Spiceland8e ch01

Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved.

Chapter 1

Environmentand Theoretical

Structure of FinancialAccounting

Primary Focus of Financial Accounting

• Providing financial information to various external users– Investors– Creditors– Other external users

Investors &

creditors

To predict the future risk and potential return of investments or loans

Before supplying capital to businesses

Use different kinds of information

LO1-1

Financial information is a key component of that information set

Financial Accounting

• Financial information is conveyed through financial statements and related disclosure notes– Balance sheet– Income statement– Statement of cash flows– Statement of shareholders’ equity

Financial Reporting• Refers to the process of providing financial information

to external users

LO1-1

Financial Information Providers and External User Groups

LO1-1

The Economic Environment and Financial ReportingCapital markets provide a mechanism to help the economy allocate resources efficiently

Initial market transactions involve issuance of stocks and bonds by the corporation

– Corporations receive new cash

Secondary market transactions involve the transfer of stocks and bonds between individuals and institutions

– Corporations receive no new cash

Corporations acquire capital from investors in exchange for ownership interest and from creditors by borrowing

LO1-1

The Investment-Credit Decision—A Cash Flow PerspectiveWhy do investors and creditors provide capital?• They want to earn a fair return on the resources they

provide• Shareholders receive cash from:

– Sale of the ownership shares of stock– Periodic dividends

Key variables in investment decision• Rate of return• Uncertainty or risk

LO1-1

The Investment-Credit Decision—A Cash Flow PerspectiveExample calculation of rate of return:If an investor provides a company with $10,000 cash by purchasing stock at the end of 2015, receives $400 in dividends from the company during 2016, and sells the ownership interest (shares) at the end of 2016 for $10,600.

• Investors and creditors like to invest in stocks or bonds that provide a high expected rate of return

$400 dividends + $600 share price appreciation

$10,000 initial investment10%

LO1-1

=

Concept Check √

Creecher purchased $200,000 worth of Troman stock , received four quarterly dividends of $1,000 each, and sold the Troman shares for $206,000 after one year. What is Creecher’s rate of return?a. 1%.b. 2.5%.c. 5%.d. 10%.

((4 x $1,000) + ($206,000 - $200,000)) ÷ $200,000 = 5%

The Investment-Credit Decision—A Cash Flow PerspectiveExample of uncertainty (risk): consider the following two investment options. Which would you pick?

• Investing $10,000 in a savings account insured by the U.S. government that will generate a 5% rate of return

• Investing $10,000 in a profit-oriented company

Risk/Return tradeoff: Most investors would invest in the profit-oriented company only if the potential

return is high enough.

LO1-1

The Investment-Credit Decision—A Cash Flow PerspectivePrimary objective of financial accounting• Provided information should be useful for decision

making• Information should help investors and creditors

evaluate– Amounts– Timing– Uncertainty

LO1-1

Cash versus Accrual Accounting

Cash Basis Accounting• Measurement of cash receipts and cash payments

from transactions related to providing goods and service

• Difference is net operating cash flow

Accrual Basis Accounting• Measurement of revenues and expenses, regardless of

when cash is received or paid• Difference is net income or net loss

LO1-2

Example of Cash Basis Accounting LO1-2

Example of Accrual Accounting

Concept Check √

Which of the following is not an advantage of accrual accounting?a. Spreads out the influence of one-time events that affect multiple reporting periods.b. Highlights cash effects of operations.c. Captures long-run performance.d. Recognizes assets and liabilities associated with receivables and payables.

Cash-based accounting focuses on cash in and cash out,

and so highlights the cash effects of ongoing operations.

The Development of Financial Accountingand Reporting Standards

LO1-3

Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP)• GAAP is a set of both broad and specific guidelines that

companies should follow when measuring and reporting the information in their financial statements and related notes

• GAAP is set by standard setters but also emerges from practice

• GAAP facilitates decision making by investors and creditors by helping them understand information and enhancing the comparability of that information among companies

Accounting Standard Setting

LO1-3

Congress

SEC

Private Sector

CAP APB FASB

1938–1959 1959–1973 1973–Present

HIERARCHY OF STANDARD-SETTING AUTHORITY

Historical Perspective and Standards

Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)• Created by Congress in response to the stock market

crash of 1929– Goal: To restore investor confidence

• 1933 Securities Act– Applies to initial offerings of securities (stocks and bonds)

