230102

2009 .

1. ..6 1.1 .....7 .........8 ..............8 World Wide Web (WWW)..9 3D- ...9 ...9 ().10 1.2. .......11 .11 12 12 2. ...13 2.1 13 2.1.1. ...13 ..14 16 ..17 ...19 .21 23 ...23 2.1.2 24 .26 2.2 .27 2.2.1 .27 2.2.2 ...28 3. . ....37 3.1 ...37 3.2 ...39 3.3 .41 3.4 .48 .48 ...50 .51 ...52 ...53 .56 3.5 ..65 . 65 .66 .66 ...67 .68 ....69 (Levels)70 ..71 .73 2

Abkmnhs (Plug-ins) b cgtwaatrns (Effects).73 ..76 3.6 ...76 4. ...78 4.1 .78 4.2 .80 4.3 .80 4.4 ..82 4.5 () .83 4.6 ..89 5. ..91 5.1 . ...92 5.2 ....95 6. .97 6.1 .97 6.1.1 ..97 6.1.2 ...98 6.1.3 ...99 6.1.4 .....100 6.1.5 ...101 6.2 ...103 6.2.1 ...103 6.2.2 .....103 ...104 ....105 ....106 6.3 ...107 6.4 ..109 6.4.1 .109 RGB ..111 RGB- ?......................................114 RGB-116 sRGB RGB- ..117 6.4.2 ...117 CMY...118 CMY CMYK.119 CMYK.120 CMYK..121 6.4.3 ...122 HSB-126 6.4.4 ...126 ...126 ....127 . .....128 6.4.5 ..129 6.4.6 .132 7. .....137 7.1 .137 7.1.1 ..137 7.1.2 ...139 3

7.1.3 141 7.1.4 .142 7.1.5 . .144 7.2 ..146 7.2.1 ...147 7.2.2 ..147 8. ...154 8.1 ...154 8.1.1 ..154 8.1.2 .156 8.2 ...160 8.3 .....161 8.4. 162 8.5 ...164 8.6 ..172 9. ....181 9.1 ...181 9.2 ....181 9.3 181 9.4 i82786.....182 9.5 ()..183 9.6 DP-8500....184 9.7 ..185 9.8 .186 9.9 () ....187 10. ..189 10.1 NGP (Network graphics rotocol)...189 10.2 .190 10.3 ...193 Core-System.....193 GKS (Graphical Kernel System)..194 GKS-3D (Graphical Kernel System for Three Dimensions)...196 PHIGS (Programmer's Hierarchical Interactive Graphics System).196 PHIGS+....197 CGI (Computer Graphics Interface).198 10.4 ....198 10.4.1 - ..198 TEKTRONIX.199 REGIS.199 HP-GL.199 10.4.2 199 PostScript200 PCL.201 10.4.3 - ...201 10.4.4 - 203 11. ..205 11.1 ..206 11.2 ...208 11.3 ..211 11.4 218 12. ( ).....223 12.1 ...223 4

12.2 ....227 12.3 .230 12.4 ...232 ..233 ..234 ..234 ...235 ..235 ..237 ...238 12.5 ...238 12.6 ..238 12.6.1 .239 12.6.2 .241 12.6.3 ..241 12.7 ..242 12.8 ..242 12.9 ...242 12.10 ()....245 12.11 ...246 .247

5

1. - . , . : (), . (Computer Graphics) - , . , () , . , . , , , , , . , , , , . : , , , . (Computer Vision) . , . : , , , , , . , , , . . (, ), , . . , , , . , - .

Image Processing

Computer

Graphics

. 1.1.

6

Computer

Vision

(Image Processing) , . . , , , , . -: (, ); (, , , ). . , . . . , . . - . . 1.1 . . , . , . , , . , . . , , , D- , . , , , : ; ; web-; ; D- ; ; ; . . . , ( ). , , : 7

; ; ; ; . , , . . , . : , , , ; ( ). . , , . Adobe PageMaker QuarkXPress. , , . , , () ( MS Word), . ( ) , . , . , PageMaker , - , , . PageMaker QarkXPress Macintosh. , . , , , . , - , - . . , , , . . . , , . - Macromedia Director MS Power Point. - . - , .

8

World Wide Web (WWW) Internet. . , . Internet . , , , , .. Internet . , , , , . WWW . , , - "". , WWW, : JPEG, , , GIF . WWW , . 3D- - , . 3D- , . . 3D- . , 3D-. 3D- . 3D- , . 3D- . , 3D, , , . . ( - CAD - Computer Aided Design), 60- . . K , () (. 1.2). , , .

9

,

,

. 1.2.

, , . , , , .. . . , . . . . . , , , , ( , ). () . . - , , , , , , . , ArcGIS, AutoCAD Map, Maplnfo. "", "-". , , . , .

10

, , , , , - . GPS-. 1.2. , . 3 : 2 : . , . . . , . , 2D-, ( 3D-). - . -Addobe Photoshop, Corel PHOTO-PAINT MS Paint . , . , , , , (bitmap). ( ), , . . ? , Addobe Photoshop, , . , , , . . , . , . , , , . , .

11

. . . . , , , -, , - : Adobe Photoshop, Corel PHOTO-PAINT - , . , , . , Adobe Photoshop Corel PHOTO-PAINT, , , . , . , . . , , , . . , , , , , Adobe Illustrator, CorelDRAW Macromedia FreeHand, , . , . . , , . , . , , , (, , ). , , , , , . . - , , . . , .

12

, . , , , . , , , . , , , , WEB-. . 5. 2. 2.1 XVII . . . , . . 2.1.1. . (k1, k2,.... kn), i. (n = 2) (n = 3) . , N-, (m1, m2,..., ) , , ( ) :

fi i- , ki,. : (m1, m2,.... ) (1, k2,..., n ). :

Fi . ( N), . , . :

(ij) - (ki), - (mi ). 13

, .

