'jabsb tkt-vtynbc fnjvbcrty\ fvbc itltufl= vjwtvek fnjvc vbtybzt,f hfqfwcblblbc efh'jabsb ve[nb (tktmnhjybc ve[nbc thstekt,bsufvjcf[ekb)= hfcfw tojlt,f tatmnehb ve[nb\ vtjht fnjvc bvfdtcblblbc lflt,bsb ve[nb tmyt,f\ fhfgjkfhekb rjdfktynehb,vbs ofhvjmvybkb yfthst,bcsdbc = hflufy fv itvs[dtdfib= hj-ujhw ptvjs fqdybiyts= tktmnhjyekb o'dbkbs ofhvjmvybkbtktmnhjyekb qhe,kbc cbvrdhbdt cbvtnhbekfl fhbc ufykfut-,ekb fnjvt,c ijhbc\ lflt,bsb lf efh'jabsb ve[nt,bc cbv.bvbcwtynht,b ths othnbkibf ufykfut,ekb= hbc ufvjw vjktrekffhfgjkfhekbf (vfu\| H2, O2, N2, lf f\i\)\ hjwf lflt,bsb lf efh-'jabsb tktmnhj,bc cbv.bvbc wtynht,b lfijht,ekbf thsvf-ytsc= vjktrekf gjkfhekbf= vfufkbsfl= fmhjkflb fhfjhuf-yekb ybdsbtht,bc vjktrekt,b (HCl, H2S, NH3 lf c[df)\

gjkfhekb vjktrekt,b ofhvjflutyc lbgjkt,c\ ,vbc gjkf-hj,bc [fhbc[bc cfpjvbf lbgjkehb vjvtynb ()= hjvtkbw nj-kbf lbgjkbc cbuh.bc (l) lf tatmnehb ve[nb (e) yfvhfdkbcf|

elgjkfhekb vjktrekbc ofhvjmvyf ufydb[bkjs mkjho'fk-

,flbc HCl-bc vfufkbspt\ mkjhbc fnjvc cfdfktynj ihtpt fmdc7 tktmnhjyb lf jmntnfvlt itcfdct,fl frkbf thsb tktmnhjyb\fv 7 tktmnhjyblfy cfvb o'dbkbf lf thsb rtynb _ p-tktmnhjyb\

/thflb (jhvfub lf cfvvfub) ,vt,b lfvf[fcbfst,tkbf vhfdfk-dfktynjdfyb fnjvt,bcfufy ofhvjmvybkb vjktrekt,bcsdbc\vfufkbsfl ufydb[bkjs fpjnbc vjktrekbc ofhvjmvyf\

N2-bc ofhvjmvyf

fpjnc fnjvbc hbuj,hbdb yjvthbf _ Z=7= tktmnhjyekbajhvekf| 1s22s22p3\

fpjnbc fnjvc cfdfktynj ihtib fmdc cfvb ufeo'dbkt,tkbtktmnhjyb= hbc ufvjw vjktrekfib fnjvt,c ijhbc ofhvjbmvyt,fcfvb cfpbfhj tktmnhjyekb o'dbkb= hjvkt,bw sfyf,hfl tresd-ybc fpjnbc jhbdt fnjvc\

2p

2s

2N:NN::NN:

fpjnbc fnjvbc cfvb p jh,bnfkb ufykfut,ekfh X, Y lf Zqth.t,bc vfhsj,ekfl\ fpjnbc jhb fnjvbc vbf[kjdt,bcfc PX-

tktmnhjyt,bc tktmnhjyekbjh,bnfkt,b X-qth.bc ufcodhbduflfafhfdc thsvfytsc= hbc itlt-uflfw ofhvjbmvyt,f -,vf\ PY lf PZ

jh,bnfkt,bc ehsbthsuflfafhdfvj[lt,f jh flubkpt= hbc itltuf-lfw ofhvjbmvyt,f -,vt,b\ -,vfeahj cecnb ,vff= dblht -,vf= hfl-ufy jh,bnfkt,bc uflfafhdbc fht-,vbc lhjc eahj vwbhtf= dblht

,vbc itvs[dtdfib= t\b\ fpjnbc vjktrekfib fpjnbc fnjvt,bcfvvfub ,vbs fhbc itrfdibht,ekb thsvfytssfy= thsb -,vbs lf

yf[\ 4\ mbvbehb ,vt,b fpjnbcvjktrekfib

64 65

fvbfrbc vjktrekfib fpjnbc fnjvc cfvb ufeo'dbkt,tkb tk-tmnhjyb ufo'dbkt,ekb fmdc o'fk,flbc cfvb fnjvbc sbsj rtyntktmnhjysfy\ ufhlf fvbcf= vfc uffxybf ufe'jatkb tktmnhjye-kb o'dbkb (jhtktmnhjybfyb qhe,tkb)\ o'fk,flbc bjyc fmdcsfdbceafkb 1s jh,bnfkb\ fvbfrbcf lf o'fk,flbc bjybc vbf[kjt-,bcfc fpjnbc fnjvbc jhtktmnhjybfyb qhe,tkb cfthsj [lt,fjhbdt fnjvbcsdbc (hjujhw fpjnbcsdbc= fctdt o'fk,flbcsdbc)=hbc itltuflfw ofhvjbmvyt,f vjktrekehb tktmnhjyekb qhe-,tkb= t\b\ ofhvjbmvyt,f vtjs[t rjdfktynehb ,vf\

fvjybevbc bjybc ofhvjmvyf itb.kt,f ufvjdcf[js cmtvbs|

H:

H

N

H

:HH:

H

N

H

:H

fvudfhfl= fpjnbc fnjvbc jhtktmnhjybfyb qhe,tkb cfthsj[lt,f= [jkj o'fk,flbc bjybc ve[nb sfyf,hfl yfobklt,f 'dtkffnjvt,c ijhbc= fvbnjv NH4-bc ve[nb +1-bc njkbf\

mbvbeh ,vfc= hjvtkbw [jhwbtklt,f tktmnhjyekb o'dbkbcuflfcdkbs thsb fnjvblfy jhb fnjvbcsdbc cfthsj cfhut,kj-,fib= tojlt,f ljyjhek-fmwtgnjhekb= fye rjjhlbyfwbekb ,vf\

fnjvc= hjvtkbw ufcwtvc ufepbfht,tk tktmnhjyek o'dbkccfthsj cfhut,kj,fib= ljyjhb tojlt,f= [jkj fnjvc= hjvtkcfwfmdc sfdbceafkb jh,bnf lf bqt,c fv tktmnhjyek o'dbkc _fmwtgnjhb\ t\b\

4NH -bc bjybc ofhvjmvybcfc ljyjhb fhbc fpjnb=[jkj fmwtgnjhb _ o'fk,flbc bjyb\

fvudfhfl= fvjybevbc bjyib fhbc js[b rjdfktynehb ,vf= hjvtk-sfufyfw o'fk,flbc cfvb fnjvb fpjnbc fnjvsfy itrfdibht,ekbfrjdfktynehb ,vbs= [jkj vtjs[t ljyjhek-fmwtgnjhekbvtmfybpvbs\ vbe[tlfdfl fvbcf= js[bdt ,vf thsvfytsbc njkafcbf\

Cl Z=17 1s22s22p63s23p5

3p

3s

mkjho'fk,flbc vjktrekbc ofhvjmvybcfc mbvbehb ,vf [jh-wbtklt,f mkjhbc fnjvbc thstktmnhjybfyb p-jh,bnfkbcf lf

o'fk,flbc fnjvbc s-jh,bnfkbcuflfafhdbc [fh/pt\ tktmnhjye-kb qhe,kbc cbvrdhbdt uflfote-kb bmyt,f mkjhbcrty= hflufy mkj-hbc fnjvbc afhlj,bsb tktmnhj-efh'jabsj,f (2=83) vtnbf= dblhto'fk,flbc fnjvbc (2=1)\ (yf[\ 5)

rjdfktynehb ,vbc ofhvjmvybcljyjhek-fmwtgnjhekb vtmfybpvb

ljyjhek-fmwtgnjhekb ,vf ofhvjflutyc rjdfktynehb,vbc rth.j itvs[dtdfc\ xdtekt,hbdb rjdfktynehb ,vbc ofhvjmv-ybc itvs[dtdfib vjyfobktj,c jhbdt itcfrfdibht,tkb fnjvbc cf-gbhbcgbhj cgbyt,bc vmjyt ufeo'dbkt,tkb tktmnhjyt,b= hj-vtksf qhe,kt,bc uflfafhdbs ofhvjbmvyt,f ,vf= [jkj ljyj-hek-fmwtgnjhekb ,vbc itvs[dtdfib mbvbehb ,vf ofhvjbmvyt,fthsb fnjvbc jhtktmnhjybfyb qhe,kbcf lf vtjht fnjvbc sf-dbceafkb jh,bnfkbc [fh/pt\ ljyjhek-fmwtgnjhekb ,vbcnbgeh vfufkbsc ofhvjflutyc fvjybevbc bjybc (

4NH ) ofhvjmvyf\

yf[\ 5\ mkjho'fk,flbcvjktrekbc jh,bnfkehb cmtvf

66 67

itcf,fvbcfl vtnbf ,vbc tythubfw lf fvbnjv eahj vnrbwtf ,vf\bvbc vb[tldbs= se hfvltyb lf hjvtkb jh,bnfkt,b vjyfobktj,c]b,hblbpfwbfib= ufyfc[dfdt,ty sp, sp2, sp3 lf f\i\ ]b,hblbpfwbt,c\

sp-]b,hblbpfwbf= hjltcfw ]b,hblbpfwbfib vjyfobktj,cthsb s lf thsb p-jh,bnfkb

(s+p)-jh,bnfkb

sp2-]b,hblbpfwbf= hjltcfw ]b,hblbpfwbfib vjyfobktj,cthsb s lf jhb p-jh,bnfkb

jhb sp-jh,bnfkb

(s+p+p)-jh,bnfkb cfvb sp2-jh,bnfkb

sp3-]b,hblbpfwbf= hjltcfw ]b,hblbpfwbfib vjyfobktj,cthsb s lf cfvb p-jh,bnfkb

(s+p+p+p)-jh,bnfkb js[b sp3-jh,bnfkb

rjdfktynehb ,vbc sdbct,t,b

rjdfktynehb ,vf [fcbfslt,f ,vbc cbuh.bs= ,vbc tythubbs=uf/tht,ekj,bs lf vbvfhsekt,bs\

,vbc cbuh.t bpjvt,f fnjv,bhsdt,c ijhbc vfy.bkbs\ fqcfybiyf-dbf= hjv hfw eahj yfrkt,bf ,vbc cbuh.t= vbs eahj vnrbwtf ,vf= vfu-hfv ,vbc cbvnrbwbc cfpjvc .bhbsflfl ofhvjflutyc ,vbc tythubf\

,vbc tythubf tojlt,f bv tythubfc= hjvtkbw fewbkt,tkbfvjktrekfib fhct,ekb ,vbc ufcfo'dtnfl\ ,vbc tythubf bpjvt,frbkj/jekt,ib lf bfyufhbit,f ybdbstht,bc 1 vjkpt\ hfw vtnbf,vbc tythubf= vbs vnrbwtf ,vf\ ,vbc /thflj,bc ufphlbs ,vbc tyth-ubf bphlt,f= [jkj cbuh.t vwbhlt,f\

,vbc uf/tht,ekj,f uekbc[vj,cf fnjvbc vbth 'dtkf cfdf-ktynj jh,bnfkbc chekfl ufvj'tyt,fc= hbc itltuflfw fnjvcerdt fqfh fmdc lfvfnt,bsb ,vbc ofhvjmvybc eyfhb\ ,vbc uf/tht-,ekj,bs fb[cyt,f bc afmnb= hjv vjktrekt,c fmdc ufycfpqdhekbitlutybkj,f= vfufkbsfl= H2 lf fhf H3= CH4 lf fhf CH5 lf f\i\

rjdfktynehb ,vf [fcbfslt,f vbvfhsekt,bs= hfw ufyfgbhj-,t,c vjktrekbc cbdhwbs cnhemnehfc\ rjdfktynehb ,vf fqb.d-ht,f tktmnhjyekb qh,ekt,bc vfmcbvfkehb uflfafhdbc vbvfh-sekt,bs\ ,vt,c ijhbc res[tt,c tojlt,f cfdfktynj res[tt,b\rjdfktynehb ,vbc vbvfhsekt,f lfvjrblt,ekbf cfdfktynj jh-,bnfkt,bc ]b,hblbpfwbbc nbgcf lf vfs cbdhwbs ufykfut,fpt\

jh,bnfkt,bc ]b,hblbpfwbbc lhjc [lt,f vfsb ithtdf lfajhvbsf lf tythubbs ufsfyf,ht,f\ fv itvs[dtdfib tktmnhjyekbjh,bnfkt,bc cfo'bcb ajhvf bwdkt,f lf ofhvjbmvyt,f thsyfbhbajhvbc jh,bnfkt,b\ ]b,hblekb jh,bnfkb fcbvtnhbekbf lfufotkbkbf fnjv,bhsdblfy ths v[fhtc (yf[\ 6)\ ]b,hblekb jh,b-nfkt,bc hbw[db cfo'bcb jh,bnfkt,bc hbw[db njkbf\ ]b,hb-lekb jh,bnfkt,bc uflfafhdbs ofhvjmvybkb ,vf eahj vnrbwtf=dblht fhf]b,hblekbs= dbyfblfy ]b,hblekb jh,bnfkt,bc itv-s[dtdfib tktmnhjyekb qhe,kt,bc uflfafhdbc [fhbc[b vtnbf= yf[\ 6\ cfdfktynj jh,bnfkt,bc ]b,hblbpfwbf

68 69

ihbc tktmnhjyt,bw (vfu\| Cr, Fe lf 'dtkf sfyfehb mdt/ueabctktvtynt,bcsdbc)\

mbvbehb ,vbc itcf[t, vj.qdht,bc ufydbsfht,fcsfy thsfl it-bwdfkf sdbs wyt,f dfktynj,bc itcf[t,\ fv;fvfl dfktynj,f uf-ybcfpqdht,f mbvbehb ,vt,bc hbw[dbs= hjvkbsfw vjwtvekb tkt-vtynbc fnjvb erfdibhlt,f c[df fnjvt,c\ mbvbehb ,vt,bc hbw[dbrb ufybcfpqdht,f fnjvib ufeo'dbkt,tkb tktmnhjyt,bc hfj-ltyj,bs= hjvkbc [fh/ptw [lt,f cfpbfhj tktmnhjyekb o'db-kt,bc ofhvjmvyf\ fvfcsfyfdt= v[tldtkj,fib fh vbbqt,f ,vbc gj-kfhj,f= hbc ufvjw dfktynj,fc fhf fmdc ybifyb\

fvudfhfl= hflufy dfktynj,f ufybcfpqdht,f mbvbeh ,vfsf hb-w[dbs= hjvtkbw fh itb.kt,f b'jc lflt,bsb= efh'jab fy yekbcnjkb= itcf,fvbcfl dfktynj,fw fh itb.kt,f b'jc fhw lflt,bsb=fhw efh'jabsb lf fhw yekbc njkb\ fv sdfkcfphbcbs ufydb[b-kjs fpjnbc dfktynj,f vbc pjubths yfthsib= vfu\= NH3-ib lfNH4

+-ib\ fpjnbc fnjvbc uhfabrekb tktmnhjyekb ajhvekb-

lfy xfyc= hjv fpjnbc fnjvc cfdfktynj ihtib fmdc cfvb ufeo'db-

kt,tkb tktmnhjyb = fvbnjv vfc ite.kbf ofhvjmvyfc

cfvb mbvbehb ,vf lf vbcb dfktynj,f njkb bmyt,f cfvbc\ se rjdf-

ktynehb ,vbc ofhvjvmvytk sbsjtek o'dbkc fqdybiyfds [f-pbs= vfiby vbdbqt,s itvltub cf[bc ajhvekt,c|

HNH|

H

__ H\

H/NN

/H\H

_

hjujhw dbwbs= rjdfktynehb ,vf itb.kt,f ufy[jhwbtkltcljyjhek-fmwtgnjhekb vtmfybpvbsfw\ vfufkbsfl= fvjybevbcbjyib (NH4

+) udfmdc js[b rjdfktynehb ,vf= fmtlfy thsb ofh-vjmvybkbf ljyjhek fmwtgnjhekb-vtmfybpvbs|

2p

3s

yf[ibh,flbc fnjvc fupyt,ek vlujvfhtj,fib fmdc js[b ufe-o'dbkt,tkb tktmnhjyb|

1s22s12px12py

12pz1

p2

2s

1s

vtsfybc (CH4) vjktrekbc ofhvjmvybcfc yf[ibh,flbc fnjvib]b,hblbpfwbfc ufybwlbc thsb s- lf p-jh,bnfkb= ofhvjbmvyt,fjs[b thsyfbhb ]b,hblekb sp3-jh,bnfkb= hjvkt,bw uflfbaf-ht,f js[b fnjvb o'fk,flbc s-jh,bnfkt,bs lf ofhvjbmvyt,fvtsfybc vjktrekf js[b trdbdfktynehb ,vbs\ cfdfktynj res[t]b,hblek jh,bnfkt,c ijhbc itflutyc 109028' (yf[\ 7).

mbvbehb ,vf lf dfktynj,f

sfyfvtlhjdt vj.qdht,f dfktynj,bc itcf[t, xfvj'fkb,lf vfcitvltu= hfw lflubylf fnjvbc hsekb ,eyt,f lf itveifdlf mbvbe-hb ,vbc stjhbf\

wyj,bkbf= hjv tktvtynt,bc fnjvt,c fmdc eyfhb= ufcwty fyvbbthsjc tktmnhjyt,bc ufhrdtekb hfjltyj,f fy ofhvjmvyfccfpbfhj tktmnhjyekb o'dbkt,b c[df fnjvt,sfy\ tktmnhjyt,c=hjvkt,bw vjyfobktj,c fnjvt,c ijhbc mbvbehb ,vt,bc ofhvjmv-yfib= cfdfktynj tktmnhjyt,b tojlt,f\ mbvbehb tktvtynbccfdfktynj tktmnhjyt,bc hbw[db njkbf tktvtynbc /ueabcyjvhbcf gthbjlek cbcntvfib\ cfdfktynj tktmnhjyt,c egbh-dtktc'jdkbcf vbtresdyt,f ufht (lfevsfdht,tkb) ihbc tktmn-hjyt,b= vfuhfv cfdfktynj itb.kt,f b'jc fuhtsdt ufht ihbc obyf

yf[\ 7\ vtsfybc vjktrekbc fqyfuj,bc cmtvf

70 71

tktmnhjyt,bc hbw[dc= hjvtkbw uflfotekbf thsb tktvtynbcfnjvblfy vtjht tktvtynbc fnjvbcrty= tojlt,f ;fyudbc [fhbc-[b= fye ;fyudbc hbw[db\

fvudfhfl= ;fyudbc [fhbc[b (fye ;fyudbc hbw[db) fhbc vjkt-rekfib fnjvt,bc gbhj,bsb ve[nb= ufvjsdkbkb bv vjcfpht,blfy=hjv vjktrekf itlut,f v[jkjl bjyt,bcfufy\

bjyeh yfthsib bjybc ;fyudbc [fhbc[b= fye ;fyudbc hbw[db=

njkbf fv bjybc ve[nbc cblblbc= vfufkbsfl= 22

OCu,ClNa

lf f\i\

eylf fqbybiyjc= hjv lf;fyuekj,bc [fhbc[b ajhvfkehb uf-ut,ff lf fh f[fcbfst,c fnjvbc htfkeh vlujvfhtj,fc yfthst,ib=bvltyfl= hfvltyflfw rjdfktynehb yfthst,bw ufyb[bkt,f= hj-ujhw bjyt,bcufy itvlufhb= sevwf= cbyfvldbktib= fv yfthst,ib bjy-t,b fh fhbc\ rjdfktyneh yfthst,ib sbsjtekb fnjvbc ;fyudbchbw[dc cfpqdhfdty bv ve[nbc cblblbs= hjvtkbw lfhxt,f vjwt-vek fnjvc vfc itvltu= hfw itvfthst,tk o'dbk tktmnhjyc jh=

thsvfytssfy it,vekb fnjvblfy eahj tktmnhjefh'jabs fnjvc

vbfresdyt,ty\ vfu\|

222

23

OH,SH,HN lf f\i\

vfhnbd ybdsbtht,fsf fnjvt,c f[fcbfst,c yekjdfyb ;fyudbchbw[db= vfu\| 0

202

02

02 N,O,Cl,H lf f\i\= hflufy fv itvs[dtdfib

lfvfrfdibht,tkb tktmnhjyekb o'dbkb (tktmnhjyekb qhe-,tkb) sfyf,hfl tresdybc jhbdt fnjvc\ se ybdsbtht,f bv'jat,ffnjveh vlujvfhtj,fib= fnjvbc ;fyudbc [fhbc[bw fuhtsdt yekbcnjkbf\

;fyudbc [fhbc[bc wyt,f ufycfresht,ek ufvj'tyt,fc gjekj,c;fyudf-fqlutybc htfmwbt,bc itcofdkbc lhjc\ fv htfmwbt,ibthsb fnjvblfy vtjht fnjvpt tktmnhjyt,bc vskbfyb uflfcdkbsfy yfobkj,hbdb uflfpbldbc itvltu bwdkt,f vfsb ;fyudbc [fhbc[b\

o'fk,flbc ;fyudbc [fhbc[b 'dtkf yfthst,ib (+1)-bf= ufhlf

kbsjysf ]blhblt,bc= hjvkt,ibw o'fk,flbc ;fyudbc [fhbc[b

(-1)-bc njkbf\ vfu\|

2

2HCa,HNa lf f\i\

H:HNH

:H = fvbnjv fpjnbc fnjvb js[dfktynbfybf\

itcf.kt,tkbf fnjvib ufbpfhljc ufeo'dbkt,tkb tktmn-hjyt,bc hfjltyj,f lf= itcf,fvbcfl= dfktynj,fw\ tc [lt,f bv itv-s[dtdfib= hjltcfw fnjvb uflflbc fupyt,ek vlujvfhtj,fib\ fvlhjc jhtktmnhjybfyb qhe,kt,b bikt,f thstktmnhjybfyqhe,kt,fl\ vfufkbsfl= yf[ibh,flbc fnjvc yjhvfkeh vlujvf-htj,fib fmdc jhb ufeo'dbkt,tkb tktmnhjyb|

6C 1s22s22p3 t\b\ ite.kbf ufvjfv;qfdyjc

2-bc njkb dfktynj,f\ fupyt,ek vlujvfhtj,fib uflfcdkbcfc

[lt,f ufo'dbkt,ekb tktmnhjyt,bc ufywfkrtdt,f= hbc itltuf-lfw yf[ibh,flbc fnjvc exylt,f 4 ufeo'dbkt,tkb tktmnhjyb=hjvtksf [fh/ptw ofhvjmvybc mbvbeh ,vfc lf= itcf,fvbcfl= fv;-qfdyt,c 4-bc njk dfktynj,fc|

*C 1s22s12px12py

12pz1

;fyudbc [fhbc[b

hsekb ybdsbtht,bc vjktrekfib c[dflfc[df tktvtynbcfnjvt,c ijhbc mbvbehb ,vf fhfcbvtnhbekbf\ bjyeh yfthst,ibtktmnhjyt,bc tc esfyf,hj ufyfobkt,f vfmcbvfkehbf= rth.jl=bjyehb yfthsbc ofhvjmvybcfc cfdfktynj tktmnhjyt,b ghfmnb-rekfl vskbfyfl uflflbc thsb tktvtynbc fnjvblfy vtjht tkt-vtynbc fnjvpt\ yfthst,ib fnjvt,c ijhbc tktmnhjyt,bc esf-yf,hj ufyfobkt,fv vbbqj lf;fyuekj,bc cf[tkojlt,f\ fvfcsfy=tktvtynb= hjvkbc tktmnhjyt,b uflfbotdf c[df tktvtynbc fnj-vbcrty (vskbfyfl bjyehb ,vbc itvs[dtdfib fy yfobkj,hbd _ gj-kfhek-rjdfktynehb ,vbc itvs[dtdfib)= fv;qfdyt,c lflt,bs lf-;fyuekj,fc= [jkj tktvtynb= hjvkbc fnjvbcrtyfw uflfbotdfc[df fnjvt,bc tktmnhjyt,b= fv;qfdyt,c efh'jabs lf;fyuekj,fc\

2p

2s

1s

2p

2s

1s

72 73

cfthsjl= tktvtynbc evfqktcb ;fyudbc [fhbc[b yfthst,ibnjkbf /ueabc yjvhbcf\ ufhlf evfqktcb ;fyudbc [fhbc[bcf= fh-

xtdty evlf,ktc lf cfiefkj ;fyudbc [fhbc[t,cfw\ vfu\| 426

2 OSH

-

ib ujubhlc fmdc evfqktcb ;fyudbc [fhbc[b (+6)+ 324

2 OSH

-ib uj-

ubhlb fv;qfdyt,c iefktleh ;fyudbc [fhbc[c (+4)\ [jkj H2+S_2-

ib ujubhlbc ;fyudbc [fhbc[velf,ktcbf (_2)\

bjyehb ,vf

,vfc= hjvtkbw [jhwbtklt,f cfobyffqvltujl lfve[nekbjyt,c ijhbc tktmnhjcnfnbrehb vbpblekj,bc .fkt,bs= toj-lt,f bjyehb= fye tktmnhjdfktynehb ,vf\

bjyehb ,vbs thsvfytsc erfdibhlt,f bctsb tktvtynt,bcfnjvt,b= hjvkt,bw vrdtshfl ufyc[dfdlt,f thsvfytsbcfufy tktmn-hjefh'jabsj,bs\ fctst,bf nbgehb kbsjyt,b lf nbgehb fhf-kbsjyt,b\

bjyehb ,vbc ofhvjmvyf ufydb[bkjs NaCl-bc ofhvjmvybc vf-ufkbspt\ yfnhbevbcf lf mkjhbc fnjvsf fqyfuj,blfy (Na -1s22s22p63s1, Cl - 1s22s22p63s23p5) xfyc= hjv vfs fnjvt,c fmdc lfec-hekt,tkb ufht iht\ fv ihbc lfvsfdht,bcsdbc Na-bc fnjvb fldb-kfl ufcwtvc cfdfktynj ihbc ths tktmnhjyc lf ufhlfbmvyt,f

+1 ve[nbfy bjyfl

NaeNa0 = hbc itltuflfw Na-bc rjy-

abuehfwbf uflflbc vluhfl hdftktmnhjybfy ufhcib lf tvcufd-ct,f bythnek fbh Ne-c (Na+-bc bjyb 1s22s22p6)= [jkj Cl-bc fnjvbrb (cfdfktynj ihbc lfchekt,fc frkbf thsb tktmnhjyb) fldb-kfl bthst,c tktmnhjyc lf ufhlfbmvyt,f efh'jabs thsve[nbfy

bjyfl CleCl0 \ fv lhjc Cl-bc ufhcb uflflbc bythnekb fbhbc

fhujybc vluhfl rjyabuehfwbfib (Cl_ -bc bjyb 1s22s22p63s23p6)\

;fyu,flbc ;fyudbc [fhbc[b 'dtkf yfthsib (-2)-bc njkbf=ufvjyfrkbcbf asjhsfy yfthsb _ OF2= hjvtkibw ;fyu,flbc;fyudbc [fhbc[b (+2)-bf\ F-bc ;fyudbc [fhbc[b rb 'jdtksdbc nj-

kbf (-1)-bc\ gthjmcblt,ib ;fyu,flbc ;fyudbc [fhbc[b (-1)-bc nj-

kbf\ vfu\| 222

22 OCa,ONa

lf f\i\ nent kbsjyt,bc ;fyudbc [fhbc[b

'jdtksdbc (+1)-bc= [jkj nentvbofkbsjyt,bc (+2)\yt,bcvbth yfthsib fnjvt,bc lflt,bsb lf efh'jabsb ;fyudbc

[fhbc[bc /fvb yekbc njkbf\ 'jdtkbdt ptvjs fqybiyekbc lf[-vfht,bs itb.kt,f ufydcfpqdhjs yt,bcvbthb fnjvbc ;fyudbc [f-hbc[b c[dflfc[df yfthsib\ vfu\| Na2SO3-ib ufydcfpqdhjs uj-ubhlbc (S) ;fyudbc [fhbc[b\ bub fqdybiyjs -bs\ dbwbs= hjv ;fyu-,flbc ;fyudbc hbw[db (-2)-bc njkbf= Na-bc _ (+1)-bc= vfiby vb-dbqt,s|

2.(+1) + + 3.(-2) = 02 + + (-6) = 0 = +4

ufydcfpqdhjs fpjnbc ;fyudbc [fhbc[b vbc itvltu yfth-st,ib| H+N5O-2

3, N+4O-22, H+N+3O-2

2 , N+2O-2, N+2O-2, N2

0, N2-2H0

4, N-

3H+3\ t\b\ ;fyudbc [fhbc[b itb.kt,f b'jc lflt,bsb= efh'jabsb lf

yekbc njkb= hbsfw bub ufyc[dfdlt,f dfktynj,bcufy\,tdh itvs[dtdfib fnjvbc ;fyudbc [fhbc[b fh tvs[dtdf vfs

vbth ofhvjmvybk ,vfsf hbw[dc= t\b\ dfktynj,fc\ tc ufycfres-ht,bs sdfkcfxbyjf jhufyek yfthst,ib\ wyj,bkbf= hjv jhufyekyfthst,ib yf[ibh,flbc dfktynj,f 'jdtksdbc js[bc njkbf(ofhvjmvybc js[ ,vfc)= vfuhfv vbcb ;fyudbc [fhbc[b itb.kt,f b'jc(-4)-bc njkb CH4-ib+ (-2)-bc njkb _ CH3OH-ib+ 0-bc njkb _

ajhvfklt]blib ( H\O//

CH_ )+ (+2)-bc njkb _ zbfyzdtkfv;fdfib

(HCOOH) lf f\i\

74 75

fnjvt,c ufht tythutnbrek ljytpt fmdc ,tdhb sfdbceafkb jh-,bnfkb= cfdfktynj tktmnhjyt,b cfrvfjl cecnfl fhbc itrfd-ibht,ekb fnjv,bhsdsfy\ kbsjyt,bc bjybpfwbbc tythubf vwbhtf=fvbnjv tktmnhjyt,bc rfdibhb fnjvt,sfy fldbkfl o'lt,f= hbcufvjw rhbcnfkeh vtcthib uflfyfwdkt,bc lblb sfdbceakt,ffmdc\ wfkrtek fnjvt,c vjo'dtnbkb tktmnhjyt,b ofhvjmvybct\o\ tktmnhjyek ufpc _ @sfdbceafkb# tktmnhjyt,bc thsj,-kbj,fc\

fvudfhfl= kbsjyt,b itudb.kbf ofhvjdblubyjs= hjujhw lf-lt,bsb bjyt,bc vzblhjl itrfdibht,ekb cnhemnehf= hjvkt,bwthsvfytssfy lfrfdibht,ekbf tktmnhjyekb ufpbs= fvfcsfy=ufthsbfyt,ekb tktmnhjyt,bc itlfht,bs vwbht hbw[db frfdib-ht,c thsvfytssfy bjysf lbl hbw[dc\

mbvbehb ,vbc cf[tc= hjvtkbw kbsjybc bjyt,cf lf sfdbceakflvj.hfd ufthsbfyt,ek tktmnhjyt,c (tktmnhjyek ufpc) ij-hbc ehsbthsvbpblekj,bc itltufl [jhwbtklt,f= kbsjyehb,vf tojlt,f\

hfvltyflfw kbsjybc rhbcnfkib cfdfktynj tktmnhjyt,bufyfobkt,ekbf sbsmvbc sfyf,hfl= bvltyfl ite.kt,tkbf kfgf-hfrb kbsjyehb ,vbc vbvfhsekt,fpt\ fvbs bc vrdtshfl ufyc[dfd-lt,f rjdfktynehb ,vbcfufy= hjvtkcfw fmdc ufhrdtekb vbvfhse-kt,f cbdhwtib\ kbsjyehb ,vf ufyc[dfdlt,f rjdfktynehb ,vbcf-ufy cbvnrbwbsfw\ vbcb ,vbc tythubf 3-4-/th vwbhtf rjdfkty-nehb ,vbc tythubfcsfy itlfht,bs\ kbsjyeh ,vfc fmdc cfthsjrjdfktyneh ,vfcsfy= rth.jl bc= hjv kbsjyehb ,vfw [jhwb-tklt,f cfdfktynj tktmnhjyt,bc ufthsbfyt,bc cfae.dtkpt=v[jkjl bv ufyc[dfdt,bs= hjv rjdfktynehb ,vbc lhjc cfpbfhj[lt,f jhb vtpj,tkb fnjvbc tktmnhjyt,b= [jkj kbsjyehb ,vbcofhvjmvyfib tktmnhjyt,bc ufthsbfyt,fib 'dtkf fnjvb bqt,cvjyfobktj,fc\ rjdfktynehb ,vbc ofhvjvmvytkb tktmnhjyt,bthsvfytssfy frfdibht,c jh fnjvc lf vfssfy vnrbwtlff lfrfd-ibht,ekb\ kbsjyehb ,vbc ofhvjvmvytkb tktmnhjyt,b rb sf-

Na+ lf Cl- bjyt,c ijhbc fqb.dht,f tktmnhjcnfnbrehb vbpbldbc.fkt,b lf ofhvjbmvyt,f bjyehb yfthsb NaCl\

mbvbehb ,vbc sfyfvtlhjdt stjhbf bjyeh ,vfc ufyb[bkfdc=hjujhw rjdfktynehb ,vbc pqdhekb gjkfhbpfwbbc itvs[dtdfc=hjwf cfthsj tktmnhjyekb od'bkb vskbfyfl uflflbc ths-th-sb fnjvbc vakj,tkj,fib|

:Cl:Na:ClNa

:Cl:Na:Cl:Na

bjyeh ,vfc= ufyc[dfdt,bs rjdfktynehbcufy= fh f[fcbfst,cvbvfhsekt,f lf uf/tht,ekj,f\

'dtkf bjyehb yfthsb (v'fh vlujvfhtj,fib) [fcbfslt,f bjye-hb rhbcnfkehb vtchbs= hfw ufyfgbhj,t,c fv nbgbc yfthst,bcleqbkbcf lf kqj,bc vfqfk ntvgthfnehfc\

bjyehb yfthst,bc vybidytkjdfyb sdbct,ff bc= hjv o'fkibuf[cybcfc fy ufkqj,bcfc bikt,f bjyt,fl= hbc itltuflfw vfsb[cyfht,b lf yfkqj,t,bw fnfht,c tktmnhek ltyc= fvbnjv vfstktmnhjkbnt,b tojlt,f\

kbsjyehb ,vf

wyj,bkbf= hjv kbsjyt,bcsdbc lfvf[fcbfst,tkbf vfqfkbkqj,bc ntvgthfnehf= cbyfskbc c[bdt,bc fhtrdkbc eyfhb= vf-qfkb tktmnhj- lf cbs,jufvnfhj,f= ufzbvdbcf lf ukbydbc rfhubeyfhb\ kbsjysf 'dtkf tc sfdbct,eht,f fb[cyt,f vfsb rhbcnf-kehb vtchbc fqyfuj,bs= vfs rhbcnfkeh vtcthib fnjvt,c ijhbcufycfresht,ekb [fcbfsbc ,vbc _ kbsjyehb ,vbc fhct,j,bs\

kbsjysf fnjvt,bc evtntcj,f ufht tythutnbrek ljytptitbwfdc tktmnhjyt,bc vwbht hbw[dc\ ufhlf fvbcf= kbsjysf

76 77

kbf bv fnjvt,bc hflbecpt lf tktmnhjefh'jabsj,fpt= hjvtk-sf ijhbcfw ofhvjbmvyt,f\ rth.jl= hfw eahj vwbhtf fnjvbc hflb-ecb lf lblbf tktmnhjefh'jabsj,f= vbs eahj .kbthbf o'fk,flehb,vf\ o'fk,flehb ,vf ofhvjbmvyt,f vfu\= o'kbc vjktrekt,c ijhbc\o'kbc vjktrekfib ,vf o'fk,flcf lf ;fyu,flc ijhbc fhbc gjkf-hekb= cfpbfhj tktmnhjyekb o'dbkb uflfpblekbf o'fk,f-lblfy ;fyu,flbcrty= hbc ufvjw o'fk,flc fmdc vwbht lflt,bsbve[nb lf ite.kbf ehsbthsmvtlt,f o'kbc vtjht vjktrekbc;fyu,flbc fnjvbc ufepbfht,tk tktmnhjyek o'dbksfy= hbcitltuflfw fqb.dht,f o'fk,flehb ,vf= [lt,f o'kbc vjktrekt,bcfcjwbfwbf lf ofhvjbmvyt,f ntnhftlhekb cnhemnehf\

dbceakfl uflfflubklt,f vstk rhbcnfkib lf thsyfbhfl tr-esdybc 'dtkf fnjvc\

fvudfhfl= kbsjyehb ,vf fhbc .ktbh fhfkjrfkbpt,ekb mb-vbehb ,vf= hjvtkbw fqb.dht,f bv itvs[dtdfib= hjltcfw sfdbce-afkb cfdfktynj jh,bnfkt,bc hfjltyj,fcsfy itlfht,bs fnj-vt,c fmdc cfdfktynj tktmnhjyt,bc vwbht hbw[db= hjvkt,bwbjybpfwbbc lf,fkb tythubbc ufvj cecnfl fhbc lfrfdibht,ekbfnjv,bhsdsfy\

o'fk,flehb ,vf

,vf= hjvtkbw [jhwbtklt,f o'fk,flbc lflt,bs bjycf lfhjvtkbvt .kbthb tktmnhjefh'jabsb tktvtynbc fnjvt,c ijhbc(fctsb tktvtynt,bf F, O, N lf f\i\)= o'fk,flehb ,vf tojlt,f\

o'fk,flehb ,vf itb.kt,f b'jc vjktrekfsfijhbcb lf ibuf-vjktrekehb\

vjktrekfsfijhbcb o'fk,flehb ,vf [jhwbtklt,f bcts vj-ktrekt,c ijhbc= hjvtksf itlutybkj,fib itlbc o'fk,flbcflf hjvtkbvt .kbth tktmnhjefh'jabsb tktvtynbc fnjvt,b\fcts vjktrekfib cfpbfhj tktmnhjyekb o'dbkb uflfpble-kbf o'fk,flblfy tktmnhjefh'jabsb tktvtynbc fnjvbcrty\o'fk,flc exylt,f lflt,bsb ve[nb= bub ehsbthsmvtlt,c c[dffnjvbc fy bjybc ufe'jatk tktmnhjyek o'dbksfy= hbc itlt-uflfw ofhvjbmvyt,f o'fk,flehb ,vf\ flht o'fk,flehb ,vbc ofh-vjmvyfc [cyblyty tktmnhjcnfnbrehb ehsbthsmvtlt,bs ghj-njycf lf c[df gjkfhek /ueac ijhbc\ lqtbcfsdbc rb sdkbfy=hjv o'fk,flehb ,vbc ufy[jhwbtkt,f ljyjhek-fmwtgnjhekbvtmfybpvbs vbvlbfyhtj,c= cflfw o'fk,flbc lflt,bsb bjyb (ghj-njyb) fmwtgnjhbf= [jkj .kbth tktmnhjefh'jabsb tktvty-nbc fnjvb _ ljyjhb\ xdtekt,hbd= o'fk,fleh ,vfc fqybiyfdtyothnbkt,bs\ bub eahj cecnb ,vff= dblht rjdfktynehb ,vf (lf-f[kjt,bs 15-20-/th)\ o'fk,flehb ,vbc cb.kbtht lfvjrblt,e-

O

O O

OO

H

H

H

H

. . .

. .. .. . .

. .

o'fk,flehb ,vt,b ofhvjbmvyt,f fuhtsdt cgbhnbc vjktre-kt,c ijhbc= HF-bc vjktrekt,c ijhbc lf c[df\

RRR|||

OHOHOH ___

hjujhw fqdybiyts= o'fk,flehb ,vfitb.kt,f ufy[jhwbtkltc vjktrekbc ibu-ybs\ vfu\= cfkbwbkbc v;fdfib o'fk,flehb,vf fqb.dht,f jh aeymwbjyfkeh /ueac ij-hbc= hjvtkbw bodtdc O_H ,vbc gjkfhb-pt,fc lf v;fdfc cb.kbthbc ufphlfc\

OC

O _ H

. . .

O _ H

78 79

htfmwbbc cbs,ehb tatmnb\ htfmwbbc ibuf tythubf U fhbc vbcbchekb tythubf= hjvtkbw ofhvjflutyc vjktrekt,bc= fnjvue-kbc= tktmnhjyt,bc= fuhtsdt vjktrekt,c ijhbc ehsbthsmvt-lt,bc tythubt,bc /fvc\

lfdeidfs= hjvtkbvt cbcntvf cbs,jc (Q) isfysmvbc itltuflthsb vlujvfhtj,blfy uflflbc vtjht vlujvfhtj,fib\ cbcntvbcvbth isfysmvekb cbs,j b[fh/t,f cbcntvbc ibuf tythubbc wdkb-kt,fpt U lf ufht .fkt,bc obyffqvltu itchekt,ek veifj,fpt(A)= vfiby

Q = U + Aufht .fkt,bc obyffqvltu itchekt,ekb veifj,f fhbc uf-

htvjc oytdbc obyffqvltu itchekt,ekb veifj,f\A = P (V2 _ V1) = pV

bpjmjhekb ghjwtcbc lhjc (v = const) V2 _ V1 = 0, fvbnjvA= 0.