• 1934 Securities Exchange Act– Applies to secondary market transactions– Mandates reporting requirements for companies whose

securities are publicly traded

LO1-3

Early U.S. Standard Setting

Committee on Accounting Procedure (CAP) (1938 to 1959)• First private sector standard-setting body• Committee of the American Institute of Accountants(AIA)• AIA: National professional organization for certified

professional public accountants• AIA: Renamed as American Institute of Certified Public

Accountants (AICPA) • Issued 51 Accounting Research Bulletins (ARBs)

Accounting Principles Board (APB) (1959 to 1973)• Issued 31 Accounting Principles Board Opinions (APBOs),

various Interpretations, and four Statements• Replaced by Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB)

LO1-3

Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB)FASB created in 1973• Established to set U.S. accounting standards• Supported by Financial Accounting Foundation (FAF)• Seven full-time membersEmerging Issues Task Force (EITF) created in 1984• Identifies financial reporting issues and attempts to

resolve them without involving the FASB– primarily addresses implementation issues– speeding up the standard-setting process

• EITF rulings are ratified by the FASB and are considered part of GAAP

Government Accounting Standards Board (GASB): develop accounting standards for governmental units such as states and cities.

LO1-3

Concept Check √

Accounting standards in the United States are currently set by:a. The FASB.b. The AICPA.c. The EITF.d. The NCAA.

Since 1973, the FASB has been the primary standard-setting

body in the United States.

Codification

FASB Accounting Standards Codification Only source of authoritative nongovernmental U.S. GAAP• Organizes the thousands of U.S. GAAP pronouncements

into roughly 90 accounting topics• Also includes portions of SEC accounting guidance• Accounting Standards Update (ASU): any new

standard issued by FASB

LO1-3

(www.fasb.org)

FASB Accounting Standards Codification Topics

LO1-3

International Standard Setting

International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC)• Formed in 1973 to develop global accounting standards• Created a new standard-setting body called the

International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) (2001)

IASB:• To develop a single set of high-quality, understandable,

and enforceable global accounting standards• Issued and endorsed 41 International Accounting Standards

(IASs)• Issued new standards of its own—called International

Financial Reporting Standards (IFRSs)

LO1-3

Comparison of Organizations of U.S. and International Standard Setters

LO1-3

Efforts to Converge U.S. And International Standards

LO1-3

U.S. GAAP

IFRS

ConvergedStandards


LO1-3

• September 2002: FASB and IASB signed the Norwalk Agreement pledging to remove existing differences between their standards and to coordinate their future standard-setting agendas

• December 2007: The SEC signalled its view that IFRS are of high quality by removing reconciliation requirements

• April 2008: FASB and IASB agreed to accelerate the convergence process and focus on a subset of key convergence projects


LO1-3

• November 2008: SEC issued a Roadmap that listed necessary conditions to be achieved before the U.S. will shift to requiring use of IFRS by public companies

• November 2011: The SEC issued two studies —identified key differences between U.S. GAAP and IFRS and analyzed how IFRS are applied globally• July 2012: The SEC staff issued its Final Staff Report

• Concluded it is not feasible for the U.S. to adopt IFRS due to:– need for the U.S. to have stronger influence on the standard-

setting process– high costs to companies of converting to IFRS– the fact that many laws, regulations and private contracts

reference U.S. GAAP

The FASB’s Standard-Setting Process

LO1-4

Examples of Politics in Standard Setting

LO1-4

• Mid-1990’s—accounting for employee stock options

• Accounting for business combinations• Implementation of the fair value accounting

standard issued in 2007

Encouraging High-Quality Financial Reporting

LO1-5

Role of an Auditor

• Offer credibility to financial statements

• Express an opinion on the compliance of financial statements with GAAP

• Licensed by states to provide audit services — Certified public accountants (CPAs)

Financial Reporting Reform

LO1-5

Enron WorldCom Xerox Merck

Adelphia Communications

Accounting scandals

Sarbanes-Oxley Act

Increased the pressure on lawmakers to pass measures that would restore credibility and investor confidence in

the financial reporting process

Sarbanes-Oxley Act

LO1-5

• Oversight board• Corporate executive accountability• Nonaudit services• Retention of work papers• Auditor rotation• Conflicts of interest• Hiring of auditor• Internal control

