Motivation, Emotion, and Motivation, Emotion, and StressStress

MotivationMotivation

• What are motives?What are motives?o Needs or desires that prompts an Needs or desires that prompts an

individual into action and directs individual into action and directs behaviorbehavior

o Reflects biological or psychosocial needsReflects biological or psychosocial needs

MotivationMotivation

• Physiological motivesPhysiological motiveso Based on the body’s need for survivalBased on the body’s need for survival

• HungerHunger• ThirstThirst• SleepSleep• Pain avoidancePain avoidance

• Stimulus motivesStimulus motiveso Based on needs to interact with Based on needs to interact with

environmentenvironment• CuriosityCuriosity• Intellectual activityIntellectual activity• EntertainmentEntertainment

• Secondary motivesSecondary motiveso Based on group acceptanceBased on group acceptance

• ApprovalApproval• Individual achievementIndividual achievement

MotivationMotivation

MotivationMotivation

• Intrinsic motivationIntrinsic motivationo Internal drives to perform a task for its own Internal drives to perform a task for its own

sakesake• More open to demands of the taskMore open to demands of the task• Individual is more willing/eager to learnIndividual is more willing/eager to learn• Enjoyment of the task often serves as the Enjoyment of the task often serves as the

rewardreward

• Extrinsic motivationExtrinsic motivationo Money, good grades, other “external” rewardsMoney, good grades, other “external” rewardso ““Carrot on a stick”Carrot on a stick”o Can produce good outcomes (in the short-term)Can produce good outcomes (in the short-term)

MotivationMotivation

• Behaviorist perspectiveBehaviorist perspectiveo Drives arise from unfulfilled needsDrives arise from unfulfilled needs

o Drive-reduction theory Drive-reduction theory • We do things in order to satiate our We do things in order to satiate our

needs/reduce drivesneeds/reduce drives

o Behaviors (including motivation) Behaviors (including motivation) governed by stimuli in environmentgoverned by stimuli in environment

Eating MotivationEating Motivation

• Lateral hypothalamus – “on” switch for Lateral hypothalamus – “on” switch for eatingeating

o Stimulation = eating inducedStimulation = eating inducedo Damage/lesions = immediately lose desire Damage/lesions = immediately lose desire

to eatto eat

• Ventromedial hypothalamus – “off” switch Ventromedial hypothalamus – “off” switch for eatingfor eating

o Stimulation = inhibition of eating (satiety Stimulation = inhibition of eating (satiety center activated)center activated)

o Damage/lesions = leads to overeating, Damage/lesions = leads to overeating, satiety centersatiety center receives no receives no “off” message“off” message

Sexual MotivationSexual Motivation

• Kinsey Kinsey (1948)(1948)o ““Father of sexology”Father of sexology”

o Explored motives for widely varied Explored motives for widely varied human sex practiceshuman sex practices

o Surveyed 5,000 men and over 6,000 Surveyed 5,000 men and over 6,000 womenwomen

o The Kinsey Report had a profound The Kinsey Report had a profound impact on social awareness of sexuality impact on social awareness of sexuality in the 1950sin the 1950s

Psychosocial MotivationPsychosocial Motivation

• Esteem motivationEsteem motivation o The need to view one’s self in a positive The need to view one’s self in a positive

lightlighto Self-enhancement motivesSelf-enhancement motives

• Achievement motivationAchievement motivationo To do well, succeed, avoid failureTo do well, succeed, avoid failureo Take pleasure in completing Take pleasure in completing

difficult/challenging tasksdifficult/challenging taskso Often highly motivated to avoid failureOften highly motivated to avoid failure

EmotionEmotion

• Limbic systemLimbic systemo Plays a role in transferring information into Plays a role in transferring information into

memorymemory

o HippocampusHippocampus – – main location for this main location for this transfer transfer

o AmygdalaAmygdala – strongly implicated in – strongly implicated in attaching emotional attaching emotional significance significance to stimuli/information/eventsto stimuli/information/events

EmotionEmotion

• Cognitive levelCognitive levelo Having conscious sense of emotion (i.e., Having conscious sense of emotion (i.e.,

being afraid)being afraid)

o Emotions are perceived as having some Emotions are perceived as having some level of (un)pleasantness and strengthlevel of (un)pleasantness and strength

o Over 400 words in the English language Over 400 words in the English language refer to emotions refer to emotions

EmotionEmotion

• Physiological levelPhysiological level o Emotions contribute to changes in heart Emotions contribute to changes in heart

rate, blood pressure, etc. (i.e, rate, blood pressure, etc. (i.e, physiological arousal)physiological arousal)

o Some physiological changes too small to Some physiological changes too small to noticenotice

• Polygraph - "lie detector" -Polygraph - "lie detector" - used to measure used to measure subtle variations subtle variations in muscle tension, heart rate, in muscle tension, heart rate, etc.etc.

EmotionEmotion

• Behavioral LevelBehavioral Levelo Facial expressions of emotion - smiling, Facial expressions of emotion - smiling,

frowning, clenching fists frowning, clenching fists

o ““Facial-feedback” hypothesis (Ekman)Facial-feedback” hypothesis (Ekman)

o Use of facial expression to convey Use of facial expression to convey emotion appears to be innate emotion appears to be innate

Theories of EmotionTheories of Emotion

1) James-Lange theory of emotion1) James-Lange theory of emotion

• Subjective emotions arise from Subjective emotions arise from physiological arousal (emotion is the physiological arousal (emotion is the result of behavior)result of behavior)

• Therefore, controlling behavior controls Therefore, controlling behavior controls emotions emotions

o Make yourself smile and you will be Make yourself smile and you will be happy!happy!