QV = U2 _ U1 = Ut\b bpjmjhekb ghjwtcbc lhjc cbs,jc ufvj'jaf fy isfysmvf

(QV) lfvjrblt,ekbf v[jkjl ibuf tythubbc wdkbkt,fpt\bpj,fhekb ghjwtcbc lhjc ((p = const)\

Qp = U + pVQp = (U2 _ U1) _ p(V2 _ V1)Qp = (U2 + pV2) _ (U1 + pV1)

fqdybiyjs U + pV = H= vfiby Qp = H2 _ H1 = HH-bc vybidytkj,fc tojlt,f tysfkgbf (cbs,jitvwdtkj,f)\

bub itb.kt,f ufydb[bkjs= hjujhw cbcntvbc ufafhsjt,bc tyth-ubf= tupjsthvekb htfmwbt,bc lhjc cbs,jc ufvjb'jaf= t\b\ ty-sfkgbf vwbhlt,f= [jkj tyljsthvekb htfmwbt,bc lhjc cbs,jisfbysmvt,f _ t\b\ tysfkgbf bphlt,f\

htfmwbt,c= cflfw vbsbst,ekbf cbs,ehb tatmnb= sthvjmbvbehbufynjkt,f tojlt,f\ c[dflfc[df ghjwtcbc cbs,ehb tatmnbc it-cflfht,kfl sthvjmbvbehb uffyufhbit,f [lt,f 1 vjkb ybdsbt-

o'fk,flehb ,vt,b ufycfresht,bs ufdhwtkt,ekbf ,bjkj-ubehfl vybidytkjdfyb yfthst,bc vjktrekt,ib= hjujhbwff wb-kt,b= yerktbybc v;fdt,b lf c[df\

o'fk,flehb ,vf ufdktyfc f[ltyc ybdsbtht,fsf sdbct,t,pt\fv ,vbc fhct,j,bs fb[cyt,f o'kbc leqbkbc ntvgthfnehbc(1000C) uflblt,f= ;fyu,flbc /ueabc c[df tktvtynbc o'fk,flyfth-st,sfy itlfht,bs (H2S, H2Se, H2Te)= hflufy fv itvs[dtdfib cf-zbhjf lfvfnt,bsb tythubf o'fk,flehb ,vt,bc ufcf[ktxfl\

HF-bc vjktrekt,c ijhbc o'fk,flehb ,vbc fhct,j,bs fb[c-yt,f bc afmnb= hjv anjho'fk,flb xdtekt,hbd gbhj,t,ib cb-s[tf= lfyfhxtyb ]fkjutyo'fk,flt,b rb fbhflbf\

SFDB &^MBVBEHB HTFMWBT<BC VBVLBYFHTJ<BC

RFYJYPJVBTHT<T<B

mbvbehb ufhlfmvyf fhbc sdbcj,hbdb lf itlutybkj,bsb ufh-lfmvyf= hjvkbc lhjcfw ofhvjbmvyt,f f[fkb ybdsbtht,f\ fvlhjc vbvlbyfht ghjwtct,c (fnjvt,bc tktmnhjyekb cnhemne-ht,bc wdkbkt,f= f[fkb vjktrekt,bc ofhvjmvyf) sfy f[kfdccbs,jc ufvj'jaf fy isfysmvf= hfw ufyfgbhj,t,c mbvbehb tythubbcuflfcdkfc f[fk tythubfib\

htfmwbbc tythutnbrek tatmnc itbcofdkbc sthvjmbvbf\ mb-vbehb htfmwbt,b vbvlbyfhtj,c velvbdb oytdbc (bpj,fhekb) fyvelvbdb vjwekj,bc (bpjmjhekb) gbhj,t,ib\ cbcntvbc vluhf-lj,f [fcbfslt,f pjubthsb wdkflbc lf[vfht,bs\ tc wdkflt,bf _oytdf= vjwekj,f= ntvgthfnehf= vfcf= tythubf\ fv gfhfvtnht,ptlf'hlyj,bs itb.kt,f ufvjdb'dfyjs c[df eahj vybidytkjdfybvjyfwtvt,b= hjujhbwff ibuf tythubf U= tysfkgbf H= tyshjgbfS= bpj,fhekb gjntywbfkb lf c[df\

80 81

bpj,fhek-bpjvtnhekb gjntywbfkb\/b,cbc tythubf

mbvbehb htfmwbt,bc lhjc flubkb fmdc jh ntyltywbfc| 1) yfob-kfrt,bc cohfadfc ufthsbfylyty= hfw fvwbht,c tysfkgbfc+ 2) yfob-kfrt,bc cohfadfc ufywfkrtdlyty= hfw phlbc tynhjgbfc\ fv ghj-wtcbc /fvehb tatmnb velvbdb oytdbc lf ntvgthfnehbc gbhj,t,-ib fhbc bpj,fhek-bpjvtnhekb gjntywbfkb= fye /b,cbc tythubf\

G = H _ TSmbvbehb htfmwbbc itcf.kt,tkb vbvlbyfhtj,bc vfxdtyt,tkbf=

hjwf G < 0\ se G > 0 htfmwbbc vbvlbyfhtj,f ite.kt,tkbf\[jkj se G = 0= vfiby cbcntvf ojyfcojhj,fibf\

mbvbehb htfmwbbc cbxmfht lfvfcpt vjmvtlb afmnjht,b

mbvbehb htfmwbbc cbxmfhbc vf[fcbfst,tkb fhbc cfo'bcb lf cf,-jkjj ghjlemnbc rjywtynhfwbbc wdkbkt,f lhjbc thstekib\se rjywtynhfwbbc cfo'bc lf cf,jkjj vybidytkj,t,c fqdybiyfdsC1 lf C2-bs= [jkj ntvgthfnehfc itcf,fvbcfl t1 lf t2-bs= vfiby

tc

ttccV

12

12

(_) ybifyb botht,f vfiby= hjltcfw ybdsbtht,bc rjywtynhf-wbfc dfyufhbij,s cfo'bcb ghjlemnbcfufy= hflufy C2 < C1\ serjywtynhfwbbc ufycfpqdhf [lt,f cf,jkjj ghlemnbs= vfiby cf-zbhjf (+) ybifyb= hflufy vbqt,ekb ghjlemnbc rjywtynhfwbfbphlt,f (C2 > C1)\

mbvbehb htfmwbbc cbxmfht lfvjrblt,ekbf _ vjhtfubht ybd-sbtht,bc ,eyt,fpt= rjywtynhfwbfpt= ntvgthfnehfpt= fmnbdf-wbbc tythubfpt= rfnfkbpfnjhpt\

ht,bc vbvfhs 1 fnv\ oytdbc lf 250C-bc (198=15 K) ntvgthfnehbclhjc\ bub fqbybiyt,f H0

298 lf bpjvt,f r/jekbs\ vfufkbsfl=H2(fbhb) + 1/2 (O2)(fbhb) = H2O(cbs[t) H = -286 r/jekb\

tynhjgbf\ 'dtkf mbvbehb ghjwtcb itbwfdc jh sfyfvbvltdhekvjdktyfc| tythubbc uflfwtvfc lf yfobkfrt,bc vjeotchbut,kj-,fib uflfcdkfc\ cbcntvbc vjeotchbut,kj,bc vfc[fcbfst,tkb fhbctynhjgbf\ tynhjgbf vwbhlt,f= se cbcntvf eahj vjotchbut,ekb[lt,f\ tc ghjwtcb rb sfdbcsfdfl fh vbvlbyfhtj,c\ se jh ,fkjyibudfmdc c[dflfc[df fbhb bltfkeh vlujvfhtj,fib lf vfs ijhbcitvfthst,tk jyrfyc ufd[cybs= bcbyb itthtdbfy thsvfytsc= cfyfvfh ufdhwtklt,bfy vstk vjwekj,fib thsyfbhfl\ tynhjgbf uf-bphlt,f\ vfsb ufywfkrtdt,f sfdbcsfdfl fh vj[lt,f\

mbvbeh htfmwbfib tynhjgbbc wdkbkt,f ufybcfpqdht,f ajh-vekbs| S = S2 _ S1= cflfw S1 fhbc 'dtkf cfo'bcb ybdsbtht,bctynhjgbt,bc /fvb= [jkj S2 _ htfmwbbc 'dtkf rjvgjytynbc tyn-hjgbt,bc /fvb\

mbvbeh htfmwbt,ib tynhjgbbc wdkbkt,fpt itb.kt,f dbvc-/tkjs vjwekj,bc wdkbkt,bs\

1/2 C(v'fhb) + 1/2CO2 (fbhb) = CO (fbhb)

fv htfmwbfib vjwekj,f bphlt,f V>0= tynhjgbfw ufbph-lt,f\

fvbfrbc ofhvjmvybcfc N2 (fbhb) + 3H2 (fbhb) = 2NH3 (fbhb) cbcntvbcvjwekj,f vwbhlt,f= itcf,fvbcfl itvwbhlt,f tynhjgbfw\

se htfmwbf vbvlbyfhtj,c v'fh afpfib= vfufkbsfl=Al(v'fhb) + Sb (v'fhb) = AlSb v'fhb)

= fhw vjwekj,f lf fhw tynhjgbffh bwdkt,f\

cnfylfhnek tynhjgbfc= tysfkgbbc vcufdcfl= pjvfdty 1 vjkbybdsbtht,bc vbvfhs= 1 fnv\ oytdbc lf 250C (298,15 K) ntvgthf-nehbc gbhj,t,ib\ bub fqbybiyt,f S0

298\

82 83

dfyn-]jabc otcbc vb[tldbs ntvgthfnehbc 'jdtkb 100C-bs ufphlbs= evtntcb htfmwbt,bc cbxmfht bphlt,f 2-4-/th\

1

12

2 T10

TT

T VV

cflfw VT1 lf VT2 fhbc cbxmfhtt,b cfo'bcc lf cf,jkjj ntvgt-

hfneht,pt= [jkj g= htfmwbbc ntvgthfnehekb rjtabwbtynb=hjvtkbw udbxdtyt,c= hfvlty/th bphlt,f htfmwbbc cbxmfht vj-htfubht ybdsbtht,t,bc ntvgthfnehbc 100C-bs ufphlbs\

fmnbdfwbbc tythubf\ bvbcfsdbc= hjv vjhtfubht ybdsbtht,t,cijhbc vj[ltc htfmwbf= cfzbhjf= hjv vjktrekt,c ijhbc vj[ltcit/f[t,f\ vfuhfv vjktrekt,c ijhbc 'dtkf it/f[t,f fh bodtdcmbvbeh htfmwbfc\ htfmwbf [lt,f v[jkjl vfiby= hjltcfw vjhtf-ubht ybdsbtht,t,bc vjktrekt,b bvltyfl vbef[kjdlt,bfy ths-vfytsc= hjv vfs ijhbc itcf.kt,tkb [lt,f tktmnhjyekb cbvrd-hbdbc uflfyfobkt,f lf f[fkb mbvbehb ,vbc ofhvjmvyf\ t\b\ vjhtf-ubht ybdsbtht,t,bc vjktrekt,c eylf ]mjyltc bvltyb tythubf=hjv itcf.kt,tkb uf[ltc vfs ijhbc fhct,ekb ufypbldbc .fkt,bc(tythutnbrekb ,fhbthbc) uflfafhdf\ fcts htfmwbbceyfhbfy vj-ktrekt,c tojlt,f fmnbehb vjktrekt,b= [jkj itcf,fvbc tyth-ubfc tojlt,f fmnbdfwbbc tythubf\ yfobkfrt,bc /ueac= hjvtkbwvjyfobktj,c fv ghjwtcib= tojlt,f fmnbehb rjvgktmcb\

vjhtfubht ybdsbtht,fsf ,eyt,bc ufdktyf mbvbehb htfmwbbccbxmfhtpt itb.kt,f ufvjbcf[jc itvltub htfmwbt,bc vb[tldbs|

HF2FH 22

HCl2ClHh

22

gbhdtkb htfmwbf vbvlbyfhtj,c cb,ytktibw= vtjht rb v[j-

kjl cbyfsktpt\2NO + O2 = 2NO2CO + O2 = 2CO2

jsf[bc ntvgthfnehfptw fpjnb (^^) jmcblb cohfafl htf-ubht,c ;fyu,flsfy= hfw vehf obstkb athbc fpjnbc (^&) jmcblbcofhvjmvybs fhbc ufygbhj,t,ekb= vfiby= hjltcfw yf[ibh,flbc(^^) jmcblb bvfdt gbhj,t,ib sbsmvbc fh htfubht,c ;fyu,flsfy\

vjhtfubht ybdsbtht,fsf rjywtynhfwbbc ufdktyf\ mbvbehb ht-fmwbbc cbxmfht lfvjrblt,ekbf vjhtfubht ybdsbtht,t,bc vjktre-kt,bc ehsbthsmvtlt,fpt thstek lhjib lf thstek vjwekj-,fib\ vjktrekt,bc ehsbthsmvtlt,f sfdbc v[hbd lfvjrblt,ekbfvfs rjywtynhfwbfpt\ fqybiyekb rfyjypjvbtht,f fhbc vjvmvtl vf-cfsf rfyjyb= hjvkbc vb[tldbsfw= htfmwbbc cbxmfht gbhlfgbhghj-gjhwbekbf vjhtfubht ybdsbtht,t,bc rjywtynhfwbbc yfvhfdkbc\

H2 + J2 = 2HJtc htfmwbf vjmvtl vfcfsf rfyjybc ufvj'tyt,bs xfbotht,f itv-

ltuyfbhfl| V = K [H2][J2]=cflfw V _ htfmwbbc cbxmfhtf= [jkj[H2] lf [J2] fhbc o'fk,flbc lf bjlbc rjywtynhfwbt,b\

htfmwbbcfsdbc N2 + 3H2 = 2NH3 V = K [N2][H2]3

K _ ghjgjhwbekj,bc rjtabwbtynbf= fye htfmwbbc cbxmfhbcrjycnfynf\ bub hbw[j,hbdfl htfmwbbc cbxmfhbc njkbf= hjltcfwvjhtfubht ybdsbtht,t,bc rjywtynhfwbf fhbc 1 vjkb\

ntvgthfnehbc ufdktyf mbvbehb htfmwbbc cbxmfhtpt\ ntvgt-hfnehbc ufphlbs bphlt,f htfmwbbc cbxmfht\ vfufkbsfl=2H2 + O2 = 2H2O htfmwbbc cbxmfht 3000C-pt evybidytkjf= 7000C-pthtfmwbf vbvlbyfhtj,c v'bcbthfl= fatsmt,bs\

yf[\8\ gjntywbfkehb vhelbcwdkbkt,f htfmwbbc lhjc

uffmnbdt,ekbvlujvfhtj,fC

b

a

E1

QE2

dcfo'bcb

vlujvfhtj,f

cf,jkjj vlujvfhtj,f

htfmwbbc rjjhlbyfnb

tyth

ubf

84 85

rfnfkbpfnjhbc vjmvtlt,f itb.kt,f itvltuyfbhfl ufvjdcf[js|A + B = AB A + K = AK AK + B = AB + K

vfufkbsfl= SO2-bc lf;fyudf SO3-fl\ rfnfkbpfnjhbf NO2\SO2 + 1/2O2 = SO3\

sfdlfgbhdtkfl SO2 + NO2 = SO3 + NOitvltu rb NO + 1/2O2 = NO2

rfnfkbpehb htfmwbt,b b'jaf jh /ueafl _ ]jvjutyehfllf ]tnthjutyekfl\

]jvjutyehb rfnfkbpbc lhjc _ rfnfkbpfnjhb lf vjhtf-ubht ybdsbtht,t,b ths afpfibf (fbhflb fy s[tdflb)\ ]tnthj-utyekb rfnfkbpbc lhjc rfnfkbpfnjhb fhbc lfvjerblt,tk(v'fh) afpfib\ vjhtfubht ybdsbtht,t,cf lf rfnfkbpfnjhc ijhbchtfmwbf vbvlbyfhtj,c rfnfkbpfnjhbc ptlfgbhpt\

rfnfkbpfnjht,b [ibhfl cgtwbabrehfl vjmvtlt,c\ vfufkb-sfl= tsbkbc cgbhnbc lt]blhfnfwbbc lhjc rfnfkbpfnjhbcnbgbc vb[tldbs itb.kt,f vbdbqjs c[dflfc[df ghjlemnb\

OHHCOHHC 242OAl

5232

OHO)HC(OHHC2 2252POH

5243

23Cu

52 HCHOCHOHHC

mbvbehb ojyfcojhj,f lfvfcpt vjmvtlb afmnjht,b

mbvbehb htfmwbt,bc evtntcj,f itmwtdflbf\ hjltcfw gbh-lfgbhb lf it,heyt,ekb htfmwbbc cbxmfhtt,b thsyfbhbf= vfibyv'fhlt,f ojyfcojhj,f\ vfufkbsfl= htfmwbfib H2 + J2 2HJ gbh-lfgbhb htfmwbbc cbxmfht njkbf| V1 = k1[H2][J2]= [jkj it,he-yt,ekb htfmwbbc cbxmfht V2 = k2[HJ]2\ hflufyfw V1 = V2 lf K1

lf K2 velvbdb cblbltt,bf= vfsb afhlj,fw bmyt,f velvbdb\

jhlbyfnsf qth.pt uflfpjvbkbf cbcntvbc gjntywbfkehbtythubf= [jkj f,cwbcsf qth.pt htfmwbbc rjhlbyfnf= fye htfm-wbbc upf\ htfmwbf vbvlbyfhtj,c itvltuyfbhfl| fmnbehb H2 lf J2

vjktrekt,b lf/f[t,bcfc ofhvjmvybfy iefktleh fmnbeh rjvg-ktmcc H2....J2\ fv rjvgktmcib H_J rfdibhb ofhvjbmvyt,f H_H lfJ_J rfdibht,bc ufo'dtnbc gfhfktkehfl\

H - - - - - H

I - - - - - - - - - - - - - I

- - - -

IIfmnbehb rjvgktmcb

H2 - - - - - I2

H HI I

fv uflf/ueat,bc itltufl ofhvjmvybk fmnbeh rjvgktmcibfmnbdfwbbc tythubf eahj vwbhtf= dblht cfo'bc vjktrekt,ibrfdibhbc vskbfyb ufo'dtnbcfsdbc cfzbhj tythubf\ tyljsthvekblfikbc htfmwbbcsdbc 2HJ(fbhb) H2(fbhb) + J2(fbhb) H = 175r/jekb= htfmwbbc upf bmyt,f it,heyt,ekb\ cfo'bc lf cf,jkjjljytt,c ijhbc c[dfj,f fhbc htfmwbbc cbs,ehb tatmnb H\

rfnfkbpfnjhbc ufdktyf\ rfnfkbpfnjhb fhbc ybdsbtht,f=hjvtkbw wdkbc htfmwbbc cbxmfhtc lf cf,jkjj ghjlemnbc it-vflutykj,fib fh itlbc\ htfmwbt,c= hjvkt,bw vbvlbyfhtj,c rfnf-kbpfnjhbc sfy[kt,bs= rfnfkbpehb htfmwbt,b tojlt,f\

rfnfkbpfnjhb fhbc jhudfhb| lflt,bsb _ fxmfht,c htfm-wbbc cbxmfhtc lf efh'jabsb _ fvwbht,c htfmwbbc cbxmfhtc\ fverfyfcrytkbc vfufkbsbf ,typbypt hrbybc rfh,jybkbc lfvfnt,f=hfw fvwbht,c fatsmt,bc itcf.kt,kj,fc\

ufydb[bkjs lflt,bsb rfnfkbpbc vfufkbst,b\rfnfkbpfnjhb ths-ths vjhtfubht ybdsbtht,fcsfy itlbc

htfmwbfib= ofhvjmvybc iefktleh ghjlemnc= hjvkbc cfiefkt-,bsfw cf,jkjj ghjlemnb eahj fldbkfl vbbqt,f\ rfnfkbpf-njhb fvwbht,c fmnbdfwbbc tythubfcfw\

86 87

SFDB &^^LBCGTHCBEKB CBCNTVT<B

se hjvtkbvt ybdsbtht,fib .fkbfy vwbht pjvbc yfobkfrt,bccf[bs ufyfobkt,ekbf vtjht ybdsbtht,f= fcts cbcntvfc tojlt,flbcgthcbekb\ bub itbwfdc lbcgthcbek ufhtvjc (ufvfyfobkt,tkbufhtvj) lf lbcgthcbek afpfc (lbcgthcbek ufhtvjib ufyfobkt-,ekb ybdsbtht,f)\ lbcgthcbekb afpbc lf ufhtvjc fuhtufnekbvlujvfhtj,bc vb[tldbs itb.kt,f vbdbqjs 9 lbcgthcbekb cbc-ntvf (f _ fbhb= s _ s[tdflb= v _ v'fhb+ gbhdtkb fcj tresdybcafpfc= vtjht rb ufhtvjc)\

f + f _ fnvjcathjs + f _ ybckbv + f _ rdfvkb

f + s _ cfgybc mfabs + s _ h.tv + s _ ,eyt,hbdb o'kt,b

f + v _ gtvpfs + v _ ybflfubv + v _ ityflyj,t,b= vbythfkt,b

lbcgthcbekb afpbc yfobkfrt,bc pjvbc vb[tldbs= lbcgth-cbekb cbcntvt,b b'jaf cfv /ueafl| f) e[tib lbcgthcbekb cbc-ntvf= hjwf afpbc yfobkfrbc pjvf 1 vr-pt (10_4 cv) vtnbf _tvekcbt,b= cecgtypbt,b+ ,) yfobkfrbc pjvf 1_0=1 vr-bf _ rjkj-blehb [cyfht,b+ u) yfobkfrbc pjvf fqotdc vjktrekbc fy bjybcpjvt,c= vfiby vbbqt,f ]jvjutyehb cbcntvf= fye ztivfhbnb[cyfhb\ bub itlut,f jhb fy vtnb ybdsbtht,bcfufy lf vfsb ehsb-thsmvtlt,bc ghjlemnbcfufy\

'jdtkb [cyfhb itlut,f ufv[cytkbc lf uf[cybkb ybdsbtht-,bcfufy\ bv rjvgjytync= hjvkbc fuhtufnekb vlujvfhtj,f [cyfhbcofhvjmvybcfc fh bwdkt,f= tojlt,f ufv[cytkb\ se [cyfhc ofhvjmv-ybc fbhb+fbhsfy= s[tdflb+ s[tdflsfy= v'fhb+v'fhsfy= vfiby ufv[-

22

2

IHHIK K _ ojyfcojhj,bc velvbdff\

mbvbehb ojyfcojhj,f ittcf,fvt,f ufhrdtek gbhj,t,c\ fh-ct,ekb gbhj,t,bc lfhqdtdf bodtdc ojyfcojhj,bc lfhqdtdfc\ufhrdtekb lhjbc itvltu cbcntvf bctd e,heylt,f ojyfcojhekvlujvfhtj,fc\ gbhj,t,bc itwdkbc ufdktyfc ojyfcojhj,fptufycfpqdhfdc kt-ifntkbtc ghbywbgb| se cbcntvf ojyfcojhj-,fibf lf hjvtkbvt ufhtufyb afmnjhb fhqdtdc fv ojyfcojhj,fc=vfiby sdbsjy cbcntvfib fqb.dht,f .fkt,b= hjvkt,bw lfvhqdtdbafmnjhb obyffqvltu fhbc vbvfhsekb\

ntvgthfnehbc ufdktyf\ cfhtfmwbj fhtib ntvgthfnehbc vj-vfnt,f ufphlbc htfmwbbc cbxmfhtc bv vbvfhsekt,bs= hjvtkbwvbvlbyfhtj,c ntvgthfnehbc isfysmvbs (tyljsthvekb htfmwbf)\itcf,fvbcfl= ntvgthfnehbc itvwbht,f ojyfcojhj,fc uflf[hbctupjsthvekb htfmwbbcrty\ vfufkbsfl=

N2 + 3H22NH3 H0298 = - 46,2 r/jekb\

ntvgthfnehbc vjvfnt,f ufphlbc fvbfrbc lfikbc htfmwbbccbxmfhtc= hflufy cbcntvbc tysfkgbf vwbhlt,f= t\b\ cbs,j ufvjb-'jaf\ ghjwtcb tupjsthvekbf\ ntvgthfnehb itvwbht,f lffxmf-ht,c fvbfrbc ofhvjmvyfc (it,heyt,ekb htfmwbf tyljsthvekbf)\

oytdbc ufdktyf\ fvbfrbc ofhvjmvybc vfufkbspt ufydb[bkjsoytdbc ufdktyf ojyfcojhj,fpt\ gbhlfgbhb htfmwbf vbvlbyfht-j,c vjwekj,bc= t\b\ oytdbc itvwbht,bs\ fvbnjv oytdbc ufphlb-cfc ufbphlt,f gbhlfgbhb htfmwbbc cbxmfht\

rjywtynhfwbbc ufdktyf\ se ojyfcojhj,fib v'ja cbcntvfclfdevfnt,s hjvtkbvt rjvgjytync (ufdphlbs rjywtynhfwbfc)=vfiby ojyfcojhj,f lfbhqdtdf ufhrdtekb lhjbc ufyvfdkj,fib=itvltu [tkf[kf fqlut,f\ vjhtfubht ybdsbtht,t,bc rjywtyn-hfwbbc ufphlf phlbc htfmwbbc cbxmfhtc ghjlemnt,bc ofh-vjmvybcfrty\

88 89

cytkb fhbc bc rjvgjytynb= hjvtkbw vtnb hfjltyj,bsff\ xdtyufydb[bkfds s[tdfl [cyfht,c\

ghfmnbrfib cfertstcj ufv[cytkfl bsdkt,f o'fkb= s[tdflbfvbfrb= tsfyjkb= njkejkb= ,typjkb lf c[df\ [cyfht,c lblb vybid-ytkj,f fmdc hjujhw kf,jhfnjhbek rdktdfib= fctdt ofhvjt-,fib\ vybidytkjdfybf bcbw= hjv wjw[fk jhufybpvib ybdsbtht,fsfwdkbc ghjwtcb vbvlbyfhtj,c s[tdfl vlujvfhtj,fib\

[cyfht,ib uf[cybkb ybdsbtht,bc yfobkfrt,b lfrfdibht,e-kbf ufv[cytkbc vjktrekt,sfy\ se ufv[cytkb o'fkbf= vfs ]blhf-nt,b tojlt,f (HSO_

4 . nH2O)= [jkj se ufv[cytkb c[df ybdsbt-

ht,ff _ cjkdfnt,b\ [cyflj,bc vb[tldbs ufyfc[dfdt,ty| rfhufl[cyfl= vwbhtl [cyfl lf ghfmnbrekfl e[cyfl ybdsbtht,t,c(f,cjkenehfl e[cyflb ybdsbtht,f fh fhct,j,c)\

[cyflj,bc vf[fcbfst,tkb fhbc [cyflj,bc rjtabwbtynb\ hf-jltyj,hbdfl bub njkbf ufcf[cytkb ybdsbtht,bc vfmcbvfkehbhfjltyj,bcf uhfvt,ib= hjvtkbw b[cyt,f vjwtvek ntvgthfne-hfpt 100 uhfv ufv[cytkib\ rfhufl [cyflb ybdsbtht,f jsf[bc ntv-gthfnehfpt b[cyt,f 10 u-vlt= vwbhtl [cyflb _ 0=1_1 u-vlt= ghfm-nbrekfl e[cyflb _ 0=001 u-pt yfrkt,b\

v'fhb ybdsbtht,bc [cyflj,f ntvgthfnehbc ufphlbs evtnt-cfl bphlt,f= pjubthsb v'fhb ybdsbtht,bc vwbhlt,f\ fctsbf vf-ufkbsfl= Ca(OH)2, Li2SO4\ (yf[\ 9)

uf[cyf abpbreh-mbvbehb ghjwtcbf\ bub vbvlbyfhtj,c cbs-,ehb tatmnbc sfy[kt,bs\ v'fhb ybdsbtht,bc uf[cybcfc ufv[cyt-kib flubkb fmdc jh ghjwtcc| v'fhb ybdsbtht,bc lfikf vjktre-kt,fl fy bjyt,fl= hfptw b[fh/t,f tythubf Q1 lf vjktrekt,bcfy bjyt,bc ehsbthsmvtlt,f ufv[cytksfy\ fv ghjwtcbc lhjc ty-thubf ufvjb'jaf Q2\

Q = Q1 + Q2

se Q1 < Q2= vfiby cbs,j ufvjb'jaf lf uf[cybc ghjwtcb tu-pjsthvekbf\ hjwf Q1 > Q2= vfiby [lt,f cbs,jc isfysmvf _ ghj-wtcb tyljsthvekbf\

yf[\9\ v'fhb ybdsbtht,bc [cyflj,bc lfvjrblt,ekt,f ntvgthfnehfpt

fbht,bc o'fkib uf[cybcfc flubkb fmdc v[jkjl ]blhfnfwbbcghjwtcc= fvbnjv cbs,ehb tatmnb 'jdtksdbc lflt,bsbf\

kt-ifntkbtc ghbywbgbc vb[tldbs= ntvgthfnehbc ufphlb-cfc fbht,bc [cyflj,f vwbhlt,f\ ]tyhbc rfyjybc sfyf[vfl= uf[cyb-kb fbhbc hfjltyj,f lfvjrblt,ekbf fv fbht,bc oytdfpt cbs[bcptvjs\

N = Kp, cflfw N _ fhbc uf[cybkb fbhbc vjkehb obkb+ p _gfhwbfkehb oytdf= K _ ghjgjhwbekj,bc rjtabwbtynb= hjvt-kbw lfvjrblt,ekbf fbhbc udfhj,fcf lf ntvgthfnehfpt\

fbht,bc [cyflj,f oytdbc ufphlbs bphlt,f\

90 91

1000NT "

thsyfbhb yjhvfkj,bc [cyfht,b thsvfytssfy htfubht,c ths-yfbhb vjwekj,bs\

nenbc

v;\

nenbc

v;\

VV

NN

[cyfht,bc leqbkbc ntvgthfnehbc fotdf\t,ekbjcrjgbehb velvbdf

leqbkbc ntvgthfnehf fhbc bc ntvgthfnehf= hjvkbc lhjcfwyf/thb jhsmkbc oytdf cbs[bc ptvjs enjklt,f ufht oytdfc\velvbdb oytdbc lhjc [cyfht,c fmdc eahj vfqfkb leqbkbc ntv-gthfnehf= dblht ceasf ufv[cytkt,c\

[cyfht,bc leqbkbc ntvgthfnehbc fotdf _ Dt _ gbhlfgbh-ghjgjhwbekbf [cyfhbc rjywtynhfwbbc lf fhf fhbc lfvjrblt-,ekb uf[cybkb ybdsbtht,bc ,eyt,fpt (hfekbc rfyjyb)\

[cyfhbc rjywtynhfwbfl vbqt,ekbf vjkfkj,f (1 vjkb 1 kufv[cytkib)|

Dt = Kt,\ . mKt,\ _ t,ekbjcrjgbehb velvbdff\ vjwtvekb ufv[cytkbcfsdbc

Kt,\ fhbc velvbdb cblblt\ vfufkbsfl= ceasf o'fkb fnvjcathekboytdbc gbhj,t,ib leqc 1000C\ 1-vjkfkb rjywtynhfwbbc ybdsb-tht,bc o'fk[cyfhbc leqbkbc ntvgthfnehf= bubdt oytdfpt= bm-yt,f 100=520C\

se wyj,bkbf ufv[cytkbc t,ekbjcrjgbehb velvbdf lf [cyf-hbc leqbkbc ntvgthfnehbc fotdf= vfiby itcf.kt,tkbf uf[cyb-kb ybdsbtht,bc vjktrekehb vfcbc ufvjsdkf\

[cyfht,b fhct,j,c yf/thb= e/thb lf vtnyf/thb\yf/thbf [cyfhb= se ufcf[cytkb ybdsbtht,f vjwtvek ntv-

gthfnehfpt vtnfl fqfh b[cyt,f vjwtvekb hfjltyj,bc ufv[c-ytkib\ se ufcf[cytkb ybdsbtht,bc hfjltyj,f yfrkt,bf fv ybd-sbtht,bc [cyflj,fpt= vfiby [cyfhb fhbc e/thb\ se ybdsbtht,bchfjltyj,f vtnbf= dblht vbcb [cyflj,f ([cyfhbc vjvpflt,f itb.-kt,f= se uf[cybcfc ufdphlbs ntvgthfnehfc lf itvltu ufdfwbt,sjsf[bc ntvgthfnehfvlt)= fctsb [cyfhb fhbc ptyf/thb= fyevtnyf/thb\ fctsb [cyfht,b fhfvluhflbf\

fhct,j,c rjywtynhbht,ekb lf ufypfdt,ekb [cyfht,b\ rjy-wtynhbht,ek [cyfhib uf[cybkb ybdsbtht,f lblb hfjltyj,bsff=ufypfdt,ekib _ vwbht hfjltyj,bs\ [cyfht,bc rjywtynhfwbbcufvjcf[dbc c[dflfc[df [th[b fhct,j,c\

1\ ojybsb ghjwtynb udbxdtyt,c uf[cybkb ybdsbtht,bc hfj-ltyj,fc 100 uhfv [cyfhib\

100mm

%w [cyfhbc

\uf[cy

se [cyfhb s[tdflbf vbcb vfcbc ufycfpqdhf [lt,f ajhvekbs|m = V . r= cflfw V _ vjwekj,ff= r _ cbvrdhbdt (u$vk)\2\ vjwekj,bsb ghjwtynb _ uf[cybkb ybdsbtht,bc vbkb-

kbnhbc hfjltyj,f 100 vk [cyfhib\3\ vjkehj,f _ uf[cybkb ybdsbtht,bc vjkt,bc hbw[db 1000 vk

[cyfhib\4\ vjkfkj,f _ uf[cybkb ybdsbtht,bc 1 vjkb 1000 vk

ufv[cytkib\5\ yjhvfkj,f _ uf[cybkb ybdsbtht,bc uhfvtmdbdfktynb 1000

vk [cyfhib\yjhvfkehb [cyfht,bcsdbc lfvf[fcbfst,tkbf nbnhb T\ bub

fhbc 1 vk [cyfhib uf[cybkb ybdsbtht,bc hfjltyj,f|

92 93

lt,f\ lbaepbf vsfdhlt,f vfiby= hjwf uf[cybkb ybdsbtht,bc cjk-dfnbht,ekb vjktrelkt,b sfyf,hfl ufyfobklt,f [cyfhbc vstkvjwekj,fib\ se [cyfhc ufd'jas yf[tdfhitqotdflb vtv,hfybs=hjvtkbw fnfht,c ufv[cytkbc vjktrekt,c= vfiby ofhvjbmvyt,foytdf _ jcvjcehb oytdf\ ewdktkb ntvgthfnehbc gbhj,t,ibbub uf[cybkb ybdsbtht,bc rjywtynhfwbbc ghjgjhwbekbf lf fhfhbc lfvjrblt,ekb ufv[cytkb lf ufcf[cytkb ybdsbtht,bc ,eyt-,fpt\ fvfdt lhjc= bub ntvgthfnehbc gbhlfgbhghjgjhwbekbf\jcvjcehb oytdbc ufvjrdktdt,b cfae.dkfl lftlj dfyn-]jabc[cyfhsf stjhbfc\ vtwybthvf itfvxybf= hjv [cyfhbc jcvjcehb oytdfnjkbf bv oytdbc= hjvtkcfw vjf[ltylf uf[cybkb ybdsbtht,f= sebub bvfdt ntvgthfnehfpt fbhfl vlujvfhtj,fib bmyt,jlf lf [cyf-hbc vjwekj,bc njk vjwekj,fc lfbrfdt,lf\ t\b\ ufypfdt,ekb[cyfht,bc jcvjcehb oytdf itb.kt,f ufybcfpqdhjc vtyltkttd-rkfgtbhjybc ufynjkt,bs|

pV = nRT= fye pjcv\. v = nRT,

cflfw v _ [cyfhbc vjwekj,ff= n _ uf[cybkb ybdsbtht,bcvjkt,bc hbw[db= R _ eybdthcfkehb velvbdf\

se ufydcfpqdhfds pjcv\= udtmyt,f pjcv\ = vn

RTT

vn

_ fhbc vjkehb rjywtynhfwbf= t\b\ pjcv= CRTT

se udfmdc 1-vjkfkb [cyfhb= vfiby 00C-ptpjcv\ = 0,082 . 273 . 1 = 22,4 fnv\ptvjfqybiyekb rfyjypjvbtht,t,b vbcfqt,b b'j bctsb [cyf-

ht,bcsdbc= hjvkt,bw fh fnfht,lf tktmnhek ltyc (fhftktmn-hjkbnt,b)\

bltfkehb [cyfht,blfy uflf[hf itbvxytjlf v;fdt,bc= ae.t-t,bc lf vfhbkt,bc o'fk[cyfht,bc itvs[dtdfib\ tc ghj,ktvf uf-lfo'dbnf fhtybecbc tktmnhjkbnehb lbcjwbfwbbc stjhbfv\ fvstjhbbc sfyf[vfl| v;fdt,b= ae.tt,b lf vfhbkt,b uf[cybcfc sdbs-

1

2Mg

g1000Kt t,\ fmtlfy= 11

2gtg1000KM t,\

cflfw g1 _ fhbc ufv[cytkbc vfcf+ g2 _ ybdsbtht,bc vfcf\

uf'bydbc ntvgthfnehbc lfotdf\rhbjcrjgbekb velvbdf

[cyfhbc uf'bydbc ntvgthfnehbc lfotdf= bctdt= hjujhw le-qbkbc ntvgthfnehbc fotdf= ceasf ufv[cytksfy itlfht,bs= fhfhbc lfvjrblt,ekb uf[cybkb ybdsbtht,bc ,eyt,fpt\

[cyfhbc uf'bydbc ntvgthfnehbc lfotdf gbhlfgbhghjgjh-wbekbf [cyfhbc vjkfkb rjywtynhfwbbc|

Dtuf'\ = Krhbjcrjg\ . mse ufv[cytkbc vfcfc fqdybiyfds g1= [jkj ybdsbtht,bc vfcfc

g2= vbdbqt,s ajhvekfc= cfblfyfw itb.kt,f ufydcfpqdhjs uf[c-ybkb ybdsbtht,bc vjktrekehb vfcf\

1

2

Mgg1000Kt

\rhbjcrjguf'\ fmtlfy= 1

2

gtg1000

KMuf'\

rhbjcr\

rhbjcrjgbekb velvbdt,b ufvjsdkbkbf c[dflfc[df ufv[c-ytkt,bcsdbc\ vfufkbsfl= hjwf 1000 u o'fkib uf[cybkbf thsbvjkb ifmfhb fy hjvtkbvt c[df fhftkjmnhjkbnb= uf'bydbc oth-nbkb bmyt,f fhf 00C= fhfvtl _ 1=860C\ t\b\ o'kbc rhbjcrjgbekbvelvbdf njkbf 1= 86\

jcvjcb lf jcvjcehb oytdf

ybdsbtht,bc uf[cybcfc yt,bcvbth ufv[cytkib uf[cybkb ybd-sbtht,bc cjkdfnbht,ekb (o'kbc itvs[dtdfib _ ]blhfnbht-,ekb) vjktrekt,b lblb rjywtynhfwbbc flubkblfy bo't,ty vj.-hfj,fc yfrkt,b rjywtynhfwbbcrty\ fv ghjwtcc lbaepbf toj-

94 95

ptvjs vjwtvekbf NaCl-bc tktmnhjkbnehb lbcjwbfwbbccmtvf\

lbcjwbfwbf itmwtdflb ghjwtcbf\ sbsjtekb bjybc bhudkbdo'kbc vjktrekt,bcfufy itvlufhb ]blhfnekb ihtf\ vfufkbsfl=Na+ . nH2O= Cl _ . mH2O= SO4

2_ . pH2O= cflfw n, m, p o'kbc vjktre-kt,bc c[dflfc[df hbw[dbf\ lbcjwbfwbbc itltufl vbqt,ekb lf-lt,bsb lf efh'jabsb bjyt,bc ve[nt,b thsvfytsbc njkbf\ t\b\[cyfhb tktmnhjytbnhfkehbf\ n, m, p _ hbw[dbsb vybidytkj-,t,b ewyj,bf\ v[jkjl o'fk,flbc lflt,bsb bjybcsdbc dbwbs= hjvbub bthst,c o'kbc ths vjktrekfc lf ofhvjmvybc ]blhjmcjyb-evbc bjyc _ H3

+O\lbcjwbfwbbc [fhbc[b\ tktmnhjkbnb itb.kt,f lbcjwbht-

,ekb b'jc vskbfyfl fy yfobkj,hbd\ tc lfvjrblt,ekbf tktmn-hjkbnbc itlutybkj,fpt= rjywtynhfwbfpt= ufv[cytkbc ,eyt-,fpt= ntvgthfnehfpt\ tktmnhjkbnbc lbcjwbfwbbc hfjltyj,-hbdb vf[fcbfst,tkb= vbcb lbcjwbfwbbc [fhbc[bf\

100N

N

0 \lbcjw

Nlbcjw\ _ lbcjwbht,ekb vjktrekt,bc hbw[dbf+ N0 _ vjkt-rekt,bc cfthsj hbw[db\

tktmnhjkbnt,bc lbcjwbfwbbc [fhbc[b bwdkt,f 10 afhukt,ib ( t[t,f fhftktmnhjkbnt,c)\

.kbthb tktmnhjkbnt,bc ufypfdt,ekb [cyfht,b lbcjwb-hlt,f vskbfyfl\ .kbthb tktmnhjkbnt,bf| 'dtkf [cyflb vfhbkb=vbythfkehb v;fdt,b _ HNO3, H2SO4, HCl, HBr, HJ, HClO4 lf c[df=nent lf nentvbofsf kbsjyt,bc ]blhjmcblt,b _ NaOH, KOH,

yt,ehfl ofhvjmvybfy bjyt,c\ fcts [cyfht,c vfy eojlf tktmnhj-kbnt,b\

bvbcfsdbc= hjv tktmnhjkbnt,bc [cyfht,bw vjmwtekb'jfhtybecbc stjhbbc xfhxjt,ib= dfyn-]javf itvjbqj bpjnjyehbrjtabwbtynb i\ bub udbxdtyt,c tktmnhjkbnsf [cyfht,ib tmcgt-hbvtynekfl ufycfpqdhekb jcvjcehb oytdf= leqbkbc ntvgthf-nehbc fotdf= uf'bydbc ntvgthfnehbc lfotdf= hfvlty/th vtnbfstjhbekfl ufvjsdkbk cblbltpt\

p = iRTCfhtybecvf lfflubyf= hjv 'dtkf [cyfhb= hjvtkbw cfzbhjt,c

i bpjnjyehb rjtabwbtynbc itvjqt,fc= fhbc tktmnhjkbnb\

SFDB &^^^TKTMNHJKBNSF {CYFHT<B

tktmnhjkbnehb lbcjwbfwbf fhbc ybdsbtht,bc bjyt,fllfikf yfkqj,ib fy [cyfhib ufv[cytkbc ufdktybs\ tktmnhj-kbnt,b fthsbfyt,c yfthst,bc lbl rkfcc (vfhbkt,b= v;fdt,b= ae-.tt,b)\ vfs f[fcbfst,c bjyehb ufvnfhj,f\ lbcjwbfwbfc tmdtvlt-,fht,f fhf vfhnj bjyehb= fhfvtl rjdfktynehb gjkfhekb ,vbsofhvjmvybkb yfthst,bw\ ufv[cytkbc ufdktybs rjdfktynehbyfthsb itb.kt,f ufhlfbmvyfc bjyehfl= vfufkbsfl= HCl, HNO3

lf c[df\ vfsb uf[cybcfc [lt,f rjdfktynehb ,vbc (H_Cl; H_O_)ufo'dtnf\ ofhvjmvybkb sfdbceafkb bjyt,bc ufhitvj ufykfult,fo'kbc gjkfhekb vjktrekt,b lf bmvyt,f ]blhfnekb ufhcb\]blhfnbht,ekb ufhcbc ofhvjmvyf ufygbhj,t,ekbf o'kbc lb-gjkcf lf bjyc ijhbc ofhvjmvybkb tktmnhjcnfnbrehb vbpb-lekj,bs\ w[flbf= lflt,bsb bjybc ufhitvj o'kbc vjktrekt,bjhbtynbht,ekbf o'kbc lbgjkbc efh'jabsb v[hbs= [jkj efh-'jabs bjysfy _ lflt,bsbs\ itltufl vj[lt,f mbvbehb ,vbc ufo'-dtnf lf bjyb uflfdf [cyfhib\

