県立広島大学人間文化学部紀要 12,7-19(2017)
Perspectives on Modern American History
StevenL.Rosen
IntroductionThe 20th century is one of themost remarkable centuries in human history. The
developmentof themodernworld,withAmericaat itscenter, includedtectonicshifts,notonlyin technology,but indemographics, social institutions, culturalunderstandings,and,ofcourse,economics.TheSecondIndustrialRevolution,basedonthe ideaofscientificprogress,propelledhumankind intoanewworld- indeedabravenewworld, toborrowthephrase fromAldousHuxley(whoborroweditfromShakespeare’s,The Tempest).Thisbravenewworldincludedtheriseofcorporatecapitalism,massive immigrationsandemigrationsaroundtheworld, theriseofHollywoodwhichwould transformworldculture (exposingtheworld toAmericanEnglishandculture),andperhapsaboveall,newandfantastictechnologywhich,ontheonehand,wouldsavemillionsof lives throughtheuseofanti-bioticsandotherdrugs,andon theother,killmillionsthroughthesystematickillingof theholocaustandthedevelopmentofmilitaryhardwareonascalecapableofdestroyingalllifeonearthinoneday.
It is thereforeofutmost importancethatstudentsof thehumanitiesandsocial sciencesand indeedall fieldsof study,havesomeappreciation for the incredibleand indeliblechangesthatoccurred inthemodernera.Thisparticularmini-text focusesmainlyonAmericanhistory.Itwas inthemodernera,mainlythe20thcentury, thattheUnitedachievedsuper-powerstatusinalmosteverysphere-economic, technologicalandevencultural. Indeed,asEuropesetaboutdestroying itselfwith twowars, the secondone fought out all over theglobe,Americawasgivenanopportunitytoemergeasthemajorforceshapingworldhistory.BelieversinAmericanexceptionalismassert that there is something in theAmericancharacterwhich led to this-thatAmerican isspecial, especially itsmoralandpoliticalculture.Thismini-textwillnotstartfromthatassumptionandwill remainsilentas to itsvalidity.However,anexaminationof theGreatDepression, theKennedyassassination, thecivil rightsmovement, theVietnamWarandWatergate,shouldservetohumbleanyonewithexceptionalistpretentions.Americahasashadowside in itshistory, justasprofoundas itsbrightestachievements,andthismini-textshouldhelpkeepstudentsonthestraightandnarrowpath ofdevelopingarealisticattitudetoAmericanhistoryandculture,alongsideanappreciationofitsgreatness.
The Second Industrial Revolution Theperiodafter theCivilWarwasaperiodof rapideconomicandsocialchange.New
technological inventionsdeveloped inEnglandandAmericahelpedthiseconomicgrowth.Theperiodof technological innovationand increased factoryproduction isknownasthe“IndustrialRevolution.”
7
7
StevenL.Rosen PerspectivesonModernAmericanHistory
TheFirst IndustrialRevolutionoccurred inEngland in the 18th century,when steamenginesweredeveloped topower factories.TheSecond IndustrialRevolutionwhichoccurredprimarilyinAmerica,wasevenmoredynamic.Itwasbasedonelectricalpower(fromcoalandoil),newtransportation(railroads)andanewtypeofbusinessorganization:themoderncorporation.
ThetwobiggestindustriesinAmericawerepetroleumandrailroads,followedbybanking.
The Modern Industrial Corporation: In the late 19th century,webegin to see the rise of“BigBusiness,”using factory
productionandeconomiesofscale(規模の経済). Itisalsothebeginningofrealmonopoly(独占)capitalism.Americabecamecontrolledby
largecorporations. -The corporationswere also protected by the law: they became limited liability
corporations (有限責任会社).Thismeansthat if theydidsomethingbad,noperson (e.g.,theowner)wasresponsible.
The 20th Century�By1913,Americaaccountedfor35%of theworld’s industrialoutput (comparedto16%
forGermanyand14%forBritain).Afewbigcompanieswerenowcontrollingmostofthemajormarketslikefood,energyortransportation.Thisiscalledmonopolycapitalism.