( ) (n x p): = (m ): = cij

xy- . (, ), '(, ), Dx x Dy , : . 2.1 (1, 2), (5, 7), (6, 9). -

, . , , , , . , , , . () . . 2.1 (3, -4).

. 2.1

14

() Sx x: Sy , ,

S

,

. 2.2 (6, 6) 1/2 X 1/3 . , 1/2 x 1/4 . , ; . 1, . , , . , S S. , Sx=Sy, . , . 2.2 (6, 1) = 30. :

R . . 2.2 , 45. , .

15

. 2.2

,

, ( ) ( ). , . , . , . . . , . (, ) P(W x, W y, W) W0. (, Y, W), x=X/W y=Y/W. W 1, . W z=W ( z = 1) . -, , , , 3x3. :

16

, ' (Dx1, Dy1), " (Dx2 Dy2). (Dx1+Dx2, Dy1+Dy2). , : (Dx1, Dy1) T(Dx2, Dy2)

, (Dx1+Dx2, Dy1+ Dy2). , , T(Dx1, Dy2) T(Dx2, Dy2). .

, , .

: S(Sx1, Sy1)S(Sx2, Sy2)

, . , , : 17

. , R, S . , , . , , Pi. , , () . , Pi, : 1. , Pi . 2. . 3. , i. . 2.3, i(x, ) . (-x1, -y1), (x1, y1) . , , .

, . , i: i , , i.

18

, , , .2.3, 1. 1 , , 2, ( . 2.3). , , (), :

, M1 M2 , , 1 2 ? . , ( . 2.1).

. 2.3 2.1

M1 ( Sx = Sy)

2

19

, 3x3, 4x4. (x, , z) (Wx, Wy, Wz, W), W0. W1, (, , z) W. , , , 1 H2 , H1=cH2 , . , , (.2.4). , , ( ) 90 . , , :

. 2.4. 2.2.

x z

z z x x y

, , , . , z . , , , . :

:

20

, z. z

: 90 [1 0 0 1], , [0 1 0 1] y.

[0 1 0 1]. x

( ) 3x3 Rz, Rx Ry , , . . , , Dx, Dy Dz; S Sx, Sy Sz , . . , . , P1P2 P1P3 (. 2.5) . Pi , P1P2 x, P1P3 yz , . . , . : 1. Pi . 2. P1P2 z. 3. x P1P2 Z. 4. z P1P3 yz. 1. 1 :

21

P1, 2 3

2. . . 2.5 P1P2 1 P1P2 xz. ,

, x- 2 . 3. . . 2.6 P1P2

. 2.5.

2.

,

3

. . z. 4. z. . 2.6 2'" z, 3'" -

3,

, 4 , , . 2.6. 22

,

. 2.6.

. , , (k1, k2,..., kn ) n- . . (1, 2,..., n). (1, 2,..., n) = F(k1, k2,..., kn ) , F . . , :

:

, , , . , , . . , , , . , , (. .2.7).

23

. 2.7.

. 2.8.

() , , . , , . , , ( , , ). . , , , . , (. 2.8) , . , . , , , . 24

. z , . x . , . ( , ). 2.1.2 , . (x,).

, ,..., F . (X, Y) . (X, Y) (, ) :

. , ..... F , , - (x, ), - (X, Y). , F, :

. 1. (. 2. 9).

. 2.9.

:

2.

- (. 2. 10).

25

. 2.10. -

: kx ky . , kx = -1 y. 3. (. 2. 11).

.2.11.

(X, Y) (-).

. : , / . , , , , . : , ,..., . :

26

. . 1. dx, dy, dz:

2.

/ x, y, z.

3. . , , . . x (. 2. 12).

. 2.12. X

(. 2. 13, ).

z (. 2. 13, ).

27

. 2.13. y z

2.2 . . . - , N, . ( ) - , ( ). 2.2.1 . . , . , . ( ). . , , . , . . . . 2.2.2 ( ) . , - : . , ( ) .

. 2.14.

. 28

- , () , . .

29

()

. 2.15.

: (), ( ) , , ( ) - , . . .

30

( )

. 2.16.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

, , , ( V), , , , ( H), , , ( W), ( ), ( ), ( ). YZ :0 0 0 0 PX 010 0 0 010 0 0 01

, , :0 0 0 0 PX 010 0 0 010 p 0 01 , - ;

ZX Y0 0 0 0 PX 0 0 0 0 0 010 0 q 01 , q - Y;

XY Z:

31

0 0 0 0 PX 010 0 0 0 0 0 , R - Z.

0 0 R 1 . - . - . - . , . (), () Z ()

os M 0 sin 0

sin cos cos sin cos 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

cos 0 sin 0

0 1 0 0

sin 0 cos 0

0 0 0 1

1 0 0 0

0 cos sin 0

0 sin cos 0

0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

. 2.17.

. 2.18.

32

(. 2. 26). . 45 . 0. 5, 1.

, , . .

. 2.19.

. , , . . , . , , (. 2. 21).

.2.20. . 2.21. : ,

, . (, , zc). :

33

, k . . 0-0' (. 2.21). (k - ) ctg.

. , ( = 0), tgP = . , , , , . . 2. 22 () . 2.22 (). "".

. 2.21.

)

(

. 2.23.

34

)

(

. 2.24.

, , . , , , .

. 2.25.

35

() , = = 0. , , (, , z) = (0, 0, zk). ( 0 ), . 2. 26. (), , : X/(zk z) = x/(zk z) Y /(zk z) = y/(zk z) , :

.

. 2.26.

:

36

, z ( ). , ( , -), . , z. . {X, , ), (, , z). , . ,

(X, Y, Z) , . ,

:

.