Na

Cl+ -

+ -

Na+ -

+ -

+ -

+ -+ -

+ -

Cl+ - +

96 97

v;fdt,bc= ae.tt,bc= vfhbkt,bctktmnhjkbnehb lbcjwbfwbf

tktmnhjkbnehb lbcjwbfwbbc stjhbbc sdfkcfphbcbs=v;fdf tktmnhjkbnbf= hjvtkbw lbcjwbbc lhjc rfsbjybc cf[bsofhvjmvybc v[jkjl o'fk,flbc bjyc\

HCl H+ + Cl _

vhfdfkae.bfyb v;fdt,b lbcjwbhlt,f cfat[eht,hbdfl|H2SO4 H+ + HSO4

_

HSO4_ H+ + SO4

2_

H2SO4 2H+ + SO42_

ae.t tktmnhjkbnbf= hjvtkbw lbcjwbfwbbc lhjc efh-'jabsb bjybc cf[bs (fybjyb) ofhvjmvybc v[jkjl ]blhjmcblbcOH _bjyc\ ae.tt,b= hjvkt,bw itbwfdc thspt vtn ]blhjmcblbcbjyc= lbcjwbhlt,f cfat[eht,hbdfl\

Ca(OH)2 CaOH+ + OH _

CaOH+ Ca2+ + OH _

Ca(OH)2 Ca2+ + 2OH _

fvajnthekb ae.tt,b lbcjwbhlt,f hjujhw v;fdf= bct _ ae-.t\ fvajnthekb ae.tt,b e[cyflbf= vfuhfv vwbht yfobkb vfbywlbcjwbhlt,f|

fdfv;ae.t

24

OH22

2 )OH(ZnH2)OH(ZnOH2Zn 2

cfiefkj vfhbkt,b lbcjwbhlt,f kbsjybc lflt,bs lf v;f-dehb yfisbc efh'jabs bjyt,fl\

NaCl Na+ + Cl _

Al2(SO4)3 2Al3+ + 3SO42_

Ba(OH)2 lf c[df\ cecnb tktmnhjkbnt,bf| pjubthsb vbythfkehbv;fdf _ H2CO3, H2SO3, HNO2 lf c[df= kbsjyt,bc ,tdhb ]blhjm-cblb= vfs ijhbc nent _ NH4OH\ .kbthbf tktmnhjkbnb sevbcb 30%-pt= cfiefkj .fkbc tktmnhjkbnbc vth'tj,c 3-30%-vlt= [jkj cecnb tktmnhjkbnbf= se vbcb \

lbcjwbfwbbc [fhbc[b lfvjrblt,ekbf c[dflfc[df afmnjhpt|f) ufypfdt,fpt| lbcjwbfwbbc [fhbc[b bphlt,f ufypfdt,bcfc\

vfufkbsfl= 100%-bfyb H2SO4 ghfmnbrekfl fh itbwfdc bjyt,c\fvbnjv bub htfmwbbceyfhbfyb fh fhbc (fh vjmvtlt,c kbsjyt,sfy)=vfiby= hjwf ufypfdt,bcfc vbcb fmnbehj,f vrdtshfl bphlt,f\

,) tktmnhjkbnbc ,eyt,fpt| vfufkbsfl= 0=1N vfhbkv;fdfclbcjwbfwbbc [fhbc[b 180C-pt fhbc 92%\ bvfdt ntvgthfnehfpt0,1N ,jhv;fdfc lbcjwbfwbbc [fhbc[b = 0,01%\

u) ufv[cytkbc ,eyt,fpt= hjvtkbw sfdbc v[hbd lfvjrblt,ekbfvbc lbtktmnhbrek itqotdflj,fpt\ hfw eahj vtnbf ufv[cytkbclbtktmnhbrekb velvbdf= vbs yfrkt,bf bjyt,c ijhbc vjmvtlbtktmnhjcnfnbrehb .fkf\

rDqqF 21

,

cflfw q1 lf q2 _ c[dflfc[dfybiybfyb bjyt,bf= r _ bjyt,c ijhbcvfy.bkb\ o'kbcsdbc D = 80= [jkj yfdsib _ D = 2,3\ fvbnjv o'fkibufwbkt,bs fldbkfl [lt,f lbcjwbfwbf\

l) ntvgthfnehfpt| ntvgthfnehbc ufphlbcfc cecnb tktmn-hjkbnt,bc lbcjwbfwbbc [fhbc[b bphlt,f= .kbthb tktmnhj-kbnt,bc rb gbhbmbs= vwbhlt,f\

98 99

ghjnjyekb stjhbbc vb[tldbs v;fdeh sdbct,fc ufvj[fnfdcHNO3 , HCL, NH+

4 bjyb= [jkj ae.t sdbct,fc NO3_= Cl_= NH+

4 bjyt,b\

ufydb[bkjs fvbfrbs .vfhv;fdfc ytbnhfkbpfwbbc htfmwbf|CH3COOH CH3COO _ + H+

NH3 + H+ NH+4

CH3COOH + NH3 CH3COO _ + NH+4

v;fdf ae.t ae.t v;fdf

ghjnjyekb stjhbbc sfyf[vfl= v;fdt,bw lf ae.tt,bw itb.-kt,f ufdfthsbfyjs cfthsj cf[tkojlt,bs _ ghjnjkbnt,b\ghjnjkbnt,b ybdsbtht,t,bf= hjvkt,cfw ite.kbf ghjnjybc vbth-st,f (ae.t sdbct,f) fy ufwtvf (v;fdf sdbct,f)\

fhct,j,c bctsb ghjnjkbnt,b= hjvkt,cfw gbhj,t,bc vb-[tldbs ite.kbf ghjnjybc hjujhw ufwtvf= bct vbthst,f\ vfs toj-lt,f fvajkbnt,b\ t\b\ fvajkbnt,b thslhjekfl ljyjhbw fhbclf fmwtgnjhbw\ vfufkbsfl= fvajkbnbf ]blhjrfh,jyfnbc bjyb|HCO3

_ CO3_2 + H+

lf HCO3_ + H+ H2CO3\ t\b\ HCO3

_ itb.-kt,f itlbjltc jh iteqkt,ek o'dbkib| HCO3

_/CO3_2 (v;fdehb

sdbct,f) lf H2CO3 / HCO3_ (ae.t sdbct,f)\

o'kbc bjyehb vfxdtyt,tkb

ceasf o'fkb vwbhtl fhbc lbcjwbht,ekb bjyt,fl|H2O H+ + OH_\

1 kbnhb ceasf o'fkb 250C-pt itbwfdc 1\10_7 vjk o'fk,flbcrfsbjyc [H+] lf 1\10_7 vjk ]blhjmcbkbc [OH_] fybjyc\ velvbdb ntv-gthfnehbc lhjc [H+] lf [OH_] bjyt,bc vjkehb rjywtynhfwb-t,bc yfvhfdkb [H+][OH_]= 10_7\10_7= 10_14 vjkb$k velvbdb cblbltflf tojlt,f o'kbc bjyehb vfxdtyt,tkb\ lfdeidfs= [cyfhbcsdbc v;fdbclfvfnt,bcfc [H+] bjyt,bc rjywtynhfwbf uf[lf 1\10_3 vjkb$k\ hfl-ufy [H+][OH_] bjyt,bc rjywtynhfwbt,bc yfvhfdkb velvbdb cb-lbltf= fvbnjv [OH_] bjyt,bc rjywtynhfwbf uf[lt,f 1 \ 10_11

v;fdf vfhbkt,b lbcjwbfwbbc itltufl rfsbjybc cf[bs ofh-vjmvybc kbsjybcf lf o'fk,flbc lflt,bs bjyt,c\

NaHCO3 Na+ + HCO3_

HCO3_ H+ + CO3

2_

NaHCO3 Na+ + H+ + CO32_

ae.t vfhbkt,b fybjybc cf[bs b.ktdf v;fdehb yfisbcf lf ]bl-hjmcblbc bjyt,c\

CaOHCl CaOH+ + Cl_

CaOH+ Ca2+ + OH_

CaOHCl Ca2+ + OH_ + Cl_

v;fdt,bc lf ae.tt,bc ghjnjkbnehb stjhbf

fv stjhbbc vb[tldbs= v;fdf fhbc mbvbehb yfthsb= hjvtkcfw it-e.kbf ufcwtc ghjnjyb\ t\b\ v;fdf ghjnjybc ljyjhbf HA= A_ +H+=[jkj ae.t b.tyc ghjnjyc= t\b\ ae.t ghjnjybc fmwtgnjhbfB+H+ = HB+ (HA _ v;fdfc cfthsj ajhvekff= B _ ae.bc)\ ghj-njyekb stjhbbc vb[tldbs= sbsjtek v;fdfc ittcf,fvt,f sfdbcbae.t= hjvtkcfw vbybvev thsb ghjnjybs vtnb fmdc\

HA A_ + H+ lf B + H+ HB+

v;fdf1

ae.t1 ghjnjyb ae.t

2 ghjnjyb v;fdf

2

fcts ghjwtcib vjyfobkt v;fdfc lf ae.tc iteqkt,ekb toj-lt,f\

sbsjtekb v;fdf uflflbc sfdbc itcf,fvbc ae.tib _ ghjnjybclfrfhudbc itltufl= [jkj sbsjtekb ae.t uflflbc sfdbc itcf-,fvbc v;fdfib _ ghjnjybc vbthst,bc ufvj\

HA/A_ lf HB+/B; vfufkbsfl=fpjnv;fdf lf ybnhfnbjyb| HNO3 / NO3

_

mkjho'fk,flb lf mkjhbjyb| HCl / Cl_

fvjybevbc bjyb lf fvbfrb| NH+4 / NH3

100 101

vfhbkt,b itb.kt,f lfd'js js[ .bhbsfl /ueafl|1\ .kbthb nenbc lf cecnb v;fdfc vfhbkb+2\ .kbthb v;fdfc lf cecnb ae.bc vfhbkb+3\ cecnb v;fdfc lf cecnb ae.bc vfhbkb+4\ .kbthb v;fdfc lf .kbthb nenbc vfhbkb\

ufydb[bkjs sbsjtekb vfsufyb\1\ .kbthb nenbc lf cecnb v;fdfc vfhbkb\ ufydb[bkjs

NaNO2 ]blhjkbpb (fybjyehb ]blhjkbpb)\ fqybiyekb vfhbkblbcjwbhlt,f| NaNO2 Na+ + NO2

_\ yfnhbevbc rfsbjyb Na+ dthit,jzfdc o'kbc ]blhjmcblbc bjyt,c= hflufy NaOH .kbthb ne-ntf\ ybnhbnbjyb NO2

_ ,jzfdc o'fk,flbc bjyt,c= hflufy ofh-vjmvybkb fpjnjdfyb v;fdf (HNO2) cecnbf lf bub vwbhtl lbcj-wbht,c\

NaNO2 + H2O NaOH + HNO2

Na+ + NO2_

+ H2O Na+ OH_ + HNO2

NO2_

+ H2O Na+ + OH_ + HNO2 pH>7fvhbufl= vfhbkb= hjvtkbw vbqt,ekbf .kbthb nenbc lf

cecnb v;fdbcufy= ]blhjkbpbc lhjc ofhvjmvybc nent ufhtvjc\2\ .kbthb v;fdbcf lf cecnb ae.bcufy ofhvjmvybkb vfhbkb\

ufydb[bkjs NH4Cl-bc ]blhjkbpb (rfsbjyehb ]blhjkbpb)\NH4Cl + H2O NH4OH + HClNH4

+ + Cl_ + H2O NH4OH + H+ + Cl_

NH4+ + H2O NH4OH + H+ pH<7

mkjhbc bjyc fh ite.kbf it,jzjc o'fk,flbc bjyb= hflufyofhvjmvybkb vfhbkv;fdf (HCl) .kbthb tktmnhjkbnbf\ NH4OH_ fvjybevbc nent cecnb tktmnhjkbnbf= fvbnjv bub lffrfdt,c]blhjmcblbc bjyt,c lf [cyfhc tmyt,f v;fdf ufhtvj\

3\ cecnb ae.bc lf cecnb v;fdfc vfhbkb|Al2S3 + 6H2O 2Al(OH)3 + 3H2S2Al3+ + 3S2_

+ 6H2O 2Al(OH)3 + 3H2S pH 7

vjkb$k\ fyufhbibc ufcfvfhnbdt,kfl itvjqt,ekb bmyf o'fk-,flehb vfxdtyt,tkb _ pH= hjvtkbw fhbc [H+] bjyt,bc rjywtyn-hfwbbc it,heyt,ekb cblblbc kjufhbsvb\

H1lgpH

xdtyb itvs[dtdbcfsdbc ([H+]=1\10_3 vjkb$k) udtmyt,f

310

1lgpH 3 \ itcf,fvbcfl= [OH_] bjyt,bc rjywtynhfwbf

bmyt,f 11\pH cblblt ufvjb'tyt,f [cyfht,bc ufhtvjc lfcflutyfl|pH<7 _ v;fdf ufhtvj+pH>7 _ nent ufhtvj+pH=7 _ ytbnhfkehb ufhtvj\

vfhbksf ]blhjkbpb

]blhjkbpb ytbnhfkbpfwbbc it,heyt,ekb ghjwtcbf= hjv-kbc lhjcfw ofhvjbmvyt,f vwbhtl lbcjwbht,ekb ghjlemnb\]blhjkbpbc itcf.kt,kj,f lf [fhbc[b ufybcfpqdht,f vfhbkbc,eyt,bs= fye bv v;fdbcf lf ae.bc cb.kbthbs= hjvkt,bcufyfw fhbcitlutybkb vjwtvekb vfhbkb\

cb.kbthbc vb[tldbs ufyfc[dfdt,ty .kbth lf cecn v;fdt,clf ae.tt,c\

cecnb v;fdt,bf| HNO2, H2CO3, CH3COOH, HF, H2S,H2SO3 lf f\i\

.kbthb v;fdt,bf| HNO3, H2SO4, HCl, HBr, HJ, HClO4lf f\i\cecnb ae.tt,bf| NH4OH, Cu(OH)2, Fe(OH)2, Mn(OH)2,

Al(OH)3, Be(OH)2, Zn(OH)2 lf f\i\.kbthb ae.tt,bf| LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, Ca(OH)2,

Sr(OH)2, Ba(OH)2 lf f\i\

102 103

fnjvt,b fy bjyt,b= hjvkt,bw ufcwtvc tktmnhjyt,c= fhbcfqvlutyt,b= sdbsjy b;fyut,f\ fqvlutybf 'dtkf bc fnjvb= hjvtk-cfw cfdfktynj ihtpt fmdc js[ tktmnhjypt yfrkt,b\ t\b\ fqvlut-yt,bf ^= ^^ lf ^^^ /ueabc vsfdfhb mdt/ueabc kbsjyt,b\ fqvlutybcsdbct,t,b itb.kt,f ]mjyltc fhfkbsjyt,cfw (;fyu,flbcf lf asj-hbc ufhlf)\

vfhnbd ybdsbtht,fsf fqvlutyb sdbct,t,b lfvjrblt,ekbfbjybpfwbbc gjntywbfkpt\ hfw eahj yfrkt,b fmdc fnjvc bjyb-pfwbbc gjntywbfkb= vbs eahj .kbthb fqvlutybf\ fhfkbsjyt-,blfy fqvlutybc sdbct,fc fv;qfdyt,c= vfufkbsfl= o'fk,flb= yf[-ibh,flb= fctdt pjubthsb vfhnbdb fybjyb _ Cl_, Br_, J_,S_2, C+2\fqvlutybc sdbct,t,c bxtyc kbsjybc bjyt,b lf,fkb ;fyudbchbw[dbs| Fe+2= Sn+2= Cu+= Cr+2\

ytbnhfkehb fnjvt,b fy bjyt,b= hjvkt,bw b.tyc tktmnhj-yt,c (sdbsjy fqlut,f)= v;fyufdt,bf\ fctsbf vfufkbsfl= fhfkbsj-yt,bc fnjvt,b| fpjnb= ujubhlb= asjhb= ;fyu,flb= mkjhb= ,hjvb=bjlb+ kbsjyt,bc lf fhfkbsjyt,bc bjyt,b evfqktcb ;fyudbc[fhbc[bs| Cu+2, Fe+3= Sn+4= Cr+6, Mn+7, N+5= S+6, Cl+7\

kbsjyt,bc lf fhfkbsjyt,bc bjyt,b= iefktlehb ;fyudbc [f-hbc[bs= v;fyufdbw fhbc lf fqvlutybw| Cu+, Cr+3, S+4, N+3lf c[df\

v;fyufdbc sdbct,t,b lfvjrblt,ekbf tktmnhjybcflvb cohfa-dbc cblbltpt\ hfw vtnbf tktmnhjybcflvb cohfadf= vbs eahj.kbthfl fhbc ufvj[fnekb v;fyufdb sdbct,f\

vfhnbdb ybdsbtht,t,bc ;fyudf-fqlutybs sdbct,t,c rfhuflufvj[fnfdc vfsb tktmnhjefh'jabsj,f\ tktvtynbc tktmnhj-efh'jabsj,bc phlfcsfy thsfl rkt,ekj,c vbcb fqvlutyb sdb-ct,t,b lf= gbhbmbs= vfnekj,c v;fyufdb sdbct,t,b\

fv nbgbc vfhbkbc ]blhjkbpb itb.kt,f b'jc hjujhw rf-sbjyehb= bct fybjyehb\ fvbnjv itb.kt,f ]mjyltc cecnb v;fdf=cecnb nent fy sbsmvbc ytbnhfkehb ufhtvj\ 'dtkfathb lfvj-rblt,ekbf= ufvj'jabkb vwbhtl lbcjwbht,ek v;fdfcf lf ae.tcijhbc hjvtkc fmdc eahj vfqfkb lbcjwbfwbbc [fhbc[b\

4\ .kbthb ae.bcufy lf .kbthb v;fdbcufy ofhvjmvybkb vfhb-kt,b fh ufybwlbc ]blhjkbpc= hflufy ufvj'jabkb v;fdfw lf ae-.tw .kbthbf\ fvbnjv dthwthsb dth ,jzfdc o'fk,flbc (H+) lf]blhjmcblbc (OH_) bjyt,c\ t\b\ [cyfhc tmyt,f ytbnhfkehb uf-htvj\

NaCl + H2O NaOH + HClNa+ + Cl_

+ H2O Na+ + OH_ + H+ + Cl_

H2O H+ + OH_ pH = 7

SFDB ^*:FYUDF-FQLUTYF

htfmwbt,c= hjvkt,bw vbvlbyfhtj,c vjhtfubht ybdsbtht,t,bcfnjvt,bc fy bjyt,bc ;fyudbc [fhbc[bc wdkbkt,bs= tojlt,f ;fyu-df-fqlutybsb htfmwbt,b\ tktmnhjyekb stjhbbc sdfkcfphbcbs=fnjvt,bc fy bjyt,bc vbth tktmnhjyt,bc ufwtvfc ;fyudf tojlt,f=tktmnhjyt,bc it.tyfc _ fqlutyf\ tktvtynbc lflt,bsb ve[nbufybcfpqdhf fv tktvtynbc fnjvbc fy bjybc vbth ufwtvekb tktmn-hjyt,bc hbw[dbs\

S0 _ 6e S+6; S+4 + 2e S+6; S _2 _ 6e S+4;it.tybkb tktmnhjyt,bc hfjltyj,f ufycfpqdhfdc ofhvjmv-

ybkb bjybc efh'jabs ve[nc\N0 + 3e N_3; N+5 + 8e N_3; N+3 + 6e N_3;

104 105

vbvlbyfhtj,c vfhnbd ybdsbtht,t,c fy bjyt,c ijhbc (v;fyufdb lffqvlutyb c[dflfc[df vjktrekbc itvflutykj,fibf)\

f) Zn0 + S0 Zn+2S_2

Zn0 _ 2e Zn+2 1 fqvlutyb (lfb;fyuf) S0 + 2e S_2 1 v;fyufdb (fqluf)

,) Hg+2Cl2 + Sn+2Cl2

Hg0 + Sn+4Cl4

Hg+2 + 2e Hg0 1 v;fyufdb (fqluf) Sn+2 _ 2e Sn+4 1 fqvlutyb (lfb;fyuf)

2\ ibufvjktrekehbf htfmwbt,b= hjvkbc lhjcfw v;fyufdbwlf fqvlutybw itlbc thsb lf bubdt vjktrekbc itvflutykj,fib\

f) NaN+5O3_2 NaN+3O2 + O2

0

N+5 + 2e N+3 2 v;fyufdb (fqluf) 2O_2 _ 4e O2

0 1 fqvlutyb (lfb;fyuf)

,) (N_3H4)2Cr+62O7

N02 + Cr+3

2O3 + 4H2O 2N_3 _ 6e N2

0 1 fqvlutyb (lfb;fyuf) 2Cr+6 + 6e 2Cr+6 1 v;fyufdb (fqluf)

3\ lbcghjgjhwbbc= fye sdbs;fyudf-sdbsfqlutybc htfmwbt,bbctsb htfmwbt,bf= hjvkbc lhjcfw thsb lf bubdt fnjvb fy bjybfqvlutytkbw fhbc lf lfv;fyufdbw\

f) Cl20

+ H2O HCl_ + HCl+O Cl0 _ e Cl+ 1 fqvlutyb (lfb;fyuf) Cl0 + e Cl_ 1 v;fyufdb (fqluf)

,) 2N+4O2 + H2O HN+5O3 + N+2O N+4 _ e N+5 2 fqvlutyb (lfb;fyuf) N+4 + 2e N+2 1 v;fyufdb (fqluf)

;fyudf-fqlutybc htfmwbt,bc ufynjkt,bc itlutyf

;fyudf fqlutybc ufhnjkt,fib rjtabwbtynt,bc ithxtdbcf-sdbc ufvjb'tyt,f jhb vtsjlb| tktmnhjyekb ,fkfycbc lf tktmn-hjyek-bjyehb ,fkfycbc\ xdty ufydb[bkfds tktmnhjyekb,fkfycbc vtsjlc\ fv vtsjlc cfae.dkfl eltdc itvltub gbhj,f|fqvlutybc vbth ufwtvekb tktmnhjyt,bc lf v;fyufdbc vbth vb-qt,ekb tktmnhjyt,bc hbw[db thsvfytsbc njkbf\ vjwtvekhtfmwbfib sfdlfgbhdtkfl cfpqdhfdty ;fyudbc hbw[dc\

Pb+2S_2 + H2O2_ Pb+2S+6O4

_2 + H+2O_2

S_2 _ 8e S+6 1 fqvlutyb (lfb;fyuf)(O2)_2 + 2e 2O_2 4 v;fyufdb (fqluf)

v;fyufdbc lf fqvlutybc vbth it.tybkb lf ufwtvekb tktmn-hjyt,bcsdbc gjekj,ty evwbhtc cfthsj /thflc\ vbqt,ek rjt-abwbtync eothty mbvbeh htfmwbfib fqvluty lf v;fyufd ybdsbt-ht,t,c\

PbS + 4H2O2 PbSO4

+ 4H2O

;fyudf-fqlutybsb htfmwbt,bcrkfcbabrfwbf

;fyudf-fqlutybsb htfmwbt,b b'jaf cfv /ueafl|1\ fnjvsfijhbcb= vjktrekfsijhbcb fy bjsfijhbcb ;fyudf-

fqlutybc htfmwbt,b+2\ ibuf vjktrekehb+3\ sdbs;fyudf-sdbsfqlutybc= fye lbcghjgjhwbbc htfmwbt,b\ufydb[bkjs sbsjtekb vfsufyb\1\ fnjvsfijhbcb= vjktrekfsfijhbcb fy bysfijhbcb ;fyudf-

fqlutybc htfmwbt,c vbtresdyt,f bctsb htfmwbt,b= hjvkt,bw

106 107

SFDB *TKTMNHJMBVBF

tktmnhjmbvbehb .f,dfsf vorhbdb

ybdsbtht,t,bc ;fyudf-fqlutybsb sdbct,t,bc ths-ths cfpj-vfl ufvjb'tyt,f cnfylfhnekb tktmnhekb gjntywbfkb= se hj-vtkbvt kbsjyc xfdeidt,s sfdbcbdt vfhbkbc o'fk[cyfhib vfu\=Cu2+ __ CuSO4 lf Zn2+__ ZnSO4ofhvjmvybk cbcntvfib flubkbtmyt,f jhudfh ghjwtcc|

f) vfhbkbc o'fk[cyfhblfy kbsjybc rfsbjyb itb.kt,f fql-utc lf lfbktmjc kbsjybc abhabnfpt= hflufyfw rfsbjyt,bc fql-utybcsdbc cfzbhjf tktmnhjyt,b\ fv tktmnhjyt,c bub bqt,c kb-sjybc abhabnblfy= fvbnjv abhabnfpt bmyt,f tktmnhjyt,bcyfrkt,j,f\

M ne Mn 0

,) kbsjybc fnjvt,b itb.kt,f lfb;fyujc\ fcts itvs[dtdfibkbsjybc bjyt,b uflflbc [cyfhib= [jkj ufysfdbceakt,ekb tk-tmnhjyt,b zfh,fl hxt,f kbsjybc abhabnfpt\

M ne Mn0

kbsjyt,bc vblhtrbkt,f ;fyudbcfrty c[dflfc[dff lf lfvjrb-lt,ekbf vfs ,eyt,fpt\ vfu\= cgbkty.bc lf sesbbc itvs[dtdfib|sesbf ufwbkt,bs eahj fldbkfl ufcwtvc tktmnhjyt,c= dblhtcgbkty.b\ se ybdsbtht,t,bc [cyfht,bc rjywtynhfwbt,b thsyfb-hbf= vfiby sesbbc abhabnfpt udtmyt,f vtnb tktmnhjyt,b= dbl-ht cgbkty.bc abhabnfpt\ rfsbjyt,c lf tktmnhjyt,c ijhbc tk-tmnhjcnfnbrehb vbpblekj,bc ufvj= abhabnbc vf[kj,kfl bm-yt,f rfsbjyt,bc cbqfhb,t\ tc rb ufvjbodtdc jhvfub tktmnhekbihbc ofhvjmvyfc= hfcfw sfdbcsfdfl vjcltdc gjntywbfksf c[df-j,bc ofhvjmvyf\ bvbcfsdbc= hjv itd.kjs c[dflfc[df tktmnhj-lekb gjntywbfkbc itlfht,f= eylf itdfhxbjs cnfylfhnekbgbhj,t,b\ fctsb gbhj,t,bf| ntvgthfnehf 250 C= oytdf 1 fnv= rjy-wtynhfwbf 1 vjkb$k\

;fyudf-fqlutybsb htfmwbt,bc vbvlbyfhtj,f vybidytkjdyflfhbc lfvjrblt,ekb ufhtvjpt\ c[dflfc[df ufhtvjib thsb lf bubdtv;fyufdbc lf fqvlutybc ehsbthsmvtlt,bc ghjlemnt,b itb.kt,fchekbfl ufyc[dfdt,ekb b'jc\ ufydb[bkjs KMnO4-bc fqlutyfyfnhbevbc cekabnbs (Na2SO3) v;fdf= nent lf ytbnhfkehufhtvjib\f) v;fdf ufhtvj|

2KMn+7O4 + 5Na2S+4O3 + H2SO4 K2SO4 + 2Mn+2SO4 +

+5Na2S+6O4 + 3H2OMn+7 + 5e Mn+2 2 v;fyufdb (fqluf)S+4 _ 2e S+6 5 fqvlutyb (lfb;fyuf)

,) nent ufhtvj|2KMn+7O4 + Na2S+4O3 + 2KOH 2K2Mn+6O4 + Na2S+6O4 +

+ 3H2OMn+7 + e Mn+6 2 v;fyufdb (fqluf)S+4 _ 2e S+6 1 fqvlutyb (lfb;fyuf)

u) ytbnhfkehb ufhtvj|2KMn+7O4 + 3Na2S+4O3 + H2O 2MnO2 + 3Na2S+6O4 +

+KOHMn+7 + 3e Mn+4 2 v;fyufdb (fqluf)S+4 _ 2e S+6 3 fqvlutyb (lfb;fyuf)

fmdt eylf fqdybiyjs= hjv e.kbthtcb fqvlutybf rfsjlb lfe.kbthtcb v;fyufdbf fyjlb\

108 109

sbsjtekb kbsjyb o'fk[cyfhblfy f.tdt,c sfdbc itvlujvkbsjyc\ tktmnhjmbvbeh .f,dfsf vorhbdib vjsfdct,ekbf o'fk-,flb= hflufyfw vfc= kbsjyt,bc vcufdcfl ite,kbf ofhvjmvyfc rf-sbjyb H+\ bub tmdtvlt,fht,f bv rfyjypjvbtht,fc= hfcfw c[df kb-sjyt,b\ rth.jl= o'fk,flbc oby vlujvb kbsjyt,b f.tdt,ty ufypf-

dt,ekb v;fdt,blfy o'fk,flc\

Zn H SO ZnSO H 2 4 4 2(ufyp\)

o'fk,flbc itvltu fhct,ekb kbsjyt,b dth f.tdt,ty o'fk,flcufypfdt,ekb v;fdt,blfy\ tktmnhjmbvbeh .f,dfsf vorhbdib o'fk-,flbc vlt,fhtj,bs fhbc ufygbhj,t,ekb v;fdt,bc lf'jaf fhf-lfv;fyufd lf lfv;fyufd v;fdt,fl\

fhflfv;fyufdb v;fdt,b htfmwbfib itlbfy v[jkjl o'fk,flbcoby vlujv kbsjyt,sfy (v;fyufdbf o'fk,flbc bjyb)\

Zn HCl ZnCl H 2 2 2

2 3 32 4 2 4 3 2Al H SO Al SO H ( )v;fyufdb v;fdt,b vjmvtlt,ty kbsjyt,sfy wtynhfkehb fnjvbc

[fh/pt|

OH6SO3)SO(AlSOH6Al2 2234242 (rjyw\)

Cu HNO Cu NO NO H O 4 2 23 3 2 2 2(rjyw\) ( )

ufkdfyehb tktvtynb

se jh c[dflfc[df abhabnfc xfdeidt,s tktmnhjkbnbc[cyfhib= vfs ijhbc fqb.dht,f gjntywbfksf c[dfj,f _ kbsj-yb1$tktmnhjkbnbc [cyfhb$kbsjyb2\ fcts cbcntvfc tojlt,fufkdfyehb tktvtynb\ gjntywbfksf c[dfj,bc ofhvjmvyf ufvjo-dtekbf kbsjyt,bc sdbct,bs uflfcwtc rfsbjyt,b [cyfhib\ sbsjt-ekb kbsjybc ptlfgbhsfy ofhvjbmvyt,f jhvfub tktmnhjyekbiht= hjvtkbw [tkc eikbc rfsbjyt,bc itvlujv uflfcdkfc\ se

tktmnhjyekb gjntywbfkt,bc f,cjkenehb cblbltt,bc uf-pjvdf lqtbcsdbc ite.kt,tkbf= fvbnjv f,cjkenehb vybidyt-kj,t,bc vfubdhfl cfhut,kj,ty afhlj,bsb vybidytkj,t,bs= hj-vtkbw bpjvt,f thstekfl vbqt,ek o'fk,flbc cnfylfhnek tk-tmnhjlek gjntywbfksfy itlfht,bs (w[h\ 2)\ w[hbkibvjwtvekbf kbsjyt,bc .f,dfsf vorhbdb\

kbsjyt,bc .f,dfsf vorhbdbw[hbkb 2

tktmnhjlekb fghwtcbcufynjkt,f

cnfylfh

ne-

kb gj

nty-

wbfk

b tktmnhjlekbfghwtcbc ufynjkt,f

cnfylfh

ne-

kb gj

nty-

wbfk

b

Li + e_ = LiRb+ + e_ =RbK+ + e_ = KCs+ + e_ = CsCa2+ + 2e_ = CaNa+ + e_ = NaMg2+ + 2e_ = MgAl3+ + 3e_ = AlTi2+ + 2e_ = TiMn2+ + 2e_ = MnCr2+ + 2e_ = CrZn2+ + 2e_ = ZnCr5+ + 3e_ = CrFe2+ + 2e_ = FeCd2+ +2e_ = Cd

- 3,045- 2,925- 2,925- 2,925- 2,866- 2,714- 2,363- 1,662- 1,628- 1,180- 0,913- 0,763- 0,744- 0,440- 0,403

Co2+ + 2e_ = CoNi2+ + 2e_ = NiSn2+ + 2e_ = SnPb3+ + 3e_ = PbFe3+ + 3e_ = Fe2H+ + 2e_ = H2Bi3+ + 3e_ = BiCu2+ + 2e_ = CuCu+ + e_ = CuHg2

2+ + 2e_ = 2HgAg+ + e_ = AgHg+ + e_ = HgPt2+ + 2e_ = PtAu3+ + 3e_ = AuAu+ + e_ = Au

- 0,277- 0,250- 0,136- 0,126- 0,036

0+ 0,215+ 0,337+ 0,521+ 0,788+ 0,799+ 0,854+ 1,200+ 1,498+ 1,691

yt,bcvbthb kbsjybc mbvbehb sdbct,t,b ufhrdtekobkfl ufy-gbhj,t,ekbf bvbs= se hfvltyfl fldbkfl ufcwtvc tktmnhjyt,c\se kbsjyt,c ufydfkfut,s vfsb ;fyudbc eyfhbc itvwbht,bc vb[tl-dbs= vbdbqt,s kbsjyt,bc .f,dbc tktmnjmbvbeh hbuc|Li, K, Ba, Ca, Na, Mg, Al, Mn, Cr, Zn, Fe, Cd, Co, Ni, H, Cu, Ag, Pl, Au

110 111

hblfy tktmnhjtythubbc ufvj'tyt,bc itltufl gjkfhbpfwbf vwbh-lt,f= t\b\ [lt,f ufyve[ndf\ frevekfnjhbc lfve[ndbcfc tktmn-hjtythubf ufhlfbmvyt,f mbvbehfl= ufyve[ndbcfc _ gbhbmbs\

tktmnhjtythubf mbvbehb tythubflfve[ndf

ufyve[ndf

'dtkfpt vtnfl ufdhwtkt,ekbf n'dbbc lf ybrtk-rflvbevbcfrevekfnjht,b\ n'dbbc frevekfnjhb itlut,f n'dbbc tktmn-hjlbcfufy (rfsjlb)= fyjlfl ufvj'tyt,ekbf n'dbbc tktmnhjlb=hjvtkbw lfafhekbf n'dbbc jh;fyubc (PbO2) atybs\ tktmnhj-lt,b vjsfdcte,kbf ujubhlv;fdfib\ n'dbbc frevekfnjhib udfmdcitvltuyfbhb o'dbkb| Pb/H2SO4/PbO2

ghjwtcb vbvlbyfhtj,c c[dflfc[df lf;fyuekj,bc hbw[dbcvmjyt n'dbbc bjyt,c ojhbc\

24

04 SOPbe2SOPb

ufyve[ndf

lfve[ndf

_ rfsjlb2

fyjlb _ lfve[ndf

ufyve[ndf

Pb H O e PbO H

2 2 42 2

/fvehb htfmwbf fctsbf|

2 2 24 2 2 2 4PbSO H O Pb PbO H SO

lfve[ndf

ufyve[ndf

rflvbevb-ybrtkbc frevekfnjhib\ rfsjlb fhbc rflvbevb=[jkj fyjlb _ NiO(OH)\ bcbyb xfidt,ekb fhbfy KOH-bc o'fk-[cyfhib\ Cd/KOH/NiO(OH)

/fvehb tktmnhjmbvbeh htfmwbfc fmdc itvltub cf[t|

2 2 22 2 2Ni OH Cd OH NiO OH Cd H O( ) ( ) ( )

lfve[ndf

ufyve[ndf

jhbdt kbsjyc thsvfytssfy itdf-thst,s kbsjybc ufvnfhbs= vbdb-qt,s xfrtnbk tktmnhek ohtlc\ohtlib tktmnhjyt,bc yfrflbfmnbehb kbsjyblfy uflfbyfwd-kt,c yfrkt,fmnbehb kbsjybcfrtylf ufybve[nt,f fv erfyfcrytkbc tk-tmnhjyt,bc cfiefkt,bs\ fv ghj-wtcbc htpeknfnb bmyt,f tktmn-hekb ltybc ofhvjmvyf\

ufkdfyehb tktvtynbc vjmvt-lt,fc cfae.dkfl eltdc tktmnhjmbvbehb ghjwtcb\ bub itb.-kt,f itvltuyfbhfl ufvjdcf[js|

fvhbufl= ufkdfyehb tktvtynbc efh'jabsb gjkecb fhbc fm-nbehb kbsjyb= hjvtkptw udfmdc tktmnhjyt,bc cbzfh,t\ ufk-dfyehb tktvtynbc lflt,bsb gjkecb yfrkt,flfmnbehb kbsjybf=cflfw itbvxytdf tktmnhjyt,bc yfrkt,j,f\ ufkdfyehb tktvtynbc.f,df vbs eahj vtnb bmyt,f= hfw eahj lblb ufyc[dfdt,f bmyt,ftktmnhjlt,bc cnfylfhnek gjntywbfksf ijhbc\

frevekfnjhb\ ufkdfyeh tktvtynib vbvlbyfhtj,c ghfmnb-rekfl itemwtdflb ghjwtcb\ ltybc fctsb mbvbehb o'fhjc [tk-f[kf lfve[ndf lf ufvj'tyt,f sfdbcsfdfl fh [lt,f\ frevekfnjhbbubdt ufkdfyehb tktvtynbf= hjvtkbw itmwtdflb tktmnhjmb-vbehb htfmwbt,bc [fh/pt= itb.kt,f vhfdfk/th lfbve[njc\frevekfnjhbc tktmnhjlt,b xfidt,ekbf tktmnhjkbnbc [cyfh-ib\ vbcb gjkfhbpfwbf [lt,f ufhtlfy (lfve[ndf)\ frevekfnj-

Zn2+

Zn Cu

Cu3+

+

SO 42SO 4

2

SO 42

-

e_

yf[\ 10\ ufkdfyehb tktvtynbccmtvf

fmnbehb kbsjyb;fyudf

(tktmnhjyt,bc ufwtvfrfsbjyt,bc ofhvjmvyf)

rtsbkij,bkb kbsjybfqlutyf

(tktmnhjyt,bc vbqt,frfsbjyt,bc ufyve[ndf)

112 113

fybjyt,bcsdbc udfmdc itvltub hbub|

;fyu,flitvwdtkb v;fehb yfisb| SO42_, NO3

_ lf c[df\ _ O2

e;fyu,flj v;fdt,bc v;fehb yfisb| Cl_, Br_, I_ lf c[df _ Cl2, Br2, I2

ptvjs fqybiyekb hbut,bc ufvj'tyt,bs itcf.kt,tkbf= obyfc-ofh ufydcfpqdhjs c[dflfc[df tktmnhjkbnt,bc o'fk[cyfht,bctktmnhjkbpbc itltufl= rfsjlpt lf fyjlpt vbqt,ekb ghj-lemnt,bc itlutybkj,f\ w[hbkib vjwtvekbf 'dtkfpt vtnflufdhwtkt,ekb tktmnhjkbnt,bc o'fk[cyfht,bc tktmnhjkb-pbc lhjc ufvj'jabkb ghjlemnt,b (w[h\ 3)\

tktmnhjkbpb

v;fdt,b= nentt,b= vfhbkt,b vbtresdyt,f tktmnhjkbnt,c\tktmnhekb ltybc uflfnfyf [lt,f bjyt,bc cfiefkt,bs= hjvkt-,bw velvbd vj.hfj,fibf\ ufkqj,bk vlujvfhtj,fib fy o'fk[cyf-ht,ib tktmnhjkbnt,b rfhub ufvnfht,bf\ se tktmnhjkbnbco'fk[cyfhib xfdeidt,s kbsjybc jh abhabnfc (tktmnhjlt,c)lf itdethst,s velvbd ltybc o'fhjc= vfiby efh'jabs gjkecsfyitthst,ekb abhabnf bmyt,f rfsjlb= [jkj lflt,bs gjkecsfyitthst,ekb abhabnf _ fyjlb\ sfdbc v[hbd tktmnhjkbnbc[cyfhb itbwfdc lflt,bs lf efh'jabs bjyt,c\ lflt,bsb bjyt,bvbbpblt,f rfsjlbs= fvbnjv vfs rfsbjyt,c eojlt,ty\ itcf,fvbcfl=efh'jabs bjyt,c _ fybjyt,b tojlt,f\ rfsbjyb rfsjlbcufy bqt,ctktmnhjyt,c lf fqlut,f= t\b\ rfsjlb fqvlutytkbf lf ghjwtcbw[lt,f fqlutybc\ fybjyb rb gbhbmbs= fyjlc uflfcwtvc tktmnhj-yt,c lf b;fyut,f= t\b\ fyjlb lfv;fyufdbf lf ghjwtcbw [lt,f lf-;fyudbc\

tktmnhjkbnt,bc o'fk[cyfht,bc tktmnhjkbpbc lhjc=tktmnhjkbnbc bjyt,bc ufhlf= vjyfobktj,fc qt,ekj,c o'kbcvjktrekt,bw\ bcbyb thsvfytssfy velvbd rjyrehtywbfib fhbfy\tktmnhjlt,pt vj[lt,f bv bjyt,bc ufyve[ndf= hjvkt,cfw fmdceahj lf,fkb ufyve[ndbc .f,df\ tktmnhjkbnsf o'fk[cyfht,ibrfsbjyt,bcfsdbc fhct,j,c rfsbjypt ufyve[ndbc itvltub hbub|

fmnbehb kbsjyt,b| K+, Na+, Mg2+, Al3+ _ vfhnj H2

yfrkt, fmnbehb kbsjyt,b| Zn2+, Fe2+, Sn2+, Pb2+ _ kbsjyb lf H2

rtsbkij,bkb kbsjyt,b| Cu2+, Ag+ _ kbsjyb

fmnbehb kbsjyt,bc fqlutyf [lt,f v[jkjl yfkqj,blfy|

2 2 2NaCl Na Clyfkqj,b

K _ 2 2 2 0Na e Na

A+ 2 2 20Cl e Cl

tktmnhj-kbnb ghjlemnt,b

rfsjlb fyjlb

tktmnhj-kbnb ghjlemnt,b

rfsjlb fyjlb

HClH2SO4HNO3NaOHCuCl2

CuSO4NiSO4NaClNa2SO4

H2H2H2H2Cu

CuNi, H2

H2H2

Cl2O2O2O2Cl2O2

O2O2Cl2O2

rjyrhtnek vfufkbspt ufydb[bkjs c[dflfc[df vfhbkbco'fk[cyfht,bc tktmnhjkbpb\

f) Na2SO4-bc o'fk[cyfhbc tktmnhjkbpb|

Na SO Na SOH O2 42

422

K _ OH2He2OH2 22

A+ H4Oe4OH2 22

w[hbkb 3\

114 115

tktmnhjmbvbehb rjhjpbf

kbsjyt,bc rjhjpbf fhbc vfsb ptlfgbhbc lfpbfyt,f tktmn-hjmbvbehb ptvjmvtlt,bc ufvj\ bub ofhvjbmvyt,f vfiby= hjltcfwkbsjyb eiefkj rfdibhibf tktmnhjkbnsfy\ tktmnhjmbvbehbrjhjpbbc lhjc kbsjybc ptlfgbhpt vbvlbyfhtj,c thslhjekfljhb ghjwtcb| kbsjybc ;fyudf _ fyjlehb ghjwtcb=