�Inthe1920’sFordMotorCorporationbecamethelargestcompanyintheworldthankstoassembly lineproduction (組み立てライン).ManyAmericancompaniescopiedFordandbecameinternationalcompanies.
Corporations:1 ) Themoderncorporationusuallyhasonemaingoal-shareholder(株主)profit.Therefore,
ifthecompanyharmspeopleortheenvironment,ifdoesn’treallycare.2 ) Corporationscancontrolthemediathroughadvertising.3 ) Politicalpower: large corporationshave somuchmoneyandpower that theycan
controlpoliticians.Thismeansthat isdifficult tomakeregulations (法規制)tocontrolthecorporations. (圧力団体=lobby/陳情団)Forexample,thepharmaceutical industry(薬品会社),theoilindustry,andthetobaccoindustryareverypowerfulanddifficulttoregulate.
4 ) Corporationssupportnon-democraticgovernmentsaroundtheworld.(dictatorships-独裁政治).Theygotopoorcountrieswhereworkerswillworkforlowwages,longhoursinbadconditions.
5 ) Themodern corporation oftendestroys thenatural environmentwith industrialpollution.
8
県立広島大学人間文化学部紀要 12,7-19(2017)
The Oil IndustryThepetroleum industrystarted inAmerica in1859whenoilwasdiscoveredunder the
ground inPennsylvania.Since then ithasdeveloped intooneof theworld’s richest industriesprovidingelectricity, fuelandchemicals (“petrochemicals”/石油製品)forthemodernworld.Wecanevensaythatthemoderneconomydevelopedbecauseofoilandotherfossilfuels(likecoal/石炭).Crudeoil,alsoknownaspetroleum(ペトローリアム), is theworld’smostactivelytradedcommodity/商品.
Theearlyoilindustrywaschaotic/混迷状態anddangerous,withthepriceofoilrisingand
falling.ThenJohnD.Rockefellerbuilthisfirstoilrefinery(製油所)in1863andtookcontroloftheoilmarket;hebecameoneoftherichestmenintheworld.In1870hestartedtheStandardOilCo.whichbecamethe leaderofthepetroleumindustry inthe late19thcentury.Infact, itbecameapowerfulmonopoly;by1880StandardOilcontrolledabout90%ofthemarket.
In1901,oneof themost importantdiscoveriesofoil occurred inTexas.ThisdiscoveryendedthemonopolyofStandardOil, asmanynew,smallercompaniesappeared inTexasandnearbystates. In1912theDutchShellGroupmoved intoCaliforniaandbecameverysuccessfulthere.
Thegrowthoftheautomobileindustryandairplaneindustryfromthe1920’sreallyhelpedthegrowthoftheoilindustry,butsoonthesupplyexceededthedemandforoil.(需要供給)
AfterWorldWarIIended(1945),oilreplacedcoalasthemainsourceofenergyinAmerica.However, therewasnotenoughdomestic (国 内)oil tomeettheenergydemandsofAmericans.Fromthe1950’son,thedemandforoilwasgreat,notonlyforfuel(燃料);manyAmericaproductsweremadefromoil(petrochemicals),suchasplasticsordisinfectants(消毒剤)andfertilizers(化学肥料).
The Modern World and OilOPEC(オペック/OrganizationofPetroleumExportingCountries)startedin1960toregulate
thepriceofoil.Theysetthepriceofoilontheworldmarketthroughproductionquotas・割り当て(soit’sakindofcartel).
TheUnitedStatesalsogetsoil fromAlaskaandTexas,CanadaandMexico,butheavilydependsonMiddle-EastOil.Americaconsumesabout1/4oftheworld’soil.ThisalsomeansthattheU.S.producesabout25%oftheworld’scarbonemissions(炭素放出量).
Actually,highoilpricesaregood—fortheenvironment…butbadforpeople’swallets…badfortheeconomy.
Muchof theworld’soilpassesthroughtheStraitofHormuzonships. If there iswarorpoliticalinstabilityintheMiddle-East,thiswilldisruptthesupplyofoiltotheworld.
Whenthepriceofgasgoesup,peoplestarttoconserveandthinkaboutbuyingecofriendly
9
StevenL.Rosen PerspectivesonModernAmericanHistory
cars.ThisishappeningnowinAmerica.