. 2.27. P0 Z = d

37

3. . 3.1 (). (pixel Picture Element) . . , , . . , ( ). (0, 0) . , . ? . . . . dpi (dots per inch) (2.54 ). , , . , , dpi X= dpi Y. . , , EGA ( , , , ). (. 3.2). , , ( ); ().

. 3.1.

( ) , . , 350 000 . . () 1 . - . . , 256 (1 ). (2 ). 16 (65536 ) High Color, 24 (16. 7 . ) True Color. 32, 48 . (. 3.1). 38

256 , 100 dpi. , - , .

. 3.2.

.

. 3.3. 256 , 100 dpi

, (. 3.4).

. 3.4. 8 (256 ), 8

. 3.5. 3.1.

R, 500 300

dP, 0. 14 0. 09

dpi 181 282

. R, (dP), , R (. 3.5). , () . , () dP, . , , ; dpi = 25, 4 / dP []. dpi R (. 3. 1). , , 300 , , 39

, 300 dpi ( 0.085 ). - . 0.5 . 0. 5 200 dpi, 100-120 dpi - ; , 15" 1024x768 , . . 3.2 - . , - , - . . Word 2000. ? , , . . , . , , . , 600x600 dpi (2400x2400 ). . , , , . . (, ) , . , . . . , (. 3.6). , , . . 3.6 . "" , .

40

. 3.6. - - RGB

(. 3.7) , - . .

. 3.7. . 1024 768, 14

(. 3.8). , " ". , - , . , . 240 216 dpi. Windows 240x144 dpi, 120x144 (, - ).

. 3.8. 9- 120 144 dpi

, , (. 3.9). , . ( , ) . , , , . 600 dpi (2400 dpi ) , .

41

. 3.9. - , 600 dpi

(. 3.10). , , . - 600 dpi . dpi . . , . . (-1) .

. 3.10. , , 1440 dpi,

3.3 , . . , . ( 300 dpi) (aliasing) . . , , . . , (), ( ). . 3.11 , .

42

.. 3.11.

antialiasing. , " " , . , . S, , , Sx,

. 3.12 , .

. 3.12.

. , . . . . . , . , , (. 3.13). , . :

, F , , , ( "").

43

. 3.13.

: (imax imin +1) . 3x3, . . , . . , . . . . 3.14 , () 33.

. 3.14.

. . , , , . 2x2 . RGB . , . , . ( ). , . , , . (dpi), , . - , . , 44

. , , . , ( ) ( -) , . , . , . : , . . , , ( ), , , . . , ( ). , , , . . . CMYK- -, - - ( ). - . , . , , . . . , , . . , . , . , () , , , . . . . dithering (, ). . . (. 3.15), 1 :

45

1 2 , . , j 2 RGB .

. 3.15.

. 3.16. , () , . , , . , , , . , .

. 3.16.

. 2x2 (. 3.17). 5 , (1, 2, 3) . (. 3.18).

. 3.17. 2x2

. 3.18. 3x3 10

5x5 26

, , . (1 2), .

S ; S1 S2 , 1 2 , S1+ S2 = S. , , . . , , (. 3.19).

. 3.19.

5x5, 3.18 (), 1 2. C1 (R1 G1 B1 ) = (255, 255, 255), 2 (R2 G2 2) = (0, 0, 0),

46

- . . 1 (R1 G1 1) = (255, 255, 0), 2 (R2 G2 2) = (255, 0, 0), = (255, 204, 0). . , n x n , n2 + 1 . 1 2 1 C2. , 1 2. , n , , n2. , , . () , , . lpi ( dpi). ? pxq , , . , . . . . mxn . , mpxnq . . . . (, ) . (, ). () , . (, ) : () (k, k ). (, ) . . . . , , , , , (i) (i - 1). , 5x5. , . (. 3.20).

47

. 3.20. 5x5

, , ( 3.21).

3.21. 5x5

, . , , , (. 3.22).

3.22. : - , -

, , , . . () (. 3.23).

3.23. - 6x6

. , , . , . , (), . 5x5, - (. 3.24).

3.24. - 5x5

48

, -, (. 3.25).

. 3.25. - 5x5

, , , , , . , ( , , ). , . "'error diffusion" -. (. 3.26).

. 3.26. error-diiffusion -

-. () (X). , . = -. (7/16, 5/16, 3/16, 1/16) ( "error diffusion "). , . (. 3.27).

. 3.27.

"". , , , , 24- 256-. 3.4. . , ( X1, yl - 2, 2) . 49

. , . . x (, 1 2), . . , "< =" . . , , . : ? . , , . , . , . . , . (, ) . , () (RAM). Windows , , . -. , RAM , , . , - , , . , - , . . . . . . . :

=f(y): (. 3. 28).

50

. 3.28. .

. 3.29.

. 1. , . 2. . ( , , 1, 1, 2 2 ?) . 1. . , -. , (, ), . , . 2. . , , "". . , . / . , . . . /. . (11 - 22) = (2, 3 - 8, 6). , (. 3. 30).

51

. 3.30.

(. 3. 31).

. 3.31.

, . 10 , 7. . 60- "" . . : t , . , =(), () , Px(t) Py(t), , (x) . x y :

xi yi - i, , ( ): , , -. , . = 1 ( ) , 1, . 3. 30: m=2 ( , . 3. 32):

52

. 3.32. (m=1)

(m=2)

= 3 ( , , 3.33). , :

. 3.33. (m=3)

(, ) t. 1. , , t. 2. . , . 3. t. . , . (. 3.34).

. 3.34.

, , . , (. 3.35). - . : . , 53

. , , .

. 3.35.

, : , . , . , . . . , . , . , . , . ( , , ), (-). , , (. 3. 36).

. 3.36. -

. 0, 0. . . . , , . , , , . . 3. 37.

54

. 3.37. LineFill

, =f(x) ypa , . () (i, i). . , . , .

. 3.38.