M ne Mn0

lf v;fyufdbc fqlutyf (vfu\| ;fyu,flb fy o'fk,flbc rfsbjyb) _rfsjyehb ghjwtcb|

O H O e OH2 22 4 4 (;fyu,flehb rjhjpbf)

2 2 23 2 2H O e H H O

(o'fk,flehb rjhjpbf)

;fyu,flehb rjhjpbf vbvlbyfhtj,c ytbnhfkeh fy nent uf-htvjib= o'fk,flehb _ v;fdf ufhtvjib\

tktmnhjkbnb itb.kt,f b'jc o'fkb\ ceasf o'fkb welbtktmnhjufvnfhbf\ vbcufy ufyc[dfdt,bs= fnvjcathekb o'fkb=vfcib uf[cybkb c[dflfc[df fbht,bc ufvj (CO2, SO2)= rfhub tktmn-hjufvnfhbf\

rjhjpbfc ufycfresht,bs rfhu ufhtvjc emvybc jhb c[dflf-c[df gjntywbfkbc vmjyt kbsjybc rjynfmnb\ fcts itvs[dtdfibefh'jabsb gjntywbfkbc vmjyt kbsjybc rjhjpbf bphlt,f= ea-hj lf,fkb gjntywbfkbc vmjyt kbsjybc rjhjpbf rb ytklt,f\fcts rjhjpbfc tojlt,f rjynfmnehb\ vfu\= ufydb[bkjs hrbybclf cgbkty.bc o'dbkbc rjhjpbf= fnvjcathekb o'kbc ufdktybs(vfcib uf[cybkb fnvjcathekb ;fyu,flbs)\ hrbyf b;fyut,f

Fe e Fe0 22

ufysfdbceakt,ekb tktmnhjyt,b fqflutyty ;fyu,flc ]bl-hjmcblbjyfvlt|

O H O e OH2 22 4 4

,) Ni(NO3)2-bc o'fk[cyfhbc tktmnhjkbpb|

Ni NO Ni NOH O

( )3 22

232

K _ Ni e Ni2 02

2 2 22 20H O e H OH

A+ 2 4 42 2H O e O H

u) CuCl2-bc o'fk[cyfhbc tktmnhjkbpb|

CuCl Cu ClH O

22

2 2

K _ Cu e Cu2 02

A+ 2 2 20Cl e Cl

tktmnhjkbpb [cyflb fyjlbs

fmfvlt xdty ufydb[bkts ghjwtcb= hjvtkbw vbvlbyfhtj,lfe[cyflb fyjlbs (yf[ibhbc= gkfnbybc= bhblbevbc= nfynfkbc tk-tmnhjlt,b)\ tktmnhjkbpbc ghjwtcb itb.kt,f vbvlbyfhtj,ltc[cyflb fyjlbs (ufycfresht,ekfl ceasf kbsjybc vbcfqt,fl)\[cyfl fyjlfl itb.kt,f ufvj'tyt,ekb b'jc cgbkty.b= ybrtkb=rflvbevb= fkevbyb lf c[df\ [cyflb fyjlbs vbvlbyfht tktmn-hjkbpbc lhjc fyjlb b;fyut,f (b[cyt,f)= bub [cyfhib uflflbc rf-sbjyt,bc cf[bs\ rfsjlpt vj[lt,f vbcb fqlutyf\ vfu\= CuSO4-bco'fk[cyfhbc tktmnhjkbpbc lhjc= [cyflb cgbkty.bc fyjlbs[lt,f itvltub ghjwtcb|

K _ Cu e Cu0 22 ;fyudf

A+ Cu e Cu2 02 fqlutyf

116 117

hrbybc lf ]blhjmcblbc bjyt,b ofhvjmvybc e[cyfl Fe(OH)2:

Fe OH Fe OH222 ( )

fnvjcathekb ;fyu,flb yfobkj,hbd ;fyufdc hrbybc (^^) ]bl-hjmcbkc Fe(OH)2-c\ vbbqt,f hrbybc vtnf]blhjmcblb FeO(OH)\

4 4 22 2 2Fe OH O FeO OH H O( ) ( ) Fe OH FeO OH Fe O H O( ) ( )2 3 4 22 2

tktmnhjmbvbehb rjhjpbbc ufhlf fhct,j,c mbvbehb rj-hjpbf\ fv itvs[dtdbc lhjc kbsjyt,bc lfikf [lt,f tktmnhekbltybc fq.dhbc ufhtit\

kbsjyt,bc lfwdf rjhjpbbcfufy

rjhjpbbcufy lfcfwfdfl .bhbsflfl ufvjb'tyt,f itvtub vtsj-lt,b| kbsjyt,bc ptlfgbhekb lfafhdf= vluhflb ityflyj,t,bcitmvyf= ghjntmnjhekb lfwdf\

ptlfgbhekb lfafhdbc jhb cf[t fhct,j,c| kbsjyehb lf fhf-kbsjyehb\ kbsjyehb lfafhdbc lhjc= lfvwfdb kbsjyb tktmn-hjmbvbeh .f,dfsf vorhbdib lufc lfcfwfdb kbsjybc vfh/dybd\fhfkbsjyehb lfafhdbcfc ufvjb'tyt,f| kfmb= cfqt,fdb= vbyfymfhblf c[df\

rjhjpbbcfufy lfwdf itb.kt,f vluhflb ityflyj,t,bc itmvybs\vfu\= ajkflbc ityflyj,t,ib mhjvbc= vfyufyevbc= ybrtkbc itnfyfitcf.kt,kj,fc udf.ktdc= vbdbqjs e;fyufdb ajkflb\

[ibhfl [cyfhib= hjvtkbw fhbc rjhjpbbc ufvjvodtdb= itfmdsbctsb ybdsbtht,t,b= hjvkt,bw fytkt,ty vbc fuhtcbek vjmvt-l t , f c\ f ct s ybds bt ht , t , c by]b,bnjht,b tojlt,fs\

fhct,j,c rbltd kbsjyt,bc ghjntmnjhekb lfwdf\ o'fkibfy ybflfuib fhct,ek rjycnhemwbfc itethst,ty vfcpt eahjfmnbeh kbsjyc\ ofhvjbmvyt,f ufkdfyehb o'dbkb= fvbnjv lfbi-kt,f ghjntmnjhekb kbsjyb= [jkj kbsjybc rjycnhemwbflfhxt,f lfepbfyt,tkb\

f h f j h u f y ek bm b v b f

118 119

2\ nent lf nentvbof kbsjyt,bc ehsbthsmvtlt,bs o'fk-sfy\

2 2 22 2Na H O NaOH H

Ca H O Ca OH H 2 2 2 2( )

3\ nent lf nentvbof ]blhblt,bc ehsbthsmvtlt,bs o'fksfy|

2222 H)OH(CaOHCaH

NaH H O NaOH H 2 2

vhtodtkj,fib vbbqt,f|1\ yf[ibhbc rjydthcbbs|

C H O CO H 2 2 (o'fkufpb) ^ cnflbf

2222 H2COOH)H(CO ^^ cnflbf_____________________

C H O CO H 2 22 2 2

2\ uf[eht,ek hrbyfpt o'kbc jhsmkbc ufnfht,bs|

3 4 42 3 4 2Fe H O Fe O H

3\ vtsfybc rjydthcbbs (Ni rfnfkbpfnjhbs)|

2Ni

24 H3COOHCH

4\ o'kbc tktmnhjkbpbs (evfnt,ty v;fdfc fy nentc)|

2 22 2 2H O H Otktmnhjkbpb

mbvbehb sdbct,t,b\ jsf[bc ntvgthfnehfpt o'fk,flb yfrkt,-fmnbehbf\ vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt vjmvtlt,c hjujhw kbsj-yt,sfy= bct fhfkbsjyt,sfy\ ]fthpt bodbc ,fwb wbcathb fkbs|

2 22 2 2H O H O

^ /ueabc s tktvtynt,b

o'fk,flb

cbv,jkj H= hbuj,hbdb yjvthb _ 1= afhlj,bsb fnjvehb vfcf_ 1=008= ;fyudbc [fhbc[b _ (+1)= bidbfsfl _ (-1)\

o'fk,flbc bpjnjgt,b|11H ghjsbevb _ fnjvuekib fmdc thsb ghjnjyb= fh fmdc

ytbnhjyb\21H ltbnthbevb (D) _ thsb ghjnjyb + thsb ytbnhjyb\

31H nhbnbevb (Ti) _ thsb ghjnjyb + jhb ytbnhjyb\

,eyt,fib ufdhwtkt,f\ sfdbceafkb o'fk,flb ufdhwtkt,ekbfrjcvjcib\ ltlfvbofpt ud[dlt,f yfthst,bc cf[bs (o'fkb= yfdsj,b=mdfyf[ibhb= vbythfkt,b lf c[df)\ gthbjlek cbcntvfib vfc ezb-hfdc ufycfresht,ekb flubkb= hfw ufygbhj,t,ekbf vbcb fnjvbcfqyfuj,bs\ o'fk,flbc tktmnhjyekb ajhvekff 1s1\ nent kb-sjyt,bc vcufdcfl ite.kbf thsb tktmnhjybc ufwtvf lf lflt,bsbthsdfktynbfyb bjybc ofhvjmvyf\ hflufy tythutnbrekb ihbc lf-cfvsfdht,kfl czbhlt,f thsb tktmnhjyb= fvbnjv ofhvjmvybc(]fkjutyt,bc vcufdcfl) efh'jabs thsdfktynbfy bjyc (H_)\ sf-dbceafk vlujvfhtj,fib vbcb vjktrekf jhfnjvbfybf H2 _ fhf-gjkfhekb rjdfktynehb ,vbs\

o'fk,flbc vbqt,f\ kf,jhfnjhbekb [th[bs o'fk,flb vbbqt,f|1\ sesbbc fy fkevbybc ehsbthsmvtlt,bs ufypfdt,ek vfhbk-

v;fdfcsfy fy ujubhlv;fdfcsfy|

Zn HCl ZnCl H 2 2 2( )ufyp\

2 3 32 4 2 4 3 2Al H SO Al SO H ( ) ( )ufyp\

120 121

b'byt,f lf bphlt,f vjwekj,fib 9%-bs\ evfqktcb cbvrdhbdt 1u$cv3

fmdc 40C-pt (rbltd thsb fyjvfkbf)\ ceasf o'kbc tktmnhekbufvnfhj,f .fkbfy vwbhtf\ o'kbc vjktrekfc fmdc lblb lbgj-kehb vjvtynb\ fvbnjv bub .fkbfy rfhub ufv[cytkbf\

o'fk,flbc gthjmcblb _ H2O2\ fv yfthsib ;fyu,flbc ;fyudbc[ f hbc[ bf (- 1) _ H2

+1O2-1\ bub wbcathb= ptsbcvfudfhb cbs[tf\ kf-

,jhfnjhbfib ufvjb'tyt,f 3% lf 30%-bfyb [cyfht,b\ o'fk,flbcgthjmcblb atsmt,flbf\

vbbqt,f ,fhbevbc gthjmcblpt (vbc vfhbkpt) ujubhlv;fdfcvjmvtlt,bs|

BaO H SO BaSO H O2 2 4 4 2 2 vhtodtkj,fib qt,ekj,ty tsbkfynhf]blhjmbyjybc ]fthbc

;fyu,flbs lf;fydubcfc\

o'fk,flbc yfhtdb ]fthsfy (vuhudbyfdb ufpb) .kbth atsmt-,flbf\

o'fk,flb ethslt,f c[df fhfkbsjyt,cfw\

H Cl HCl2 2 2

H S H S2 2 nent lf nentvbofsf kbsjyt,sfy ofhvjbmvybc ]blhblt,c\

fv yfthst,ib o'fk,flbc ;fyudbc [fhbc[b fhbc (-1)\

2 22Li H LiH ]blhblt,b itb.kt,f lfb'jc cfv /ueafl| vfhbkjdfy (nent

lf nentvbof kbsjyt,sfy)= gjkbvthek (ZnH2)n= kbsjyeh (d lff tktvtynt,sfy _ TiH2, VH lf c[df) ]blhblt,fl\

mbvbehb sdbct,t,bs ]blhblt,b b'jaf| ae.t= v;feh lf fvaj-nthek ]blhblt,fl\ ]blhjkbpbc itltufl ae.t ]blhblt,b ofh-vjmvybc ae.tt,c= v;fdf ]blhblt,b _ v;fdt,c\

NaH H O NaOH H 2 2

SiH H O H SiO H4 2 2 3 24 fvajnthekb ]blhblt,b vjmvtlt,c hjujhw v;fdf= bct ae.t

]blhblt,sfy|

AlH NaH Na AlH3 4

2 33 4 2 6 3AlH SiH Al SiH

o'fk,flb ;fyu,flsfy ofhvjmvybc hfvltybvt yfthsc| H2O,H2O2, H2O3 lf c[df\ vfsufy 'dtkfpt vybidytkjdfybf o'fkb _ H2Olf o'fk,flbc gthjmcblb H2O2\

o'fkb\ xdtekt,hbd gbhj,t,ib o'kbc vjktrekt,b fcjwb-ht,ekbf o'fk,flehb ,vt,bc [fh/pt\ fvbc ufvj vbcb leqbkbcflf uf'bydbc ntvgthfnehf ufybwlbc fyjvfkeh wdkbkt,t,c\

sdbct,t,b\ ceasf o'fkc fh uffxybf ceyb= athb= utvj\ yjhvf-kehb fnvjcathekb oytdbc lhjc bub leqc 1000C-pt\ 00C-pt

o'fk,flbc gthjmcblb cecnb= jhae.bfyb v;fdff\ ofhvjmvybcjhb cf[bc vfhbkc\ Na2O2 _ yfnhbevbc gthjmcblb (cfiefkjvfhbkb= NaHO2 _ yfnhbevbc ]blhjgthjmcblb (v;fdf vfhbkb)\

H2O2 fldbkfl bikt,f\

2 22 2 2 2H O H O O hflufy o'fk,flbc gthjmcblib ;fyu,flbc ;fyudbc [fhbc[b fh

fhbc vfmcbvfkehb= fvbnjv bcbw lf vbcb vfhbkt,bw fv;qfdyt,cfqvlutybcf lf v;fyufdbc sdbct,t,c|

OH

+ O2 + H2O2

O

O

C2H5C2H5

122 123

_ mdfvfhbkb= NaCl.KCl _ cfkdbybnb= KCl.MgCl2.6H2O _

rfhyfkbnb= Na2SO4.10H2O _ ukfe,thbc vfhbkb= K2CO3 _

gjnfib= Na2CO3.10H2O _ rhbcnfkehb cjlf= NaHCO3 _

cfcvtkb cjlf= NaNO3, KNO3 _ udfh/bkt,b\mbvbehb sdbct,t,b\ vbe[tlfdfl bvbcf= hjv nent kbsjyt,b

sdbct,t,b .fkbfy ]ufdc thsvfytsc= vfs ijhbc vfbyw fhbc vwbhtlbufyc[dfdt,f\ ;fyu,flbcrty 'dtkfpt lbl cohfadfc bxtyc kbsbevb\

uf[eht,bs v[jkjl bc udf.ktdc jmcblc| 2 22 2Li O Li O + yfn-

hbevb udf.ktdc gthjmcblc _ 2 2 2 2Na O Na O +

rfkbevb= he,blbevb lf wtpbevb b.ktdf _ ptgthjmcblt,c|K2O4, Rb2O4, Cs2O4\

jsf[bc ntvgthfnehfpt v[jkjl kbsbevb ethslt,f fpjnc|

6 22 3Li N Li N (ybnhblb)

ufdfhdfht,ekb kbsbevb= vfuybevbc vcufdcfl= bodbc yf[ibh-jh;fyubc fhtib|

4 22 2Li CO Li O C kbsbevbc nent _ LiOH= fvfdt mdt/ueabc kbsjyt,bc

nentt,bcufy ufyc[dfdt,bs= uf[eht,bs bikt,f|

2 2 2 2LiOH Li O H O yfnhbevbc vbqt,f [lt,f NaCl fy NaOH yfkqj,bc tktmn-

hjkbpbs|

2 2 2MeCl Me Cl

K _ 0Me2e2Me2

A+ 2 2 20Cl e Cl

mbvbehb sdbct,t,b\ yfnhbevb tythubekfl vjmvtlt,c o'fksfy|

2 2 22 2Na H O NaOH H ]fkjutyt,sfy| 2 22Na Cl NaCl (mkjhblb)ujubhlsfy| 2 2Na S Na S (cekablb)fpjnsfy| 6 32 3Na N Na Nt (ybnhblb)

2 5 8 2

5 8

7

4 2 21 2

2 4 2 4

2

4

20

2

K MnO Na O H SO K SO MnSO

O H O

( )

Mn e Mn7 25 2 v;fyufdb (fqluf)

( )O e O22

202 5 fqvlutyb (lfb;fyuf)

PbS H O Pb S O H O22 2

26

4 224 4

( )

S e S2 68 1 fqvlutyb (lfb;fyuf)

( )O e O22 22 2 4 v;fyufdb (fqluf)

o'fk,flbc gthjmcblb ufvjb'tyt,f vtlbwbyfib= hjujhw rfhubfynbctgnbrb lf cflbpbyatmwbj cfiefkt,f\

nent kbsjyt,b (yfnhbevb)

vtyltkttdbc gthbjlekb cbcntvbc ^f mdt/ueaib vjsfdct-,ekbf nent kbsjyt,b| kbsbevb Li= yfnhbevb Na= rfkbevb K=he,blbevb Rb= wtpbevb Cs= ahfywbevb Fr\ fqybiyek tktvtynt,ccfdfktynj ihtpt fmdc thsb tktmnhjyb _ ns1\ fvbnjv vfs ite.-kbf v[jkjl thsb tktmnhjybc ufwtvf lf lflt,bsb bjybc ofh-vjmvyf M e M_ \ nent kbsjyt,b v[jkjl fqvlutykt,bf\ mdt-/ueaib ptdblfy mdtdbs vwbhlt,f bjybpfwbbc gjntywbfkb= it-cf,fvbcfl= ptdblfy mdtdbs bphlt,f kbsjyt,bc fmnbdj,fw\

nent kbsjyt,b vjdthw[kbcathj (wtpbevb jmhjcathb'dbstkb) h,bkb kbsjyt,bf (vfsb ufzhf itb.kt,f lfybs= kbsb-evbc ufhlf)\ he,blbevb lf wtpbevb ]fthpt sdbsffkt,flbf\ bcbybfldbkfl b;fyut,bfy= fvbnjv vfs byf[fdty yfdsib fy gfhfabyib\

fv /ueabc tktvtynt,b= .kbthb fmnbehj,bc ufvj= sfdbceafkvlujvfhtj,fib fh ud[dlt,f\ ufdhwtkt,ekbf vfsb yfthst,b| NaCl

124 125

vfhbkt,sfy|

CuSO NaOH Cu OH Na SO4 2 2 42 ( )fvajnthek kbsjyt,sfy|

22242 H3)OH()OH(AlNa2OH10NaOH2Al2 ]fkjutyt,sfy|

fkbo' fhrbckf,wbdbOHNaClONaClNaOH2Cl 22

yfnhbevbc yfthst,blfy vybidytkjdfybf|NaHCO3 _ yfnhbevbc ]blhjrfh,jyfnb= fye cfcvtkb cjlf\

vfc qt,ekj,ty cjkdtc [th[bs |

NaCl H O NH CO NaHCO NH Cl 2 3 2 3 4

Na2CO3 _ rfkwbybht,ekb cjlf= Na2CO3.10H2O _

rhbcnfkehb cjlf\ vbcb vbqt,f itb.kt,f NaHCO3-bc _ yfnhbevbc]blhjrfh,jyfnbc uf[eht,bs|

2 3 2 3 2NaHCO Na CO H O +CO2

ufvj'tyt,f\ nent kbsjyt,blfy Li lf Na yfthst,b lbl hjkcfchekt,c wjw[fk jhufybpvib vbvlbyfht ghjwtct,ib\ kbsbevb.bhbsflfl flfvbfybc reyst,ibf= lbl ufdktyfc f[ltyc jhufybpvibyfnhbevbc lf rfkbevbc bjyt,bc nhfycgjhnbht,fib\ Na+ lf K+

bjyt,b ythdekb bvgekct,bc uflfvnfybf\ itlbc pjubthsb athvtynbcitvflutykj,fib\

NaOH _ yfnhbevbc nent ufvjb'tyt,f wtkekjpbc= cfgybcofhvjt,fib= o'kbc cb[bcnbc vjcfcgj,fl\

jmcblb lf ]blhjmcblb\ yfnhbevb ofhvjmvybc ae.t jmcblcNa2O lf nentc NaOH (rfecnbrehb cjlf)\ cfvhtodtkj [th[bsvbcb vbqt,f itb.kt,f NaCl o'fk[cyfhbc tktmnhjkbpbs|

NaCl Na ClH O2

K _ 2 2 22 2H O e H OH _

A+ 2 2 20Cl e Cl

2 2 22 2 2NaCl H O NaOH H Cl tktmnhkbpb

fy nentt,bc vbqt,bc cfthsj [th[bs _ itcf,fvbc vfhbkptc[df nenbc lfvfnt,bs\ v[tldtkj,fib eylf vbdbqjs= hjv ufvj'j-abkb vfhbkb eylf b'jc e[cyflb|

Na CO Ca OH CaCO NaOH2 3 2 3 2 ( )

kf,jhfnjhbfib vbcb vbqt,f itb.kt,f|

kbsjybc o'fkib uf[cybs| 2 2 22 2Na H O NaOH H

jmcblbc o'fkib uf[cybs| Na O H O NaOH2 2 2

]blhblbc o'fkib uf[cybs| 22 HNaOH2OHNaH2

gthjmcblbc o'fkib uf[cybs| Na O H O NaOH O2 2 2 2

sdbct,t,b\ stshb athbc .kbth ]buhjcrjgekb ybdsbtht,ff\bub ]fthblfy isfysmfdc yf[ihjh;fyuc= fvbnjv eylf itdbyf[jslf[ehek zehztkib\ NaOH rfhufl b[cyt,f o'fkib\ nenbcfqvjxtyf itb.kt,f eathj atyjkanfktbybs ([cyfhb itbatht,f;jkjcahfl) fy obstkb kfrvecbs ([cyfhb ufkeh/lt,f)\

NaOH vjmvtlt,c v;fdtt,sfy (ytbnhfkbpfwbbc htfmwbf)|

NaOH HCl NaCl H O 2

v;fdf jmcblt,sfy|

NaOH CO NaHCO 2 3

2 2 2 3 2NaOH CO Na CO H O

126 127

bjybc ofhvjmvyf|

M e M 2 2

,thbkbevb _ Be\ ,eyt,fib ud[dlt,f yfthst,bc cf[bs\ vfsijhbc vybidytkjdfybf ,thbkb Be2Al2(SiO3)6= hjvtkbw vbyf-htdt,bc ufvj c[dflfc[dfyfbhfl fhbc itathbkb\ vodfyt ,thbkbfhbc .dbhafcb mdf _ pehve[nb\ ,thbkbevb lf vbcb yfthst,bwfvajnthekbf\

vfuybevb _ Mg\ ,eyt,fib ufdhwtkt,ekbf .bhbsflfl rfh-,jyfnt,bc= cekafnt,bc lf cbkbrfnt,bc cf[bs (ljkjvbnb _MgCO3

.CaCO3= rfhyfkbnb KCl.MgCl2.6H2O)\

vfuybevb dthw[kbcathb vce,emb kbsjybf\ mbvbehfl cfrvfjlfmnbehbf\ ufypfdt,ekb v;fdt,blfy f.tdt,c o'fk,flc\ bodbc ;fyu-,flbc lf ]fkjutyt,bc fhtib\ ofhvjmvybc vwbhtl [cyfl ae.t ]bl-hjmcblc _ Mg(OH)2\

rfkwbevb= cnhjywbevb= ,fhbevb _ Ca, Sr, Ba\ vfs nent-vbofsf kbsjyt,c eojlt,ty\

rfkwbevb _ Ca ,eyt,fib ufdhwkt,bc vb[tldbs vt[est tkt-vtynbf\ ,eyt,fib ud[dlt,f vbythfkt,bc cf[bs\ vbcb vbqt,f itb.-kt,f CaCl2 yfkqj,bc tktmnhjkbpbs\

Cl2CaCaCl 22

K _ Ca e Ca2 02

A+ 2 2 20Cl e Cl

sdbct,t,b\ vjdthw[kbcahj kbsjybf\ lfybs fh bzht,f\ ]f-thpt ufybs[tdf ]blhjmcblbc ofhvjmvybc ufvj\ ]fthpt uf[eht-,bcfc bodbc obstkb fkbs\ vfuybevbcfufy ufyc[dfdt,bs= o'fksfyehsbthsmvtlt,c byntycbehfl\

Ca H O Ca OH H 2 2 2 2( )

^^ /ueabc s tktvtynt,b

pjuflb lf[fcbfst,f\ vtyltkttdbc gthbjlekb cbcntvbc vtj-ht /ueabc tktvtynt,bf| ,thbkbevb _ Be= vfuybevb _ Mg= rfk-wbevb _ Ca= cnhjywbevb _ Sr ,fhbevb _ Ba lf hflbevb _Ra\ erfyfcrytkb tktvtynb hflbjfmnbehbf\ Ca, Sr lf Ba _ nentvbofsf kbsjyt,b tojlt,f\

sdbct,t,b\ eahj v.bvt lf vfufhb kbsjyt,bf= dblht nent kb-sjyt,b\ mbvbehb fmnbdj,f bphlt,f hbuj,hbdb yjvhbc phlfcsfythsfl\ ,thbkbevb lf vfuybevb o'kbc vbvfhs bxtyc vluhflj,fc\

nentvbofsf kbsjyt,b b[cyt,f o'fkib|

Me H O Me OH H 2 2 2 2( )fv /ueabc tktvtynt,bcsdbc lfvf[fcbfst,tkbf ;fyu,flbcrty

cohfadf\ bcbyb ofhvjmvybfy vluhfl jmcblt,c\itcf,fvbcb ]blhjmcblt,b fv;qfdyt,c ae.t sdbct,t,c= ,thbkbevbc

ufhlf (fvajnthekbf)\ fv tktvtynt,bc vfhbkt,bc [cyflj,f c[df-lfc[dfyfbhbf\ fhbc rfhufl [cyflb vfhbkt,b _ mkjhblt,b= ,hj-vblt,b= bjlblt,b= cekablt,b (Ca_Ra)= ybnhfnb= ybnhbnb= wbf-yblb (Mg_Ra) lf vwbhtl [cyflb fy ghfmnbrekfl e[cyflb vfhb-kt,b _ asjhblt,b (Be ufhlf)= cekafnt,b (Be lf Mg ufhlf)= jh-sjajcafnt,b= rfh,jyfnt,b lf c[df\ fv kbsjyt,bc rfsbjyt,b eat-hjf\ pjubthsbc itathbkj,f ufvjodtekbf fybjybs\

mbvbehb sdbct,t,b\ fnjvbc fut,ekt,blfy ufvjvlbyfht= fv tk-tvtynt,c cfdfktynj ihtpt fmdc ufo'dbkt,ekb jhb tktmnhjyb\fupyt,ek vlujvfhtj,fib s-mdtljyblfy thsb tktmnhjyb uflflbcp-mdtljytpt\ dfktynj,f [lt,f jhbc njkb\

fldbkfl ite.kbfs jhbdt tktmnhjybc ufwtvf lf lflt,bsbs

p

s

p

128 129

v;fdf jmcblt,sfy _ Ca(OH)2 + SiO2 CaSiO3 + H2Ovfhbkt,sfy _ Na2CO3 + Ca(OH)2 CaCO3 + 2NaOH

o'kbc cb[bcnt ufygbhj,t,ekbf Ca2+ lf Mg2+ bjyt,bc fhct-,j,bs\ hfw eahj vfqfkbf vfsb itvwdtkj,f o'fkib= vbs eahjvtnbf o'kbc cb[bcnt\ fhct,j,c cfvb cf[bc cb[bcnt| lhjt,bsb=velvbdb lf cfthsj\

lhjt,bsb cb[bcnt= fye rfh,jyfnekb= ufvjodtekbf rfkwbevbclf vfuybevbc ]blhjrfh,jyfnt,bc fhct,j,bs [Ca(HCO3)2=Mg(HCO3)2]\ o'kbcsdbc cb[bcnbc vjwbkt,f ybiyfdc Ca2+ lf Mg2+

bjyt,bc vjwbkt,fc= fye [cyflb ]blhjrfh,jyfnt,bc uflf'dfyfce[cyfl rfh,jyfnt,ib\

lhjt,bs cb[bcntc fwbkt,ty fleqt,bs

Ca HCO CaCO H O COt( )3 2 3 2 2

fy rfkwbevbc nenbc lfvfnt,bs|

Ca(HCO3)2+Ca(OH)2 2CaCO3+2H2O

velvbd cb[bcntc o'fkib ofhvjmvybc CaSO4, MgSO4, CaCl2,MgCl2\ velvbd cb[bcntc fwbkt,ty rfkwbybht,bs (cjlbc lfvf-nt,bs)|

CaCl2 + Na2CO3 CaCO3+ 2NaClCaSO4 + Na2CO3 CaCO3+ Na2SO4

ithtekb = fye cfthsj cb[bcnbc vjwbkt,f itb.kt,fyfnhbevbc nenbs|

Ca(HCO3)2 + 2NaOH CaCO3+ Na2CO3+ 2H2OCaCl2+ Na2CO3 CaCO3 + 2NaClCaSO4 + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + Na2SO4

o'kbc 'jdtkudfhb cb[bcnbc vjwbkt,f itb.kt,f bjybnt,bs\

fldbkfl b[cyt,f hjujhw ufypfdt,ek= bct rjywtynhbht,ekv;fdt,ib|

Ca H SO CaSO H 2 4 4 2( )ufyp\

4 5 4 42 4 4 2 2Ca H SO CaSO H S H O ( )rjyw\

vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt b;fyut,f| 2 22Ca O CaO

vjmvtlt,c| o'fk,flsfy _ 22 CaHHCa

]fkjutyt,sfy _ Ca Cl CaCl 2 2

ujubhlsfy _ Ca S CaS ajcajhsfy _ 3 2 3 2Ca P Ca P

fpjnsfy _ 3 2 3 2Ca N Ca N

CaO _ xfevmhfkb rbhb _ ae.t jmcblbf\

b[cyt,f o'fkib| CaO H O Ca OH 2 2( ) (xfvmhfkb rbhb)

b[cyt,f v;fdfib| CaO H SO CaSO H O 2 4 4 2

vjmvtlt,c v;fdf jmcblt,sfy| CaO SiO CaSiOt 2 3

Ca(OH)2 _ xfvmhfkb rbhb\ vbcb o'fk[cyfhb .kbthb nentf\vbbqt,f xfevmhfkb rbhbc (CaO) o'fkib uf[cybs\ v'fhb Ca(OH)2

o'fkib .ytkfl b[cyt,f\ ]fthpt bvqdhtdf yf[ibhjh;fyubc isfysm-vbc ufvj\

Ca(OH)2+CO2CaCO3 +H2Ose CO2-c zfh,fl ufdfnfht,s= vfiby yfktmb ufb[cyt,f|

CaCO3+CO2+H2OCa(HCO3)2

xfvmhfkb rbhbc mdbibc lf o'kbc yfhtdb ufvjb'tyt,f vityt,-kj,fib= rtlkt,bc itcfktcfl\ bub wyj,bkbf @rbhleqf,bc# cf-[tkbs\

Ca(OH)2 fv;qfdyt,c ae.bcfsdbc lfvf[fcbfst,tk 'dtkf sdb-ct,fc\

vjmvtlt,c v;fdt,sfy _ Ca(OH)2 + 2HCl CaCl2 + 2H2O

130 131

vbqt,f\ ntmybrfib fkevbyc qt,ekj,ty rhbjkbsib Na3[AlF6]-ib uf[cybkb fkevbybc jmcblbc (Al2O3) tktmnhjkbpbs\rfsjlptufvjb'jaf ceasf fkevbyb= [jkj fyjlpt lfb;fyut,f ;fyu,flb\

sdbct,t,b\ fkevbyb vjdthw[kbcahj-stshb athbc ztlflbkbsjybf\ bub rfhub cbs,j- lf tktmnhjufvnfhbf\

]fthpt fkevbyb vluhflbf= hfw ufvjodtekbf vfcpt jmcblbclfvwfdb atybc fhct,j,bs (nAl2O3

.mH2O)\vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt fkevbyb vjmvtlt,c o'kbc jhsmksfy|

2Al+3H2OAl2O3+3H2

vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt ethslt,f|;fyu,flc _ 4Al + 3O2 2Al2O3=ujubhlc _ 2A l+ 3S Al2S3=fpjnc _ 2Al + N2 2AlNmkjhc lf ,hjvc ethslt,f xdtekt,hbd ntvgthfnehfpt\htfmwbfib eiefkjl fh itlbc o'fk,flsfy\fkevbyc fmdc jhudfhb ,eyt,f (fvajnthekbf)\ b[cyt,f cfief-

kj rjywtynhfwbbc v;fdt,ib|2Al + 6HNO3 Al(NO3)3 + 3NO2 + 3H2O2Al + 6H2SO4 Al2(SO4)3 + 3SO2 + 6H2O

rfhufl b[cyt,f nentt,ibw|2Al + 2NaOH + 10H2O 2Na[Al(OH)4(H2O)2] + 3H2

fkevbyb ofhvjmvybc o'fk,flyfthsc _ AlH3 lf ;fyu,flyf-thscfw _ Al2O3\

Al2O3 _ fkevbybc jmcblb= bctdt= hjujhw fkevbyb= fvajnt-hekbf\ vbcb vbqt,f itb.kt,f fkevbybc ;fyu,flsfy eiefkj itth-st,bs fy fkevbybc ]blhjmcblbc _ Al(OH)3-bc lfikbs|

2Al(OH)3 Al2O3 + 3H2O

fkevbybc ]blhjmcblb _ Al(OH)3 o'fkib e[cyflb= fvajnthe-kb ae.tf\ vbcb vbqt,f itb.kt,f itcf,fvbc vfhbkpt nenbc vjmvtlt,bs\

Al2(SO4)3 + 6NaOH 2Al(OH)3+ 3Na2SO4

ufvj'tyt,f\ ^^f /ueabc tktvtynt,b ufvj'btyt,f 'dtkf cat-hjib\ ,thbkbevc b'tyt,ty fnjveh htfmnjht,ib\ vfuybevc b't-yt,ty c[dflfc[df ityflyj,t,ib= gbhjntmybrfib= jhufyek cby-stpib= [cyflb fyjlbc lfcfvpflt,kfl= tktmnhjmbvbeh lfvwfdflrjhjpbbc cfobyffqvltujl\ rfkwbevbc yfthst,bc evtntcj,f uf-vjb'tyt,f cfvityt,kj ghfmnbrfib (CaO, Ca(OH)2, CaCO3;CaSO4

.0,5H2O _ fkt,fcnhb), vtlbwbyfib (CaCl2; CaSO4.2H2O _

sf,fibhb+)\

^^^ /ueabc p-tktvtynt,b

vtyltkttdbc gthbjlekb cbcntvbc ^^^f /ueabc tktvtynt,bf|,jhb _ B= fkevbyb _ Al= ufkbevb _ Ga= bylbevb _ In,sfkbev _ Tl\ fv tktvtynt,blfy ,jhb fhfkbsjybf\ vbcb ]bl-hjmcblb _ B(OH)3cecnb v;fdehb sdbct,t,bs [fcbfslt,f\ fke-vbyb= ufkbevb= bylbevb _ fvajnthekb kbsjyt,bf\ vfsb itcf,f-vbcb ]blhjmcblt,b fvajnthekbf\ fvajnthj,f rkt,ekj,c Al-lfyIn-rty\ sfkbevb fh ofhvjmvybc cfvdfktynbfy ]blhjmcblc\ TlOH_ .kbthb nentf\

fkevbyb _ Al\ fv tktvtynib cfdfktynj tktmnhjyt,b vj-sfdct,ekbf 3s2sp1 mdtljytt,pt\ ,eyt,fib ufdhwtkt,bc vb[tldbsbub vtjs[t tktvtynbf\ evsfdhtcfl fkevbycbkbrfnt,bc cf[bs fhbcufdhwtkt,ekb\ fkevbybc yfthst,blfy vybdiytljdfybf Al2O3 _ rj-heylb\ (c[dflfc[df vbyfhtdt,bs itathbkb rjheylb ud[dlt,f.dbhafcb mdt,bc cf[bs| kfkb (mhjvbc vbyfhtdbs)= cfabhjyb (nb-nfybc lf hrbybc vbyfhtdbs))+ ,jmcbnt,b _ Al2O3

.2H2O= rhbjkbsb_ Na3[AlF6]= stshb sb[f _ Al2(Si2O5)(OH)4\

132 133

^& /ueabc p_tktvtynt,b

yf[ibh,flb

pjuflb lf[fcbfst,f| gthbjlekb cbcntvbc ̂ & /ueabc vsfdf-hb mdt/ueabc tktvtynt,bf| yf[ibh,flb _ C= cbkbwbevb _ Si= uth-vfybevb _ Ge= rfkf _ Sn= n'dbf _ Pb\ mdt/ueaib ptdblfy mdtdbsbphlt,f fnjvbc hflbecb= rkt,ekj,c bjybpfwbbc gjntywbfkb=fvbnjv ptdblfy mdtdbs vwbhlt,f fhfkbsjyehb sdbct,t,b\ yf[-ibh,flb lf cbkbwbevb nbgehb fhfkbsjyt,bf\ uthvfybevc erf-dbf iefktlehb vlujvfhtj,f= [jkj rfkfcf lf n'dbfib kbsjyehbsdbct,t,b zfh,j,c\ fv mdt/ueabc tktvtynt,c cfdfktynj ihtptfmdc js[b tktmnhjyb ns2np2 (n _ gthbjlbc yjvthbf)= fvbnjvyfthst,ib bcbyb .bhbsflfl js[dfktynbfybf= sevwf jhbc njkbdfktynj,fw lfvf[fcbfst,tkbf (Si-bc ufhlf)\

,eyt,fib ufdhwtkt,f| yf[ibh,flb ,eyt,fib ufdhwtkt,ekbfhjujhw sfdbceafk vlujvfhtj,fib= fctdt yfthst,bc cf[bs\ fh-ct,j,c yf[ibh,flbc cfvb fkjnhjgbekb cf[twdkbkt,f| fkvfcb=uhfabnb= [bc yf[ibhb (rfh,byb)\ vfsb fkjnhjgbbc cfae.dtkbfhbc rhbcnfkehb vtchbc c[dflfc[dfj,f\

,eyt,hbdb yfthst,blfy fkvfcb 'dtkfpt vfufhbf\ vbcb lfveif-dt,bs vbbqt,f .dbhafcb cfbedtkbhj mdf _ ,hbkbfynb\ [bc yf[-ibhc fmdc flcjh,wbbc lblb eyfhb= ajht,bfyb cnhemnehbc ufvj\uffmnbdt,ek yf[ibhc fh ite.kbf o'kbc jhsmkbc isfysmvf= cf-vfubthjl rfhufl isfysmfdc bctsb ybdsbtht,t,bc jhsmkc= hjuj-hbwff ,typjkb= njkejkb= cgbhnb lf c[dflfc[df vjvofvdktkbybdsbtht,f\ yf[ibhbc tc sdbct,f ptkbycrbv ufvjb'tyf fbhobyf-qt,ib\

,eyt,fib yf[ibh,flb ufdhwtkt,ekbf| rfh,jyfnt,bc [wfhwb=rbhmdf= vfhvfhbkj (CaCO3)+ ljkjvbnb (CaCO3.MgCO3)] lf]blhjrfh,jyfnt,bc [Mg(HCO3)2, Ca(HCO3)2] cf[bs\

lblb hfjltyj,bs yf[ibh,flc itbwfdc ,eyt,hbdb cfodfdb _yfdsj,b= mdfyf[ibhb= cfodfdb fbht,b\

hflufy ufvj'jabkb Al(OH)3 fvajnthekbf= fvbnjv yfnhb-evbc nent eylf lfdfvfnjs odts-odtsfl\ c[df itvs[dtdfib yf-ktmb ufb[cyt,f\

Al(OH)3-bc vbqt,bcfc yfnhbevbc nenbc vfubdhfl c/j,c uf-vjdb'tyjs cecnb nent NH4OH

Al2(SO4) + 6NH4OH 2Al(OH)3 + 3(NH4)2SO4

Al(OH)3 _ b[cyt,f v;fdfibw lf zfh, nentibw\2Al(OH)3 + 3H2SO4 Al2(SO4)3 + 6H2O (ae.bc sdbct,f)