Will theworld’s oil run out someday?Yes, of course.But before this, perhaps theenvironmentwillbedestroyed(byglobalwarming).
FordismBythe1920’s,Americahadbecomeanautomobilesociety,mostlythankstothebusiness
startedbyHenryFord.BeforeHenryFord,variousbusinessactivities,suchasresearch,design,production,distributionandadvertising,weredonebymanydifferentcompanies. Inthemoderncorporation,thesethingswerealldonebyonecompany.FordMotorCo.,startedthefirstassemblylinein1913.
The introductionof themovingassembly line revolutionizedautomobileproductionbyreducingassemblytimepervehicle,thusloweringcosts.Ford'sproductionofModelT’smadehiscompanythelargestautomobilemanufacturerintheworld.
Itwasachangefromsimplebusinessorganizationstothefirstmoderncorporations;theyhadseparateoperatingdivisions,largenetworksofsuppliersandprofessionalmanagers.
WhileFordwasperfectinghisModelT,WilliamC.DurantestablishedtheGeneralMotorsCorporation (GM) in1908. Inthe late1920sandearly1930sGeneralMotorsChairmanAlfredP.Sloan,Jr.,decidedto followadifferentstrategy.Heusedthenewscienceofmarketing (marketresearch) and offereddifferent lines of cars atdifferentprices.Fancy expensive carsweremarketedforrichpeopleandmiddlelevelautosformiddleclasspeopleandsimplecarsforpoorerpeople.TheseconceptshelpedGMchallengethedominanceofFord.
AutomobilestransformedAmericansocietyandbusiness Theautomobilealmostimmediatelytransformedthepetroleumindustry. Industriesthatweredependentontheautomobilesawemploymentalmosttriple. Roadconstructionchangeddramaticallybecauseofautomobiles. Theautomobilehelpedthedevelopmentofthetouristindustry. Small-townhotelsandmotelsdevelopedfortravelingsalesmen. Thegrowingnumberofautomobiletouristsincreasedtheamountofbusinessinstores. Servicestations,garages,andrepairshopsweretwooftheindustriesthatbenefitedfrom
theincreasedamountoftravel.
Negativeeffects Therailroadindustryfelttheeffectsoftheautomobile.Motoristswerefreetobeontheir
ownschedule. Citytransitandurbanelectriclinesfelttheimpactoftheautomobile.Theybegantobe
confinedtolargercities.Automobilessoonproducedproblemsofcongestionandparking,especiallyinbigcities.
10
県立広島大学人間文化学部紀要 12,7-19(2017)
TheCarofthefuture:ElectricCars1. Electricityischeaperthangasandwecangetitfromrenewableresourceslikesolarand
windpower.2. Electriccarspolluteless.3. Electriccarsneedlessmaintenance.4. Byusingelectricpower,wedependlessonforeigncountryforoil.5. Electriccarscanutilizetheexistingpowergrid—nospecialnewtechnologyisneeded.Theautoindustryhasalwaysfoughtagainstnewsafetyregulationsandnewstandardsfor
exhaustemissions(排気ガス)andfuelefficiency(燃費基準)….Why?
Labor during the Industrial Revolution: Immigration
Americaisanationofimmigrants;inthe1830’sand1840’sabigwaveofimmigrantscame,mostlyfromnorthernEurope:Ireland,England,GermanyandScandinavia.Inthelate19thcenturyuntil1924,anevenbiggerwavecame-especiallyfromEasternEuropeandItaly(aswellasJapan).ThisimmigrationcompletelychangedAmericansociety,cultureandpolitics.
Most immigrants tried tomaintain their traditionalculture inAmerica,however therewasgreatpressureonthenewimmigrantsto“Americanize”quickly. InmostcasesthesecondgenerationbecameAmericanized.
Japanese ImmigrationSugarplantingwasstartedon the islandofKauai in1835and increasedyearbyyear
after that.Sugarproductionrequires lotsof field labor,more thancouldbeprovidedby thenativeHawaiians.JapanwasexperiencingmajorsocialandeconomicupheavalsduringtheMeijiRestorationperiod;internalsocialpressuresmadetheideaofimmigrationaviableandattractiveoptionformany.