. . , , (1, 1) (2, 2), (. 3. 38). . . . , , y (. 3.39, ). . . , (. 3.39, ). . . . . , . XY .

. 3.39.

. , 55

(. 3.40). .

. 3.40.

. (), yi i , . , , , 0 4, . ( , , , 1, 2, 3 5), , . , {j}. , , . . , . , , ; ymin + 0. 5, ymin + 1. 5,..., ymin - 0. 5. . () . pe pi - pk c () x = xi + (k - )(- i )/(k - i). : ymax, ymin y, , . , n . . , , . , , , N = n . n, np . , ymin -ymax . ymin y, ( ), , , ymin ymax. . , ymin y (. ) , (k n/2). -ym , . , 56

, (N /2), : , . . , . . . , ( ). , , . . , , . S. , mod S < S/2, S/2. S. , , , . . - , , , . . . . , , , . , , , "" . , , , , . , , . , :

, , (, ) . = const. - , . :

57

(, ) . . . , : = random(), (. 3.41). (. 3.42). :

S , , , . , . . , , , . , .

. 3.41.

. 3.42.

. , =f(x,) :

(, ) :

, . (, ) = 0... m - 1, = 0... n - 1 . , (. 3.43).

58

. 3.43.

, . (mod) . 16.

. (X mod 256), X ( 80x86), AL. . , 3D-. , . , . ., . . , . , (, ) (T, T) . : A, ,..., F . , . . 3.44.

. 3.44. (1,2, 3 - )

i = 1, 2, 3. (Ti, yTi ) (i, i ) , ,..., F, .

59

. xTi, i Ti Yi,:

. . , :

,

dtA, dtB detC det

, ; . , , , (1, y1), (2, y2) (3, 3) . . , , " " . , () :

, : detA detB. detC - . . :

D, F.

, det , . () , . . 3.45, .

60

. 3.45.

, . () ( ), . ? ? . , . , . :

, , . , . . . , , , . ( ) , , , . , . , . . 3.46 (). (1-2-3-4) . , . () . : , .

. 3.46.

61

X, Y, (1-2). :

, , , . n : Zk ( ), Zn . : :

: X, , X = + Zb. X . , (X. , ) . , , (3-4). . , - , . . ( ) , . . , . , (, . .) . {aliasing); , , . MIPmaps (MIP . Multum In Parvo ). . , , (. 3.47). 62

. , . x - C-D. y. , , , . MIPmaps. , .

. 3.47.

, . , , . , , . , , . , , . , , , , "" (. 3.48).

. 3.48.

. , . , . , , . , . 3.49, , .

63

. 3.49.

, . , . . (. 3.50).

. 3.50. -

, , . {Bump Mapping). bump- . . , , . , , b- , . , , . , . multitexturing . () . , - . , , , - . , . ( . shade , shade shadow , , , ) , . , , , 64

(, Maya). , , . 2001-2002 . , , (nVidia GeForce3, ATI Radeon 8500), - . , . - . . (vertex shaders) (pixel shaders). , , . T&L (transform and lighting). , , , , , . . . . , , RGB, , . DirectX Graphics : op , , . API DirectX (8. 0 ), OpenGL 2. 0 ( OpenGL 1. 2 1. 3). , , Cg nVidia . 3. 2. 3. 2.

nVidia NV30 16 1024 1024 128 65536 256 16 256

ATI Radeon 9700 16 160 160 128 1024 1024 16

65

3.5 , : ; ; ; ; ; ( ) (); (); . , . , , () . , , ( ) . (Selection) , (), , , . . . . , S it, Windows, . . , . : . . , , . . , . , (). , . , () (. 6.4). . . . . , hotoshop , l IN . . -INT sk, hotoshop Select.

66

( ) , , , . , , . . . , - . , . , , . . , Grayscale , RG L*a*b , Y . . , , (-), . , . . , . -, . , . , . , . , . 256 ( 0 255). , 0 (), (, ). , 255 (), . , (). . , , . . . (), : , , . . : hotosh Freehand sk l -IN. . 67

(th tools) . . () : ; , dobe Illustrator, lDRAW Freehand; ; , (), . , . : - , ; - , . , . , , , , , . . , . . , , . (retouch) , . , , . : , . , ; , () . , . , . : , , , . . (1ning ls) () (). . , , , .

68

(Blur) (Sharpen) . , (, . .) , . - (, ), , . (Smudge) (Sponge) , . , , , , (Stamp) . (Dodge) (Burn) . , . ( ), . . . (Unsharp mask) (EdgeSharpening filters). . . (Blur) (Soften). . (Noise). . (Histogram) ( ). . , , . , . 0 () 255 (), Y , . , , . , , . , ( ), , . . 69

, . , , . (. 3.51) , , : ( ), ( ) . , , , , . (shadows), (midtones) (highlights) , .

. 3.51. , .

, . , . / , / . , , , . , , ( ) / . . - (, ) . . 256. , . ( ) 70

, : (Levels) (Curves); , / (Brightness/Contrast), . (Levels) . Histogram () , . , . , , . . (Input Levels) , . . , 30 , , , , 220 220255. 255 195, .

. 3.52. (Levels)

, , 0 30 () 220 255 (), . (nl) . , , , . , ( ), , , . 1 ( ) , 71

, 1 . . (Output Levels) , . , (), , (). , , 40, , . , , . . (Auto) (Auto Levels). , . 5%. . . (White point) , , - . . , , , . . , (, ), . (Black point) , , - . , . , , , . . . (Curves) (. 3.53) , ( ).

72

. 3.53. (Curves) 45. ,

. , . (curves) , ( ) ( ). , .

. 3.54.

, . ( ), (, ). 45, . () () . RGB- 0 255 , (0). CMYK- 0 100. , , (0). 73

. 45 ( ), , , . , , , . (, ) , . , , . (, , , ) . , , : . ( ). , . , . 3.55. () . , , . , , . (1r balance) . , , , .