Al(OH)3 + NaOH + 2H2O Na[Al(OH)4(H2O)2] (v;fdbc sdbct,f)

ufvj'tyt,f\ fkevbyb .bhbsflfl ufvjb'tyt,f ityflyj,t,ib\ lf-vfnt,t,bc it'dfybcfc fkevbybc cbvfuht bphlt,f= vfuhfv vwbhlt,frjhjpbekb vluhflj,f\ fkevbybc ityflyj,t,b= hjvkt,bw itb-wfdc cgbkty.c lf vwbht hfjltyj,bs vfuybevc _ vluhflbf\ fctsbflehfkevbyb (5% Cu lf 2% Mg)\ wyj,bkbf fkevbybc ,hby/fj (Cu_ 5-10%)\ ufvjb'tyt,f [ehlf aekbc lfcfvpflt,kfl\

fkevbybc ityflyj,t,c b'tyt,ty sdbsvahbyfdvityt,kj,fib\ufvjb'tyt,f hjujhw rfhub fqvlutytkb vtnfkehubfib\ fv

vtsjlc fkevbyjsthvbf tojlt,f|3Fe3O4 + 8Al 9Fe + 4Al2O3

134 135

tsbktyb _ C2H4 e/thb yf[ibho'fk,flbf\ bub cfcbfvjdyjceybc cecnb fbhbf\ o'fkib rfhufl b[cyt,f\ ufvjb'tyt,f .bhbsf-lfl ntmybrehb tsbkbc cgbhnbc vbcfqt,fl\

fwtnbktyb _ C2H2 eathj= vjvofvkfdb fbhbf\ fwtnbktybcvbqt,f itb.kt,f rfkwbevbc rfh,blpt o'kbc vjmvtlt,bs|

CaC2 + 2H2O Ca(OH)2 + C2H2

]fthsfy lf ;fyu,flsfy fwtnbktybc yfhtdb .kbth atsmt,f-lbf\ ]fthpt bodbc zdfhnkbfyb fkbs|

C2H2 + 2,5 O2 2CO2 + H2O + 151 r/jekbhflufy fwtnbktybc odbcfc lbl.fkb cbs,j ufvjb'jaf= fvbnjv

vfy afhsj ufvj'tyt,f vjbgjdf ntmybrfib _ evsfdhtcfl kbsjyt,bcfdnjutyehb itleqt,bc lhjc\ fwtnbktyblfy vpfllt,f .vfhv;fdf\ufvjb'tyt,f fuhtsdt cbystpehb rfexerbc ofhvjt,bcsdbc\

rfh,blt,b tojlt,f yf[ibh,flbc yfthst,c kbsjyt,sfy= ,jh-sfy lf cbkbwbevsfy\ rfh,blt,b b'jaf cfv /ueafl _ bjyeh= rj-dfktyneh lf bynthvtnfkehfl\ vfs ijhbc vybidytkjdfybf rfk-wbevbc rfh,blb= hjvtkbw bjyeh rfh,blt,c vbtresdyt,f\ fv nbgbcrfh,blt,c fwtnbktyblt,cfw eojlt,ty= hflufy o'fksfy vfsbehsbthsmvtlt,bc itltufl vbbqt,f fwtnbktyb|

CaC2 + 2H2O Ca(OH)2 + C2H2

rfkwbevbc rfh,blb vbbqt,f tktmnhek qevtkib rbhbcf lfyf[ibhbc yfhtdbc .kbthb uf[eht,bs

CaO + 3C CaC2 + CObjyeh rfh,blt,c vbtresdyt,f vtsfyjutyehb rfh,blt,b= hjv-

kt,bcufyfw ofhvjbmvyt,f vtsfyb\Al4C3 + 12H2O 2Al(OH)3 + 3CH4

rjdfktyneh rfh,blt,c vbtresdyt,f ,jhbc rfh,blb (B4C) lfcbkbwbevbc rfh,blb (SiC)\ bcbyb cbvfuhbs fkvfcc ef[kjdlt,bfy\

yf[ibh,flbc fnjvbc tktmnhjyekb ajhvekf fhbc _ 6C _1s22s22p2\ cfdfktynj tktmnhjyt,b vjsfdct,ekbf 2s22p2 mdtlj-

ytpt _ \ t\b\ fmdc jhb ufeo'dbkt,tkb tktmnhjyb

(jhdfktynbfyb yfthst,b) fupyt,ek vlujvfhtj,fib yf[ibh,flbc

fnjvc ite.kbf 2s-mdtljyblfy thsb tktmnhjyb uflfbnfyjc 2p-mdtljytpt= hbc itltuflfw vfc ufe[lt,f js[b ufeo'dbkt,tkb

tktmnhjyb _ \ fv itvs[dtdfib bub js[dfktynbfybf\

yf[ibh,flbc yt,bcvbthb fkjnhjgbekb vjlbabrfwbf xdte-kt,hbd gbhj,t,ib bythnekbf\ fmnbehlt,f v[jkjl vfqfk ntv-gthfnehfpt\ bub .kbthb fqvlutybf\ tc sdbct,f ufvj'tyt,ekbfvtnfkehubfib\

yf[ibh,flbc fnjvt,c fmdc thsvfytssfy itthst,bc eyfhb\ fvsdbct,fv ufyfgbhj,f efvhfdb jhufyekb yfthsbc ofhvjmvyf\

yf[ibh,flbc o'fk,flyfthst,b| yf[ibh,flb o'fk,flsfy ofh-vjmvybc vhfdfkhbw[jdfy yfthsc\ vjktrekfib o'fk,flbc lf yf[-ibh,flbc fnjvt,bc sfyfafhlj,bc vb[tldbs= bcbyb itb.kt,f hfv-ltybvt /ueafl lfd'js|

yf/thb yf[ibho'fk,flt,b _ CnH2n+2

e/thb (tsbktybc hbubc) yf[ibho'fk,flt,b _ CnH2n

e/thb (fwtnbktybc hbubc) yf[ibho'fk,flt,b) _ CnH2n _ 2\yf[ibho'fk,flt,b ofhvjmvybc ]jvjkjubeh hbuc= cflfw sb-

sjtekb otdhb vjvltdyj otdhbcufy ufyc[dfdlt,f _ CH2 /ueabs\CH2-c ]jvjkjubehb c[dfj,f tojlt,f\

yf[ibho'fk,flt,blfy 'dtkfpt vtnfl wyj,bkbf _ vtsfyb=tsbktyb= fwtnbktyb\

vtsfyb _ CH4 yf/thb yf[ibho'fk,flt,bc gbhdtkb ofhvj-vflutytkbf\ ,eyt,hbdb fbht,b .bhbsflfl vtsfybcufy itlut,f\ bubeathj= eceyj= o'fkib sbsmvbc e[cyflb yfthsbf\ vtsfyb .bhb-sflfl ufvjb'tyt,f cfodfdfl\ ]fthpt bodbc wbcathb fkbs\

CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O

2 s

2p

2 s

2p

136 137

C + H2O CO + H2

o'fkufpb lf utythfnjhbc ufpb rfhub cfodfdbf\

yf[ibh,flbc (^&) jmcblb _ CO2\ yf[ibh,flbc chekbodbcfc ufvjb'jaf yf[ibhjh;fyub|

C + O2 CO2

bub ]fthpt 1=5-/th v.bvtf\ cohfab fjhsmkt,bcfc b'byt,f lfvbbqt,f @vihfkb 'byekb#\ v'fhb CO2 ufkqj,bc ufhtit fldbkfluflflbc fbhfl vlujvfhtj,fib\ o'fkib rfhufl b[cyt,f= fmdccfcbfvjdyj utvj= fvbnjvfw afhsjl ufvjb'tyt,f ufvfuhbkt,tkbcfcvtkt,bc ofhvjt,fib\

CO2 yf[ibhv;fdfc fy]blhblbf\ b[cyt,f nentt,ib lf vbbqt,frfh,jyfnt,b lf ]blhjrfh,jyfnt,b|

O + HCONa NaOH 2 + CO 2322jyfnbrfh,

jyfnb]blhjrfh,32 NaHCO + NaOH CO

ntmybrehb vbpyt,bcfsdbc CO2-c qt,ekj,ty rbhmdbc fy lj-kjvbnbc ufvjodbs|

CaCO3 CaO + CO2

kf,jhfnjhbek gbhj,t,ib vbbqt,f rbgbc fgfhfnib= vfhvf-hbkjc yfnt[pt vfhbkv;fdfc vjmvtlt,bs

2

23223 CO

OHCO + H CaClHCl 2 + CaCO

fy yfnhbevbc ]blhjrfh,jyfnbc uf[eht,bs|2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O

CO2-bc o'fkib uf[cybs vbbqt,f cecnb= fhfvluhflb yf[ibh-v;fdf\

CO2 + H2O H2CO3

yf[ibhv;fdf cecnb= jhae.bfyb v;fdff\ lbcjwbhlt,f jh cfat-[ehfl|

yf[ibh,flbc (^^) jmcblb _ CO v[esfdb fbhbf\ vbbqt,fyf[ibh,flbc fhfchekb odbc itltufl|

2C + O2 2COCO-c vbqt,f itb.kt,f yf[ibhbcf lf CO2-bc ehsbthsmvt-

lt,bcfc vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt|CO2 + C 2CO

CO _ ]fthpt vce,emb= eathj= eceyj fbhbf\ o'fkib evybid-ytkjl b[cyt,f\ ;fyu,flbc fhtib (]fthib) bodbc keh/b fkbs|

2CO + O2 2CO2 + 2 . 282,4 r/lfodbcfc ufvjb'jaf cbs,jc lblb hfjltyj,f= fvbnjv ufvjb-

'tyt,f= hjujhw rfhub cfodfdb\CO rfhub fqvlutybf lf tc sdbct,f ufvjb'tyt,f vtnfkehubfib|

Fe3O4 + 4CO 3Fe + 4CO2

CO vfhbkfhofhvjvmvytkb jmcblbf\ vbe[tlfdfl fvbcf= bubb[cyt,f yfnhbevbc nentib|

CO + NaOH HCOONaitltufl vbbqt,f zbfyzdtkfv;fdfc vfhbkb _ yfnhbevbc ajh-

vbfnb\CO vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt ethslt,f pjubths kbsjyc lf

vbbqt,f kbsjysf rfh,jybkt,b| Ni(CO)4; Fe(CO)5 lf c[df\CO 5000C-pt ethslt,f mkjhc lf vbbqt,f ajcutyb\

CO + Cl2 COCl2

ajcutyb v[esfdb= .kbthvjvofvdktkb= eathj fbhbf\ gbhdtkvcjakbj jvbc lhjc bc b'j gbhdtkb mbvbehb bfhfqb= hjvtkbwuthvfybfv ufvjb'tyf\

yf[ibh,flbc (^^) jmcblb fhbc .bhbsflb itvflutytkb yfobkbutythfnjhbc lf o'fkufpbc\ utythfnjhbc ufpb vbbqt,f yf[ibhbcfy rjmcbc fhfchekb odbc lhjc\ vbcb itvflutykj,f (vjwekj,bsbghjwtynb) fhbc _ 25% CO+ 70% N2; 4% CO2\ 1v3\ fctsb fbhbclfodbcfc ufvjb'jaf 33 000_40 000 r/ cbs,j\

o'fkufpb vbbqt,f ufdfhdfht,ekb rjmcbc atyfib o'kbc jh-smkbc ufnfht,bs|

138 139

cbkbwbevb

cbkbwbevb ltlfvbofpt 'dtkfpt ufdhwtkt,ekb tktvtynbf\,eyt,fib sfdbceafkb cf[bs fh ud[dlt,f= fhct,j,c yfthst,bccf[bs= hjvkt,bw itb.t,f ufydb[bkjs SiO2-bc yfofhvfl\

SiO2 ,eyt,fib ud[dlt,f rdfhwbc= vsbc ,hjkbc= mdbibc cf[bs\vsbc ,hjkb ufvzdbhdfkt rhbcnfkt,bf\ vbyfhtdt,bcufy bc vem-ahfl itathbkb vsbc ,hjkb _ yf[tdhfl .dbhafcb vbythfkbnjgfpbf= bbcahfl itathbkb _ fvtsdbcnj\ SiO2 ud[dlt,f byae-pjhbekb vbobc cf[bsfw\ bub ofhvjflutyc o'fkvwtyfhtt,bcrf;jdfyb /fdiyt,bc yfhxtyt,c\ ite.kbf lblb hfjltyj,bs cbs[bcitojdf\ tc sdbct,f ufvj'tyt,ekbf lbyfvbnbc lfcfvpflt,kfl\

cbkbwbevbc ,eyt,hbdb yfthst,blfy vybidytkjdfybf fkevby-cbkbrfnt,b| vbyldhbc igfnb= mfhcb= ,bdhbkb lfc[df\

pjubthsb ,eyt,hbdb cbkbrfnb o'kbc lf yf[ibhjh;fyubcvjmvtlt,bs ytk-ytkf bikt,f lf ofhvjmvybc o'fkib e[cyfl rfj-kbyc _ Al2O3

.2SiO2.2H2O= fye stsh sb[fc lf mdbifc _ SiO2\

yf[ibh,flbc vcufdcfl cbkbwbevcfw uffxybf js[b cfdfktynjtktmnhjyb 2s22p2 mdtljytt,pt\ yfthst,ib bub .bhbsflfl js[df-ktynbfybf\ ;fyudbc hbw[db +4 (bidbfsfl _ +2)= o'fk,flyfthsibrb -4\

cbkbwbevb fhct,j,c jhb vjlbabrfwbbc cf[bs\ rhbcnfkehblf fvjhaekb\rhbcnfkeh cbkbwbevc fkvfcbc vcufdcb cbvfuhtfmdc\ fhbc rfhub tktmnhjufvnfhb\

cbkbwbevb vbbqt,f SiO2-bc fqlutybs tktnhjqevtkib\SiO2 + 2C Si + 2CO

fvjhaekb cbkbwbevb fhbc vehf a[dybkb\ mbvbehfl eahjfmnbehbf= dblht rhbcnfkehb cbkbwbevb\ jsf[bc ntvgthf-nehfpt ethslt,f v[jkjl asjhc\

Si + 2F2 SiF4

lfyfhxty ]fkjutyt,c ethslt,f uf[eht,bs\ ;fyu,flc eths-lt,f 8000-pt\

H2CO3 H+ + HCO3_

OC/OH\OH

_

_

HCO3_ H+ + CO3

_2

H2CO3 ofhvjmvybc jhb cf[bc vfhbkc _ ]blhjrfh,jyfnt,clf rfh,jyfnt,c\

NaOH + H2CO3 NaHCO3 + H2O2NaOH + H2CO3 Na2CO3 + 2H2O

rfh,jyfnt,b ]blhjkbplt,f nent ufhtvjc ofhvjmvybs|

Na2CO3 + H2O NaHCO3 + NaOHCO3

_2 + H2O HCO3_ + OH_ pH>7

NaHCO3 + H2O NaOH + H2CO3

HCO3_ + H2O OH_ + H2CO3 pH>7

rfh,jyfnt,blfy o'fkib v[jkjl nent kbsjyt,bc lf fvj-ybevbc rfh,jyfnt,b b[cyt,f rfhufl\ ]blhjrfh,jyfnt,blfy o'fk-ib rfhufl b[cyt,f nent lf nentvbofsf kbsjyt,bc ]blhjrfh-,jyfnt,b (yfnhbevbc ]blhjrfh,jyfnbc ufhlf)\

yf[ibh,flbc c[df yfthst,blfy vybidytkjdfybf ujubhlyf[-ibh,flb (CS2) lf js[mkjhbfyb yf[ibh,flb (CCl4)\ jhbdt rfhubufv[cytkbf\

js[mkjhbfyb yf[ibh,flbc jhsmkbc fhtib fh dhwtklt,ffkb\ fvbnjv bub b[vfht,f cf[fy.hj cfmvtib= wtw[kbc xfcfmhj,fl\

140 141

wyj,bkbf cbkbwbevbc hfvltybvt v;fdf\ vfsufy vybidytkjdfybf(H2SiO3-bc ufhlf) H4SiO4 _ jhsjajcajhv;fdf= hjvkbc gjkb-vthbpfwbbc itltufl ofhvjbmvyt,f cbkbwbevbc c[df v;fdt,b\

vbyf\ rf;vbof lf cbkbwbevv;fdfc vfhbkt,b vhfdfkb ntmyb-rehb ghjlemnbc itvflutytkb yfobkbf\ SiO2-bc= yfnhbevbcf lfrfkwbevbc rfh,jyfnt,bc itkqj,bs vbbqt,f vbyf\

2222332 CO2 + SiO6CaOONa SiO6 + + CaCOCONavbyf (afy/hbc) xdtek\

se yfnhbevbc jmcblc (Na2O) itdwdkbs rfkbevbc jmcblbs(K2O)= vbbqt,f wtw[kufv.kt mbvbehb vbyf\ se CaO xfdfyfwd-kt,s n'dbbc jmcblbs= vbdbqt,s ,hjkc\ wyj,bkbf fuhtsdtrdfhwbc vbyf\ bub .bhbsflfl SiO2-ufy itlut,f\ vfc fmdc .fkbfyvwbht ufafhsjt,bc rjtabwbtynb= hbc ufvjw ntvgthfnehbc wdf-kt,flj,f vfcpt ufdktyfc fh f[ltyc\ ufvjb'tyt,f cgtwbfkehb[tkcfo'jt,bc lfcfvpflt,kfl\

athflb vbyt,bc vbcfqt,fl evfnt,ty c[dflfc[df kbsjyt,bcjmcblt,c\ keh/b vbybc vbcfqt,fl evfnt,ty rj,fknbc jmcblc\bbcathb vbyf vbbqt,f vfyufyevbc lfvfnt,bs= vodfyt _ mhjvbc jm-cblbc cfiefkt,bs\

vbyfymfhb fhbc fhfufvzdbhdfkt vbyf\ ufvjb'tyt,f kbsjybcyfrtsj,t,bc ptlfgbhbc lfcfafhfdfl\

afbaehb vbbqt,f sb[bc= rfjkbybc= vbyldhbc igfnbcf lf rdfh-wbc yfhtdbc ufvjodbs\

SiO2-bc itvwdtkb vfcfkbcufy vpfllt,f wtw[kufv.kt lb-yfcbc fuehb= hjvtkbw ufvjb'tyt,f wtw[kufv.kt qevtkt,bc fcf-ut,fl\

wtvtynb itvrdhtkb vfcfkff= hjvtkbw vbbqt,f lfobkflt-,ekb rbhmdbc (CaCO3) lf SiO2-bs ufvlblht,ekb sb[bc yfhtdbcuf[eht,bs\ vbqt,ek vfcfc rkbyrthb tojlt,f\ fv vfcbc itvlujvblfamdbs vbbqt,f wtvtynb\

Si + O2 SiO2

fh b[cyt,f fhwths v;fdfib= ufhlf fpjnv;fdbcf lf asjh-o'fk,flv;fdbc yfhtdbcf\

3Si0 + 4HN+5O3 + 18HF 3H2Si+4F6 + 4N+2O + 8H2OSi0 _ 4e Si+4 3 fqvlutyb (lfb;fyuf)N+5 + 3e N+2 4 v;fyufdb (fqluf)

cbkbwbevb b[cyt,f nentt,ib lf ofhvjmvybc vtnfcbkbrf-nt,c\

Si + 2NaO + H2O Na2SiO3 + 2H2

vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt ethslt,f pjubths kbsjyc lf ofh-vjmvybc cbkbwblt,c\

2Mg + Si Mg2Sitktmnhjqevtkib rjmcbc (C) lf mdbibc (SiO2) itkqj,bs vb-

bqt,f cbkbwbevbc rfh,blb SiC_ rfh,jheylb\ vfc f[fcbfst,cfkvfcbc vcufdcb cbvfuht\

cbkfyt,b _ cbkbwbevbc o'fk,flyfthst,bf\ vfsb cfthsj ajh-vekff SinH2n+2\

cbkbwbevbc ;fyu,flyfthst,blfy wyj,bkbf vjyjmcblb SiO lfjmcblb SiO2\

SiO ,eyt,fib fh vjbgjdt,f\SiO2 xdtekt,hbdb rf;vboff lf ,eyt,hbdb gjkbvthbf (SiO2)n\

rf;vbof [fcbfslt,f vfqfkb lyj,bc ntvgthfnehbs= cbcfkbsf lfmbvbehb vluhflj,bs (xdtekt,hbd gbhj,t,ib)\ SiO2 cbkbwbev-v;fdfc fy]blhblbf\ o'fkib fh b[cyt,f\ ehsbthsmvtlt,c nent-t,sfy lf vbbqt,f cbkbwbevv;fdfc vfhbkt,b _ cbkbrfnt,b\

SiO2 + 2NaOH Na2SiO3 + H2Oo'fkib [cyflbf v[jkjl nent kbsjyt,bc cbkbrfnt,b\Na2SiO3 _ s[tdflb vbyf ufvjb'tyt,f cfvityt,kj cfmvtib uhey-

nbc ufcfvfuht,kfl= cffdnjvj,bkj upt,bc vityt,kj,fib\ s[tdflvbyfpt v;fdt,bc vjmvtlt,bs vbbqt,f vtnfcbkbwbevv;fdf H2SiO3\

Na2SiO3 + 2HCl 2NaCl + H2SiO3

142 143

vbbqt,f fpjnbc lflt,bsb bjyb N+= hjvtkcfw ite.kbf thsbbjyehb lf js[b rjdfktynehb ,vbc ofhvjmvyf\

kf,jhfnjhbekb upbs fpjnbc vbqt,f itb.kt,f fvjybevbcybnhbnbc uf[eht,bs\

NH4NO2 N2 + 2H2Oofhvjt,fib fpjnc qt,ekj,ty ufs[tdflt,ekb ]fthbc ahfm-

wbekb ufvj[lbs\fpjnb eathj= eceyj fbhbf\ xdtekt,hbd gbhj,t,ib vbcb vj-

ktrekf N = N (N2) vluhflbf cfvvfub ,vbc ufvj\ htfmwbbceyfhbfyb[lt,f v[jkjl vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt\ uf[eht,bs ethslt,f kb-sjyt,c lf ofhvjmvybc ybnhblt,c\

3Ca + N2 Ca3N2

tktmnhekb hrfkbc mdti ethslt,f ;fyu,flc|N2 + O2 2NO

o'fk,flyfthst,b\ fpjnb o'fk,flsfy ofhvjmvybc hfvltybvtyfthsc\ vfs ijhbc vybidytkjdfybf fvbfrb _ NH3\ vbcb vbqt,fitb.kt,f fpjnbc lf o'fk,flbc eiefkj itthst,bs\ htfmwbfvbvlbyfhtj,c 400-5000C-pt= 1000 fnv\ oytdbc mdti\

N2 + 3H2 2NH3

kf,jhfnjhbfib qt,ekj,ty fvjybevbc mkjhblblfy (NH4Cl)=hjvtkcfw lfntybfyt,ek rfkwbevbc jmcblsfy thsfl f[eht,ty\

2NH4Cl + CaO CaCl2 + H2O + 2NH3

fvbfrb (NH3) vrdtshb ceybc= eathj fbhbf\ bodbc ceasf ;fyu-,flib\

4NH3 + 3O2 2N2 + 6H2Ogkfnbybc rfnfkbpfnjhpt fpjnbc bjyb vtnfl b;fyut,f\

4NH3 + 5O2 4NO + 6H2Ofvbfrb o'fkib rfhufl b[cyt,f lf ofhvjmvybc fhfvluhfl cecn

nentc _ NH4OH\ nenbc itvflutykj,fib itlbc thsdfktynbfybfvjybevbc bjyb _ NH4

+\

,eyt,fib fhct,j,c mfyt,b _ vthutkt,b= hjvkt,bw sfdbcb itl-utybkj,bs wtvtynbcsdbc cfzbhj sb[bc lf rbhmdbc yfhtdbcvcufdcbf\ [ibhfl cojhtl vthutkt,c ufvjodfdty lf vbqt,ekrkbyrthc amdfdty\

wtvtynb yfwhbcathb a[dybkbf= hjvkbc mdbifcsfy yfhtdbo'fksfy ofhvjmvybc wjvbct,h vfcfc= ufihj,bcfc bub itzbldfcufybwlbc\

,tnjyb wtvtynbc lf [htibc yfhtdbc o'fk[cyfhbf= hjvtk-cfw fsfdct,ty ajhvt,ib\ bub afhsjl ufvjb'tyt,f cfvityt,kj cfm-vtib\

& /ueabc p-tktvtynt,b

pjuflb lf[fcbfst,f\ gthbjlekb cbcntvbc &f mdt/ueabc tkt-vtynt,bf| fpjnb N+ ajcajhb P+ lfhbi[fyb As+ cnb,bevb Sb+,bcvenb Bi\ fpjnb lf ajcajhb nbgehb fhfkbsjyt,bf\ lfhbi-[fyb lf cnb,bevb ufhlfvfdfkb ,eyt,bc tktvtynt,bf= [jkj ,bc-venib zfh,j,c kbsjyehb sdbct,t,b\ fv mdt/ueabc tktvtynt,bc.bhbsflb dfktynj,f fhbc ^^^ lf & (fpjnbc ufhlf)\ evfqktcblflt,bsb ;fyudbc [fhbc[b +5= [jkj efh'jabsb ve[nb _ -3\

fpjnb

sfdbceafkb fpjnb ]fthbc itvflutykj,fibf (78%)\ fpjnbcyfthst,b ,eyt,fib ufdhwtkt,ekbf yfnhbevbc lf rfkbevbc udfh-/bkt,bc _ NaNO3, KNO3 cf[bs\

fpjnbc fnjvbc tktmnhjyekb ajhvekff 1s22s22p3\ cfdf-ktynj tktmnhjyt,b vjsfdct,ekbf 2s22p3 mdtljytt,pt\ fh uffx-ybf sfdbceafkb jh,bnfkb= fvbnjv s-mdtljyblfy tktmnhjyt,bcufywfkrtdt,f fh ite.kbf\ fpjnb ofhvjmvybc v[jkjl js[ rjdf-ktyneh ,vfc\ vbc fnjvc ite.kbf lfrfhujc thsb tktmnhjyb lf

144 145

fvjybevbc udfh/bkf _ NH4NO3 fpjnbs vlblfhbf\ fvbnjvufvjb'tyt,f cfcemfl\ fhbc cfrvfjl atsmt,flb yfthsb lf fv sdb-ct,bc ufvj ufvjb'tyt,f cffhnbkthbj dfpyt,ib= nhjnbksfy th-sfl\ bubdt lfybiyekt,bcsdbc ufvjb'tyt,f fvjyfkb= hjvtkbw it-bwfdc 72% fvjybevbc ybnhfnc= 25% fkevbybc a[dybkc lf 3% yf[-ibhc\ fctsb yfhtdb ltnjyfwbbs atsmlt,f\

fpjnbc ;fyu,flyfthst,b\ fpjnb ofhvjmvybc [es jmcblc|N2O, NO, N2O3, NO2 (N2O4), N2O5\ N2O lf NO vfhbkfhofh-vjvmvytkb jmcblt,bf\ N2O3 lf N2O5, itcf,fvbcfl= fpjnjdfyb v;f-dfc (HNO2) lf fpjnv;fdfc (HNO3) fy]blhblt,bf\

fpjnbc (^^^) jmcblb _ N2O3 keh/b athbc cbs[tf\ vbcbitcf,fvbcb v;fdf _ HNO2 evluhflbf\ fv v;fdfc vbqt,f itb.kt,fnent vbofsf kbsjyt,bc ybnhbnt,pt ujubhlv;fdfc vjmvtlt,bs|

NaNO2 + H2SO4 NaHSO4 + HNO2

HNO2 N2O3 + H2Ohflufy fpjnbc ;fyudbc [fhbc[b fpjnjdfy v;fdfcf lf vbc vfhb-

kt,ib _ ybnhbnt,ib iefktlehbf (+3)= fvbnjv bcbyb fqvlutyt-,bw fhbfy lf v;fyufdt,bw\2KMn+7O4 + 5HN+3O2 + 3H2SO4 K2SO4 + 2Mn+2SO4

++ 5HN+3O3 + 3H2O

Mn+7 + 5e Mn+2 2N+3 _ 2e N+5 5 fqvlutyb

2HN+3O2 + 2HJ J20 + 2N+2O + 2H2O

N+3 + e N+2 22J_ _ 2e J2

0 1 fqvlutyb

fpjnbc (̂ &) jmcblb _ NO2 vemb obstkb athbc fbhbf\-110C-ptufhlfbmvyt,f eathj rhbcnfkt,fl= hjvtkbw itlut,f N2O4-bc vj-

fvbfrb fldbkfl itlbc htfmwbfib v;fdt,sfy lf ofhvjmvybcfvjybevbc vfhbkt,c|

NH3 + HCl NH4Cl2NH3 + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4

fv htfmwbt,ib fvbfrb fv;qfdyt,c ae.t sdbct,t,c\fvbfrc uffxybf v;fdehb sdbct,fw\ vfufkbsfl= vfqfk ntvgthf-

nehfpt vjmvtlt,c pjubths kbsjysfy|2Na + 2NH3 2NaNH2 + H2

vbqt,ekb yfnhbevfvblb (NaNH2) fvbfrbc v;fdf vfhbkbf\

fvjybevbc nent _ NH4OH vbbqt,f fvbfrbc o'fkib uf[cybs|NH3 + 3H2O NH4OH

fvjybevbc ]blhjmcblb ofhvjmvybcsfyfdt bikt,f bjyt,fl(NH4

+, OH_)\ [cyfhib fv bjyt,bc ufhlf 'jdtksdbc fhct,j,c fvbf-

rbc ]blhfnb NH3....H2O= fvbnjvfw fvjybevbc nentc 'jdtksdbcfmdc fvbfrbc .kbthb ceyb\

NH4+ bjyb nent kbsjyt,bc (M+) bjyt,bc vcufdcbf\fvbfrbc vjktrekbc lf o'fk,flbc bjybc vbf[kjdt,bcfc fpj-

nbc ufye'jatk tktmnhjyek o'dbkc lf o'fk,flbc bjybc sfdb-ceafk jh,bnfkc ijhbc fqb.dht,f ljyjhek-fmwtgnjhekb ,vf(fpjnb ljyjhbf= o'fk,flbc bjyb _ fmwtgnjhb)\ ofhvjmvybkbjs[bdt ,vf thsvfytsbc njkafcbf\

H:HNH

:HH:HNH

:H

fvjybevbc vfhbkt,b o'fk[cyfhib ]blhjkbplt,f= evtnt-cfl v;fdf ufhtvjc ofhvjmvybs\ fvjybevbc vfhbkt,blfy vybidyt-kjdfybf _ NH4Cl (ybiflehb)\ ufvjb'tyt,f kbsjyt,bc hxbkdbclhjc\

146 147

2Pb(NO3)2 2PbO + 4NO2 + O2

rtsbkij,bkb kbsjyt,bc ybnhfnt,bc uf[eht,bcfc ufvjb'j-af itcf,fvbcb kbsjyb|

2AgNO3 2Ag + 2NO2 + O2

fpjnv;fdf .kbthb v;fyufdb v;fdff\ vfcib b[cyt,f fhfkbsj-yt,b|

3P + 5HNO3 3HPO3 + 5NO + H2Ofpjnv;fdf vjmvtlt,c kbsjyt,sfyfw\ fmnbeh kbsjyt,sfy

ufyp\ fpjnv;fdbc vjmvtlt,bcfc fpjnbc fnjvb (+5) ;fyudbchbw[dbs, bjyb fqlut,f (-3)-vlt|

4Zn0 + 10HN+5O3 4Zn+2(NO3)2 + N_3H4NO3 + 3H2O

Zn0 _ 2e Zn+2 4N+5 + 8e N_3 1

lflt,bsb gjntywbfkbc vmjyt kbsjyt,pt ufypfdt,ekb fpjn-v;fdbc vjmvtlt,bcfc N+5 fqlut,f N+2-vlt|

3Cu0 + 8HN+5O3 3Cu+2(NO3)2 + 2N+2O + 4H2O

Cu0 _ 2e Cu+2 3N+5 + 3e N+2 1

rjywtynhbht,ekb fpjnv;fdbc kbsjyt,sfy vjmvtlt,bcfc N+5

'dtkf itvs[dtdfib fqlut,f N+4-vlt\Zn0 + 4HN+5O3 Zn+2(NO3)2

+ 2N+4O2 + 2H2OZn0 _ 2e Zn+2 1N+5 + e N+4 2

Cu0 + 4HN+5O3 Cu+2(NO3)2 + 2N+4O2 + 2H2O

Cu0 _ 2e Cu+2 1N+5 + e N+4 2

fpjnv;fdf dth ;fyufdc jmhjc lf gkfnbyfc= fctdt= gkfnbybchbubc tktvtynt,c\ fqybiyekb kbsjyt,b b[cyt,f v[jkjl cfvt-aj o'fkib (1 vjw\ HNO3 + 3 vjw\ HCl)\

ktrekt,bcfufy\ t\b\ lf,fk ntvgthfnehfpt v'fhlt,f ojyfcoj-hj,f 2NO2 N2O4 \

NO2 ithtekb fy]blhblbf\ nentt,sfy ehsbthsmvtlt,bcfcvfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt ofhvjmvybc fpjnjdfyb v;fdfc lf fpjn-v;fdfc vfhbkt,c\

2NO2 + 2NaOH NaNO3 + NaNO2 + H2O

fpjnbc (&) jmcblb (N2O5) lf fpjnv;fdf (HNO3)\ fpjnbcfy]blhblb vbbqt,f fpjnv;fdfpt o'fkofvhsvtdb ybdsbtht,bcvjmvtlt,bs\

2HNO3 + P2O5 2HPO3 + N2O5

N2O5 fhfvluhflb= stshb athbc rhbcnfkt,bf\ lyj,bcfc bi-kt,f fatsmt,bs\ vbcb o'fk[cyfhb fpjnv;fdff\

N2O5 + H2O 2HNO3

fpjnv;fdf fpjnbc ;fyu,flbfy v;fdt,c ijhbc 'dtkfpt vybid-ytkjdfybf\ vbcb vbqt,bc cfvhtodtkj [th[b fhbc fvbfrbc rfnfkb-pehb lf;fyudf|

OH4NO + 4 O5 + NH4 2Pt

23 2NO + O2 2NO2

4NO2 + 2H2O + O2 4HNO3

fpjnv;fdf kf,jhfnjhbfib vbbqt,f ybnhfnt,pt ujubhl-v;fdfc vjmvtlt,bs|

NaNO3 + H2SO4 NaHSO4 + HNO3

ceasf fpjnv;fdf eathj cbs[tf\ bub thsae.bfyb= .kbthbv;fdff\ vbc vfhbkt,c ybnhfnt,b tojlt,f\ ufs,j,bcfc ybnhfnt,bfldbkfl bikt,f\ nent kbsjyt,bc ybnhfnt,bc lfikbcfc ofh-vjbmvyt,f ybnhbnt,b\

NaNO3 Na2NO2 + O2

v.bvt kbsjyt,bc ybnhfnt,bc lfikbcfc ofhvjbmvyt,f itcf-,fvbcb kbsjybc jmcblb|

148 149

wyj,bkbf wbfyv;fdfc jhb nfenjvthekb ajhvf|H_N = C = O H _O_ C N

H _O_ C N wyj,bkbf vuhudbyfdb v;fdfc cf[tkojlt,bs\vbcb vfhbkt,blfy fqcfybiyfdbf AgONC_ vuhudbyfdb dthw[kblf Hg(ONC)2 _ vuhudbyfdb dthw[kbco'fkb\ jhbdt yfthsb .kbthatsmt,flbf\

sbjwbfyv;fdf lf sbjwbfyfnt,b (hjlfyblt,b)\ HNCS _sbjwbfyv;fdf vbbqt,f vbc vfhbkpt ufypfdt,ekb v;fdfc vjmvtlt-,bs|

2KCNS + H2SO4 K2SO4 + 2HCNSsbjwbfyv;fdfc vfhbkt,c hjlfyblt,b (sbjwbfyfnt,b) toj-

lt,f\ sbjwbfyfnt,b Fe+3 bjybc fqvjcfxtyfl ufvjb'tyt,f|FeCl3 + 3NH4NCS Fe(NCS)3 + NH4Cl

obstkb

ybnhfnt,b rfhub vbythfkehb cfcemt,bf\ fvjybevbc ybnhfnb(NH4NO3)= fvjybevbc cekafnb [(NH4)2SO4]= udfh/bkt,b| xbktcudfh/bkf (NaNO3)= byljtsbc udfh/bkf (KNO3)= yjhdtubbcudfh/bkf [Ca(NO3)2] bc cfcemt,bf= hjvtkcfw 'dtkf mdt'ybccjakbc vtehytj,f fmnbehfl b'tyt,c\

ajcajhb

fpjnbc vcufdcfl= ajcajhbc cfdfktynj tktmnhjyt,b ns2np3

vlujvfhtj,fibf= vfuhfv fpjnbcufy ufyc[dfdt,bs= ajcajhc fmdcsfdbceafkb 3d-jh,bnfkb= fvbnjv fupyt,ek vlujvfhtj,fib 3s-mdtljyblfy ite.kbf uflfbnfyjc thsb tktmnhjyb d-jh,bnfkpt\t\b\ ajcajhbc vfmcbvfkehb dfktynj,f [esbc njkbf\

,eyt,fib ufdhwtkt,f\ ajcajhb ,eyt,fib ufdhwtkt,ekbfyfthst,bc cf[bs\ vbcb .bhbsflb vbythfkt,bf| ajcajhbnb _

Au + HNO3 + 3HCl AuCl3 + NO + 2H2O

pjubthsb kbsjyb (Al, Cr, Ni, Fe lf c[df) gfcbdlt,f fpjnv;f-dfib\ ufgfcbdt,f bvfib ufvjb[fnt,f= hjv vfs ptlfgbhpt ofhvj-bmvyt,f jmcblt,bc s[tkb fgrb= hjvtkbw bwfdc kbsjyc itvlujvblf;fyudbcufy\

fpjnv;fdfc vfhbkt,b= rth.jl= rfkbevbc ybnhfnb= ufvjb-'tyt,f ifdb ltysbc lfcfvpflt,kfl\

2KNO3 + 3C + S K2S + 3CO2 + N2 + 169 rrfk\

fpjnb yf[ibh,flsfy ofhvjmvybc lbwbfyc (CN)2 _ eathj= vof-ht yeibc ceybc vmjyt fbhbc= hjvtkbw e.kbthtcb cfofvkfdbf\vfc actdlj]fkjutycfw eojlt,ty mbvbehb sdbct,t,bc ufvj\ ]fkj-utyt,bc vcufdcfl ethslt,f o'fk,flc|

H2 + (CN)2 2HCNb[cyt,f nentt,ib|

(CN)2 + 2NaOH NaCN + NaOCN + H2O[Cl2 + 2NaOH NaCl + NaOCl + H2O

wbfyo'fk,flv;fdf lf wbfyblt,b\ HCN _ wbfyo'fk,flb eat-hj= vofht yeibc ceybc vmjyt fmhjkflb cbs[tf\ vbbqt,f wbfyb-lt,pt ufypfdt,ekb ujubhlv;fdfc vjmvtlt,bs (v;fdt,bc vbqt,bccfthsj [th[b)\

KCN + H2SO4 KHSO4 + HCNwbfyo'fk,flv;fdfc vfhbkt,blfy vybidytkjdfybf yfnhbevbc

lf rfkbevbc wbfyblt,b _ NaCN lf KCN\ bcbyb e.kbthtcb cfofv-kfdt,bf\

wbfyv;fdf lf wbfyfnt,b\ HNCO _ wbfyv;fdf eathj= .vfh-v;fdfc ceybc vmjyt cbs[tf\ sfdbceafk vlujvfhtj,fib evluhflbf\vbc vfhbkt,c wbfyfnt,b tojlt,f\ vbbqt,f lbwbfybc uf[cybs ne-nbc o'fk[cyfhib|

(CN)2 + 2KOH KCN + KOCN + H2O

150 151

ajcajhbc o'fk,flyfthst,b\ ajcajhb o'fk,flsfy ofhvjmv-ybc hfvltybvt yfthsc\ vfs ijhbc vybidytkjdfybf ajcabyb _ PH3\fvbfrbcufy ufyc[dfdt,bs bub o'fkib vwbhtl b[cyt,f\ ajcajybevbcPH+4 bjyc ofhvjmvybc ]fkjutyo'fk,flsfy ehsbthsmvtlt,bcfc\

PH3 + HCl PH4Cl (mkjhajcajybevb)PH3 + 5HJ PH4J (bjlajcajybevb)

tc yfthst,b fhfvluhflbf lf .fkbfy cohfafl bikt,f\ajcabyb .kbthb fqvlutybf\

5P_3H3 + 8KMn+7O4 + 12H2SO4 5H3P+5O4 + 8Mn+2SO4 +

+ 4K2SO4 + 12H2OP_3 _ 8e P+5 5Mn+7 + 5e Mn+2 8

ajcajhbc ;fyu,flyfthst,b| ajcajhb ;fyu,flsfy ofhvjmv-ybc hfvltybvt yfthsc\ vfs ijhbc vybidytkjdfybf P2O3 _ ajc-ajhbc (^^^) jmcblb= ajcajhbc ithtekb fy]blhblb _ P2O4 lfajcajhbc (&) fy]blhblb _ P2O5\

ajcajhjdfyb fy]blhblb _ P2O3 vbbqt,f ajcajhbc ytkblf;fyudbs|

4P + 3O2 2P2O3

]fthpt uf[eht,bs bub fldbkfl b;fyut,f|P2O3 + O2 P2O5

ajcajhjdfy fy]blhblc ittcf,fvt,f cfvb v;fdf\ bcbyb vbbqt,fP2O3 o'fkib uf[cybcfc\

P2O3 + H2O 2HPO2 vtnfajcajhjdfyb v;fdfP2O3 + 2H2O H4P2O5 gbhjajcajhjdfyb v;fdfP2O3 + 3H2O 2H3PO3 jhsjajcajhjdfyb v;fdf\fv v;fdt,blfy vybidytkjdfybf jhsjajcajhjdfyb v;fdf _

H3PO3\ bub jhae.bfyb v;fdff\ vjktrekbc itvflutykj,fib fh-ct,ekb cfvb o'fk,flbc fnjvblfy v[jkjl jhc ite.kbf kbsj-ybs xfyfwdkt,f\ vbcb cnhemnehekb ajhvekblfy xfyc= hjv jhb