ThefirstboatloadofJapaneseimmigrantstoHawaiileftin1868,knownasthegannenmono,in the firstyearof theMeijiperiod.However, thisgroupof148settlersactually leftwithoutgovernmentpermission sodoesnot constitute the real beginning of Japanese immigrationtoHawaii.The Japanesegovernmentbegana longperiodofnegotiationswith theHawaiiangovernment.
The First Period (1885-1894) Contract LaborersBeginningin1885,privatecompaniesarrangedforJapaneseimmigrantstocometoHawaii
on3yearcontracts.MosttheimmigrantswhocametoHawaiiduringthefirstwaveofMeijiEraimmigration,
came fromwesternJapan—mainlyHiroshima,Yamaguchi,Kumamoto,andFukuoka (andafter1900,fromOkinawa).
11
StevenL.Rosen PerspectivesonModernAmericanHistory
Annexationin1898broughtwithitthecompleteendofcontractlabor.Thewhiteplantationownersbecameconcernedabouta laborshortage, andactivelyrecruited formore tocometoHawaii;about30,000newimmigrantswenttherejustintheperiodbetween1898-1899.
[About50,000leftHawaiifortheWestCoast,1901-1907.]
The Second Immigration Period (1894- 1900)During this secondperiod, immigrationwashandledbyprivatecompanies; fivemajor
companiescontrolled the flowofemigration fromJapan toHawaii.TheseJapanesecompanieswerecorruptandengagedinunfairbusinesspractices.Theyoftendemandedexcessivefeeswiththreatsandintimidationforcingtheemigrantstopaylargesumsofmoney.Thecorruptionbecamesobadandsopublicthatthecompanieswereputoutofbusinessin1905.
Final (Free) Immigration Period– (1905-1907)InthelastperiodtheJapanesecompanieshadbeenputoutofbusiness,andthusJapanese
couldapplydirectlytotheJapanesegovernmenttogetpermissiontoemigrate.However,in1907,duetoanti-Asianfeelings(mostlyinCalifornia)aU.S.PresidentialOrder
bannedJapaneseinHawaiifrommovingtotheWestCoast.
Restricted Immigration Period (1908 to 1924)- Picture Brides PeriodIn1882, theChineseExclusionActhadbeenpassed,mainlyas the result ofpressure
fromwhites inCaliforniawhohatedAsians. InitiallyJapanese immigrationwasallowedbuttheImmigrationActof1907restrictedimmigrationfurther—prohibitingAsiansfromimmigratingtoAmerica.However,inthatsameyear,theU.S.andJapanmadethe“Gentleman’sAgreement”--itwasanagreementbetweentheU.S.governmentandtheJapanesegovernmenttoallowaJapanesepersontoimmigratetoAmericaiftheywerecomingtojoinaspouse.
Thisstartedthe“PictureBride”period—whereamarriagewouldbearrangedbetweenawoman inJapanandaJapaneseAmericanman (inHawaiiorCalifornia).Thus, the imbalancebetweenmenandwomen inHawaiiwas corrected.Between1908- 1924 about 60,000moreJapaneseimmigratedtoHawaii—about20,000beingpicturebrides.
Japanese Immigration: Key Points MeijimodernizationcreatedmanypoorpeopleinJapanwhoneededwork.TheHawaiian
sugarindustryneededworkers.Therefore,manypoorJapaneseimmigratedtoHawaii(andlaterCaliforniaandBrazil).
Inthebeginning,lifewashardinHawaii(fortheissei),butgotbetterinthe20thcentury(nisseigenerationwhowereborninAmerica).
Mostnissei didnotworkinthesugarindustrybutstartedbusinessesorbecameteachers,
12
県立広島大学人間文化学部紀要 12,7-19(2017)
nurses,orotherprofessionals. Intime, theJapanese-Americans inHawaiimovedtothehighestsocio-economicandpoliticallevelsofHawaiiansociety.
PicturebridescametoAmericabetween1910and1920,andtheymadeupasignificantamount of the Japanese immigrants during this time.Beforehand, itwasmainlymenwhoimmigratedtoAmerica.However,itwasbothviewedaswrongandillegalforaJapanesemanandawhitewomantomarry.Asaresult,theseJapanesemenlookedtoJapantosupplythemwithwives.