. 3.55. .

(Plug-ins) (Effects) (filters plug-ins) , -. 74

. . (, . .) . , . . , (Motion Blur) . , Adobe Photoshop. , l -PAINT , db Photosh. (Plug-ins). . , , . , : ;

. 3.56.

; ; . . , , . , , , . , . . , . . : 75

1. (22). 2. , , . . . , 1 2. . . . , , 1, 1. , - , ( 1, ; 1, ). 1, , . . , , , . , , , . . 1. , . 2. , . (, , ) . , () . 3. : ( (Radius) ); , . . , , . , . . 1. 3. , 1, 0. , (, ) , , . 2. , 128. : 128, 128, 128. , 255, 76

255 255, 0 255. 3. , 1 1 . , , 1 1, . . ? , ( , ), . - . , . (layer) () , . () (, , , ). . , , . . , . , . , . , - ( ), , . , . , (), ( ). 3.6 , , () () . ( , , , ). , . , . , , . , , , , , . . , , , , . - , Photoshop, ( ) ( ). . ( ). , :

77

. , . , , . , , , . (, , ) . . , , . . , (). . , , , - , , . , , . , , MS Paint. , .

78

4. , , , . , , , (. 4.1). , , , -, . , : , , . .

. 4. 1.

, . , , . , . - , . . , . . 4.1 . . , AutoCAD. DXF (Dynamic Exchange Format) . . (CorelTrace 9 Adobe Streamline). PostScript- , , MS Word PageMaker. 79

Windows , , , . , . , , . , (. 4.2), , (, , . .). , , , , .

. 4.3 - 4.4 , .

. 4.2. ( )

. 4.3.

80

. 4.4. TrueType (Unicode) TTF

4.2 : , . ; (), . , , ( , ), . , , , ( , , , ). , . . 4.3 . , . (, CorelDRAW) , . , + + + (. 4.5). 1. , . . 2. . . 4.5 . , : ( ) ( , ). , 81

. , . , ( ), , , . 4.5. , . . . . , , . 4. , , ( ). , , , . . ( ). () , (). . 4.5 .

. 4.5. ; 1) ( + + + ); 2) ( ); (); , ; 5) Shape (); 6) ()

, , . 5. , . 82

. . . , ( ). () (, ), , , . . 4.4 (), . , , . , , , ( ). , . : , , , , , . . (X, Y), . Y = + b. : b. . , , (, X1 2). , , , , . () . . : 2 + a1y2 + 2 + 3 + 4 + a5 = 0. . . , Y X3 (. 10.6) (0, 0). . , . , , : 3 + a1y3 + a2 2 + 32 + 42 + 52 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 = 0. . , . , 83

(. 4.6, ). () , . , , . .

. 4.6. : ;

4.5. () , . , , . . , , 12 6 . , , . () . . . , : , , , (, . .). . , , (. 4.7). ). . , () , (, ) . , . . 4.8 - 4,9 Corel XARA, . 84

.

. 4.7. : 1) (), Corel XARA 2 (Freehand) Alt () () 4 (4pt); 2) () ()

. 4.8. Corel XARA , , . .

. 4.9. Corel XARA

85

70- , , , , ( Bezier). , , . . , . . , Photoshop (path), . (, ), . . . . (smooth) , . , . . , , , , , . . . . , , , . ( ) (line) ( ). , , , . . (, , ) . : ; ( , . 4.10); .

86

. 4.10.

, , ( ) , . , , . , , . () , . : , .. . CorelDRAW , , , , Corel XARA , . . . . : (smooth node); (symmetrical node); (cusp node). , (. 4.11). , ( ). . 87

, . CorelDRAW Bezier ( ) . (, Corel ), .

. 4.11. ,

, , (. 4.12). , , , . , , .

. ( ) . . , , (. 4.13). . , (. 4.14). , , .

. 4.12. .

88

. 4.13. : (1), (2} (3).

. 4.14. ( ? ) (2, 3) Corel KARA 2 Shape Editor ( )

() , , ( ), . , (. 4.5). . . . , , .

89

. 4.15. Swatches () Adobe Illustrator 9

, (). , . , - . , : ; ; . () . . , , . . . () . , , . . . , , , . 4.6. .

90

. , , , . , , , , , . ( ). , . , , ( ), . . , , . 10 = 20, = 30, , . . . , , , . , ( ) , Windows. , . , , , , , , . . , . , , , . (), . , , , . , CorelDRAW , (plug-ins) , Photoshop .

91

5. , , 70-, . fractus . 1975 , , . 1977 The Fractal Geometry of Nature. , 1875-1925 (, , , , ). . . ( ), . , , - . . . , . , , . , , , . , , , . , . , . , . , , . , . , . , . (, , ) . . , , , . , , , , . ( Painter) . , Adobe Photoshop , , , . Painter ( , Art Dabbler) , , , , , Painter .

92

5.1 . . . 1991 . . , , . , , , JPEG, , . 1992 Microsoft - Microsoft Encarta , , , . 7 , 100 , 800 , 7000 . ! , - 650 56 , 1 320 200 MPEG-1, 700 640 480. , , : . , CorelDRAW . PhotoDraw 2000 Microsoft . , . , , . fractus " ". 1975 "The fractal Geometry of Nature" . "" , . , . : k = 0, 1,..., . zk , zk = k + 1k, 0 0 . () , zk 2. 2 + 2. zk z2 = ( + iy) (x + iy) = x2 - 2 + i2xy, i2 = -1. x = ( -2. 2, 1), = ( -1. 2 1. 2). , (. 5.1). .5.1. , , , . :

93

. | zk | > 2 , . , . . . . :

z , z0= X + iy . |x4-1| . , , . , , . . 5.2 .

. 5.2.

