Chap. 8 Ecosystem Development 鄭先祐 (Ayo) 國立台南大學 環境與生態學院 2008 年 2...

Chap. 8 Ecosystem Development

鄭先祐 (Ayo)

國立台南大學 環境與生態學院

2008 年 2 月至 6 月

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Ecosystem development

1. Strategy of ecosystem development

2. Concept of the climax

3. Evolution of the biosphere

4. Microevolution compared with Macroevolution, artificial selection, and genetic engineering

5. Relevance of ecosystem development to human ecology

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1 Strategy of Ecosystem Development

Ecological succession ( 演替、演遞、消長 )Autogenic successionAllogenic succession

Pioneer stageSere, seral stages, developmental stagesClimaxPrimary succession, secondary succession

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Table 8-1

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Fig. 8-1. Photographs of (A) a young old-field community located in Union County, Indiana

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Fig. 8-1. (B) a sugar maple tree. The maple tree is in a mature beech-maple climax forest.

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Fig. 8-2. Ecosystem development models.

(A) Systems (cybernetic) model

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Fig. 8-2. Ecosystem development models.

(B) Energy flow model

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Fig. 8-2. Ecosystem development models.

(C) Production/Respiration (P/R) maintenance model

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Fig. 8-3. Comparison of the energetics of ecosystem development in (A) forests.

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Fig. 8-3. Comparison of the energetics of ecosystem development in (B) microcosms.

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Allogenic compared with autogenic influences

Gap phase succession, replacement and succession in a gap in a forest caused by a disturbance such as wind or disease.

Cyclic succession, succession caused by periodic, rhythmic disturbances in which the sequence of seral stages is repeated.

Perturbation dependent, is used to designate ecosystems that are especially adapted to recurrent disturbances by virtue of a makeup of quick recovery processes and species.

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Allogenic succession

Cultural eutrophication Lakes can and do progress to a more

oligotrophic condition when nutrient input from the watershed slows or ceases.An example is the recovery of Lake

Washington (Fig. 8-4)

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Fig. 8-5. wave-generated succession in a balsam fir forest.

The trees reach their maximum height and density in the thin soils, they become vulnerable to strong winds that uproot and kill old trees, thereby starting a secondary succession

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Nutrient cycling output / input ( O / I ) cycling index ( CI ) = ratio of recycled inp

ut to output stored (S)BG = bare groundES = early stagesMS = middle stagesSS = steady state

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Fig. 8-6. Hypothetical trends in output/input (O/I) ratio, cycling index (CI), and storage/ output (S/O) ratios of nutrients during succession.

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Replacement of species

A more or less continuous replacement of species over time is characteristic of most successional seres.

An example of secondary succession is illustrated in Figure 8-7, which shows the sequence of plant communities and bird populations that develop on abandoned upland agricultural fields o the Piedmont of southeastern US.

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Fig. 8-7. General pattern of ecological succession on abandoned farmland in the southeastern US.

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Fig. 8-8. The Oregon Trail near Scottsbluff, Nebraska, where a trace etched by the wheels of wagons that carried settlers during the 1840-1860 westward migration between Missouri and Oregon is still evident.

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Abandoned wagon roads

Successive seral stagesAn annual weed stage (2-5years)A short-lived grass stage (5-10years)An early perennial grass stage (10-20years)A climax grass stage (reached in 20-40years)

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Fig. 8-9. Fish abundance in a mainstream reservoir on the upper Missouri River from the second to the fifteenth year after completion of a dam in Lake Francis Case, South Dakota.

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Fig. 8-10. Succession in a hay-infusion ( 乾草泡浸 ) culture, with dominance by successive species. This is an example of heterotrophic succession.

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Fig. 8-11. Dominance-diversity curves of old fields at five different ages of abandonment in southern Illinois.

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Historical review

ecosystem development resulted from1. Modification of the physical environment by the com

munity acting as a whole

2. The interaction of competition and coexistence between component populations.

Three theories 1. Facilitation model

2. Inhibition model

3. Tolerance model

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Historical review

self-organization theory monoclimax concept (Clements, 1916)

The contrary concept– that ecological succession does not have an organizational strategy but results from the interactions of individuals and species as they struggle to occupy space.

Foresters find that forest succession is directional and predictable.

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Self-organization, synergetic, and ascendancy( 優勢 )

self-organizationSynergeticsAscendancy, for the tendency for self-orga

nizing, dissipative system to develop complexity of biomass and network flows over time, as is seen in the process of ecological succession.

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2 Concept of the Climax

P=R, climax communityMonoclimax vs. polyclimaxClimax

regional (climatic) climax local (edaphic) climax disclimax (disturbance climax) = anthropoge

nic subclimax

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Fig. 8-12. Climatic and edaphic climaxes in southern Ontario, Canada (A) Distribution of climax communities depending on local contusions.

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Fig. 8-12. climax communities

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Fig. 8-12. Climatic and edaphic climaxes in southern Ontario, Canada (C) Theoretical development of edaphic climaxed at extremes of moisture to ward a climatic climax at the intermediate moisture conditions.

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Fig. 8-13. Edaphic climaxes on the West coast of northern California.

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3 Evolution of the Biosphere

Evolution population evolution (genes and species) coevolution group or community selection

continental drift (plate tectonics)

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Fig. 8-15. The evolution of the biosphere and its effect on the atmosphere.

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Fig. 8-16. Earth’s biogeological clock.

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4 Microevolution Compared with Macroevolution, Artificial Selection, and

Genetic Engineering

Evolution Selection pressure Recurrent mutations Genetic drift

Speciation Allopatric speciation Sympatric speciation

evolution Microevolution

• gradual process

Macroevolution• rapid changes

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Fig. 8-17. Character displacement.

Darwin’s finches.

天擇的範例： peppered moths

鄭先祐

生態主張者 Ayo 工作室

Ref: Wells, J. (1999) Second thoughts about peppered moths. The Scientist 13:13.

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Artificial selection

artificial selection domestication harvest ratio

genetic engineering

Ecology of Transgenic Crops

鄭先祐

生態主張者： Ayo 工作室

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5 Relevance of Ecosystem Development to Human Ecology

Pulse stability Restoration ecology Network complexity theory

compartment models for land use

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Fig. 8-18. Compartment models for landscape-use planning (A) Partitioned according to ecosystem theory.

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Fig. 8-18. Compartment models for landscape-use planning (B) As viewed by architects and landscape designers.

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Fig. 8-19. Model illustrating the parasitic nature of urban industrial technoecosystems and the need to link natural life-support ecosystems with these technoecosystems.

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