In1900therewereonly410marriedisseiwomeninAmericaandby1920therewere22,193.Thewomen’sarrivalwaskeytothefoundationoftheJapanesepresenceinAmerica.In1910therewere4,500AmericanbornJapanesechildren; in1920thenumberjumpedto30,000andby1930therewere68,000American-bornJapanesechildren.TheincreasednumberofwomenimmigrantsandJapanese families causedanti-Japanese sentiments to increase.Asa result, the Japanesegovernmentstoppedissuingpassportstopicturebrides;thisledtotheendofthepicturebrideerainMarch1,1920.
Entering the Modern Age: 1920’s AmericaThe Roaring Twenties / The Jazz Age
The1920’s is sometimesalsocalled the“JazzAge”becauseof thenewstylesofmusic
emerging in thenewurbanculture.HenryFordmanufacturedandmassproducedandsoldacheapautomobilewhichmanypeoplecouldaffordtobuy,andso theAmericanpeoplebecamemoremobile.Especiallyyoungpeoplemadethe20’satimeofexuberanceandfreedom.Thiswasalsoatimeofrelativeeconomicprosperityformuchofthecountry.
Hollywood: America’s Dream FactoryAnimportantpartofAmericanculture is theHollywoodmovie industry.Thefirstmovie
studiowasbuilt inHollywood in1911,butothermoviestudioshadalreadymovedout to thenearbycityofLosAngeles.
By1912,most of themajormovieproduction companieshasmovedout toCalifornia,partlytoescapefromthecontrolofEdison’scompany,butalsobecausetheweatherofsouthernCaliforniawasexcellent,andlandpriceswerecheap.
ThemanyoftheentrepreneurswhomovedtoCaliforniatostartmoviestudioswereJewishimmigrants.Theywerebusinessmenwhorealized that thiswasanew industrywitha lotofpotentialtomakehugeprofits.Also,formanyoftheseimmigrants,makingmovieswasawaytoescapetheirdifficultpastinEurope,andparticipateinmakingtheAmericandream.Bythe1920’sthefivemajorstudiosofHollywoodwereallJewishownedandrun.
The 1920’s themovie studiosbegan tomakebigmoney, asAmerica entered an ageofprosperity.Americanswantedentertainmentand thenew technologyof radioandmovies
13
StevenL.Rosen PerspectivesonModernAmericanHistory
providedcheapentertainmentformillionsofpeople.TheGoldenAgeofHollywoodbegan,wherebigmoviestudiosmanagedallaspectsofmoviemaking,fromproductiontodistribution.Makingamovieinvolvesalotofdifficultandexpensiveprocessesanditisabusiness,soeachfilmmustmakemoney.Writersmustbehired, talentedcinematographers,directors,producers,soundandlightingcrew,andofcoursetheactors.
Thiswasalsotheagewhenthe“StarSystem”started—attractiveandtalentedactorsandactressesbecamebigmoviestars,andtheirnamesbecamefamousallovertheworld.Hollywoodbecameabitofawildtownwithareputationforwildpartiesandexcessivealcoholuse.
DisneyStudioswasalsoimportantduringtheGoldenAgeofHollywood,butnotoneofthemajorstudios.Todaytheymakeuponeofthe“TheBigSix”,however.
During theGreatDepression,Hollywoodmovieswerevery important, givingpeopleanescape from theirdaily troubles.DuringWWII that followed,movies supportedwartimepropagandaefforts. In the1950’s themajorchallengewas fromtelevision,and thebigstudiosbegantoloseprofits,sothey,too,movedintotelevision.
Also,the1950’swasadifficulttimeforHollywoodforanotherreason:the“redscare.”ThiswasduringtheColdWarwhenAmericasfearedCommunismandthespreadofcommunism.SomepoliticianstriedtomakeAmericansmoreafraid,sayingthatHollywoodwasfullofcommunistsandcommunistsympathizersandthatHollywoodwaspoisoningthemindsofAmericans.Hollywoodbecameafraidbecause theydidn’twant to losemoney……somanyactorswhohad joinedthecommunistpartywhentheywereyoungwerefiredorblacklisted.