• A principles-based, or objectives-oriented, approach to standard-setting stresses professional judgment, as opposed to following a list of rules

• Regardless, poor ethical values on the part of management are at the heart of accounting abuses and scandals

A Move Away from Rules-Based Standards?

vs.Principles-based Rules-based

Objectives-oriented

LO1-5

Ethics and Professionalism

LO1-5

Ethics deals with the ability to distinguish right from wrong

Codes of ethics are provided by:• American Institute of Certified Public Accountants

(AICPA)• Institute of Management Accountants (IMA)• Institute of Internal Auditors (IIA)

Analytical Model for Ethical Decisions

LO1-5

Step 1. Determine the facts of the situationStep 2. Identify the ethical issue and the stakeholders Step 3. Identify the values related to the situation Step 4. Specify the alternative courses of actionStep 5. Evaluate the courses of action specified in step 4 in

terms of their consistency with the values identified in step 3

Step 6. Identify the consequences of each possible course of action

Step 7. Make your decision and take any indicated action

Concept Check √

Which of the following is not one of the ways in which high-quality accounting is encouraged by the U.S. financial reporting system?a. Accounting standards encourage comparability.b. Auditors assess whether financial statements are materially misstated.c. Sarbanes-Oxley instituted reforms designed to improve the quality of financial reporting.d. Managers are required to use frameworks for ethical decision making when deciding how to account for transactions.

Ethical frameworks can be very useful, but managers are not

required to use them.

The Conceptual Framework

LO1-6

• Described as an “Accounting Constitution”• Provides an underlying foundation for accounting

standards– Guide the selection of events to be accounted for– Measurement of those events– Means of summarizing and communicating them to

interested parties• Provides structure and direction to financial accounting

and reporting • Disseminated by FASB through Statements of Financial

Accounting Concepts (SFACs)


ElementsRecognition andMeasurement

Concepts

Constraints

QualitativeCharacteristics

FinancialStatements

Objective



Concepts

Constraints


FinancialStatements

Objective

Hierarchy of Qualitative Characteristics of Financial Information

LO1-7

Decision usefulness

Relevance Faithful Representation

Predictive Value

Confirmatory value Materiality Completeness Neutrality Free from

error

Comparability(Consistency)

Verifiability Timeliness Understandability

Cost effectiveness constraint(benefits exceed costs)

Concept Check √

Which of the following is not a component of relevance as defined in the FASB’s conceptual framework?a. Free from error.b. Materiality.c. Predictive value.d. Confirmatory value.

Free from error is a component of faithful representation.

Concept Check √

Which of the following is not a component of faithful representation as defined in the FASB’s conceptual framework?a. Free from error.b. Neutrality.c. Understandability.d. Completeness.

Understandability is an enhancing characteristic of decision

usefulness.



Concepts

Constraints


FinancialStatements

Objective

Elements of Financial Statements• Assets• Liabilities• Equity (or net assets)• Investments by owners• Distributions to owners• Comprehensive income• Revenues• Expenses• Gains• Losses

LO1-7

Underlying Assumptions

LO1-8

• The economic entity assumption presumes that economic events can be identified specifically with an economic entity.

• The going concern assumption anticipates that a business entity will continue to operate indefinitely.

• The periodicity assumption allows the life of a company to be divided into artificial time periods to provide timely information.

• The monetary unit used in U.S. financial statements is the U.S. dollar.



Concepts

Constraints


FinancialStatements

Objective

Recognition, Measurement, and Disclosure Concepts

LO1-9

• Recognition refers to the process of admitting information into the financial statements

• Measurement is the process of associating numerical amounts with the elements

• Disclosure refers to the process of including additional pertinent information in the financial statements and accompanying notes

• General Recognition Criteria– Definition, Measurability, Relevance, and Reliability

Revenue Recognition

LO1-9

Revenue: Inflows of assets or settlements of liabilities resulting from providing a product or service to a customer

FASB recently issued ASU No. 2014-09, which requires that we recognize revenue when goods or services are transferred to customers for the amount the company expects to be entitled to receive in exchange for those goods or services.