, " " IFS (Iterated Functions Systems). , :

Fx Fy , , . . .

. 5.3.

94

, , . , . . . . . . 1, 2. . 3. 2, 1 (. 5.3):

= , . 4. . 1-4 1-3 , < : < 1. 4 :

, 4. 5. 1, 4-5 4-3, 0 < kl < 1. 5

6 7 5, 4 :

-

, 1 -4. . , , . , . , , , k1 , . . , , sin(), cos(), (1 - ) (1 - k1) -. , , : (1, 1, 2, 2, 0). , 0. : (4, 4, 3, 3, num) ; (4, 4, 6, 6, num+l) ; (4, 4, 7, 7, num+1) . . , . , "". 95

, lmin, , lmin = 1. = 2, = 86, = 0. 14, k1 = 0. 3 (. 5.4).

. 5.4

IFS . . : , , . ( ) . . FIF (Fractal Image Format) Iterated Systems. 5.2 1997 . (Adobe, Macromedia, Autodeck, Corel, Microsoft) , . MetaCreations Inc, , (2D) (3D). . MetaTools , - (plug-ins) (Kai's Power Tools) (Vector Effects), (Studio Effects) Bryce. Fractal Design Natural Media, . , ( ) Painter Oil ( ) . . . , , . , Fractal Designer Painter, Expression Kay Dream Studio . 96

, ( ) eta Creations. . Fractal Design Painter - . Adobe Photoshop. : , , , . Fractal Desing Painter - , . , . Fractal Design Expression . , CorelDRAW Adobe Illustrator, . , . , Fractal Design, , . , .

97

6. . 6.1 , . , ?

. 6.1.

, (. 6.1): ; ; ( ). . . . . , : (cones) (staves). . , . , . , : , . - . ? , ? . 6.1.1 , . , , . , . , , 98

. 6.2.

, , , , , . , , , (. 6.2). , . , . . , , . , . 6.1.2 , , . , , . . , . , , , 300000 /. . , ( , 108), , . : , . (, , , .

99

. 6.3.

( /) ( -). , . , , . 6.1.3 , , , . , . , . . . , . (, 400 - 450 ) ( -). , (, ) ( ). , . (, ) , . , : ; . ( ) : , ( ). . , ( ), , ( ). ( ) . , . , , - . , , , , . , ? , . , . . (. 6.4). 100

, ( ). , . , .

. 6.4. , .

. , . . , . , . , , - . , . , , . . 6.1.4 , , , (. 6.5). , . .

. 6.5. : 1 - , ; 2 -

101

(), -9 (10 ). 400 700 , ( 104 10-14 ). 380 780 . , 400-700 , . , , , . , , . : () . , , : . ( ) . , , , , , , . , , . , . , : , , , . . . . , , . , Lab. ( ) b , L . 6.1.5 . . , . , , , , (, ) , . , , , . , . - . . 102

1666 . . , . . . ( ) . , , , . , . . , . , , , , , . ? . . , , , . , , . (. 6.6).

. 6.6.

, , . , , , , , . , . , . , . , ( ). , . , 1678 , , , .

. 6.7.

. - - , . , , . , , ( , ). - . . 103

380-400 () 700780 (). . , . , . , , - . 6.2 6.2.1 - D50, D65, D93, , , , F2 F8 ( ). , 1931 . (CIE): 2854, ; , 4800; - 6500; D65 , 6500 ( , , D50 5000). . 6.2.2 , , (. 6.8). , . , , .

. 6.8.

, . . 104

, , , . . , (; . ). . , , . (), . . . . ? - , . , 1000 . ( ). . , . , 400-500 ( ), 500 600 ( ) 600 700 ( ). , , . , , , . , , .

. 6.9.

, , , . , .

105

. 6.9, . , , . , . , , . . (. 6.10). .6.10 ( ). , . , . , , , .

. 6.10. : 1- , 2 -

555 . V . , , (. 6.11). ( 500 555 ), . . , . , , .

106

. 6.11.

. , , . , 71,5% , 21 % 7,2% . , , , : = 0,715160 + 0,212671 + 0,072169 . . NTSC : = 0,59 + J + 0,11 . . . 6.12 . , . 555 ( ). , .

. 6.12.

107

, , . (, ) ( ), ( ). , . ( ) . 6.3 , , . , . . . . . , . , , . ( ), , . : 1. . 2. (), . - DIC, DuPont, FOCOLTONE, PANTO-NE, TOYO TRUMATCH, , . PANTONE, . DIC TOYO . , , . : ; , ; ; . . . . 1. . . , , . 2. . , . . 108

3. . . . , , ( ""), - . . , , . , . . , , , . -, - . , , , . -, . , . ( ), , . , . , , , . , . (. 6.13).

. 6.13. : - : -

, . 6.13 (a), , - , . ( ) cooe ()? , . , . , , . , " . , , . . . 1853 . 1. - , . , - . , () , : =11+ 22 + 33, 109

1, 2 ,3 - , - , 1, 2 3 , 1, 2, 3 , ( ) . , , . , . 2. , , . 3. . , , ( ) . , , , . . 6.4 , , - . : CMY; CMYK; RGB; HSB; HLS; Lab; YIQ; YCC. : (RGB), ; (CMY, CMYK), ( ); (HSB, HLS, Lab, YCC), . , , . , , . (Red), (Green) (Blue). . 6.4.1 . , . , , (Red), (Green) (Blue) . : (Cyan), (Magenta) (Yellow). , . 110

, . , . . 6.14 , . , (1, 2); (3, 4); (2,4). , , .

. 6.14. - .

, , , , . RGB- , , . , , , . , RGB-, , . .

111

. 6.15. RGB- : 1 - ; 2 - Corel PHOTO-PAINT

. 6.16. .