Ca3(PO4)2= fgfnbnb _ 3Ca3(PO4)2.CaX2 (X = F, Cl, OH) lf c[df\ajcajhb itlbc wjw[fkb jhufybpvt,bc ythdek mcjdbkt,ib rfh-,jyfnfgfnbnt,bc cf[bs _ 3Ca3(PO4)2\

wyj,bkbf ajcajhbc hfvltybvt fkjnhjgbekb cf[tc[dfj,f|stshb= obstkb= ifdb\

stshb ajcajhb wdbkbc vcufdcb= yf[tdhfl ufvzdbhdfkt= lf-vf[fcbfst,tkb ceybc vmjyt ybdsbtht,f\ rfhufl b[cyt,f s[tdflfvbfrib= ujubhlyf[ibh,flib\ vwbhtl b[cyt,f o'fkib\ stshbajcajhb [fcbfslt,f vfqfkb htfmwbbceyfhbfyj,bs\ ufs,j,bcfc[lt,f sdbsffkt,flb\ ]fthpt fldbkfl b;fyut,f lf b.ktdf wbcathyfst,fc (ajcajhtcwtywbf)\ stshb ajcajhb .kbthb cfofvkfdbf\

stshb ajcajhb ;fyu,flbc fhtib uf[eht,bs ufhlfbmvyt,fobstk ajcajhfl= hjvtkbw yfrkt,htfmwbbceyfhbfybf\ fh b[c-yt,f ujubhlyf[ibh,flib= fh fhbc cfofvkfdb\

ifdb ajcajhb= ajcajhbc vtcfvt vjlbabrfwbf= vbbqt,f stshbajcajhbc 2000-pt uf[eht,bs 12 000 fnv\ oytdbc gbhj,t,ib\ ifdajcajhc f[fcbfst,c kbsjyehb s,j- lf tktmnhjufvnfhj,f\vbcb jhsmkb itlut,f P4 vjktrekt,bcufy\

vbqt,f lf sdbct,t,b| ajcajhb vbbqt,f rfkwbevbc ajcaf-nbc _ Ca3(PO4)2= rdfhwbc mdbibc _ SiO2 lf yf[ibhbc _ C yfhtdbcuf[eht,b|

Ca3(PO4)2 + 3SiO2 3CaSiO3 + P2O5

P2O5 +5C 2P + 5CO

Ca3(PO4)2 + 3SiO2 + 5C3CaSiO3 + 5CO + 2P

]fthpt ajcajhb bodbc| 4P + 5O2 P2O5\ethslt,f ]fkjutyt,c| 2P + 5Cl2 2PCl5\ethslt,f kbsjyt,c lf ofhvjmvybc ajcablt,c|

3Ca + 2P Ca3P2\ethslt,f ujubhlc| 2P + 5S P2S5\

152 153

Ca3(PO4)2 + 3H2SO4 3CaSO4 + 2H3PO4

jhsjajcajhv;fdf cfiefkj cb.kbthbc cfvae.bfyb v;fdff|H3PO4 H+ + H2PO4

_

H2PO4_

H+ + HPO4_2

HPO4_2

H+ + PO4_3

ofhvjmvybc cfvb cf[bc vfhbkt,c|

O + HPONaH PONaOH + H 24243

afnblb]blhjajc yfnhbevbc

OH2 + HPONa PONaOH + H2 24243

nb]blhjajcaf yfnhbevbc

OH3 + PONa PONaOH + H3 24343

ajcafnb yfnhbevbc

'dtkf thsxfyfwdkt,ekb ajcafnb o'fkib [cyflbf= jh lfcfvxfyfwdkt,ekb ajcafnt,blfy o'fkib [cyflb v[jkjl nentkbsjyt,bc vfhbkt,bf\

ajcafnbjybc fqvjxtyf itb.kt,f dthw[kbc ybnhfnbc o'fk-[cyfhbs|

3Na3PO4 + 2AgNO3 3NaNO3 + Ag3PO4fv htfmwbbc lhjc ufvjb'jaf 'dbstkb athbc dthw[kbc ajc-

afnbc yfktmb\

HPO3 _ vtnfajcajhv;fdf v'fhb= vbybct,hb vfcff= o'fkibrfhufl b[cyt,f\ leqbkbcfc uflflbc jhsjajcajhv;fdfib\

HPO3 + H2O H3PO4

cfcemt,b\ vwtyfhbc phlbcf lf ufydbsfht,bcfsdbc fewbkt-,tkbf ajcajhb\ bub ybflfuib itfmds ajcajhjdfyb cfcemt,bc cf-[bs\

1\ vfhnbdb cegthajcafnb _ vbbqt,f rfkwbevbc ajcafnbclf ujubhlv;fdbc vjmvtlt,bs|

o'fk,flb ajcajhsfy lfrfdibht,ekbf tktmnhjdfktynehfl=vtcfvt rb _ rjdfktynehfl\

HO\O//

P/OH\H

__

H3PO3-bc vfhbkt,c tojlt,f ajcabnt,b\ fctsbf vfufkbsfl=yfnhbevbc ajcabnb _ Na2HPO3\

P2O4 _ stshb= rhbcnfkehb ybdsbtht,ff\ o'fkib rfhuflb[cyt,f lf ofhvjmvybc jh v;fdfc| ajcajhjdfy v;fdfc (H3PO3) lfajcajhv;fdfc (H3PO4)\

P2O4 + 3H2O H3PO3 + H3PO4

fv htfmwbbc vb[tldbs itb.kt,f lfdfcrdyfs= hjv P2O4-ibthsb ajcajhbc ;fyudbc hbw[db fhbc +3= [jkj vtjhtcb _ +5\

O\\O//

POPO3

5

__

P2O5 _ ajcajhbc fy]blhblb vbbqt,f stshb ajcajhbc odbs|4P + 5O 2P2O5

bub .kbth ]buhjcrjgekbf _ fpjnv;fdfc lf ujubhlv;fdfcfwrb fhsvtdc o'fkc\ ]fthpt ,jkfdc= rfhufl b[cyt,f o'fkib\ o'kbcc[dflfc[df hfjltyj,bc itcf,fvbcfl ofhvjmvybc c[dflfc[df v;fdfc|

P2O5 + H2O 2HPO3 vtnfajcajhv;fdfP2O5 + 2H2O H4P2O7 gbhjajcajhv;fdfP2O5 + 3H2O 2H3PO4 jhsjajcajhv;fdf

ajcajhbc (&)-bc v;fdt,blfy 'dtkfpt vybidytkjdfybf jhsj-ajcajhv;fdf\ bub vbqt,f ajcajhbc uf[eht,bs fpjnv;fdfcsfy|

3P + 5HNO3 + 2H2O 5NO + 3H3PO4

ntmybrehb vbpyt,bcsdbc qt,ekj,ty rfkwbevbc ajcafnptufypfdt,ekb ujubhlv;fdbc vjmvtlt,bs|

154 155

dfktynj,f [lt,f js[b fy tmdcb= ;fyudbc hbw[dbs= itcf,fvbcfl=+4 lf +6\

;fyu,flb

ltlfvbofpt 'dtkfpt ufdhwtkt,ekb tktvtynbf ;fyu,flb\ it-lbc ]fthbc itvflutykj,fib (20=9% vjwekj,bs)\ ;fyu,flb eat-hj= eceyj= ]fthpt v.bvt fbhbf\ vwbht hfjltyj,bs b[cyt,f o'fk-ib\ vbcb vjktrekf jhfnjvbfybf _ O2\ kf,jhfnjhbfib ;fyu,flcqt,ekj,ty rfkbevbc gthvfyufyfnbc fy rfkbevbc mkjhfnbc sth-vekb lfikbs\

2KMnO4 K2MnO4 + MnO2 + O2

2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2

ofhvjt,fib ;fyu,flc qt,ekj,ty o'kbc tktmnhjkbpbs fyufs[tdflt,ekb ]fthbc ahfmwbekb ufvj[lbs\ ;fyu,flb mbvbehfl.fkbfy fmnbehbf\ ]fkjutyt,bc lf pjubthsb rtsbkij,bkb kb-sjybc (Au, Pt) ufhlf= bub eiefkjl ethslt,f tktvtynt,bc evt-ntcj,fc|

kbsjyt,c _ 4Li + O2 2Li2Ofhfkbsjyt,c _ S + O2 SO2

ufhlfvfdfkb nbgbc kbsjyt,c _ 4Al + O2 2Al2O3

;fyu,flbc fhtib bodbc vhfdfkb hsekb ybdsbtht,f|2H2S + 3O2 2SO2 + 2H2O4NH3 + 5O2 4NO + 6H2O

;fyu,flb .kbthb v;fyufdbf\ fhct,j,c ytkb lf cohfab ;fyudf\ytkb ;fyudbc vfufkbsbf hrbybc ybdst,bc ptlfgbhpt ;fyubc ofh-vjmvyf= ptsbc cfqt,fdt,bc ufv'fht,f\ cohfa ;fyudfc [ibhfl sfyf[kfdc fkbc ofhvjmvyf\ fv ghjwtcc tojlt,f odf\

jpjyb _ O3 ;fyu,flbc fkjnhjgbekb cf[twdkbkt,ff\ bubvbbqt,f tktmnhjyekb ufyve[ndbc lhjc| 3O2 2O3\

Ca3(PO4)2 + H2SO4 2CaSO4+ Ca(H2PO4)2

fv lhjc ufvjb'jaf CaSO4= hjvtkbw bodtdc ybflfubc ufv'f-ht,fc\ tc rb fhfcfcehdtkb ghjwtcbf\

2\ jhvfub cegthajcafnb itlut,f rfhufl [cyflb rfkwbevbclb]blhjajcafnbcufy\ bub fh itbwfdc ybflfubcsdbc fhfcfceh-dtk ybdsbtht,t,c\

Ca3(PO4)2 + H3PO4 3Ca(H2PO4)2

3\ ghtwbgbnfnb (lfktmbkb ajcafnb) vbbqt,f rfkwbevbcnenbcf lf ajcajhv;fdbc ehsbthsmvtlt,bs|

Ca(OH)2 + H3PO4 CaHPO4.2H2O

4\ fvjajct,b [NH4H2PO4; (NH4)2HPO4] thslhjekfl itb-wfdc vwtyfhbcsdbc fewbkt,tk fpjnc lf ajcajhc\ vfsb vbqt,fitb.kt,f fvbfrbc lf ajcajhv;fdbc ehsbthsmvtlt,bs\

&^ /ueabc p-tktvtynt,b

pjuflb lf[fcbfst,f\ gthbjlekb cbcntvbc &^ /ueabc p-tktvtynt,bf| ;fyu,flb _ O= ujubhlb _ S= ctktyb _ Se= ntkehb_ Te= lf gjkjybevb _ Po\ cfdfktynj ihtpt fv mdt/ueabc tkt-vtynt,c fmdc tmdcb tktmnhjyb ns2np4 mdtljytpt|

hdftktmnhjybfyb ufhcbc ofhvjmvybcfsdbc vfs tcfzbhjt,fjhb tktmnhjyb\ fvbnjv fv tktvtynt,c f[fcbfst,c dfktynj,f _2= ;fyudbc [fhbc[b _ -2\ ;fyu,flbc fnjvbc tktmnhjyekbrjyabuehfwbf ufyc[dfdlt,f lfyfhxtyb tktvtynt,bc fnjvbcrjyabuehfwbbcufy\ ;fyu,flbc fnjvc fh uffxybf sfdbceafkb d-jh,bnfkb= fvbnjv vfc fh ite.kbf tktmnhjyt,bc ufywfkrtdt,f\yfthst,ib bub .bhbsflfl jhdfktynbfybf= ;fyudbc hbw[db _ -2\tktmnhjefh'jabsj,bs bub v[jkjl asjhc xfvjedfhlt,f\vfcsfy ;fyu,flb +2 ;fyudbc hbw[dc fv;qfdyt,c (OF2)\ fv /ueabclfyfhxty tktvtynt,c= fupyt,ek vlujvfhtj,fib= ite.kbf tk-tmnhjyt,bc uflfnfyf sfdbceafk d-jh,bnfkpt\ fvbc itvltu vfsb

s

p

156 157

kbsjyt,c cekablt,bc ofhvjmvybs| Fe + S FeS\fhfkbsjyt,c| 2P + 5S P2S5; S + 2Cl2 SCl4\b[cyt,f ujubhlv;fdfib (rjyw\)| S + 2H2SO4 3SO2 + 2H2O\

o'fk,flyfthst,b\ ujubhlb o'fk,flsfy udf.ktdc hfvltybvtyfthsc _ ujubhlo'fk,flc (H2S) lf gjkbujubhlo'fk,flt,c (H2S2,H2S3, H2S5)\

vfsufy 'dtkfpt vybidytkjdfybf ujubhlo'fk,flb _ H2S\bub ud[dlt,f pjubths vbythfkeh o'fkib= dekrfyehb fvjahm-dtdt,bc lhjc lf c[df\

kf,jhfnjhbek gbhj,t,ib vbbqt,f hrbybc cekablpt vf-hbkv;fdbc vjmvtlt,bs|

FeS +2HCl FeCl2 + H2Sujubhlo'fk,flb eathj= fhfcfcbfvjdyj ceybc (kf't rdth-

w[bc)= vjvofvdktkb fbhbf\ o'fkib rfhufl b[cyt,f\ ]fthpt bodbc|2H2S +3O2 2SO2 + 2H2O

H2S-bc o'fk[cyfhb cecnb= jhae.bfyb v;fdff\ lbcjwbhlt,fcfat[eht,fl|

H2S H+ + HS_

HS_ H+ + S_2

H2S 2H+ + S_2

ofhvjmvybc jhb cf[bc vfhbkt,c| v;fdf vfhbkt,c (]blhjcek-ablt,b) lf cfiefkj vfhbkt,c (cekablt,b)\

cekablt,bc vbqt,f itb.kt,f|f) kbsjyt,bc lf ujubhlbc eiefkj itthst,bs|

Fe +S FeS,) ujubhlo'fk,flbc lf nenbc rhsbthsmvtlt,bs|

H2S +2NaOH Na2S + 2H2Ou) kbsjysf vfhbkbc o'fk[cyfht,ib ujubhlo'fk,flbc ufnf-

ht,bs|

jpjyb keh/b athbc= vrdtshb ceybc vmjyt fbhbf\ ufs,j,bcfcatsmlt,f\ ;fyu,flsfy itlfht,bs bub eahj .kbthb lfv;fyudtkbf\

2KJ + O3 + H2O J2 + 2KOH + O2

PbS + 2O3 PbSO4 + O2

nent kbsjyt,sfy jpjyb ofhvjmvybc jpjyblt,c\K + O3 KO3

ufvj'tyt,f\ ;fyu,flb ufvjb'tyt,f kbsjyt,bc fdnjutyehb zhbclf itleqt,bc lhjc\ htfmnbekb cfodfdbc ;fyudbcsdbc\ ;fyu,flbsufvlblht,ekb ]fthb fxmfht,c ,tdh cfvhtodtkj lf ,bjkjubehghjwtcc\ jpjyb ufvjb'tyt,f o'kbc ufcfceasfdt,kfl vfdyt ,fm-nthbt,bcufy= ]fthbc ltpbyatmwbbcfsdbc\

ujubhlb

,eyt,fib ufdhwtkt,f\ ujubhlb ,eyt,fib ufdhwtkt,ekbfhjujhw sfdbceafkb (sdbsyf,flb)= bct yfthst,bc cf[bs\ cek-ablt,bcf lf cekafnt,bc cf[bs bub itlbc ,tdhb vbythfkbc it-vflutykj,fib\ vbcb ,eyt,hbdb yfthst,blfy wyj,bkbf| FeS2_ hrb-ybc fkvflfyb (gbhbnb)= Cu2S _ cgbkty.bc rhbfkf= PbS _ n'dbbcrhbfkf= CaSO4

.2H2O _ sf,fibhb= Na2SO4.10H2O _ ukfe,thbc

vfhbkb= MgSO4.7H2O _ vofht vfhbkb lf c[df\ ufhlf fvbcf= uj-

ubhlb itlbc mdfyf[ibhbcf lf yfdsj,bc itvflutykj,fib\xdtekt,hbd gbhj,t,ib ujubhlb 'dbstkb athbc ybdsbtht,ff\

o'fkib fh b[cyt,f\ rfhufl b[cyt,f ujubhlyf[ibh,flib (CS2)\fhct,j,c ujubhlbc cfvb fkjnhjgbekb cf[twdkbkt,f| hjv-

,ekb _ vluhflbf 950C-pt lf,fk ntvgthfnehfpt+ vjyjrkbyehb_ vluhflbf 950C-pt vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt+ gkfcnbrehb _vbbqt,f ufvlyfhb ujubhlbc wbd o'fkib ithtdbs\

mbvbehb sdbct,t,b\ ]fthpt uf[eht,bs ujubhlb bodbc wbc-athb fkbs| S + O2 SO2. vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt ethslt,f _

158 159

H2S+4O3 + Cl20 + H2O H2S+6O4

+ 2HCl_

S+4 _ 2e S+6 1 fqvlutyb2Cl0 + 2e 2Cl_ 1

H2S+4O3 + 2H2S_2 3H2O + S

S+4 + 4e S0 1 v;fyufdbS_2 _ 2e S0 2

ujubhlbc fy]blhblb _ SO3\ vbcb vbqt,f itb.kt,f ujubh-lbc lbjmcblbc lf;fyudbs|

2SO2 + O2 2SO3

SO3 eathj= fldbkfl.dhflb cbs[tf\ bub rfhufl b[cyt,fo'fkib lf ofhvjmvybc ujubhlv;fdfc|

SO3 + H2O H2SO4

ofhvjt,fib ujubhlv;fdfc bqt,ty ujubhljdfyb vflyt,bc uf-vjodbs|

4Fe+2S2_ + 11O2

0 8S+4O2

+ 2Fe2+3O3

Fe+2 _ e Fe+3

2S_ _ 10e 2S+4 42O0 + 4e 2O0 11

itvltu ;fyufdty SO2-c| 2SO2 + O2 2SO3

vbqt,ek SO3 [cybfy ufypfdt,ek ujubhlv;fdfib\ vbbqt,fjktevb _ H2S2O7|

SO3 + H2SO4 H2S2O7

jktevbc ufypfdt,bs vbbqt,f cfcehdtkb rjywtynhfwbbc uj-ubhlv;fdf\

H2S2O7 + H2O 2H2SO4

H2SO4 _ ujubhlv;fdf b[cyt,f o'fkib= lblb hfjltyj,bc cbs-,jc ufvj'jabs\ fvbnjv ujubhlv;fdbc ufypfdt,bcfc v;fdf eylf lf-dfvfnjs o'fkc lf fhf gbhbmbs\

CuSO4 + H2S CuS + H2SO4

]blhjcekablt,b itb.kt,f vbdbqjs fhfchekb ytbnhfkb-pfwbbs|

H2S +NaOH NaHS + H2O]blhjcekablt,b rfhufl b[cyt,f o'fkib\cekablt,blfy rfhufl [cyflbf nent kbsjyt,bc lf fvjybe-

vbc cekablt,b\ yfrkt,[cyflbf nent vbofsf kbsjyt,bc cekab-lt,b\ v.bvt kbsjyt,bc cekablt,b fhf vfhnj o'fkib= fhfvtlv;fdt,ibw fh b[cyt,f\ vfsb tc sdbct,f ufvjb'tyt,f v.bvt kbsjyt,bcbjyt,bc fqvjcfxtyfl\

Pb(NO32 + H2S PbS + 2HNO3

ujubhlo'fk,flb .kbthb fqvlutybf|Cl2 + H2S 2HCl + S

2FeCl3 + H2S 2FeCl2 + 2HCl + S

ujubhlbc ;fyu,flyfthst,bujubhlbc lbjmcblb SO2 _ ujubhljdfyb fy]blhblb vbbqt,f

ujubhlbc odbcfc ]fthpt| S + O2 SO2\fctdt= w[tkb rjyw\ ujubhlv;fdbc vjmvtlt,bs lflt,bsb gj-

ntywbfkbc vmjyt kbsjyt,pt|Cu + 2H2SO4 CuSO4 + SO2 + 2H2O

xdtekt,hbd gbhj,t,ib eathj= vrdtshb ceybc vmjyt fbhbf\b[cyt,f o'fkib lf ofhvjmvybc evluhfl= cecn jhae.bfy ujubh-ljdfy v;fdfc| SO2 + H2O H2SO3\

hflufy H2SO3 jhae.bfyb v;fdff= fvbnjv ofhvjmvybc jhbcf[bc vfhbkt,c _ cfiefkj vfhbkt,c (cekabnt,b _ vfu\= Na2SO3)lf v;fdf vfhbkt,c (]blhjcekabnb _ vfu\= NaHSO3)\

ujubhljdfy v;fdbcf lf vbcb itcf,fvbcb vfhbkt,bc itvfluty-kj,fib itlbc ujubhlbc S+4 bjyb= iefktlehb ;fyudbc [fhbc[bcufvj bub itb.kt,f b'jc fqvlutybw lf v;fyufdbw\

160 161

ybdsbtht,t,bc= cfhtw[b cfiefkt,t,bc= tvekufnjht,bc= cfvreh-yfkj ghtgfhfnt,bc vbcfqt,fl= fyjlehb lf;fyudbcfc= n'dbbc fre-vekfnjht,ib lf c[df\

&^^ /ueabc p-tktvtynt,b

gthbjlekb cbcntvbc vtidblt /ueabc vsfdfhb mdt/ueabc ptktvtynt,bf| asjhb _ F= mkjhb _ Cl= ,hjvb _ Br= bjlb _ Jlf fcnfnb _ At\ tc tktvtynt,b wyj,bkbf ]fkjutyt,bc cf[tk-ojlt,bs\ cbn'df ]fkjutyb vfhbkv,flc ybiyfdc\

]fkjutyt,b eiefkjl ethslt,f kbsjyt,c lf ofhvjbmvyt,fvfhbkt,b= t\o\ ]fkblt,b\

]fkjutyt,bc fnjvt,c cfdfktynj ihtpt fmdc 7 tktmnhjyb\cfdfktynj ihbc pjuflb tktmnhjyekb ajhvekff ns2np5\ ]fkj-utyt,bc fnjvt,bc ufht tktmnhjyekb ihbc vcufdcb fqyfuj,bsfb[cyt,f vfsb sdbct,t,bc vcufdct,f\

]fkjutyt,bc fnjvt,c cfdfktynj ihbc lfchekt,fvlt frkbfthsb tktmnhjyb\ ]fkjutyb fv thsb tktmnhjybc vbthst,fc fl-dbkfl f[th[t,c lf bve[nt,f efh'jabsfl (t\b\ ;fyudbsb hbw[db-1 njkbf)\ ]fkjutyt,bc fnjvt,c fctdt fldbkfl ite.kbf tk-tmnhjyt,bc ufwtvfw (F-bc fnjvbc ufhlf) lf itcf,fvbcfl bve[nt,flflt,bsfl\ vfssdbc lfvf[fcbfst,tkbf ;fyudbsb hbw[db +1, +3,+5 lf +7\

]fkjutyt,b nbgehb fhfkbsjyt,bf\ vfsufy gthbjlekb cbc-ntvbc tktvtynsf ijhbc 'dtkfpt fmnbehb fhfkbsjybf asjhb(fctdt [fcbfslt,f 'dtkfpt vfqfkb tktmnhjefh'jabsj,bs _ 4=1)\

xdtekt,hbd gbhj,t,ib asjhb lf mkjhb fbhflb ybdsbtht-,t,bf= ,hjvb _ s[tdflb= [jkj bjlb lf fcnfnb v'fhbf\ fbhfl vluj-vfhtj,fib ]fkjutyt,b jhfnjvbfyb vjktrekt,bcufy itlut,f (F2,Cl2, ...)\

ujubhlv;fdf .kbthb v;fyufdbf\ ufypfdt,ek ujubhlv;fdfibv;fyufdbf o'fk,flbc bjyb= fvbnjv vfcib b[cyt,f v[jkjl efh'j-absb gjntywbfkbc vmjyt kbsjyt,b (o'fk,flbc oby vlujvb)\

Zn + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2rjywtynhbht,ek ujubhlv;fdfib v;fyufdbf ujubhlbc fnjvb

(+6) ;fyudbc hbw[dbs\ fvbnjv vfcib b[cyt,f hjujhw efh'jabsb=bct lflt,bsb gjntywbfkbc vmjyt kbsjyt,b|

O H4S + + HZnSO4 SOH5Zn + 4 22442 \rjyw

OH2 + + SO CuSO SOH2Cu + 22442 \rjyw

rjywtynhbht,ekb ujubhlv;fdf vjmvtlt,c fhfkbsjyt,ptw|C + 2H2SO4 CO2 + 2SO2 + 2H2O

H2SO4 jhae.bfyb .kbthb v;fdff\ ofhvjmvybc jhb cf[bc vfhb-kt,c| cfiefkj vfhbkt,c (cekafnt,b) lf v;fdf vfhbkt,c (]blhj-cekafnt,b)\ vbcb vfhbkt,blfy evhfdktcj,f rfhufl b[cyt,fo'fkib\ vwbhtl [cyflbf CaSO4 lf ghfmnbrekfl e[cyflbf BaSO4=SrSO4 lf PbSO4\

SO4-2-cekafn bjybc fqvjcfxtyfl b'tyt,ty Ba+2

bjyc\2H2SO4 + BaCl2 BaSO4 + 2HCl

BaSO4 odhbklbcgthcekb stshb athbc yfktmbf= hjvtkbwv;fdt,ibw rb fh b[cyt,f\

wbd rjywtynhbht,ek ujubhlv;fdfib fh b[cyt,f (ufgfcbdt,f)hrbyf= mhjvb= fkevbyb lf c[df kbsjyt,b= fvbnjv rjyw\ ujubhl-v;fdf uflffmds ajkflbc wbcnthyt,bs\

ujubhlv;fdf rfhub o'fkofvhsvtdbf= fvbnjv vfc ofhvjt,fibb'tyt,ty= hjujhw ufvihj,c\ bc feo'kjt,c yf[ibho'kt,c|

OH11C + 12 OHC 2SOH

11221242

lbcfmfhjpf

ufvj'tyt,f\ ujubhlv;fdfc b'tyt,ty cbystpehb mcjdbkt,bcofhvjt,fib= cfcemt,bc (vfhnbdb cegthajcafnb)= fcfatsmt,tkb

162 163

4HCl + MnO2 MnCl4 + 2H2OMnCl4 MnCl2+ Cl2

4HCl + MnO2 MnCl2+ Cl2 + 2H2O

2KMnO4 + 16HCl 2MnCl2+ 5Cl2 + 2KCl + 8H2O

abpbrehb lf mbvbehb sdbct,t,b\ mkjhb vj'dbsfkj-vjvo-dfyj athbc= v.fahb ceybc vmjyt fbhbf\ bub ]fthpt 2=5-/th v.b-vtf\ .kbth vjmvtlt,c cfceysmb upt,bc kjhojdfy ufhcpt\ lblbhfjltyj,bc xfceysmdf bodtdc cbrdlbkc!

mkjhb fmnbehb fhfkbsjybf\ fv v[hbd bub xfvjedfhlt,f v[j-kjl asjhcf lf ;fyu,flc\ mkjhb .kbthb v;fyufdbf= tythubekflitlbc htfmwbt,ib kbsjyt,sfy lf ofhvjbmvyt,f mkjhblt,b (ht-fmwbf vbvlbyfhtj,c uf[eht,ekb kbsjybc itnfybs mkjhbc fht-ib)\

2Fe + 3Cl2 2FeCl3

Cu + Cl2 CuCl2

mkjhb htfmwbfib itlbc o'fk,flsfy\ xdtekt,hbd gbhj,t,ib=mkjhb o'fk,flc ytkf ethslt,f= vwbht uf[eht,bs fy mkjhbcflf o'fk,flbc yfhtdbc lfc[bdt,bs htfmwbf cohfafl vblbc|

HCl2ClH h22

mkjhb ehsbthsmvtlt,c fhfkbsjyt,sfy|3Cl2 + 2P 2PCl3

5Cl2 + 2P 2PCl5

mkjhbc o'fksfy ehsbthsmvtlt,bc itltufl ofhvjbmvyt,fjhb v;fdf| vfhbkv;fdf (HCl) lf mdtmkjhjdfyb v;fdf (HClO)\ ht-fmwbf itmwtdflbf|

Cl2 + H2O HCl + HClO

mdtmkjhjdfyb v;fdf _ HClO vtnfl .kbthb v;fyufdbf\ vbcbofhvjmvybs fb[cyt,f mkjhbc vfstsht,tkb sdbct,t,b cbytcnbcsfyfj,bcfc\ vihfkb mkjhb fh fstsht,c\

mbvbehb fmnbdj,bc ufvj ]fkjutyt,b ,eyt,fib ud[dlt,f v[j-kjl yfthst,bc cf[bs= .bhbsflfl ]fkjutyo'fk,flv;fdt,bc vf-hbkt,bc cf[bs\

mkjhb _ Clz = 17 Ar = 35= 453tktmnhjyekb ajhvekff 1s22322p63s23p5

mkjhbc vjktrekbc _ Cl2-bc ofhvjmvyf|

:Cl:Cl::ClCl:

mkjhbc vjktrerkbc ofhvjmvyf [jhwbtklt,f p-tktmnhj-yekb qhe,kt,bc uflfafhdbs= ,vf rjdfktyneh-fhfgjkfhekbf\

Cl ClCl Cl

pxpx

p3s3

,eyt,fib ufdhwtkt,f\ mkjhb sfdbceafkb cf[bs v[jkjldekrfyeh fbht,ib ud[dlt,f= yfthst,blfy vybidytkjdfybf| NaCl_ ceahbc vfhbkb+ vbythfkt,b| cbkdbyb _ KCl= cbkdbybnb _NaCl.KCl= rfhyfkbnb _ KCl.MgCl2

.6H2O lf c[df\

vbqt,f\ cfvhtodtkj vfcinf,bs mkjhb vbbqt,f ceahbc vf-hbkbc _ NaCl-bc o'fk[cyfhbc tktmnhjkbpbs|

NaCl Na+ + Cl_

2H2O + 2e H2 + OH_ (rfsjlpt)2Cl_ _ 2e Cl2 (fyjlpt)[cyfhib hxt,f yfnhbevb ]blhjmcblb _ NaOH

2NaCl + 2H2O 2NaOH + H2 + Cl2

kf,jhfnjhbfib mkjhb vbbqt,f rjywtynhbht,ek vfhbk-v;fdfpt hjvtkbvt v;fyufdbc vjmvtlt,bs|

164 165

tc htfmwbf vbvlbyfhtj,c cbyfskbc mdfynbc vjmvtlt,bs\mkjhbc vjktrekf isfysmfdc cbyfskbc mdfync (hn) lf bikt,ffnjvt,fl= hfcfw vj]'dt,f /fzdehb htfmwbf\

Cl2 + hn Cl. + Cl.Cl. + H2 HCl + H.H. + Cl2 HCl + Cl. lf f\i\

vfhbkv;fdf _ HCl eathj cbs[tf\ rjywtynhbht,ekb vfhbk-v;fdf 37%-vlt mkjho'fk,flc itbwfdc lf ytcnbfy ]fthpt @,j-kfdc#\ vfhbkv;fdf .kbthb= thsae.bfyb v;fdff\ vfc uffxybf v;fdbc'dtkf sdbct,f\ vfcib b[cyt,f 'dtkf kbsjyb= ufhlf bv kbsjyt-,bcf= hjvkt,bw vjsfdct,ekbf kbsjysf tktmnhjmbvbehb .f,-dbc vorhbdib o'fk,flbc vfh/dybd\ vfhbkv;fdfib fh b[cyt,f fu-htsdt n'dbf= hflufy n'dbbc ptlfgbhpt xylt,f PbCl2-bc lfvwfdbatyf= hjvtkbw [tkc eikbc n'dbbc itvlujv uf[cyfc\

Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2Mg + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2

vfhbkv;fdf ehsbthsmvtlt,c ae.t jmcblt,sfy= ae.tt,sfy lfpjubths vfhbksfy|

2HCl + CaO CaCl2 + H2O2HCl + Ca(OH)2 CaCl2 + 2H2OHCl + AgNO3 AgCl + HNO3

mkjho'fk,flb eiefkjl ehsbthsmvtlt,c fvbfrsfy fvjybe-vbc mkjhblbc ofhvjmvybs|

HCl + NH3 NH4Cl

ufvj'tyt,f\ vfhbkv;fdf afhsjl ufvjb'tyt,f ofhvjt,fib _ vt-nfkehubfib= rdt,bc vhtodtkj,fib= kbsjysf mkjhblt,bc vb-cfqt,fl= cfqt,fdt,bc ofhvjt,fib= vtlbwbyfib= mbvbeh kf,jhf-njhbt,ib\

eylf fqbybiyjc= hjv mkjhb eiefkjl fh vjmvtlt,c ;fyu-,flsfy= fpjnsfy lf yf[ibh,flsfy (vfsb yfthst,b vbbqt,f fhfgbh-lfgbhb upbs)\

ufvj'tyt,f\ mkjhb ufvjb'tyt,f cfcvtkb o'kbc cfltpbyatm-wbjl (o'kbc mkjhbht,f= mcjdbkt,bcf lf mfqfklbc ufcfsts-ht,kfl= mkjhbfyb rbhbc vbcfqt,fl (vfstsht,tkb lf cflt-pbyatmwbj cfiefkt,f)= athfl vtnfkehubfib= vfhbkv;fdbc ofh-vjt,fib lf c[df\

mkjho'fk,flb lf vfhbkv;fdf

HCl-ib (Mr = 36,5; Dn= 18,25) ,vf rjdfktyneh-gjkfhekbf\

tktmnhjyekb qhe,kbc cbvrdhbdt uflfotekbf mkjhbcrty= hj-

ujhw eahj tktmnhjefh'jabsb tktvtynbc fnjvbcrty| :Cl:H

\

mkjho'fk,flb xdtekt,hbd gbhj,t,ib eathj= vrdtshb ceybcvmjyt fbhbf= .ytkfl s[tdfllt,f= rfhufl b][cyt,f o'fkib (00-pt1 vjwekj,f o'fkib b[cyt,f 500 vjwekj,fvlt mkjho'fk,flb)\

mkjho'fk,flbc o'fk[cyfhc mkjho'fk,flv;fdf= fye vfhbk-v;fdf tojlt,f\

kf,jhfnjhbek gbhj,t,ib mkjho'fk,flc qt,ekj,ty yfn-hbevbc mkjhblpt rjywtynhbht,ekb ujubhlv;fdbc vjmvtlt,bs\jsf[bc ntvgthfnehfpt tc htfmwbf vbvlbyfhtj,c mkjho'fk-,flbcf lf yfnhbevbc ]blhjcekafnbc ofhvjmvybs|

NaCl + H2SO4 NaHSO4 + HClvfqfkb ntvgthfnehbc lhjc rb htfmwbf vblbc ,jkjvlt|

2NaCl + H2SO4 Na2SO4+ 2HClfv;fvfl ntmybrfib mkjho'fk,flc lblb hfjltyj,bs qt,e-

kj,ty o'fk,flbcf lf mkjhbc cbystpbs|H2 + Cl2 HCl

166 167

mdtmkjhjdfyb v;fdf .kbthb v;fyufdb lf .fkbfy cecnb v;fdff=cbyfsktpt fldbkfl bikt,f fnjvehb ;fyu,flbc ufvj'jabs|

HClO HCl + Omdtmkjhjdfyb v;fdfc vfhbkt,b _ ]bgjmkjhbnt,b vbbqt,f

mkjhbc vjmvtlt,bs nentt,bc wbd o'fk[cyfhpt| (kf,fhfrbc o'fkb)Cl2 + 2NaOH NaCl + NaClO + H2O

Na-bc ]bgjmkjhbnb

ClO2 _ mkjhbc lbjmcblbc o'fkib uf[cybs vbbqt,f mkj-hjdfyb v;fdf _ HClO2 lf mdtmkjhv;fdf _ HClO3|

2ClO2 + H2O HClO2 + HClO3

mkjhjdfyb v;fdf (HClO2) fhfvluhflbf= fldbkfl bikt,f\ it-lfht,bs vluhflbf vbcb vfhbkt,b _ mkjhbnt,b= hjvkt,bw vbb-qt,f mkjhbc lbjmcblbc nentt,sfy ehsbthsmvtlt,bs|

O + HKClO + KClO KOH 2 + ClO2 2322mkjhfnbmkjhbnb

ClO2 _ mkjhbc nhbjmcblb fhfvluhflb yfthsbf\ vbcb o'fkibuf[cybs vbbqt,f jhb v;fdf_ mdtmkjhjdfyb v;fdf lf mkjhv;fdf|

2ClO3 + H2O HClO3 + HClO4

HClO3 _ mdtmkjhv;fdf thsae.bfyb .kbthb v;fdff\ vluhflbfv[jkjl o'fk[cyfhib\ vbc vfhbkt,c mkjhfnt,b tojlt,f\ mkj-hfnt,blfy vybidytkjdfybf rfkbevbc mkjhfnb (KClO3)= fye,thsjktc vfhbkb= hjvtkbw vbbqt,f mkjhbc uf[cybs w[tk ne-ntib|

3Cl2 + 6KOH 5KCl + KClO3 + 3H2Omdtmkjhv;fdf lf vbcb vfhbkt,b rfhub lfv;fyufdt,bf|

KClO3 + 6HCl KCl + 3Cl2 + 3H2Otct bub rfkbevbc mkjhfnb mkjhbc efh'jabs bjyc ;fyufdc

sfdbceafk vlujvfhtj,fvlt\rfkbevbc mkjhfnc b'tyt,ty fcfysbc ofhvjt,fib= gbhjntm-

ybrfib= vtlbwbyfib= hjujhw cfltpbyatmwbj cfiefkt,fc\

vfhbkv;fdfc vfhbkt,blfy vybidytkjdfybf|NaCl _ yfnhbevbc mkjhblb (ceahbc vfhbkb)\ ufvjb'tyt,f

rdt,bc vhtodtkj,fib= ytlktekfl yfnhbevbc ]blhjmcblbc=mkjhbc= vfhbkv;fdfc= cjlbcf lf c[d\ vbcfqt,fl\

KCl _ rfkbevbc mkjhblb .dbhafcb rfkbevbc itvwdtkb cf-cembf\

ZnCl2 _ sesbbc mkjhblb bwfdc vthmfyc kgj,bcufy\ ufvjb-'tyt,f fuhtsdt hxbkdbcfc _ kbsjybc ptlfgbhblfy jmcblbc atybcvjcfwbkt,kfl\

BaCl2 _ ,fhbevbc mkjhblb vjvofvkfdb ybdsbtht,ff\ ufvjb-'tyt,f cjakbc vtehytj,fib vfdyt,kt,sfy cf,h.jkdtkfl\

CaCl2 _ rfkwbevbc mkjhblb (eo'kj) ufvjb'tyt,f fbht,bcufcfihj,fl lf vtlbwbyfib\

AlCl3 _ fkevbybc mkjhblb [ibhfl ufvjb'tyt,f jhufyekcbystpib= hjujhw rfnfkbpfnjhb\

AgCl _dthw[kbc mkjhblb ufvjb'tyt,f ajnjuhfabfib\

mkjhbc ;fyu,flyfthst,b

mkjhb ;fyu,flsfy yfthst,ib fv;qfdyt,c lflt,bs lf;fyue-kj,bc [fhbc[c\ vbcb vybidytkjdfyb ;fyu,flyfthst,bf| Cl2O _mkjhbc (^) jmcblb= vehf-'dbstkb athbc fbhb+ ClO2 _ mkjhbclbjmcblb (lf;fyuekj,bc [fhbc[bs +3 lf +5) vjvodfyj-'dbstkbv[hxjkfdb fbhbf+ ClO3 (Cl2O6) _ mkjhbc lbjmcblb (lf;fyue-kj,bc [fhbc[bs +5 lf +7) vemb obstkb athbc ptsbct,hb cbs[tf+Cl2O7 _ mkjhbc (&^^) jmcblb eathj= ptsbct,hb cbs[tf\

mkjhbc 'dtkf jmcblb o'fkib b[cyt,f lf ofhvjmvybc v;fdt,c|Cl2O + H2O 2HClO (mdtmkjhjdfyb v;fdf)

mdtmkjhjdfyb v;fdf ofhvjbmvyt,f fuhtsdt mkjhbc o'fkibuf[cybs|

Cl2 + H2O HCl + HClO

168 169

^ /ueabc d-tktvtynt,b

gthbjlekb cbcntvbc gbhdtkb /ueabc d-tktvtynt,bf| cgb-kty.b _ Cu= dthw[kb _ Ag lf jmhj _ Au\

fv tktvtynt,bc fnjvt,c cfdfktynj ihtib fmdc sbsj tktmn-hjyb lf cfdfktynj ihbc obyf ihtib _ 18\ sbsjtek vfsufyc ,jkjihbc obyf ihbc d-jh,bnfpt eylf ]mjylts w[hf-w[hf tktmn-hjyb= vfuhfv flubkb fmdc ufht ihbc s-jh,bnfkblfy thsb tk-tmnhjybc uflfcdkfc ,jkjc obyf ihbc d-jh,bnfkpt= hbc it-ltuflfw d-jh,bnfkpt tktmnhjyt,bc hbw[db [lt,f 10\ vbe[t-lfdfl bvbcf= hjv cgbkty.bc= dthw[kbc lf jmhjc fnjvt,bc d-jh,bnfkb lfchekt,ekbf= bub vfbyw fh fhbc cnf,bkehb\ fvb-njv= ufhrdtek gbhj,t,ib= fv tktvtynt,c ufht ihblfy thsb s-tktmnhjybc lf d-jh,bnfkblfy 2 tktmnhjybc ufwtvf ite.kbf\fmtlfy ufvjvlbyfht= fv tktvtynt,bc fnjvt,bc ;fyudbsb hbw[dbitb.kt,f b'jc +1, +2 lf +3\ cgbkty.bcsdbc eahj lfvf[fcbfst-,tkbf ;fyudbsb hbw[db +2= dthw[kbcfsdbc _ +1= [jkj jm-hjcsdbc _ +3\

cgbkty.b

cgbkty.bc (Cu, Z=29) fnjvbc tktmnhjyekb ajhvekff|1s2,2s2,2p6,3s2,3p6,4s1,3d10= tktmnhjyekb cnhemnehf 3d lf 4sjh,bnfkt,bcfsdbc fctsbf|

s4d3

,eyt,fib ufdhwtkt,f| cgbkty.b ,eyt,fib ufdhwtkt,ekbfhjujhw sdbsyf,flb= bct yfthst,bc cf[bs\ cgbkty.bc ,eyt,hbdbyfthst,blfy vybidytkjdfybf mfkrjpbyb _ Cu2S, hjvtkbw 79=8%cgbkty.c itbwfdc\ cgbkty.c itbwfdc| mfkrjgbhbnb _ CuFeS2

mkjhfnt,b xdtekt,hbd gbhj,t,ib cfrvfjl vuhflb= o'fkibrfhufl [cyflb= rhbcnfkehb ybdsbtht,t,bf\ tc yfthst,b uf[eht-,bs bikt,f ;fyu,flbc ufvj'jabs|