The1960’swasverydifferent—itwasa timeofradicalchange inAmericansocietyandculture.ItwasatimeofbigsocialandpoliticalchangeandHollywooddevelopednewstyleswhichreflected theage,withmorepowerful social themes…not justasentertainment,andno longerafraidtomakepoliticalandsocialstatements.
Hollywood Today: The Big Six plus independent studiosThe 6major studios today are contrastedwith smallermovieproduction companies
called independentsor“indies.”Alsowehavethemini-majors:LionsgateFilms,TheWeinsteinCompanyand theoldMGM.Hollywood today is still concernedwithmakingbigblockbusteractionfilmsforhugeprofits,butalsomoreintelligentandartisticfilmsarebeingmade,especiallybytheindependents.ActorsnowhavemorepowerandartisticcontrolthanintheearlydaysofHollywood.
Economic Crisis and Political Change: The Crash and the Great Depression 1929-1941
The1920’swasatimeofeconomicgrowthandprosperityformanypeople,however,therewasa largegapbetweenrichandpoor.Bigcompaniesweremanufacturinga lotofgoods,butmostpeople’swageswerequitelowandtheycouldn’taffordtobuymostthings.Therewasalot
14
県立広島大学人間文化学部紀要 12,7-19(2017)
ofborrowing,spendingoncreditandalotofriskyinvestment.Whenstocksstartedtodrop inOctoberof ’29peoplebegantopanic.Loanscouldn’tbe
paidoffbecausepeoplehadborrowedsomuchmoneybuthadnowaytopaythemoff.Peopleran to thebanksbut thebanksclosedtheirdoorsbecause theydidn’thaveenoughmoneytocoverpeople’sdeposits.Factoriesclosedandbusinesseswentbankrupt.Theyhadtofireworkers,resultinginhighunemploymentalloverAmerica.Highunemploymentmeansthatpeoplespendevenlessmoney,sobusinessesdeclinedevenmore.Therewerehugeinventoriesofgoodswhichcouldnotbesold,sopricesdropped.
BythetimeFranklinRooseveltwaselected in1932theeconomywas inthemidstof thedeepestdepression inAmericanhistory;peopleweredesperateandwantedthegovernmenttotakeboldandimmediateaction.Itdid.
Government Action: The New Deal DuringtheGreatDepressionofthe1930’stheroleofgovernmentcompletelychanged.For
thefirsttimetheU.S.federalgovernmenttookanactiveroleinmanagingtheeconomy.TheU.S.governmentdesignedprogramswhichgavesuchthingsasunemployment insurance forpeoplewho lost their jobs, social security forpeopleover65so theycouldgetapension,welfare forpeoplewithnomoneyandincome,andasystemoftaxationwhichmadetherichestinAmericansocietypayamuchhigherpercentageoftheirincomeintaxes.
Allof these liberaleconomicpolicieschangedAmericansocietyandeconomy.Thenewsystemof taxation and socialwelfareprogramsgavepeople at thebottomof societymoreeconomicsecurity,andstrengtheningoflaborunionsledtoastrongmiddle-class.
The 1950’s and the Cold War
AfterthewarendedagainstJapanandGermany(andItaly),thosethreecountriesbecamefriendsoftheUnitedStatesinthefightanewwar—thefightagainstcommunism.Chinabecamecommunist in1949. (Russiahadbecomecommunist in1917). InJune,1950,NorthKoreantroopspushedsouthpastthe37thparallelwithChinesesupport,startingtheKoreanWar.ThisincreasedColdWartensionsevenmore.Then,whentheRussians launchedtheSputniksatellite,AmericapanickedandgovernmentandeducationalinstitutionsfeltanintensepressuretocompetewiththeRussiansintheareaofmilitarytechnology.