Previously, revenue recognition was guided by the realization principle (two criteria)

– Earnings process is judged to be complete or virtually complete

– Reasonable certainty as to the collectibility of the asset to be received (usually cash)

Expense Recognition

LO1-9

Often matches revenues and expenses that arise from the same transactions or other eventsFour approaches:• Based on an exact cause-and-effect relationship• By associating an expense with the revenues

recognized in a specific time period• By a systematic and rational allocation to specific time

periods• In the period incurred, without regard to related

revenue

Measurement

LO1-9

GAAP currently employs a “mixed attribute” measurement model. The five measurement attributes are: Historical cost: original transaction value adjusted for

depreciation and amortization. Net realizable value: the amount of cash into which an asset

is expected to be converted in the ordinary course of business Current cost: the cost that would be incurred to purchase or

reproduce the asset. Present (or discounted) value: calculated by removing the

time value of money from future cash flows Fair value: the price that would be received to sell assets or

paid to transfer a liability in an orderly transaction between market participants at the measurement date.

Measurement

LO1-9

Historical Cost: Original transaction value• Bases measurements on the amount given or received in

the exchange transactionsFor assets:

– Value of what is given in exchange (usually cash) for the asset at its initial acquisition

For liabilities:– Current cash equivalent received in exchange for assuming

the liabilityLong-lived, revenue-producing assets (equipment):

– Adjusted subsequent to its initial measurement by recognizing depreciation or amortization

Measurement

LO1-9

Net Realizable Value• Bases measurements on the amount of cash into which the

asset or liability will be converted in the ordinary course of business

• Provides useful information to aid in the prediction of future cash flows

Current Cost• Some inventories are reported at their current replacement

costPresent Value (SFAC 7)• Bases measurement on future cash flows discounted for the

time value of money

Measurement

LO1-9

Fair Value (called current market value originally in SFAC 5 )• Bases measurements on the price that would be received

to sell assets or transfer liabilities in an orderly market transaction

Fair value can be measured using:1. Market approach: Valuation based on market information2. Income approach: Estimates future amounts and then

mathematically converts those amounts to a single present value

3. Cost approach: Estimates the amount that would be required to buy or construct an asset of similar quality and condition

Concept Check √

Which of the following is not a measurement attribute defined in the FASB’s conceptual framework?a. Net realizable value.b. Historical cost.c. List price.d. Fair value.

List price is not a measurement attribute. Rather, it is

whatever sales price a seller indicates (which might be

negotiable or subject to discounts).

Fair Value Hierarchy

LO1-9

Concept Check √

Which of the following is not true?a. The fair value hierarchy reflects the subjectivity of inputs used to compute fair values.b. Level 1 of the fair value hierarchy refers to quoted market prices that can be directly observed.c. Level 3 of the fair value hierarchy refers to inputs that are not directly observable, and so must be based on the entity’s own assumptions.d. Level 3 inputs are preferred to Level 2, which are preferred to Level 1.

Level 1 inputs are most preferable because they are the least

subjective. Level 3 inputs are the least preferable because

they are based on the entity’s own assumptions.

Measurement

LO1-9

Fair Value Option• GAAP gives a company the option to report some

financial assets and liabilities at fair value– Provides companies a way to reduce volatility in

reported earnings without having to comply with complex hedge accounting standards

– Helps to converge with international accounting standards

Disclosure

LO1-9

Full-disclosure principle: requires that the financial reports should include any information that could affect the decisions made by external usersSuch information can be disclosed in a variety of ways:• Parenthetical comments or modifying comments

– Placed on the face of the financial statements

• Disclosure notes – Convey additional insights

• Supplemental schedules and tables– Report more detailed information than is shown in the

primary financial statements

Summary of Recognition, Measurement, and Disclosure Concepts

LO1-9

Evolving GAAP

• Revenue/Expense Approach– Emphasize principles for recognizing revenues and

expenses, which determines amount and timing of recognition of assets and liabilities

• Asset/Liability Approach– Recognize and measure the assets and liabilities that

exist at a balance sheet date – Recognize and measure the revenues, expenses, gains

and losses needed to account for the changes in these assets and liabilities from the previous measurement date

LO1-10

International Financial Reporting Standards

LO1-11

Emphasizes that financialstatements should provide a “true and fair representation” of the company

Role of the conceptual frameworkIFRS U.S GAAP

Primarily providesguidance to standard setters to help them develop high-quality standards

Guides standard setting,but in addition it is supposed to provide a basis for practitioners to make accounting judgments

Does not include an explicit requirement, but U.S. auditing standards require this consideration

End of Chapter 1