2KClO3 KClO4 + KCl + O2

se rfnfkbpfnjhbc (MnO2) sfy[kt,bs vbvlbyfhtj,c htfm-wbf= vfiby itltufl ufvjb'jaf KCl lf O2 |

2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2

Cl2O7 _ mkjhbc (&^^) jmcblb c[df jmcblt,sfy itlfht,bsvluhflbf\ vbcb o'fkib uf[cybs vbbqt,f mkjhv;fdf _ HClO4|

Cl2O7 + H2O 2HClO4

HClO4 _ mkjhv;fdf thsae.bfyb= ]fthpt v,jkfdb= o'fkibrfhufl [cyflb= 'dtkfpt .kbthb v;fdff\ bub sfdbceafk vlujvf-htj,fib fhct,j,c\

mkjhv;fdfc vfhbkt,c gthmkjhfnt,b tojlt,f\ bcbyb 'dtkfptvluhflbf mkjhbc ;fyu,flyfthst,c ijhbc\ vfsb evhfdktcj,frfhufl b[cyt,f o'fkib\

fvudfhfl= 'jdtkbdt ptvjs ufy[bkekbc cfae.dtkpt itb.kt,fbsmdfc= hjv mkjhbc ;fyudbsb hbw[dbc phlfcsfy thsfl bphlt,f;fyu,fljdfyb v;fdt,bc .fkf lf vluhflj,f= [jkj vfsb ;fyudbsbfmnbehj,f vwbhlt,f\

170 171

Cu + Cl2 CuCl2

2Cu + S Cu2Scgbkty.b ufypfdt,ek ujubhlv;fdflfy lf vfhbkv;fdflfy dth

f.tdt,c o'fk,flc= hflufy .f,dfsf vorhbdib o'fk,flbc itvltu fhbcvjsfdct,ekb\ ehsbthsmvtlt,c ufypfdt,ek lf rjywtynhbht,ekfpjnv;fdfcsfy= rjywtynhbht,ek ujubhlv;fdfcsfy|

OH4NO + 2 + )Cu(NO3 HNO8Cu + 3 2233 \ufyp

O H2 + NO2 + ) Cu(NO HNO4Cu + 22233 \rjyw

2Cu + 2H2SO4 CuSO4 + SO2 + 2H2Oa[dybkbct,ehb cgbkty.b ;fyu,flbc (fy ]fthbc) sfyfj,bcfc

ehsbthsmvtlt,c ufvs,fh rjywtynhbht,ek ]fkjutyo'fk,fl-v;fdfcsfy\

2Cu + 4HCl + O2 2CuCl2 + 2H2Ocgbkty.b itlbc htfmwbfib fvbfrsfy fy fvjybevbc vfhbkt,bc

[cyfht,sfy rjvgktmcbehb vfhbkt,bc ofhvjmvybs|Cu + 4NH4OH + 1/2O2 [Cu(NH3)4](OH)2 + 3H2O

cgbkty.bc ;fyu,flyfthst,b| cgbkty.bc (^) jmcblb _ Cu2Oobstkb athbc rhbcnfkehb ybdsbtht,ff\ vfc ittcf,fvt,f ]blhj-mcblb CuOH= hjvtkbw vbbqt,f cgbkty.bc (^) vfhbkpt nenbcvjmvtlt,bs|

CuCl + KOH CuOH + KClCuOH 'dbstkb athbc yfktmbf\ fleqt,bcfc fldbkfl ufhlf-

bmvyt,f obstkb athbc cgbkty.bc (^) jmcblfl\2CuOH Cu2O + H2O

cgbkty.bc (^) yfthst,b yfrkt,fl vluhflbf cgbkty.bc (^^) yf-thst,sfy itlfht,bs\

cgbkty.bc (^^) jmcblb _ CuO ifdb athbc a[dybkbf\ vbbqt,fkbsjyehb cgbkty.bc uf[eht,bs 800C-pt ptdbs\

(cgbkty.bc itvwdtkj,f 34=57%)= ,jhybnb _ 3Cu2S.FeS2.FeS

(cgbkty.bc itvwdtkj,f 63=3%)= rjdtkbyb _ CuS (66=5% cgbkty.bcitvwdtkj,bs)= reghbnb _ Cu2O (88=8% cgbkty.bc itvwdtkj,bs)=vfkfmbnb _ Cu2(CO3)(OH)2 (57=4% cgbkty.b)= fpehbnb _Cu2(CO3)2(OH)2 (55=3% cgbkty.b) lf c[df\

,eyt,fib cgbkty.bc yfthst,bc evtntcj,f c[df kbsjyt,bcyfthst,sfy thsfl ud[dlt,f gjkbvtnfkeh cf,fljt,ib\

vbqt,f| kbsjyeh cgbkty.c qt,ekj,ty cgbkty.bc itvwdtkbcekablehb= jmcblehb lf rfh,jyfnekb vflyt,bc uflfveifdt,bs\

2Cu2S + 3O22Cu2O + 2SO2

Cu2S + 2Cu2O 6Cu + SO2

Cu2S + O2 2Cu + SO2

abpbrehb sdbct,t,b| kbsjyehb cgbkty.b [fcbfslt,f ,pbydf-ht,bs= fmdc vjobsfkj athb= h,bkbf= fmdc ufzbvdbc eyfhb= fldb-kfl bukbyt,f= gkfcnbrehbf= f[fcbfst,c rfhub cbs,j- lf tktmn-hjufvnfhj,f\ vbtresdyt,f v.bvt kbsjyt,c (cbvrdhbdt 8=96u$cv3)\cgbkty.bc kqj,bc ntvgthfnehff 10830\

cgbkty.b .fkbfy ,tdh kbsjysfy ofhvjmvybc ityflyj,c\ vfu\|wyj,bkbf cgbkty.bc ityflyj,b sesbfcsfy (Zn) _ sbs,thb+ cgb-kty.bc ityflyj,b rfkfcsfy (Sn) _ ,hby/fj= ybrtksfy (Ni) _vtkmbjhb lf c[df\

mbvbehb sdbct,t,b| mbvbehb sdfkcfphbcbs cgbkty.b vbtresd-yt,f yfrkt,fmnbeh kbsjyt,c\ vbe[tlfdfl fvbcf= ]fthib fy ;fyu-,flib uf[eht,bs bc eiefkjl ehsbthsmvtlt,c ;fyu,flsfy= hbcitltuflfw ofhvjbmvyt,f Cu (^^) jmcblb|

2Cu + O2 2CuO (ifdb athbc)uf[eht,ekb cgbkty.b eiefkjl ehsbthsmvtlt,c ]fkjut-

yt,sfy= ujubhlsfy lf ofhvjmvybc itcf,fvbcfl ]fkjutyblt,cf lfcekablt,c\

172 173

gthbjlekb cbcntvbc vttmdct /ueabc d-tktvtynt,b

gthbjlekb cbcntvbc &^ /ueabc sfyfehb mdt/ueabc (mhjvbc/ueabc) d-tktvtynt,bf| mhjvb _ Cr= vjkb,ltyb _ Mo lfdjkahfvb _ W\

mhjvbcf lf vjkb,ltybc fnjvt,bc erfyfcrytk tktmnhjyekihtpt sbsj-sbsj tktmnhjybf= [jkj erfyfcrytkbc obyf ihtpt_ 13-13 tktmnhjyb\ djkahfvbc fnjvc rb ,jkj ihtpt fmdc 2tktmnhjyb= ,jkjc obyf ihtpt _ 12 tktmnhjyb\ fv tktvtynt,bcfnjvt,bc ,jkjc obyfihbc d-jh,bnfkt,b tktmnhjyt,bs fh fhbc,jkjvlt itdct,ekb\ fqybiyekb tktvtynt,bc mbvbeh htfmwbt,ibvjyfobktj,bcfc ofhvjmvyt,f yfthst,b= hjvkt,ibw bcbyb fv;qfd-yt,ty jh= cfv= js[= [es lf tmdcbc njk dfktynj,fc\

mhjvb

mhjvbc (Cr= Z=24) fnjvbc tktmnhjyekb ajhvekff1s22s22p63s23p64s13d5\ 3d lf 4s-jh,bnfkt,bc tktmnhjyekbcnhemnehf fctsbf|

s4d3

,eyt,fib ufdhwtkt,f| mhjvb ,eyt,fib ud[dlt,f yfthst,bccf[bs c[dflfc[df vbythfkt,ib\ 'dtkfpt ufdhwtkt,ekbf vbyt-hfkb mhjvbnb= fye mhjvjdfyb hrbyfmdf (FeCr2O4)= rhjrjbnb _PbCrO4 (n'dbbc obstkb vflfyb= itlfht,bs bidbfsb vbythfkbf)\vwbht hfjltyj,bs mhjvbc yfthst,c itbwfds wbv,bhbc vlbyfht-t,b= bfgjybbc pqdf lf vwtyfhtsf yfwfhb\

vbqt,f\ kbsjyehb mhjvbc vbqt,f itb.kt,f Cr2O3-bc fqlut-ybs uf[eht,bcfc fkevbysfy (fkevbyjsthvbf)= fuhtsdt cbkbwbev-sfy= rfkwbevsfy= o'fk,flsfy\

2Cu + O2 2CuOfy cgbkty.bc (^^) ]blhjmcblbc uf[eht,bs|

Cu(OH)2 CuO + H2O

cgbkty.bc (^^) ]blhjmcblb _ Cu(OH)2 vbbqt,f cgbkty.bc (^^)vfhbkpt nenbc vjmvtlt,bs\ ufvjb'jaf wbcathb yfktmbc cf[bs|

CuSO4 + 2NaOH Cu(OH)2 + Na2SO4

Cu(OH)2 _ fvajnthekbf= b[cyt,f v;fdt,ib lf ofhvjmvybccgbkty.bc (^^) vfhbkt,c|

Cu(OH)2 + 2HCl CuCl2 + 2H2Oufw[tkt,bcfc b[cyt,f zfh, nentib lf ofhvjmvybc rjvgktm-

ceh yfthst,c|Cu(OH)2 + 2NaOH Na2[Cu(OH)4]

Cu(OH)2 fldbkfl b[cyt,f fvbfrbc o'fk[cyfhib= hbc itltuf-lfw ofhvjbmvyt,f vemb keh/b itathbkj,bc rjvgktmcehb yfthsb|

Cu(OH)2 + 4NH3 [Cu(NH3)4](OH)2

ufvj'tyt,f| cgbkty.b= vbcb ityflyj,t,b lf yfthst,b= vfsbufycfresht,ekb sdbct,t,bc ufvj= afhsjl ufvjb'tyt,f sfyfvtl-hjdt ntmybrbc sbsmvbc 'dtkf lfhuib\ tktmnhjntmybreh vhto-dtkj,fib b'tyt,ty tktmnhjcfltyt,bc lfcfvpflt,kfl\ rfhubs,jufvnthj,bc ufvj ufvjb'tyt,f tktmnhj.hfdt,cf lf lbyfvjvfy-mfyt,ib\ cgbkty.b ufvjb'tyt,f vhfdfkb ityflyj,bc lfcfvpflt,-kfl\

mbvbeh vhtodtkj,fib cgbkty.b ufvjb'tyt,f rfnfkbpfnjhflvtsfybcf lf c[df yf/thb yf[ibho'fk,flt,bc lfikbc lhjc\ rj-hjpbekb vtltuj,bc ufvj ufvjb'tyt,f rjhjpbbcfufy c[df kbsj-yt,bc lfcfwfdfl\

vbythfkehb cfqt,fdt,bc ofhvjt,fib ufvjb'tyt,f vfkfmbnbcvodfyt\ cjakbc vtehytj,fib ufvjb'tyt,f if,bfvybc _ CuSO4

.5H2Olf rbhbfyb o'kbc yfhtdb= hjvtkcfw ,jhljc cbs[tc eojlt,ty\vfc aeyubwblehb sdbct,t,b fmdc\

174 175

mhjvbc ;fyu,flyfthst,b

mhjvb ofhvjmvybc cfv jmcblc| CrO, Cr2O3 lf CrO3\mhjvbc (^^) jmcblb _ CrO lf vbcb 'dtkf yfthsb cfrvfjl

fhfvluhflbf= fldbkfl b;fyut,f ]fthbc ;fyu,flbs lf ufhlfbmvyt,fmhjvbc (^^^) yfthst,fl\ vfu\|

2Cr(OH)2 + 1/2O2 + H2O 2Cr(OH)3

Cr (II)-bc jmcblb= ]blhjmcblb fv;qfdyt,ty ae.t sdbct,t,c\Cr (II)-bc ]blhjmcblb _ Cr(OH)2 vbbqt,f itcf,fvbc vfhb-

kt,pt nenbc vjmvtlt,bs|CrCl2 + 2NaOH Cr(OH)2 + 2NaCl

Cr(OH)2 ehsbthsmvtlt,c v[jkjl v;fdt,sfy|Cr(OH)2 + 2HCl CrCl2 + 2H2O

mhjvbc (^^^) jmcblb _ Cr2O3 vodfyt athbc .ytkfl kqj,flba[dybkbf\ cbvfuhbc vb[tldbs f[kjc fhbc rjheylsfy\ vbbqt,fCr-bc uf[eht,bs vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt|

4Cr + 3O2 2Cr2O3

kf,jhfnjhbfib Cr2O3 vbbqt,f fvjybevbc lbmhjvfnbcuf[eht,bs|

(NH4)2Cr2O7 Cr2O3 + N2 + 4H2OCr2O3-c ittcf,fvt,f mhjvbc (^^^) ]blhjmcblb _ Cr(OH)3=

hjvtkbw vbbqt,f Cr (III)-bc vfhbkt,pt nenbc vjmvtlt,bs|CrCl3 + 3NaOH Cr(OH)3 + 3NaCl

Cr2O3 lf Cr(OH)3 fvajnthekb sdbct,t,bs [fcbfslt,f\ Cr2O3

o'fkib= v;fdt,cf lf nentt,ib fh b[cyt,f\ vbcb fvajnthekb sdb-ct,t,b v;qfdylt,f nentt,sfy itkqj,bcfc\ fv itvs[dtdfib ofh-vjbmvyt,f mhjvbnb= vtnfmhjvjdfyb v;fdfc _ HCrO2-bc vfhbkt,b|

Cr2O3 + 2NaOH 2NaCrO2 + H2OCr(OH)3 rb b[cyt,f hjujhw v;fdfib= bct nentib|

2Cr(OH)3 + 3H2SO4 Cr2(SO4)3 + 6H2OCr(OH)3 + 3NaOH Na3[Cr(OH)6]

nentt,sfy itkqj,bs Cr(OH)3 ofhvjmvybc mhjvfnt,c|

Cr2O3 + 2Al 2Ce + Al2O3

fy2Cr2O3 + 3Si + 3CaO 4Cr + 3CaSiO3

fvfdt lhjc= Cr-bc vbqt,f itb.kt,f fuhtsdt vbcb vfhbkt,bcyfkqj,t,bc fy o'fk[cyfht,bc tktmnhjkbpbs\

abpbrehb sdbct,t,b\ mhjvb vjyfwhbcahj-stshb v,pbydfhtkbsjybf\ kbsjyt,c ijhbc 'dtkfpt vfufhbf (cbvrdhbdt 7=2 u$cv3)=.ytkfl lyj,flbf xdtekt,hbd gbhj,t,ib\ ;fyu,flbcf lf ]fthbcntybc vjmvtlt,bc vbvfhs vluhflbf= hflufy vbcb ptlfgbhb bafht,frjhjpbbcflvb vluhflb jmcblehb atybs\ ceasf mhjvb ztlflb=,kfynb kbsjybf\

mbvbehb sdbct,t,b\ ufdfhdfht,ekb mhjvb vfqfk ntvgthfne-hfpt o'kbc jhsmksfy itlbc htfmwbfib\

2Cr + 3H2O Cr2O3 + 3H2

600-8000C-vlt uf[eht,bcfc kbsjyehb mhjvb itlbc htfm-wbfib mkjhsfy= ,hjvsfy= ujubhlsfy lf itcf,fvbcfl ofhvjmvybcmkjhblt,c= cekablt,c= ,hjvblt,c|

Cr + 3Cl2 3CrCl3

2Cr + 3S Cr2S3

mhjvb ufypfdt,ekb v;fdt,blfy f.tdt,c o'fk,flc|Cr + 2HCl CrCl2 + H2Cr + H2SO4 CrSO4 + H2

rjywtynhbht,ek ujubhlv;fdfcsfy ufw[tkt,bcfc ufvjb'jafSO2\

2Cr + 6H2SO4 Cr2(SO4)3 + 3SO2 + 6H2O

176 177

ufvj'tyt,f| vfqfkb fynbrjhjpbekb sdbct,t,bc ufvj mhjvcb'tyt,ty kbsjyt,bc lfcfafhfl (mhjvbht,f)\ bub ufvjb'tyt,f fu-htsdt c[dflfc[df ityflyj,t,bc vbcfqt,fl= vfs ijhbc vybidyt-kjdfyb ityflyj,bf athjmhjvb= mhjvjdfyb se/b lf ajkflb= hj-vkt,cfw mhjvb fybzt,c sthvek vluhflj,fc= cbvfuhtc= v;fdfvt-ltuj,fc\ mhjvc itbwfdc 'dtkf e;fyufdb ajkflb\

lblb ufvj'tyt,f ]gjdf mhjvbc yfthst,vfw\ mhjvbc vfhbkt,b=t\o\ mhjvfnt,b _ PbCrO4, ZnCrO4, SrCrO4 lf c[df= ufvjb'tyt,fcfv[fndhj cfqt,fdt,fl\

mhjvbc 'dtkfpt vybidytkjdfyb vfhbkbf mhjv-rfkbevbc if,b_ KCr(SO4)2

.12H2O= hjvtkbw ufvjb'tyt,f n'fdbc vhtodtkj,fibshbvdkbcfsdbc lf cfatbmhj vhtodtkj,fib mcjdbkbc qt,dbcfcathvzthfl\

Cr (III) jmcblb lf mhjvbnt,b ufvjb'tyt,f vhfdfkb jhufyekbhtfmwbbc rfnfkbpfnjhfl\

lbmhjvfnt,c _ Na2Cr2O7.2H2O lf K2Cr2O7 tojlt,f mhjv-

gbrt,b\ hjujhw v;fyufdt,b ufvjb'tyt,f n'fdbc (shbvdkf)= kfm-cfqt,fdt,bc= fcfysbcf lf cfatbmhj vhtodtkj,fib\

mhjvbc yfhtdb (rfkbevbc lbmhjvfnbc 3%-bfyb [cyfhb uj-ubhlv;fdfib) ufvjb'tyt,f mbvbeh kf,jhfnjhbt,ib vbybczehzkbc ufcfhtw[fl\

&^^ /ueabc d-tktvtynt,b

gthbjlekb cbcntvbc &^^ /ueabc sfyfehb mdt/ueabc d-tkt-vtynt,bf| vfyufyevb _ Mn= ntmytwbevbc _ Tc lf htybevb _ Re\fqybiyekb tktvtynt,b itflutyc vfyufyevbc mdt/ueac\

vfyufyevbc= ntmytwbevbcf lf htybevbc fnjvt,c ,jkj tktmn-hjyek ihtpt 2-2 tktmnhjyb fmdc= [jkj ,jkjcobyf ihtpt _13-13 tktmnhjyb\ ,jkjcobyf ihbc d-jh,bnfkb fh fhbc tktmn-hjyt,bs chekfl itdct,ekb\ vfyufyevbc mdt/ueabc tktvtynt,b

Cr(OH)3 + KOH KCrO2 + 2H2Omhjvbc (&^) jmcblb _ CrO3, hjvtkibw mhjvb evfqktc

dfktynj,fc (6) fv;qfdyt,c= ofhvjflutyc v;fdeh jmcblc= fyefy]blhblc\ vfc ittcf,fvt,f jhb v;fdf| mhjvv;fdf _ H2CrO4 lf,bmhjvv;fdf= fye lbmhjvv;fdf _ H2Cr2O7\ tc v;fdt,b sfdbceafkbcf[bs fh fhct,j,c\ 'jdtkb htfmwbbc lhjc= hjvkbc itltuflfweylf ofhvjmvybkb'j sfdbceafkb mhjvv;fdf fy ,bmhjvv;fdf= bcbybbikt,bfy lf ufvjb'jaf mhjvbc fy]blhblb (CrO3) lf o'fkb\

K2CrO4 + H2SO4 CrO3 + K2SO4 + H2Omhjvv;fdfc vfhbkt,c mhjvfnt,b tojlt,f= [jkj lbmhjvv;fdfc

vfhbkt,c lbmhjvfnt,b= fye ,bmhjvfnt,b\mhjvfnt,bc o'fk[cyfht,c 'dbstkb itathbkj,f fmdc= [jkj

,bmhjvfnt,bc o'fk[cyfht,c _ yfhby/bcathb= hfw ufygbhj,t-,ekbf [cyfhib itcf,fvbcfl mhjvfnb (CrO4)

_2 lf ,bmhjvfn(Cr2O7)_2 bjyt,bc fhct,j,bs\ se hjvtkbvt kbsjybc mhjvfnbc[cyfhpt dbvjmvtlt,s ujubhlv;fdbs= [cyfhbc 'dbstkb itathb-kj,f itbwdkt,f yfhby/bcahfl= hfw bvbc vfxdtyt,tkbf= hjv mhj-vfnb ufhlfbmvyf ,bmhjvfnfl|

2K2CrO4 + H2SO4 K2Cr2O7 + K2SO4 +H2O2(CrO4)_2 + 2H+ (Cr2O7)_2 + H2O

nent ufhtvjib rb lbmhjvfnb ufhlfbmvyt,f mhjvfnfl= hbcitltuflfw yfhby/bcathb itbwdkt,f 'dbstkb itathbkj,bs|

K2Cr2O7 + 2KOH 2K2CrO4 + H2O(Cr2O7)_2 + 2OH_ 2(CrO4)_2 + H2O

mhjvfnt,b lf lbmhjvfnt,b rfhub lfv;fyufdt,bf\ vfu\|K2Cr2O7 + 14HCl 2KCl + 3Cl2 + 2CrCl3 + 7H2O

mhjvbc 'dtkf v;fdf lf vfsb vfhbkt,b= fuhtsdt mhjvbc (&^)jmcblb vjvofvkfdbf| fpbfyt,ty rfyc= cfceysm upt,c= bodtdc sdf-kt,bc fyst,fc= fvbnjvfw vfssfy veifj,bc lhjc cfzbhjf cbah-s[bkbc 'dtkf pjvbc lfwdf\

178 179

3MnO2 Mn3O4 + O2

3Mn3O4 + 8Al 9Mn + 4Al2O3

fkevbyjsthvbbs vbqt,ekb vfyufyevb itbwfdc 94-96% vfy-ufyevc lf 4-6% Fe, Si, Al vbyfhtdc\

abpbrehb lf mbvbehb sdbct,t,b| vfyufyevb stshb dthw[-kbct,hb kbsjybf\ ]fthpt bafht,f jmcblbc atybs= hjvtkbwitvlujvb lf;fyudbcufy bwfdc\ f[fcbfst,c .fkbfy vfqfkb tktmn-hekb obyfqj,f lf fmdc gfhfvfuybnehb sdbct,t,b\

vfyufyevbc mbvbehb sdbct,t,b vybidytkjdyfl fhbc lfvjrblt-,ekb vbc cbceasfdtpt= hflufy cek vwbht hfjltyj,bc vbyfhtdbwrb fhct,bsfl wdkbc vbc htfmwbbceyfhbfyj,fc\

vfyufyevb vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt ]fthpt fy ;fyu,flib bodbclf ofhvjmvybc jmcblt,c= hjvtksf itvflutykj,f lfvjrblt,ekbfntvgthfnehfpt\

2Mn + O2 2MnOMn + O2 MnO2

4Mn + 3O2 2Mn2O3

3Mn + 2O2 Mn3O4

vfyufyevbc htfmwbfib itcdkbc eyfhb lblbf\ bc sbsmvbc 'dtkffhfkbsjysfy itlbc htfmwbfib\ fldbkfl bthst,c mkjhc= asjhc=fpjnbc fhtib 12000-pt ffklt,f= hbc itltuflfw ofhvjbmvyt,fybnhblb (Mn3N2)\ fctdt fmnbehfl ethslt,f ajcajhc= ujubhlc=cbkbwbevc= yf[ibh,flc lf f\i\

ceasf= kbsjyehb vfyufyevb jsf[bc ntvgthfnehfpt fh ikbco'fkc lf .fkbfy ytkf ehsbthsmvtlt,c o'kbc jhsmksfy Mn(II) ]blhjmcblbc ofhvjmvybs lf o'fk,flbc ufvj'jabs|

Mn + 4H2O Mn(OH)4 + 2H2

v;fdt,ib vfyufyevb fldbkfl b[cyt,f= hbc itltuflfw vbbqt,fMn (II)-bc vfhbkt,b= vfufkbsfl=

Mn + 2HCl MnCl2 + H2

mbvbeh ,vt,c ,jkj ihbc s-tktmnhjyt,bcf lf ,jkjcobyf ihbcd-tktmnhjyt,bc [fh/pt ofhvjmvybc\ vfyufyevbc lf;fyuekj,bchbw[db itb.kt,f b'jc +1-lfy +7-vlt= vfuhfv fqcfybiyfdbf= hjvvbcsdbc ;fyudbsb hbw[db +1 lf +5 yfrkt,fl lfvf[fcbfst,tkbf\vfyufyevbc fyfkjubehb ;fyudbsb hbw[dt,b f[fcbfst,c htybevcfw\vbcb yfthst,blfy 'dtkfpt vluhflbf bc yfthst,b= hjvkt,ibw;fyudbsb hbw[db +7-bc njkbf\ ntmytwbevbcsdbc lfvf[fcbfst-,tkbf ;fyudbsb hbw[dt,b _ +4= +6 lf +7\

vfyufyevb lf vbcb mdt/ueabc tktvtynt,b yfthst,ib= hjv-kt,ibw fv tktvtynt,bc ;fyudbsb hbw[db lf,fkbf= fv;qfdyt,c kb-sjyeh sdbct,t,c\ se yfthst,ib fv tktvtynt,bc ;fyudbsb [fhbc[bvfqfkbf= vfiby v;qfdylt,f fhfkbsjyehb sdbct,t,b\

vfyufyevb

vfyufyevbc (Mn) tktmnhjyekb ajhvekff 1s22s22p64s23d5=[jkj tktmnhjyekb cnhemnehf 3d lf 4s jh,bnfkt,bcsdbcfctsb cf[bcf|

s4d3

,eyt,fib ufdhwtkt,f| sfdbceafkb vfyufyevb ,eyt,fib bidb-fsfl ud[dlt,f= vfuhfv lblb hfjltyj,bs fhbc ufdhwtkt,ekb yf-thst,bc cf[bs\ vfyufyevbc .bhbsflb vbythfkt,bf| ]fecvfybnb _Mn3O4= ,hfeybnb _ Mn2O3= gbhjkepbnb _ MnO2= vfyufybnb_ Mn2O3

.H2O lf c[df\ ufhlf fvbcf= hrbybcf lf sesbbc pjubthsbvbythfkb c[dflfc[df hfjltyj,bs itbwfdc vfyufyevc\ hrbybcf lfvfyufyevbc itvwdtkb vflyt,b athjvfyufyevbcf lf vfyufyevbc itvw-dtkb se/bcf lf ajkflbc vbcfqt,fl ufvjb'tyt,f\

vbqt,f| kbsjyehb vfyufyevb vbbqt,f Mn3O4-lfy fkevbyj-sthvbbs\ sfdfl Mn3O4 vbbqt,f gbhjkepbnbc 1000-11000-pt uf-[eht,bs\

180 181

Mn CO3 MnO + CO2

MnO2 + H2 MnO + H2OMnO-c ittcf,fvt,f vfyufyevbc ]blhjmcblb _ Mn(OH)2=

hjvtkbw vbbqt,f Mn (II)-bc vfhbkt,pt nentt,bc vjmvtlt,bs|MnSO4 + 2NaOH Mn(OH)2 + Na2SO4

vfyufyevbc ]blhjmcblb _ Mn(OH)2 fv;qfdyt,c ae.t sdbct,t,clf itlbc htfmwbfib v;fdt,sfy|

Mn(OH)2 + 2HCl MnCl2 + 2H2Ovfyufyevbc (^^) ]blhjmcblb stshb athbc yfktmbf= ]fthpt

fldbkfl b;fyut,f lf ufhlfbmvyt,f vemb athbc yfktmfl|2Mn(OH)2 + O2 + 2H2O 2Mn(OH)4

Mn2O3 _ vfyufyevbc (^^^) jmcblb vj'fdbcahj-ifdb athbcgfhfvfuybnehb ybdsbtht,ff\ ,eyt,fib ud[dlt,f vbythfk ,hfeyb-nbc cf[bs\ cfvdfktynbfyb vfyufyevbc ]blhjmcblb _ Mn2O3.H2O=fye vtnf]blhjmcblb _ MnO(OH)= ,eyt,fib ud[dlt,f vbythfkvfyufybnbc cf[bs\ itlbc htfmwbfib ufypfdt,ek v;fdt,sfy|

2MnO(OH) + 2HNO3 MnO2 + Mn(NO3)2 + 2H2O

MnO2 _ vfyufyevbc (^&) jmcblb ifdb athbc= v'fhb= gfhf-vfuybnehb ybdsbtht,ff\ vfyufyevbc js[dfktynbfy yfthst,c ij-hbc 'dtkfpt vluhflbf\ ,eyt,fib fhct,j,c vbythfk gbhjkepbnbccf[bs= hjvtkbw vfyufyevbc evybidytkjdfytcb vflfybf\

vfyufyevbc lbjmcblb vbbqt,f vfyufyevbc (^^) ybnhfnbc 195-3000-pt uf[eht,bs|

Mn(NO3)2 MnO2 + 2NO2

MnO2-c f[fcbfst,c fhfvrdtshfl ufvj[fnekb fvajnthekbsdbct,t,b\

vfyufyevbc (^&) vfhbkt,b fhfvluhflbf\ vfufkbsfl= vfhbk-v;fdfcsfy ehsbthsmvtlt,bcfc ofhvjbmvyt,f vfyufyevbc (^&) mkj-hblb= hjvtkbw vfibydt bikt,f|

MnO2 + 4HCl MnCl4 + 2H2O

2442 + H MnSO SOHMn + \ufyp

rjywtynhbht,ekb ujubhlv;fdf lf,fk ntvgthfnehfpt ytkf=[jkj ufw[tkt,bcfc cohfafl [cybc vfyufyevc|

Mn + 2H2SO4 MnSO4 + SO2 + 2H2Orjywtynhbht,ek fpjnv;fdfc vfyufyevb fqflutyc fpjnbc (^^)

jmcblfvlt|3Mn + 8HNO3 3Mn(NO3)2 + 2NO + 4H2O

ufvj'tyt,f| ceasf vfyufyevb h,bkb kbsjybf\ bc .bhbsflflufvjb'tyt,f ktubht,ekb ajkflbc ofhvjt,fib\ ajkflb= hjvt-kbw itbwfdc 15% vfyufyevc= [fcbfslt,f cbvfuhbs= cbvnrbwbs lfwdtsfvtltuj,bs\

vfyufyevb ufvjb'tyt,f ufyv;fyufdfl ajkflbc ufvjlyj,bclhjc= FeO-lfy hrbybc fqcflutyfl\

vfyufyevc b'tyt,ty kbsjysf ptlfgbhbc lfcfafhfl= rjhj-pbbcufy vfsb lfwdbc vbpybs\

vfyufyevbc jmcblt,b lf ]blhjmcblt,b

vfyufyevb ;fyu,flsfy ofhvjmvybc itvltu yfthst,c| vfyufyevbc(^^) jmcblb _ MnO= vfyufyevbc (^^^) jmcblb _ Mn2O3= vfyufyevbc(^&) jmcblb _ MnO2= vfyufyevbc (&^) jmcblb _ MnO3= hjvtkbwsfdbceafkb cf[bs wyj,bkb fh fhbc+ vfyufyevbc (&^^) jmcblb (fyevfyufyevbc fy]blhblb) _ MnO3 lf Mn3O4 _ iefktlehb jmcblb=hjvtkbw sfdbcb itlutybkj,bs itb.kt,f ufydb[bkjs= hjujhw vfy-ufyjdfyb v;fdfc vfhbkb (vfyufyevbc vfyufyfnb) _ [MnII

2(MnVIO4)\

MnO _ vfyufyevbc (^^) jmcblb vodfyt athbc rhbcnfkehbybdsbtht,ff= ,eyt,fib ud[dlt,f vbythfk vfyufyjpbnbc cf[bs\vbbqt,f vfyufyevbc rfh,jyfnbc sthvekb lfikbs fy vfyufyevbclbjmcblbc uf[eht,bs o'fk,flbc yfrflib|

182 183

uf[eht,bcfc gthvfyufyfnb bikt,f|2KMnO4 K2Mn O4 + MnO2 + O2

fv htfmwbbs vbbqt,f ;fyu,flb kf,jhfnjhbfib\rfkbevbc gthvfyufyfnb ufvjb'tyt,f vtlbwbyfib\

&^^^ /ueabc d-tktvtynt,b

gthbjlekb cbcntvbc &^^^ /ueabc sfyfeh mdt/ueaib vjsfd-ct,ekbf ufhlfvfdfkb nbgbc kbsjyt,b| hrbyf _ Fe= rj,fknb _Co= ybrtkb _ Ni= hestybevb _ Ru= hjlbevb _ Rh= gfkflbevb _ Pd=jcvbevb _ Os= bhblbevb _ Jr lf gkfnbyf _ Pt\ tc tktvtynt,bofhvjflutyc d-tktvtynt,c\ xfvjsdkbkb kbsjyt,b cfthsj mbvb-ehb sdbct,t,bc vb[tldbs itb.kt,f lfdf/ueajs hrbybcf lf gkf-nbybc mdt/ueabc tktvtynt,fl\ hrbybc mdt/ueaib itlbc _ Fe,Co, Ni= [jkj Pt-bc mdt/ueaib itlbc _ Ru, Rh, Pd, Os, Jr, Pt\

Fe-bc mdt/ueabc tktvtynt,bc fnjvt,c ufht tythutnbrekihtpt fmdc 2 tktmnhjyb= hjvkt,cfw mbvbeh htfmwbfib vjyf-obktj,bc lhjc fldbkfl ufcwtvty lf ofhvjbmvyt,f yfthst,b=cflfw vfsb dfktynj,f 2-bc njkbf\ vfuhfv fv tktvtynt,c ite.-kbf tktmnhjyt,bc ufwtvf ,jkjcobyf ihbc d-jh,bnfkblfy\ fvitvs[dtdfib bcbyb fv;qfdyt,ty jhpt vtn dfktynj,fc\

hrbybc mdt/ueabc tktvtynsf fnjvt,c= gkfnbybc mdt/ueabctktvtynt,bcufy ufyc[dfdt,bs= fh uffxybf sfdbceafkb d-jh,b-nfkt,b= hfw ufyfgbhj,t,c hrbybcf lf gkfnbybc mdt/ueabc tkt-vtynt,bc mbvbehb sdbct,t,bc ufyc[dfdt,fc\

gthbjlekb cbcntvbc &^^^ /ueabc d-tktvtynt,bcsdbc lfvf-[fcbfst,tkbf lf;fyuekj,bc hbw[db +2-lfy +8-vlt= sevwf bcbyb+4-pt vfqfk lf;fyuekj,bc hbw[dc bidbfsfl fdktyty\ vfufkbsfl=hrbybc vfmcbvfkehb lf;fyuekj,bc hbw[dbf +6, vfuhfv .bhbsflflfv;qfdyt,c +2 lf +3 lf;fyuekj,bc hbw[dc\ rj,fknbcsdbc vfmcb-

MnCl4 MnCl2 + Cl2

.kbth nentt,sfy ehsbthsmvtlt,bcfc MnO2 ofhvjmvybcvfyufybnt,c _ jhsjvfyufyjdfyb v;fdfc (H4MnO4) fy vtnfvfyuf-yjdfyb v;fdfc (H2MnO3) vfhbkt,c|

MnO2 + Ca(OH)2 CaMnO3 + H2OMnO2 ntmybrfcf lf kf,jhfnjhbfib ufvjb'tyt,f hjujhw

v;fyufdb\ ufvjb'tyt,f fuhtsdt rfnfkbpfnjhfl\

MnO3 _ vfyufyevbc (&^) jmcblb fh fhbc vbqt,fkb\

Mn2O7 _ vfyufyevbc (&^^) jmcblb vjvodfyj-vj'fdbcahjptsbct,hb v.bvt cbs[tf\ vbbqt,f gthvfyufyfnpt rjywtynhbht-,ekb ujubhlv;fdbc vjmvtlt,bs|

2KMnO4 + H2SO4 K2SO4 + Mn2O7 + H2OMn2O7 vfyufyevv;fdfc (HMnO4) fy]blhblbf|

Mn2O7 + H2O 2HMnO4

vfyufyevv;fdf _ HMnO4 .kbthb v;fdff= vfuhfv fhfvluhflbflf fhct,j,c v[jkjl o'fk[cyfhbc cf[bs\ vbc vfhbkt,c gthvfyuf-yfnt,b tojlt,f\ gthvfyufyfnt,blfy 'dtkfpt vybidytkjdfybfrfkbevbc gthvfyufyfnb (KMnO4)\ vbcb o'fk[cyfhb bbcathbf=hfcfw gthvfyufyfn bjyb (MnO4)

_ ufyfgbhj,t,c\vfyufyevbc (&^^) yfthst,b .kbthb lfv;fyufdt,bf\ ;fyudf-fql-

utybc htfmwbt,ib= ufhtvjcufy lfvjrblt,ekt,bs= MnO4_bjyb

itb.kt,f fqlutyc Mn+2-vlt= ytbnhfkeh fy nent ufhtvjib _MnO2-vlt= [jkj .kbth nent ufhtvjib _ MnO4

_2-vltcmtvfnehfl tc wdkbkt,t,b itb.kt,f fct ofhjdblubyjs|

lf;fyudbc ajhvf

Mn2+ eathj [cyfhb

MnO2, vehf athbc yfktmb

MnO42- vod fyt athbc [cyfhb

fqlutybkb ajhvf

MnO4_

H2

H2O

OH_

184 185

CO5 Fe + Fe(CO) C1305

0

hrbyf vbbqt,f fkevbyjsthvbbsfw|Fe2O3 + 2Al Al2O3 + 2Fe

3Fe3O4 + 8Al 4Al2O3 + 9Fefkevbyjsthvbbs vbqt,ekb hrbyf fh fhbc ceasf\vflyt,blfy hrbybc vbqt,f lfae.yt,ekbf vbcb jmcblt,bc yf[-

ibh,flbc (^^) jmcblbs lf yf[ibhbs (rjmcbs) fqlutyfpt\ fv lhjcvbbqt,f fhf ceasf hrbyf= fhfvtl vbcb ityflyj,b yf[ibh,flsfylf c[df vbyfhtdt,sfy (cbkbwbevsfy- vfyufyevsfy= ujubhlsfy=ajcajhsfy)\ fv itvs[dtdfib yflyj,c se/b tojlt,f\ se/bc uf-vjlyj,f vbvlbyfhtj,c ,h.vtlib\

,h.vtlbc cmtvf

vfkehb ;fyudbsb hbw[dbf +5= [jkj ybrtkbcsdbc _ +4\ fv /ueabctktvtynt,blfy /ueabc yjvhbc njkb ;fyudbsb hbw[db (+8) f[f-cbfst,c hestybevcf lf jcvbevc\

hrbyf

hrbybc (Fe, Z=26) tktmnhjyekb ajhvekff _1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6.tktmnhjyekb cnhemnehf 3d lf 4s jh,bnfkt,bcsdbc _

s4d3

hrbyf gthbjlekb cbcntvbc &^^^ /ueabc sfyfehb mdt/ueabcd-tktvtynt,bc ofhvjvflutytkbf\ hrbyf ,eyt,fib fkevbybc itv-ltu 'dtkfpt ufdhwtkt,ekb kbsjybf\ bc itlbc vhfdfkb vbyt-hfkbc itvflutykj,fib= hjvkt,bw hrbybc vflyt,bc cf,fljt,cmvybc\ hrbyf sfdbceafk vlujvfhtj,fib v[jkjl vtntjhbnt,ibud[dlt,f\

hrbybc vybidytkjdfyb vbythfkt,bf| vfuybnehb hrbyfmdf(vfuytnbnb) _ Fe3O4 (ifdb athbc rhbcnfkehb ybdsbtht,f= [f-cbfslt,f vfuybnehb sdbct,t,bs)+ obstkb hrbyfmdf - (]tvfnbnb)_ Fe2O3; vehf hrbyfmdf (kbvjybnb) _ Fe2O3

.H2O (vjifdj-'fdbcathb rhbcnfkehb ybdsbtht,f)+ cblthbnb _ FeSiO3 (vj'db-sfkj-stshb athbc vbythfkb)+ hrbybc vybidytkjdfy hfjltyj,fcitbwfdc vbythfkb gbhbnb _ FeS2= fye hrbybc fkvflfyb\

vbqt,f| hrbyf itb.kt,f vbdbqjs hrbybc (^^^) jmcblbc o'fk,f-lbs fqlutybcfc vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt|

Fe2O3 + 3H2 2Fe + 3H2Ofv upbs vbqt,ekb hrbyf mbvbehfl ceasf fh fhbc\ mbvbehfl

ceasf hrbybc vbqt,f itb.kt,f hrbybc gtynfrfh,jybkbc sthvekblfikbs (1300) e;fyu,flj fhtib|