JFK- 1960-63
In1960,JohnF.Kennedywaselectedastheyoungestpresident inAmericanhistory (43yearsold).HewasalsothefirstCatholicpresident(allpreviouspresidentshadbeenProtestants).Hehadbeenbornintoarichfamily,thesonofJosephKennedy,anIrishimmigrantwhohadmade
15
StevenL.Rosen PerspectivesonModernAmericanHistory
afortune.Hewasalwaysveryweakandsick,butevensobecameawarhero(WWII)whenhispatrolboatwasattackedandsank,andhesavedhiscrewmembers.DuringtheColdWar,heactivelyfoughtagainstcommunism.AfterhebecameU.S.President,however,hebegantothinkmoreabouthowtoachievepeace,ratherthandestroyingtheworldwithnuclearweapons.
The Cuban Missile CrisisThemajoreventduringhispresidencywastheCubanMissileCrisis (1962).TheSoviets
werefoundtobeputtinglong-rangenuclearmissilesinCuba,wellwithinstrikingdistanceofeastcoastcities.OnOct.22, JFKwenton television toannounce thatablockadewasbeingsetuparoundCubaandthatifanyshipstriedtocrossthelineandenterCuba,theywouldbeshotat.HealsosaidthatanynuclearmissilelaunchedfromCubawouldbemetwithaninstantresponsefromtheU.S.againsttheSovietUnion.HealsodemandedthedismantlingofexitingmissilesitesinCuba.TheblockadebeganonOct.24.ThirtySovietshipswereheadingtoCuba,butchangedcourseontheeveningofthe24th.TheSovietleaderKhrushchevpromisedtoremovethemissilesandtheU.S.promisednottoinvadeCuba.Afterthat,bothsidesmadeeffortstowardsbuildingamorepeacefulrelationship,thoughstillenemies.Throughhissuccessfulhandlingofthecrisis,JFKemergedasahighlyrespectedyoungpresident.
The Kennedy AssassinationNoteveryone lovedKennedy,however.Hehadmademanyenemies.Firstand foremost
weresouthernwhites,whogenerallysawhimassupportingblackcivil rights,andtoosoftoncommunism.Neitherchargewas true-Kennedywasneithersoftoncommunism,noractivelyengagedwithsupportingtheblackcivilrightsmovement.This incrediblehostilitytowardshimsaysmuchaboutthereactionarynatureoflargesegmentsoftheU.S.population.
Hewaskilledthe followingyear (Nov.1963) intheSouth, inaplacewherehewashatedby largenumbersofpeople-Texas.Hisdeathshockedthenation,andmanywonder if itwasaconspiracy(陰謀).ButwhowouldwanttokillKennedy?
Theofficialgovernmentpositionwas thatoneman,LeeHarveyOswald, a24-year-oldcommunist,killedKennedy.However, there isevidencethatOswaldwasnotacommunist,andmayhavebeenworkingwith,orconnectedto theCIA,andthatothergunmenwere involved.Soweneed toconsider thepossibility that theCIAwas involved in theassassinationof theirpresident.Butwhy?Thatisquestionweneedtoexplore.
MuchofthemysterylieswithOswald.Whowashereally???DidhereallykillKennedy?Ifnot,thentherewassomelargerconspiracy.
The 1960’s and the Counter-Culture (hippies and political protest)AfterKennedy’sdeath, thewar inVietnambegan to escalateyearbyyear andwas
broughthometoAmericansontheT.V.setseachnight.TheKoreanWarofthe50’swasnotso
16
県立広島大学人間文化学部紀要 12,7-19(2017)
clearlyseenbyAmericans,butyoungpeopleweredraftedtogotoVietnamandthenseenbeingkilledontelevision.At thesametime, theBlackcivil rightsmovementwasbecomingamajorforce,upsettingalottoconservatives.MartinLutherKing,Jr.andotherBlackleadersorganizednonviolentprotests.
Womenalsobegandemandingmoreequalrightsandequalpayforequalworkatthistime,challenging traditional stereotypesandgenderroles.Womenorganizedmarchesandbecamepoliticallyactivetofightdiscrimination.
WiththeVietnamWargettingworse,thestudentprotestmovementgrewmorepowerful.Simultaneouslywiththiswastheriseofapowerfulcounterculture—thehippiesandotherradicalscriticizedmostof the traditionalvaluesand ideologiesofAmericanculture.Theyhadagreatdistrust forpoliticiansandagovernmentwhichwas lyingtothepeopleaboutVietnam.Studentproteststooktothestreetsandriotsbrokeoutinvariouscities.