RGB - RGB . (1773-1829) , . . , (. 6.16). . . , , , . , (1831-1879) , RGB. , . : = rR + g G + b B , r, g b . , , . (Red), (Green) (Blue). . r, g b , . , R , G (. 6.17). , . , g b. r=g =b . , 112

RGB, . , , , r + g + b = 1. , : 630, 528 457 .

. 6.17.

RGB . (CIE Commision International de VEclairage) 1931 , R, G . : R 700 , G 546.1 , 435.8 . . . . RGB , . . , , R,G, B , ,

.. 6.18. RGB

LR :L G :LB =1:4,5907:0,0601 , . . , , R, G , . 6.18. - (0,0,0). . . - (1,1,1). , , : R1=G1=B1. - . , (r ,g ,b) (k=0..1...1), (kr, kg, kb) , . . = rR + gG + bB r, g b : 113

r' =

r

r , r' = g b r

r , r' = g b r

r , g b

=r' R + g' G + b' B. (r', g', b'), r' + g' + b' =1. , . (r' , g', b'), , . , RGB. , . (.6.19). , r', g', b' , , R,G,B. , ? R,G B. , , : ( )+r( )R=g( )G+b( )B ,

. 6.19. RGB

. , (.6.20). , - 380 780 - ( ), . , , , - . r' ,g' ,b' , RGB. 114

. 6.20. RGB

, RGB - . , , - . , , RGB. , RGB - , . . , RGB, - . , , - , . , - , . , , .. , . RGB- ? RGB , (. 3.6, /). , , . , . , . , , (pixel pixture element). . , , , , RGB- . (RGB- ) , . RGB-.

115

, , RGB- (). , . , , , ,

. 6.21. 1 - ; 2 - , .

. . 6.22 24 , 256 256 256 = 16,7 . . (, , , CorelDRAW 9, Corel Photo-Paint 9, Photoshop 5.5) 8 16- , 65 536 .

. 6.22. RGB - 256 - (255) ,

116

. 6.23 ( 16,7 .) . , , , . , .

. 6.23. . 6 16,7 . R, G B rgb.

RGB- RGB , : , , RGB , . , . , RGB-, R = 98, G = 127 = 201, , . . , . . , RGB- , . , , , . ( ) RGB- . (color gamut) , ( ). , ( !). , , , . , , , RGB- 117

, . sRGB RGB- , , , RGB- . , RGB- , . - . RGB- . . , Photoshop 5 , sRGB ( standard RGB RGB). Microsoft HP VGA . , 1, , . . ( ) ( ICC 1:1998-09 GIF). RGB- , Adobe Systems . , Photoshop 5.0 RGB-, ICC-, sRGB. 6.4.2 , , . RGB- . CMY, (. 6.24). ( RGB-) . , .

. 6.24. CMY

118

. , , , , . : (Cyan), (Magenta) (Yellow) . , , 2, . , . , (, , ) (, , ) : + = ; + = ; + = ; + + = ; + + = . , , ? (-), . , . , , , . . : , , . , . CMY , . , , . : (Cyan), (Magenta) (Yellow) (.6.25).

119

. 6.25. CMY - () )

, . . . - , , , . . - , (black). CMYK, , CMY. 6.1 RGB CMY. 6.1. RGB CMY

- R 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1

RGB G 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 B 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 C 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0

CMY M 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 Y 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0

CMY RBG: r 1 cg b 1 1 m y

, 0 1. . CMY CMYK : CMY CMYK. , - , (color upgrade). () : (Cyan), (Magenta) (Yellow). . . , . , -. CMY . . . 0 100 %.

120

CMYK ( Black) , , Black (), Blue (). Key color ( ). CMYK CMYK- , RGB-: ; . CMYK- . - , RGB. , , RGB-. , . , , , . , . , CMYK RGB- (. 6.26). , , , , , .

. 6.26. RGB CMYK -

, , , (gamut alarm) CMYK (. 6.26). , RGB HSB, CMYK (. 6.27).

121

. 6.27. , , . .

RGB- CMYK- . : . . . CMYK-. CMS (color management systems). , , . CMYK-. , , , . CMYK , , , , CMYK- - . , , , . , , . CMYK- .

HiFi Color HiFi Color. CMYK. Pantone. PANTONE HEXACHROME() Colors CorelDRAW 7. CMYK, : (G) (). . Pantone . , HiFi Color3000 LinoTipe-Hell , ( RGB- CMYK-).

(, ) , , , (). (CMYK) , . 122

( ). (CMYK) . . Pantone, TRUMATCH Focoltone. . . 6.28 CMYK Pantone.

. 6.28. CMYK- HiFi Color .

6.4.3 , . , , , . , RGB CMYK . , , . ( ) . . : ; , . , , HSV-. HSI, HSB, HSL YUV. , , , : ( ) . HSB HSB (Hue , Saturation , Brightness ) HSL . . . HSB- (. 6.29): (); (S); ().

123

. 6.29. , .

HSB- . , , . (hue) . ( ) , , . 0 360 (. 6.30). 0, -120 240. . . , () , , . , . , . ( ), , . . , , 450 , , , ( 240). - , ( ). , , . .

124

. 6.30.

, ? - , , , , , . , , , , ? (saturation) (brightness). , . . , ( ), . 0% () 100% ( ). , , . (), . , . , - . , , . 0%, - ( ). , , 536 . , , . , . () , . , . 125

, . ( ) , , , . , (100%) (0%) . () , . ( ). (). . , , , . , , . , . , , . , . , , . . , , , . , , . 0% () 100% (). , . , . . , () . , , , , . . , , , . () , , . : - -, , . . . . . , , , -, -, - , . HSB- HSL- brightness () lightness ().

126

HSB- HSB RGB CMYK . , . , , HSB-. , RGB-, , . HSB- RGB- CMYK- : . , . . , , . , 0. , , . , . RGB- , . , , , . 6.4.4 , . , , , . , : , , . . , , . , , . : ( ) , . ( ). .