2) Cannon-Bard theory of emotion2) Cannon-Bard theory of emotion • Emotions and physiological arousal Emotions and physiological arousal

often occur simultaneouslyoften occur simultaneously

• The arousal of one emotion often the The arousal of one emotion often the same as arousal of another emotion same as arousal of another emotion

• People cry when happy or when sad People cry when happy or when sad (same behavior) yet these emotional (same behavior) yet these emotional states are differentstates are different (different (different emotions) emotions)

Theories of EmotionTheories of Emotion

3) Schachter-Singer cognitive theory of 3) Schachter-Singer cognitive theory of emotionemotion

• Two components are necessary to Two components are necessary to experience emotion:experience emotion:

1) physiological arousal1) physiological arousal

2) cognitive labeling of the arousal2) cognitive labeling of the arousal

• We don't automatically know when we are We don't automatically know when we are happy, angry, or jealous - instead we label happy, angry, or jealous - instead we label our emotions by considering situational our emotions by considering situational cuescues

• Labeling depends on social settings and Labeling depends on social settings and cultural normscultural norms

Theories of EmotionTheories of Emotion

Theories of EmotionTheories of Emotion

3) Schachter-Singer cognitive theory of emotion 3) Schachter-Singer cognitive theory of emotion (con’t)(con’t)

• Independent variables:Independent variables:1) Manipulating arousal through injections1) Manipulating arousal through injections

2) Manipulating labeling of emotion by 2) Manipulating labeling of emotion by placing subjectsplacing subjects with confederates who are with confederates who are either “angry” or “happy”either “angry” or “happy”

• Results:Results:o Informed subjects reported no change in emotional Informed subjects reported no change in emotional

statestateo Uninformed subjects happier w/happy confederateUninformed subjects happier w/happy confederateo Uninformed subjects angrier w/angry confederate Uninformed subjects angrier w/angry confederate

EmotionEmotion

• Positive and negative affectPositive and negative affect + affect processed in left frontal lobe+ affect processed in left frontal lobe - affect processed in right frontal lobe- affect processed in right frontal lobe

• High inter-correlation within each typeHigh inter-correlation within each typeo Experiencing one negative emotion Experiencing one negative emotion

(guilt) also more likely to feel others (guilt) also more likely to feel others (anxiety, sadness, self-loathing)(anxiety, sadness, self-loathing)

EmotionEmotion

• AngerAngero ““A short madness” vs. “Making a coward A short madness” vs. “Making a coward

brave” (Virgil)brave” (Virgil)

o Anger can feel unpleasant but can also have Anger can feel unpleasant but can also have pleasurable componentspleasurable components

o An approach-oriented emotion?An approach-oriented emotion?• Anger creates EEG activity in left frontal Anger creates EEG activity in left frontal

lobe (location of positive affect?)lobe (location of positive affect?)

EmotionEmotion

• Emotion regulationEmotion regulation

o Ability to intensify or maintain positive Ability to intensify or maintain positive affect and affect and practice “mood repair” practice “mood repair” when facing negative affectwhen facing negative affect

o Regulation can take place before/after Regulation can take place before/after emotion occurs emotion occurs

• ReframingReframing• Suppression Suppression

StressStress

• What is stress?What is stress?o The process by which we perceive and The process by which we perceive and

respond to events and environmental respond to events and environmental demandsdemands

Overstimulation + demands for changeOverstimulation + demands for change StressorsStressors

• Holmes-Rahe Life Events Rating ScaleHolmes-Rahe Life Events Rating Scaleo Measures stress related to 43 common life Measures stress related to 43 common life

eventseventso Includes both negative and positive life Includes both negative and positive life

stressors stressors

StressStress

• Physiological effectsPhysiological effectso Impairs ability to focus and commit Impairs ability to focus and commit

information to memoryinformation to memory

o Causes interference with hippocampus Causes interference with hippocampus and prefrontal cortex activityand prefrontal cortex activity

o Chronic stress can lead to permanent Chronic stress can lead to permanent cell death and reduction in cell death and reduction in hippocampus sizehippocampus size

StressStress

• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)o Classified as an anxiety/stress disorderClassified as an anxiety/stress disorder

o Delay of onset common (up to six Delay of onset common (up to six months)months)

o Symptoms:Symptoms: Recurrent flashback episodes Recurrent flashback episodes Exaggerated responses to loud Exaggerated responses to loud

noises/sudden touchnoises/sudden touch Feelings of detachmentFeelings of detachment Frequent irritability/outbursts of angerFrequent irritability/outbursts of anger

StressStress

• Psychosomatic disordersPsychosomatic disorderso Real physical symptoms that begin, continue, or Real physical symptoms that begin, continue, or

are made worse by mental or emotional factorsare made worse by mental or emotional factors

o Stress in life literally translates to “a pain in Stress in life literally translates to “a pain in the neck”the neck”

o Demonstrates the influence of the mind over Demonstrates the influence of the mind over the bodythe body

o Symptoms often greatly exacerbated by stressSymptoms often greatly exacerbated by stress• Migraines, asthma, skin rashes/hives, Migraines, asthma, skin rashes/hives,

frequent illness, aches, painfrequent illness, aches, pain

StressStress

• HypochondriaHypochondriao Obsession that real (or imagined) Obsession that real (or imagined)

physical symptoms are signs of a physical symptoms are signs of a serious illness serious illness

o Preoccupation with fears of becoming ill Preoccupation with fears of becoming ill

o Typically chronic – tied to underlying Typically chronic – tied to underlying mood mood disordersdisorders