Richard Nixon and Watergate RichardNixonbecamepresident in 1968, a timeofgreat turmoil inAmerica society.
TheVietnamWarwasraging. Itwasatimewhen liberalandradicalpoliticalmovementswerebecomingmorevocaland influential, including, forexample, studentprotests, and theriseoffeminism,BlackPowerandotherradicalpoliticalmovements. RichardNixonappealedtomanyconservativeelementsinAmericansocietywhofearedallthesesocialandpoliticalchangestakingplaceinthe60’s.Heprojectedanimageoftraditionalconservativevalues.
However,Nixonwaspower-hungry.Duringthepresidentialelectionof1972,heandhisstaffengaged inhighly illegalactivitiesandspread liesaboutpeopletheydidn’t like.TheWatergatescandalstartedoutasasimpleburglaryoftheDemocrat’soffices,butinvestigationsexposedhowtheWhiteHousewas involved inmanyillegalactivitiesgoingwellbeyondWatergate---includingsuchthingsasspyingonothers,usingtheFBIandIRSforillegalpurposes,andtheobstructionofjustice.
Manypeopleview this asa timeof constitutional crisis inAmerica,when the systemofgovernment almost collapsed. It canbeperhapsargued thatWatergate scandalwas theculminationofaneraofdisillusionment thatbeganwith theKennedyassassination (1963)andendedupwiththeresignationofNixon(1974).Furthermore,Americahasneverrecovered.SinceWatergatetherehasbeengreatcynicismaboutgovernment.InelectionsvoterturnoutisverylowinAmerica,whichsuggestspeopledon’tbelievethatthepoliticalprocessaddressestheirneeds.ItremainstobeseenwhateffecttheIraqwarandthefinancialcrisisof2008hasonAmericans’viewoftheirgovernment.
Selected Bibliography/Reading ListBryson,B.(2013)One Summer: America in 927.London:TransworldPublishers
Baily,M. (2014)Of All the Gin Joints: Stumbling Through Hollywood History. ChapelHill,NC:
17
StevenL.Rosen PerspectivesonModernAmericanHistory
AlgonquinBooksofChapelHill.
Clarke,T.(2013)JFK’s Last Hundred Days: An Intimate Portrait of a Great President.NY:PenguinBooks
Douglass,J.D. (2008)JFK and the Unspeakable: Why he died and why it matters.Maryknoll,NY:TouchstoneBooks.
Gabler,N.(1988)An Empire of their Own: How the Jews Invented Hollywood.NY.:AnchorBooks
Johnson,P.(1997)A History of the American People. NY:HarperPerennial.
Reynolds,D.(2009)America: Empire of Liberty.NY:Penguin.
Summers,A.(1998)Not in Your Lifetime: the Defining Book on the JFK Assassination.NY:OpenRoadPress.
Thomson.D.(2004)The Whole Equation: A History of Hollywood.NY:VintageBooks
18
県立広島大学人間文化学部紀要 12,7-19(2017)
ABSTRACT
Perspectives on Modern American History
StevenL.Rosen
Thearticleisaproposedmini-textforaonesemestercourseonmodernAmericanhistory.ItaimstodevelopanappreciationforthesignificanceofAmericaintheriseofthemodernage,particularlywithrespecttotechnology,economicsandbusiness.RatherthantryingtocoverthewholeofmodernU.S.inoneshorttext,variouskeypointsinhistorywereselectedasportalsonhistoricaltrends.ThetextbeginswiththeSecondIndustrialRevolutionwhichmainlyoriginatedinAmerica,andfeaturedtheappearanceofthemoderncorporationaspartofaneweraofindustrialcapitalism.Thenitmovesontoadiscussionaboutimmigration(labor),theriseoftheHollywoodmovie industry,theGreatDepression,andthepost-warprosperity.Thetextbookthenexaminesthepost-warperiodwithadiscussionofthegreatpolitical,economicandculturalshocksandshiftsthattransformedhuman life,notonly inAmericabutaroundtheworld.Finallywemoveontoadiscussionofthedigitalrevolutionwhichtakesusintothe21stcentury,andarguably,thepost-modern,post-industrialage.
19