]fthbcit,thdf

cfrth.t

if[nb

udbpb

v[fhekt,b

oblbc fh[bkbsjybc vbvqt,bmibyb

cfzdhtnb

qevtkbcmdtlb

186 187

FeO + C Fe + COvfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt yfobkj,hbd fqlut,f cbkbwbevb= vfy-

ufyevb= ajcajhb= hjvkt,cfw vflfyb vbyfhtdt,bc cf[bs itbwfdc|SiO2 + C Si + CO2

MnO + C Mn + COCa3(PO4)2 + 5C 2P + 3CaO + 5CO

ufvjcfdfk vflyt,ib yfthst,bc cf[bs fhct,ekb ujubhlb(CaSO4, FeS2 lf c[df ) yfobkj,hbd ufhlfbmvyt,f hrbybc cekablfl_ FeS= hjvtkbw rfhufl b[cyt,f se/ib\

fqlutybkb s[tdflb hrbyf xfvjtlbyt,f mdtdbs lf ufdfhdf-ht,ek rjmcsfy lf yf[ibh,flbc (^^) jmcblsfy it[t,bs ofhvjmvybchrbybc rfh,blc (wtvtynbnc)|

3Fe + C Fe3C;3Fe + 2CO Fe3C + CO2

ufvlyfhb hrbyf [cybc yf[ibhc= wtvtynbnc= cbkbwbevc= vfyuf-yevc= ajcajhc= ujubhlc lf ofhvjmvybc s[tdfl se/c\

vflfyb 'jdtksdbc itbwfdc rf;vbofcf lf c[df jmcblt,bc itvw-dtk aez mfyt,c\ aezb mfybc vjcfwbkt,kfl ufvjcfdfk vfcfkfibvlyj,bc (akecbc) cf[bs evfnt,ty .bhbsflfl rbhmdfc\ vfqfkntvgthfnehfpt rbhmdf bikt,f|

CaCO3 CaO + CO2

ofhvjmvybkb rfkwbevbc jmcblb ehsbthsmvtlt,c aezb mfybcitvlutytk ybdsbtht,t,sfy lf ofhvjmvybc fldbkfl kqj,fl yf-thst,c _ oblfc= hjvtkbw vtnobkfl rfkwbevbcf lf vfuybevbccbkbrfnt,bcufy itlut,f|

CaO + SiO2 CaSiO3;MgCO3 MgO + CO2; MgO + SiO2 MgSiO3

vfuybevbc= rfkwbevbc lf fkevbybc .ytkkqj,flb lf vluhflbjmcblt,b ,h.vtlib fh fqlut,f lf fhw ufkqdt,f\ bcbyb thsvfyts-sfy ofhvjmvybfy fldbkfl kqj,fl fkevbyfnt,c= cbkbrfnt,c lffkevcbkbrfnt,c| CaO.Al2O3+ (CaO)Al2O3

.SiO2+ CaO.SiO2+(CaO)2SiO4\

,h.vtlb hsekb lfyflufhbf= lff[kjt,bs 80 v cbvfqkbc\ ibu-yblfy fvjut,ekbf wtw[kufv.kt fuehbs\ ufhtlfy itrhekbf aj-kflbc cfkntt,bs\ ,h.vtlbc ptlf yf[tdfhc if[nf tojlt,f= ptlfyf[dhtnc _ cfrth.t= 'dtkfpt afhsj yfobkc _ ufdbpb= mdtlfyfobkc _ mehf\

ufvjcfdfkb vfcfkt,bf| hrbybc jmcblehb vflyt,b= vfufkbsfl=]tvfnbnb= kbvjybnb fy vfuybnehb hrbyfmdf= rjmcb= akecb (vlyj-,b)\ akecfl xdtekt,hbd b'tyt,ty rbhmdfc= hjvtkbw aez mfyt,sfyofhvjmvybc fldbkfl kqj,fl yfthst,c _ oblfc\ bc vtnobkflrfkwbevbcf lf vfuybevbc cbkbrfnt,bcufy itlut,f\ rjmcb b[vfht,fcbs,jc o'fhjl= fuhtsdt fqvlutybc= yf[ibh,flbc (^^) jmcblbc vb-cfqt,fl\

,h.vtlc ndbhsfdty cfrth.tlfy= hjvtkcfw vbvltdhekfl it-fmdc ,h.vtlib rjmcb= vflfyb lf vkqj,b (akecb)\ odf lf fewbkt-,tkb ntvgthfnehf vbbqotdf [dhtnbksfy cfrth.tib w[tkb ]ft-hbc it,thdbs\ ,h.vtlbc ofhvflj,f lff[kjt,bs 1=5-/th bphlt,f=se ;fyu,flc fy ;fyu,flbs ufvlblht,ek ]fthc iteidt,ty\ fv lhjc25%-bs vwbhlt,f cfs,j,bc [fh/b\

se/bc ofhvjt,fc cfae.dkfl eltdc CO-sb hrbybc fqlutyf\CO rb sfdbc v[hbd vbbqt,f ufdfhdfht,ek rjmcpt ]fthbc vjmvt-lt,bs\ /th vbbqt,f CO2= hjvtkbw itvltu ufdfhdfht,ekb rjmcbcyf[ibh,flbc vjmvtlt,bs CO-l ufhlfbmvyt,f|

C + O2 CO2

CO2 + C COyf[ibh,flbc (^^) jmcblb sfylfsfy fqflutyc vflfyc _ 450-5000-

pt hrbybc jmcblblfy _ Fe2O3 ofhvjbmvyt,f Fe3O4|3Fe2O3 + CO 2Fe3O4 + CO2

6000-pt Fe3O4 fqlut,f hrbybc (^^) jmcblfvlt|Fe3O4 + CO 3FeO + CO2

7000-pt hrbybc (^^) jmcblb fqlut,f sfdbceafk kbsjyfvlt|FeO + CO Fe + CO2

vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt yf[ibh,flbc (^^) jmcblsfy thsfl hrb-ybc jmcblbc fqlutyfib vjyfobktj,c yf[ibhbw (rjmcb)|

188 189

se/bcufy ufyc[dfdt,bs= ajkflb fldbkfl bztlt,f lf bukb-yt,f\ cohfab ufwbdt,bcfc vbbqt,f vfufhb ajkflb= [jkj ytkbufwbdt,bcfc _ h,bkb\ h,bkb ajkflb fldbkfl veifdlt,f\

ajkflb vbbqt,f se/bc uflfveifdt,bs\ fvbcfsdbc cfzbhjfse/bcfufy yf[ibh,flbc= cbkbwbevbc= ajcajhbcf lf ujubhlbczfh,b hfjltyj,bc vjwbkt,f\ tc vbbqotdf ;fyudbsb htfmwbt,bs\ufkqj,bk se/ib ;fyu,flbc ufnfht,bc lhjc gbhdtk hbuib b;fy-ut,f hrbybc yfobkb= hjvtkbw ofhvjmvybc FeO-c|

2Fe + O2 2FeOofhvjmvybkb hrbybc (^^) jmcblb ufkqj,bk se/ib ;fyufdc

vfyufyevc= cbkbwbevc= ajcajhc lf yf[ibh,flc|Mn + FeO MnO + FeSi + 2FeO SiO2 + 2Fe2P + 5FeO P2O5 + 5FeC + FeO CO + Fe

;fyudbsb htfmwbt,bc lfvsfdht,bc itvltu ufkqj,bkb ityfl-yj,t,b itbwfdc hrbybc (^^) jmcblc= hjvkbc fqlutyf fewbkt,tkbf\ufhlf fvbcf= ajkflbc vbcfqt,fl cfzbhjf yf[ibh,flbc= cbkbwb-evbc lf vfyufyevbc cfzbhj itvwdtkj,fvlt f'dfyf\ fv vbpybs vfcevfnt,ty athjcbkbwbevc= athjvfyufyevc lf fkevbyc\ hrbybc (^^)jmcblblfy hrbybc fqlutyf [lt,f vfyufyevbs|

FeO + Mn Fe + MnOfv lhjc vbqt,ekb jmcblt,bs ofhvjbmvyt,f oblf= hjvtkbw

vce,embf lf ufvkqdfkb ajkflbc ptlfgbhpt uhjdlt,f\se/bc ajkflfl uflfveifdt,bc lhjcfw lblb vybidytkj,f

fmdc ]fthbc ;fyu,flbs ufvlblht,fc fy ]fthbc itwdkfc ;fyu,flbs\tc bodtdc vjhtfubht ybdsbtht,t,bc rjywtynhfwbbc lf ntvgt-hfnehbc ufphlfc= hbc itltuflfw htfmwbt,b eahj cohfafl vbv-lbyfhtj,c\ fvfcsfyfdt= ;fyu,flbc ufvj'tyt,bc itvs[dtdfib vbbqt,feahj vfqfkb [fhbc[bc ajkflb= hflufy fv lhjc ajkflib uf[c-ybkb fpjnbc hfjltyj,f vwbhlt,f\ se ajkflib fpjnbc itvwdt-

s[tdflb se/b lf oblf xfvjtlbyt,f mehfib\ fvfcsfy= oblf=hjujhw eahj vce,emb= uhjdlt,f se/bc ptvjs\ se/cf lf oblfceidt,ty c[dflfc[df ljytpt ufykfut,ekb yf[dhtnt,blfy\ ufwbdt-,bc itvltu oblfc uflffveifdt,ty wtvtynfl\

erfyfcrytk [fyt,ib se/bc ofhvjt,fib lfbythuf fhct,bsbufev/j,tct,f= hjvtkbw f[ltyc ,h.vtlbc qevkt,bc ofhvflj,bcuflblt,fc lf sdbsqbht,ekt,bc itvwbht,fc\ rth.jl= fv;fvflmfh[yt,ib ;fyu,flbs ufvlblht,ek ]fthsfy thsfl f[ltyty ,eyt,-hbdb cfodfdb fbhbc (vtsfybc) lfvfnt,fc\ vtsfyb bodbc|

CH4 + O2 CO2 + 2H2Ovbqt,ekb CO2 lf o'kbc jhsmkb rjmcsfy ehsbthsmvtlt,bc

itltufl ofhvjmvybc CO-cf lf o'fk,flc= hbc itltuflfw ,h.vt-lek ghjwtcib vtnb fqvlutyb vbbqt,c vjyfobktj,fc\ tc rb sfdbcv[hbd bodtdc ,h.vtlbc qevtkbc ofhvflj,bc phlfc lf= fvfdt lhjc=rjmcbc [fh/c 10-20%-bs fvwbht,c\ se/b itbwfdc 99% hrbyfc=4=5% yf[ibh,flc lf lfyfhxtyb 2=5% fhbc cbkbwbevb= ajcajhb=vfyufyevb lf ujubhlb\

se hrbybc ityflyj,b 1=7%-pt vtn yf[ibh,flc itbwfdc= se/btojlt,f\

se hrbybc ityflyj,b 1=7%-pt yfrkt, yf[ibh,flc itbwfdc=ajkflb tojlt,f\

se hrbybc ityflyj,b 0=3%-pt yfrkt, yf[ibh,flc itbwfdc=ztlflb hrbyf tojlt,f\

se/b v'bat lf vc[dhtdflbf= fh bztlt,f lf fh bukbyt,f\ fh-xtdty jhb cf[bc se/c| stshc lf yfwhbcathc\ yfwhbcathb se/byf[ibh,flc itbwfdc uhfabnbc cf[bs\ ntmybrfib ufvjb'tyt,f vfy-mfybc v.bvt yfobkt,bc= meht,bc lf f\i\ xfvjcfc[vtkfl\ ntmybrfibhrbybc ityflyj,t,c ifd kbsjyt,c eojlt,ty= [jkj vfs ofhvjt,fc_ ifd vtnfkehubfc\

stshb se/b yf[ibh,flc evsfdhtcfl wtvtynbnbc (Fe3C) cf[bsitbwfdc\ vstkb stshb se/b b[fh/t,f se/bc ajkflfl uflfve-ifdt,fpt\

190 191

7000-vlt ufdfhdfht,ekb hrbyf o'kbc jhsmkc ikbc|3Fe + 4H2O Fe3O4 + 4H2

jsf[bc ntvgthfnehfpt hrbyf fh itlbc htfmwbfib vihfkmkjhsfy= ufw[tkt,bcfc rb tythubekfl vjmvtlt,c vfcsfy|

2Fe + 3Cl2 2FeCl3

vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt hrbyf c[df fhfkbsjyt,sfyfw itlbchtfmwbfib\ yf[ibh,flsfy ofhvjmvybc rfh,blt,c= ujubhlsfy _cekablt,c= fpjnsfy _ ybnhblt,c lf f\i\

hrbyf htfmwbfib itlbc vfhbkv;fdfcsfy lf ufypfdt,ek uj-ubhlv;fdfcsfy= hbc itltuflfw itcf,fvbcfl vbbqt,f hrbybc (^^)mkjhblb lf hrbybc (^^) cekafnb|

Fe + 2HCl FeCl2 + H2

Fe + H2SO4 FeSO4 + H2

ufyp\

hrbybc (^^) ybnhfnb ofhvjbmvyt,f fuhtsdt ufypfdt,ekfpjnv;fdfcsfy hrbybc ehsbthsmvtlt,bcfc|

4Fe + 10HNO3 4Fe(NO3)2 + NH4NO3 + 3H2Ohrbyf ehsbthsvjmvtlt,c w[tk rjywtynhbht,ek fpjn-

v;fdfcf lf ujubhlv;fdfcsfy\ fv lhjc ofhvjbmvyt,f hrbybc (^^^)vfhbkt,b|

Fe + 4HNO3 Fe(NO3)3 + NO + 2H2O2Fe + 6H2SO4 Fe2(SO4)3 + 3SO2 + 6H2O

hrbyf nentt,ib ghfmnbrekfl fh b[cyt,f\hrbyf f.tdt,c vfcpt yfrkt,fl fmnbeh kbsjyt,c vfsb vfhbkt-

,bc o'fk[cyfht,blfy|Fe + CuSO4 FeSO4 + Cu

hrbyf .bhbsflfl ofhvjmvybc jhb hbubc yfthst,c| hrbybc(^^) lf hrbybc (^^^) yfthst,c|

FeO _ hrbybc (^^) jmcblbFe(OH)2 _ hrbybc (^^) ]blhjmcblbFeCl2, FeSO4 lf c[d\_ hrbybc (^^) vfhbkt,b

kj,f 0=02% fqotdc= vfiby vfc fhflfvfrvf'jabkt,tkb vtmfybrehbsdbct,t,b tmyt,f\

sfyfvtlhjdt ntmybrfib ufycfresht,ekb vybidytkj,f tybzt,fktubht,ek ajkflc\ fv cf[bc ajkflb itbwfdc t\o\ vfktubht,tktktvtynt,c _ mhjvc= ybrtkc= vjkb,ltyc= dfyflbevc= djkahfvc=vfyufyevc= cgbkty.c= cbkbwbevc lf c[d\ vfktubht,ekb tktvty-nt,b ajkflc tvfnt,f ufycfpqdhekb sdbct,t,bc vbcfybzt,kfl\vfufkbsfl= mhjv-ybrtkbfyb ajkflb [fcbfslt,f vfqfkb vtmfyb-rehb lf fynbrjhjpbekb sdbct,t,bs= v[ehdfkvtltuj,bs\ fctsbajkflbcufy vpfllt,f vfymfyt,bc vhfdfkb yfobkb= cfj/f[j ybd-st,b (e;fyufdb rjdpt,b= lfyt,b= xfyukt,b lf c[d\)\ mhjv-dfyflb-evbfyb lf mhjv-vjkb,ltybfyb ajkflb ufvjbhxtdf cbvfuhbsf lfcbvnrbwbs vfqfkb ntvgthfnehbcf lf oytdbc vbvfhs\ fctsb aj-kflbcufy fvpflt,ty vbkcfltyt,c= sdbsvahbyfdt,bc .hfdt,bcf lfrjvghtcjht,bc ltnfkt,c\ mhjv-djkahfvbfyb ajkflb ufvjb't-yt,f vzhtkb bycnhevtynt,bc lfcfvpflt,kfl lf f\i\

sthvekb lfveifdt,bs itb.kt,f ajkflbc itlutybkj,bc it-ewdktkfl vbcb sdbct,t,bc itwdkf\ fctsbf ohsj,f lf vjidt,f\

hrbybc abpbrehb sdbct,t,b| hrbyf vjdthw[kbcahj-stshbathbc= ,pbydfht kbsjybf (cbvrdhbdt _ 7=87 u$cv3= lyj,bc ntvgt-hfnehf _ 15390C\ uffxybf rfhub gkfcnbrehj,f= lfvfuybnt,bcflf ufyvfuybnt,bc rfhub eyfhb= hbc ufvjw ufvjb'tyt,f lbyfvjvfy-mfyt,bcf lf tktmnhj.hfdt,bc uekfht,bc lfcfvpflt,kfl\

hrbybc mbvbehb sdbct,t,b| hrbyf vihfk ]fthpt fh b;fyut,f=ntybfy ]fthpt rb fldbkfl b;fyut,f\ bafht,f hrbybc ]blhjmcblbcafifhb abamt,bs= hjvtkbw dth bwfdc itvlujvb lf;fyudbcufy|

4Fe + 3O2 + 6H2O 4Fe(OH)3

]fthpt= vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt hrbybc uf[eht,bcfc ofhvj-bmvyt,f hrbybc [ty/b (Fe3O4)|

3Fe + 2O2 Fe3O4

192 193

Fe2O3 _ hrbybc (^^^) jmcblbFe(OH)3 _ hrbybc (^^^) ]blhjmcblbFeCl3, Fe2(SO4)3 lf c[d\_ hrbybc (^^^) vfhbkt,b

ufhlf fvbcf= fhct,j,c hrbybc v;fdf (H2FeO4)= hjvkbc vfhb-kt,c athfnt,b tojlt,f (hrbybc ;fyudbsb hbw[db +6)\

hrbybc lf,fkb ;fyudbsb hbw[dbc vmjyt yfthst,b [fcbfslt,fae.t sdbct,t,bs= evfqktcb lf;fyuekj,bc _ v;fdehbs= [jkjiefktlehb _ cecnb fvajnthekbs\

hrbybc v;fdf (H2FeO4) lf vbcb fy]blhblb (FeO3) wyj,bkb fhfhbc\ H2FeO4-bc vfhbkt,b _ athfnt,b rfhub lfv;fyufdt,bf\

hrbybc (^^) jmcblb ifdb athbc a[dybkbf\ vbbqt,f hrbybc (^^^)jmcblbc CO-sb fqlutybs 5600-pt|

Fe2O3 + CO 2FeO + CO2

FeO _ ae.t jmcblbf\ fldbkfl itlbc htfmwbfib v;fdt,sfylf ofhvjmvybc hrbybc (^^) vfhbkt,c|

FeO + H2SO4 FeSO4 + H2OFeO + HCl FeCl2 + H2O

Fe(OH)2 _ hrbybc (^^) ]blhjmcblb vbbqt,f stshb yfktmbccf[bs hrbybc (^^) vfhbksf [cyfht,pt nenbc vjmvtlt,bs|

FeSO4 + 2NaOH Fe(OH)2 + Na2SO4

hrbybc (^^) ]blhjmcblb ]fthpt fldbkfl b;fyut,f= hbc ufvjwbqt,c /th vjvodfyj= itvltu rb vehf-obstk athc hrbybc (^^^)]blhjmcblbc ofhvjmvybc ufvj|

4Fe(OH)2 + 2H2O + O2 4Fe(OH)3hrbybc (^^) ]blhjmcblb fh b[cyt,f nentt,ib= cfvfubthjl

rfhufl b[cyt,f v;fdt,ib|Fe(OH)2 + H2SO4 FeSO4 + 2H2O

hrbybc (^^) vfhbkt,b b;fyut,f c[dflfc[df lfv;fyufdt,bc= vfuf-kbsfl= gthvfyufyfnbc vjmvtlt,bs= lf ufhlfbmvyt,f hrbybc (^^^)vfhbkt,fl|

2KMnO4 + 10FeSO4 + 8H2SO4 2MnSO4 + 5Fe2(SO4)3 ++K2SO4 + 8H2O

hrbybc (^^^) yfthst,bFe2O3 _ hrbybc (^^^) jmcblb hrbybc yfthst,c ijhbc 'dtkfpt

vluhflbf\ vbbqt,f hrbybc (^^^) ]blhjmcblbc= ybnfhfnbc [Fe(NO3)3]fy cekafnbc [Fe2(SO4)3] ufvjodbs vfqfk ntvgthfnehfpt|

2Fe(OH)3 Fe2O3 + 3H2OFe2(SO4)3 Fe2O3 + 3SO3

Fe(OH)3 _ hrbybc (^^^) ]blhjmcblb vbbqt,f hrbybc (^^^) vfhb-kt,bc o'fk[cyfht,pt nentt,bc vjmvtlt,bs|

FeCl3 + 3KOH Fe(OH)3 + 3KClFe(OH)3 _ cecnb ae.tf= fmdc cecnfl ufvj[fnekb fvajnt-

hekb sdbct,t,b\ bc b[cyt,f v;fdt,ib lf .kbthb nentt,bc[cyfht,ib ufs,j,bs|

2Fe(OH)3 + 3H2SO4 Fe2(SO4)3 + 6H2OFe(OH)3 + KOH KFeO2 + 2H2O

Fe(OH)3-bc yfobkj,hbdb lt]blhfnfwbbs vbbqt,f vtnfhrb-yjdfyb v;fdf [HFeO2]= hjvkbc vfhbkt,c athbnt,b tojlt,f\ vfsbvbqt,f itb.kt,f vtnfhrbyjdfyb v;fdfc fy Fe2O3-bc nentt,sfyitkqj,bs|

Fe2O3 + 2KOH 2KFeO2 + H2Ohrbybc (^^^) bjyt,bcfsdbc lfvf[fcbfst,tkbf sdbct,bsb htfm-

wbf cbc[kbc 'dbstk vfhbksfy= rfkbevbc athjwbfyblsfy _K4[Fe(CN)6]\ tc vfhbkb [cyfhib lbcjwbhlt,f ufynjkt,bc vb-[tldbs|

K4[Fe(CN)6] 4K+ + [Fe(CN)6]_4

]tmcfwbfyj athfn bjyt,bc _ [Fe(CN)6]_4 ehsbthsmvtlt,bshrbybc (^^^) bjyt,sfy _ Fe+3 ofhvjbmvyt,f vemb keh/b yfktmb _,thkbybc kf;dfhlb|

4FeCl3 + 3K4[Fe(CN)6] Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3 + 12KClhrbybc (^^) bjyt,bcsdbc rb lfvf[fcbfst,tkbf sdbct,bsb htfm-

wbf cbc[kbc obstk vfhbksfy _ rfkbevbc athbwbfyblsfy= hjvtkbw[cyfhib ofhvjmvybc itvltu bjyt,c|

K3[Fe(CN)6] 3K+ + [Fe(CN)6]_3

194 195

hrbybc jhve[nbfyb bjyt,bcf lf [Fe(CN)6]_3 bjyt,bc ehsb-thsmvtlt,bc itltufl ofhvjbmvyt,f o'fkib e[cyflb vemb keh/bathbc yfktmb _ nehy,ekbc keh/b\

3FeSO4 + 2K3[Fe(CN)6] Fe3[Fe(CN)6]2 + 3K2SO4

cfvdfktynbfyb hrbybc fqvjvxtybf fvjybevbc hjlfyblb(NH4NCS)\ fv lhjc ofhvjbmvyt,f obstkb athbc hrbybchjlfyblb _ Fe(NCS)3.

FeCl3 + 3NH4NCS Fe(NCS)3 + 3NH4Cl

Ffdjuflhjc hbw[dbfdjuflhjc rfyjybfpjnbfpjnjdfyb fy]blhblbfpjnjdfyb v;fdffpjnbc fy]blhblbfpjnbc v;fdffbhb

utythfnjhbcvuhudbyfdb

fkvfcbfkt,fcnhbfkevbyb

jmcblb]blhjmcblb,eyt,hbdb yfthst,b

fkjnhjgbffkevbyjsthvbffkevbyjcbkbrfnt,bfrevekfnjhbfvbfrbfvjybevbc vfhbkt,bfvjybevbc bjybfvjybevbc ]blhjmcblbfvjajcbfvajnthj,ffybjybfyjlbfgfnbnbfhftktmnhjkbnt,bfhfjufyekb yfthst,bfnjvb

fqvlutybv;fyufdbvhfdfktktmnhjybfybfut,ekt,f

CFUYJ<HBDB CF>T<TKB

vfcf f,cjkenehbvfcf afhlj,bsb

fnjvbc fqyfuj,f lf gthbjlekj,bc rfyjybfmnbyjblt,bfmnbdfwbbc tythubffmnbehb rjvgktmcbfwtnbktybfwtnbktyblt,b

<,thbkbevb,thbkb,thsjktc vfhbkb,thkbybc kf;dfhlb,tnjyb,jmcbnb,hbkbfynb,hby/fj,h.vtlbc fbhb

Uufkbevbufkdfyehb tktvtynbuf'bydbc ntvgthfnehbc lfotdfuthvfybevbutkbukfe,thbc vfhbkbujubhlb

,eyt,hbdb yfthst,bujubhljdfyb fy]blhblbujubhljdfyb v;fdfujubhlbc fy]blhblbujubhlv;fdfujubhlo'fk,flbuhfvtmdbdfktynbuhfabnb

1111142145145146146119= 120=18511912013313013013113113041851391101431441441441543111211215093203102= 103102= 1034442= 44

66

51178484135135

127127167193142130133172185

17109

9213387156156156158158159159= 1601579153

196 197

Llfybtk-bfrj,cbc ufkdfyehb tktvtynbltbnthbevblbfvjajcblbgjkblbcgthcbekb cbcntvt,blbcjwbfwbflbcjwbfwbbc [fhbc[blbcjwbfwbbc [fhbc[b lf vfcpt vjmvtlb afmnjht,b

rjywtynhfwbfufv[cytkbc ,eyt,fuf[cybkb ybdsbtht,bc,eyt,fntvgthfnehf

lbmhjvfnblbmhjvv;fdfleqbkbc ntvgthfnehbc fotdf

Tt,ekbcjcrjgehb velvbdftsbktybtktvtynbtktmnhjybtktmnhjkbpb

e[cyflb fyjlb[cyflb fyjlb

tktmnhjmbvbehb .f,dfsfvorhbdb

tktmnhjyekb qhe,tkbtktmnhjmbvbftktmnhjefh'jabsj,ftktmnhjkbnt,b

cecnb.kbthb

tysfkgbftynhjgbftythubf

ibuffmnbdfwbbc/b,cbc

tythutnbrekb ihttmdbdfktynb

tktvtynbcrfyjyb

Ddfktynj,fdfyn-]jabc rfyjyb

Ppjkbpehve[nb

Ssf,fibhbsfkbevbsfyfehb mdfynehb hbw[dbstjhbf

]b,hblbpfwbbctktmnhjkbnehb

lbcjwbfwbbcghjnjkbnehb

sthvjlbyfvbrfsb[fse/b

Bbpjnjgbbpj,fhbbpjnjybbpjvtnhek-bpjnjgehb gjntywbfkbbjlbbjybbjyehb yfvhfdkbbjybpfwbbc tythubf

Rrfsjlbrfkbevb

lbmhjvfnbrfh,jyfnbgthvfyufyfnbmhjvfnb

rfkwbevb,eyt,hbdb yfthst,bjmcblb]blhjmcblbrfh,jyfnbcekafnbmkjhblbjhsjajcafnb

rfjkbybrfh,blt,brfh,jyfn-bjybrjheylbrfhyfkbnbrfnfkbpbrfnfkbpfnjhbrbhmdfrbhh.trfdibhb

/thflj,frjdfktynehbljyjhek- fmwtgnjhekbvtnfkehb

rtsbkij,bkb kbsjyt,brktxrjdcrbc otcbrhbjcrjgbekb velvbdfrjhjpbf

Kkf,fhrbc o'fkbkfysfyjblt,bkbsbevb

kbsjyt,b

rtsbkij,bkbfhfrtsbkij,bkbufhlfvfdfkbfqvlutyb sdbct,t,b.f,dfsf vorhbdb

Vvsfdfhb mdfynehb hbw[dbvfcf

fnjvbcfnjvehbvjktrekbcvjkehb

vfcehb hbw[dbvfcbc velvbdj,bc rfyjybvfyufyevb

jmcblt,bv;fdt,b]blhjmcblbvfhbkt,b

vfhbkt,bcfiefkjv;fdfae.tjhvfubrjvgktmcehblbcjwbfwbfuhfabrekb ajhvekt,b

vfhvfhbkjvtyltkttdbc gthbjlekb cbcntvfvbyfvjkbvjktrekfv;fdt,b

[cyflbe[cyflb

788181669910

7= 6883

87127

13113346

67

949878139188

434444

81162999954

109= 11011815463879495

959696

9696176176

91

91135442112113114

10751107549496957980

11212217612218218212712712812812812912915413913513813012384= 8584130128576664

64741084992115

16717123

122= 127=130= 16910810818102107

45666666817818018218118233343939333397

41127

1614173252627

198 199

;fyu,flbfybe;fyu,fljlbcjwbfwbf

vodfdt yfnhb

Yyfhtdt,byf[ibh,flb

,eyt,hbdb yfthst,bjmcblt,bv;fdt,bvfhbkt,b

yfnhbevb,eyt,bdb yfthst,bjmcblb]blhjmcblbvfhbkt,b

ytbnhbyjytbnhfkbpfwbfyjhvfkj,f

Jjpjybjpjyehb ihtjktevbjh,bnfkb

fnjvehb]b,hblekbs-jh,bnfkbp-jh,bnfkbd-jh,bnfkb

jhsjcbkbwbevv;fdfjhsjajcafnbjmcblt,b

vfhbkofvjvmvytkbvfhbkfhofhvjvmvytkbfvajnthekbv;fdfae.t

jmhj

Ggthbjlekj,bc rfyjybgthvfyufyfnbgthmkjhfnbgjkfhekb ,vfgjntywbfkb

bpj,fhekbghbywbgb

gfekbckt-ifntkbtc

:;fyu,flb;fyudbc [fhbcpb;fyudf-fqlutyf;fyudf fyjlehb;fyudf-fqlutybc htfmwbt,bc rkfcbabrfwbf

Hhtfmwbt,bc cbs,ehb

tatmnbhtfmwbt,b

rkfcbabrfwbfitthst,bclfikbcxfyfwdkt,bcvbvjwdkbc;fyudf-fqlutybcytbnhfkbpfwbbctupjsthvekbtyljsthvekbitmwtdflbitemwtdflb

htfmwbbc cbxmfhthrbyf

,eyt,hbdb yfthst,bjmcblt,b]blhjmcblt,b

rjvgktmcehb vfhbkt,b

ityflyj,t,bhjlfyblt,b

Ccb[bcnt

cfthsjlhjt,bsbvelvbdb

cbkbwbevbc v;fdfcbkbwbevbc jmcblbcbkbrfnt,bcjlf

rfkwbybht,ekbrfecnbrehbrhbcnfkehbcfcvtkb

cgbybcgbkty.b

,eyt,hbdb yfthst,bjmcblt,b]blhjmcblt,b[cyflj,f v;fdt,ib

cekafnt,bcekabnt,bcegthajcafnb

Nnent kbsjyt,bnent vbofkbsjyt,b

Aafpf

lbcgthcbekbabpbrehb vjdktyt,bajkflbajcafnbajcutybajcajhb

fkjnhjgbfobstkbstshbifdbjmcblt,bv;fdt,bvfhbkt,b

actdlj]fkjutyblt,bae.tt,b

[cyflbe[cyflbfvajnthekbtktmnhjkbnehb

lbcjwbfwbf

Mmdfynehb hbw[dt,b

cgbybvsfdfhbsfyfehbvfuybnehb

mbvbehb tktvtynbmbvbehb ,vt,b

rjdfktynehbgjkfhekbfhfgjkfhekbbjyehbljyjhek- fmwtygnjhekbo'fk,flehbkbsjyehb

mbvbehb ojyfcojhj,fmbvbehb ybdsbtht,f

ceasfyfhtsbvfhnbdbhsekb

mbvbehb ,vbc gjkfhj,fmbvbehb vjdktyt,bmkjhb

282897124

5133133136= 137138138122123124124125423890

155156159444470474749140153202020232322169

5118216863

81

5089

15570102112= 115

104

80

1313131312102387979141581184184192192= 193

193188149

129129130129140139140

12312412312345169169171171= 172171160158154

122126

878712188153136149

150150150150151151= 152= 153154= 15514829303031

94

444545464645458596173

64767485555556312162

200 201

,eyt,hbdb yfthst,bjmcblt,bv;fdt,bvfhbkt,b

mhjvbjmcblt,b]blhjmcblt,bvfhbkt,bmhjvgbrb

Iitlutybkj,bc velvbdj,bc

rfyjybityflyj,t,b

Wwtvtynbwbfyo'fk,flv;fdfwbfyv;fdfwbfyblt,bwbfyfnt,b

Ooytdf

jcvjcehbo'fkb

cb[bcnto'fk,flb

bpjnjgt,brfsbjybfybjyb;fyudbc [fhbc[bgthjmcblbufvj'tyt,f

o'fkufpbo'kbc bjyehb vfxdtyt,tkb

{[cyfht,b

rjywtynhbht,ekb

ufypfdt,ekbyf/thbe/thbvtnyf/thbfhftktmnhjkbnt,bztivfhbnbvekehj,fvjkfkj,fyjhvfkj,fnbnhb

[cyflj,bc rjtabwbtynb[cyfht,bc leqbkbc ntvgthfnehbc fotdf

?/b,cbc tythubf

}]fkjutyt,b]tyhbc rfyjyb]b,hblbpfwbf]blhfnt,b]blhjrfh,jyfnt,b]blhbl-bjyb]blhjkbpb]blhjmcblt,b

[cyflbe[cyflb

]eylbc otcb

KBNTHFNEHF

1\ rjrjxfidbkb d\= wbywf.t u\= wtw[kf.t s\= pjuflb lf fhfjhufyekbmbvbbc rehcb\ ^ yfobkb\ ufyfskt,f= s,bkbcb= 1988\

2\ rjrjxfidbkb d\= wbywf.t u\= wtw[kf.t s\= pjuflb lf fhfjhufyekbmbvbbc rehcb\ ^^ yfobkb\ ufyfskt,f= s,bkbcb= 1998\

3\ obdobdf.t s\ pjuflb mbvbf\ ufyfskt,f\ s,bkbcb= 19924\ udfhfvf.t l\ pjuflb (fhfjhufyekb) mbvbbc cf[tkv.qdfytkj\

ufyfskt,f= s,bkbcb 1975\5\ rfhfgtnbfyb v\= lhfrbyb c\ pjuflb lf fhfjhufyekb mbvbf\ s,bkbcb=

19816\ Ахметов Н.С. Общая и неорганическая химия. М., 1981.7\ Глинка Н.Л. Общая химия. М., 1984.8\ Красовицкая Е.И. Электронные структуры атомов и химическая

связь. Просвещениа, М., 1972.9\ Некрасов Б.В. Учебник общей химии. Высшая школа. М., 1984.10\ Полинг Л. Общая химия. Мир. 1974.11\ Хомченко Г.П., Цитович И.К. Неорганическая химия. Высшая

школа. М., 1978.

162166167166= 167173175= 176175176= 177177

9172= 180

141148148148149

929212912911811812012012012112211999

89

8990909093879090909188

91

81

16189678813811810029303050

202 203

CFHXTDB

sfdb ̂mbvbbc .bhbsflb wyt,t,b lf rfyjyt,b ...................................................... 3

hfc itbcofdkbc mbvbf ...................................................................... 3fnjvb lf vjktrekf ........................................................................ 3mbvbehb tktvtynb ........................................................................... 4fkjnhjgbf ...................................................................................... 4yfhtdt,b lf mbvbehb yfthst,b ......................................................... 5afhlj,bsb fnjvehb lf vjktrekehb vfcf ..................................... 6vjkb _ ybdsbtht,bc hfjltyj,bc thstekb ..................................... 7dfktynj,f ....................................................................................... 7ybdsbtht,bc vfcbc velvbdj,bc rfyjyb ............................................. 8itlutybkj,bc velvbdj,bc rfyjyb ................................................... 9trdbdfktynb lf trdbdfktynsf rfyjyb ............................................. 9fdjuflhjc rfyjyb ............................................................................ 11abpbrehb lf mbvbehb vjdktyt,b ................................................... 12mbvbehb htfmwbbc .bhbsflb nbgt,b ............................................... 13

sfdb ̂ ^l\b\ vtyltkttdbc gthbjlekj,bc rfyjyb lftktvtynsf gthbjlekb cbcntvf ............................................................ 16

tktvtynsf gthbjlekj,bc rfyjybc vybidytkj,f ........................... 18sfdb ̂ ^^fhfjhufyek yfthssf .bhbsflb rkfct,b ................................................ 20

jmcblt,b ......................................................................................... 20jmcblt,bc cf[tkojlt,t,b ............................................................. 21jmcblt,bc vbqt,bc otct,b .............................................................. 22v;fdf jmcblt,bc mbvbehb sdbct,t,b ................................................ 23v;fdt,b ............................................................................................ 25v;fdt,bc cf[tkojlt,f .................................................................... 25v;fdt,bc vbqt,bc [th[t,b ............................................................... 26v;fdt,bc mbvbehb sdbct,t,b ............................................................ 27v;fdt,bc ae.byj,f ........................................................................... 28ae.tt,b .......................................................................................... 29ae.tt,bc vbqt,bc [th[t,b .............................................................. 30fvajnthekb ]blhjmcblt,b ........................................................... 31vfhbkt,b ........................................................................................ 32vfhbkt,bc cf[tkojlt,t,b ............................................................. 33vfhbkt,bc vbqt,bc [th[t,b ........................................................... 34

vfhbkt,bc abpbrehb sdbct,t,b ..................................................... 36vfhbkt,bc mbvbehb sdbct,t,b ........................................................ 36ytbnhfkbpfwbbc htfmwbf ............................................................... 38v;fdf lf ae.t vfhbkt,bc uflf'dfyf ................................................. 39cfiefkj vfhbkt,ib ....................................................................... 39

sfdb ̂ &fnjvbc fqyfuj,f ..................................................................................... 42

fnjvsf tktmnhjyekb ufhct,bc fqyfuj,f ...................................... 44fnjvbc fqyfuj,f lf gthbjlekj,bc rfyjyb ..................................... 51bjybpfwbbc tythubf= tktmnhjybcflvb cohfadf lf tktmnhjefh'jabsj,f ................................................................ 54

sfdb &mbvbehb ,vbc nbgt,b .............................................................................. 57

rjdfktynehb ,vbc ofhvjmvybcljyjhek-fmwtgnjhekb vtmfybpvb .............................................. 64rjdfktynehb ,vbc sdbct,t,b ......................................................... 66mbvbehb ,vf lf dfktynj,f .............................................................. 68;fyudbc [fhbc[b ............................................................................... 70bjyehb ,vf ...................................................................................... 73kbsjyehb ,vf ................................................................................. 74o'fk,flehb ,vf .............................................................................. 76

sfdb &^mbvbehb htfmwbt,bc vbvlbyfhtj,bc rfyjypjvbtht,t,b .......................... 78

bpj,fhek-bpjvtnhekb gjntywbfkb\ /b,cbc tythubf ................. 81mbvbehb htfmwbbc cbxmfht lf vfcpt vjmvtlb afmnjht,b ............... 81mbvbehb ojyfcojhj,f lf vfcpt vjmvtlb afmnjht,b ...................... 85

sfdb &^^lbcgthcbekb cbcntvt,b ........................................................................ 87

[cyfht,bc leqbkbc ntvgthfnehbc fotdf\ t,ekbjcrjgbehb velvbdf ........................................................... 91uf'bydbc ntvgthfnehbc lfotdf\ rhbjcrjgbekb velvbdf ............... 92 jcvjcb lf jcvjcehb oytdf ........................................................... 92

sfdb &^^^tktmnhjkbnsf [cyfht,b ...................................................................... 94

v;fdt,bc= ae.tt,bc= vfhbkt,bc tktmnhjkbnehb lbcjwbfwbf ...... 97o'kbc bjyehb vfxdtyt,tkb ............................................................. 99vfhbksf ]blhjkbpb .................................................................... 100

sfdb ̂ *;fyudf-fqlutyf ..................................................................................... 102

;fyudf-fqlutybc htfmwbt,bc ufynjkt,bc itlutyf ........................ 104;fyudf-fqlutybsb htfmwbt,bc rkfcbabrfwbf ................................ 104

204

sfdb *tktmnhjmbvbf ...................................................................................... 107

tktmnhjmbvbehb .f,dfsf vorhbdb ............................................... 107ufkdfyehb tktvtynb .................................................................... 109tktmnhjkbpb ............................................................................. 112tktmnhjkbpb [cyflb fyjlbs ...................................................... 114tktmnhjmbvbehb rjhjpbf .......................................................... 115kbsjyt,bc lfwdf rjhjpbbcfufy ................................................... 116

fhfjhufyekb mbvbf ............................................................................... 117^ /ueabc s tktvtynt,b ........................................................................ 118

o'fk,flb ....................................................................................... 118nent kbsjyt,b (yfnhbevb) .......................................................... 122

^^ /ueabc s tktvtynt,b ....................................................................... 126^^^ /ueabc p-tktvtynt,b ..................................................................... 130^& /ueabc p_tktvtynt,b .................................................................... 133

yf[ibh,flb .................................................................................... 133cbkbwbevb .................................................................................... 139

& /ueabc p-tktvtynt,b ...................................................................... 142fpjnb ........................................................................................... 142ajcajhb ....................................................................................... 149

&^ /ueabc p-tktvtynt,b .................................................................... 154;fyu,flb ........................................................................................ 155ujubhlb ........................................................................................ 156

&^^ /ueabc p-tktvtynt,b ................................................................... 161mkjho'fk,flb lf vfhbkv;fdf ...................................................... 164mkjhbc ;fyu,flyfthst,b .............................................................. 166

^ /ueabc d-tktvtynt,b ....................................................................... 169cgbkty.b ....................................................................................... 169mhjvb ............................................................................................ 173mhjvbc ;fyu,flyfthst,b ............................................................... 175

&^^ /ueabc d-tktvtynt,b ................................................................... 177vfyufyevb ....................................................................................... 178vfyufyevbc jmcblt,b lf ]blhjmcblt,b ......................................... 180

&^^^ /ueabc d-tktvtynt,b .................................................................. 183hrbyf ............................................................................................. 184

cfuyj<hbdb cf>t,tkb ........................................................................... 195kbnthfnehf ........................................................................................ 201

ibeWdeba avtorTa mier warmodgenili saxiT

gadaeca warmoebas 30.01.2009. xelmowerilia dasabeWdad

18.02.2009. qaRaldis zoma 60X84 1/16. pirobiTi nabeWdi Tabaxi 12,5.

tiraJi 100 egz.

sagamomcemlo saxli `teqnikuri universiteti~, Tbilisi,

kostavas 77

`basiani~, Tbilisi, marjaniSvilis 5