127

(), . . , . . , , , . , , , . (, , ) TRUMATCH Pantone, Colorfinder Process Color Guide (. 6.31).

. 6.31. TRUMATCH Pantone

, CMYK- , ( ). CMYK-, . , , , , . , .

128

. 6.32. Pantone.

, , (. 6.33).

. 6.33. Pantone.

, CorelDRAW, . . , . . RGB , , 0 1, 0 - . True Color, , 256 : R - 0 ... 255, G = 0 ... 255, = 0 ... 255. 256x256x256 = 16.7 . (224). . True Color () 32 (, , API Windows): = 00000000 bbbbbbbb gggggggg rrrrrrrr.

129

( ) , . , , ( ). , . , , , , , , ; . . , , . . . . , , 256- VGA. . , , , . . 6.4.5 , , : . ( ) , . (). ( ) . (, , ), . . , , RGB . , (, ). . , CMYK. , , CMYK, . , . 130

, . , , . , , ( ). , , . , , . , . . , () . PANTONE PANTONE . . PANTONE , . PANTONE , , , , PANTONE Hexachrome. . , CorelDRAW PAN-TONE. . PANTONE Hexachrome, . PANTONE . PANTONE: PANTONE MATCHING SYSTEM Coated; PANTONE MATCHING SYSTEM Uncoated; PANTONE Hexachrome Coated; PANTONE Hexachrome Uncoated; PANTONE Metallic Colors; PANTONE Pastel Colors Coated; PANTONE Pastel Colors Uncoated. 10 CMYK. . : PANTONE MATCHING SYSTEM CMYK . , - . Pantone Matching System, 131

. . , , PMS 3258 - . , Pantone , , . , . , PMS, CMYK , () . CMYK-, Pantone . ( ), CMYK. , () . , (CMYK) . , , , , Pantone CMYK - , . , , . FOCOLTONE FOCOLTONE CMYK. . , . FOCOLTONE , 10% . . TRUMATCH TRUMATCH 2000 , . Trumatch (CEPS). CMYK, . : ( ), ( ) , , ( ). , , . TRU MATCH - , Adobe, Corel, Macromedia Quark. SpectraMasf SpectraMaster DuPont . 2400 Lab. RGB- CMYK-, CMYK-. DIC TOYO 88 , . 132

. DIC (DIC Color Guide, DIC Color Guide Part II DIC Traditional Colors of Japan) DIC. Corel PHOTO-PAINT Corel CMYK. TOYO 88 TOYO. RGB-, CMYK-. Lab. . , CorelDRAW () Custom Palettes ( ). . (rAutunmn.cpl), (rFoliage.cpl), (rLove.cpl), , , , , . , , , . , . , , . 6.4.6 . RGB, CMYK Lab . . ( ) Adobe Photoshop Corel PHOTO-PAINT. - , (bitmap art), . - : (. 6.34). 1 . , , , . , : . : .

133

. 6.34. 1-

- , - , - . . Line Art () - , . , , . Threshold (). , , . . , , . Ordered () . . Cardinality-Distribution . Halftone () , , , , , , , . Halftone . , . , , Screen type ( ). 134

Grayscale ( ) Grayscale ( ) . 8 , . , , - , : , , 256 , . , , , , 2 . 4- 24, 16 . 8- 28, 256 . . () , 256 . , Corel PHOTO-PAINT , Adobe Photoshop -. , , . , , . RGB Color , . , 256 , , . , , . , Adobe Photoshop Corel PHOTO-PAINT, 8- 16- , 65 536 . - . - - . . Duotone () 8- , 256 . Grayscale, ( ). 256 (Monotone, ), (Duotone, ), (Tritone, ) (Quadtone, ) .

135

. , - , , . . , . . , - . RGB Color RGB-. , 24 /. 16,7 . RGB (true color), 16 , , . , , , . 8- , . : ( -) . . . , RGB- (Red), (Green) (Blue) . () (255), .

. 6.35. .

, , 136

. 8- 256 . () , 256 , 16,7 . (2563). . , . , , . , RGB- BrightnessContrast-Intensity (--) .

137

7. , ( "D-"). , , , . . 7.1 . . 7.1.1. . . , z = f(x, ). F(x, , z) = 0. . (x, , z):

s t , , Fx, Fy, Fz . , , . , , . . : z =

R2

x2

y2

: x2 + y2 + z2 - R2=0. : x = R sins cost, y = R sins sint, z = R coss. . - , . . , , , . . ? , , . . x(s,t ) s t:

138

y(s, t), z(s,t). aij , . . :m n i C m s i (1 s) m i C nj t j (1 s) n j Pij i 0 j 0

P(s,t) =

i i j -, 0s 1 , 0 t 1 , m , :

C nj

b Ca

a! b!(a b)!

= 3, = 3. i 16 - i j (. 7.1); m C nj 1,3, 3, 1 i , j = 0,1,2,3. , , . : (, ) , ; . : , , ; . , , .

. 7.1.

139

7.1.2 : , (), , , (. 7.2). "" (vertex) , . (x,y,z). . , , . .

. 7.2. -

. , , . . . ( " "). . , , . . , . . , .

. 7.3.

.

140

. 7.4.

. , . - ( ). ( ++) , . , (x, , z), . . , : 1 = 6 4 3 x P P , . 24 . . , .

. 7.5.

. . (. 7.5), (. 7.6).

. 7.6.

: 2 = 8 x 3 x P +6 x 4 x P P , P . . (. 7.7). . , , . "- " . : 3 = 8 x 3 x P +12 x 2 x P . +6 x4 x P - , P . - 141

. 7.7.

. 7.8. -

7.1.3 . . 2D , . (.7.9)

. 7.9.

, . , , , . . , , , , , . . (. 7.10). . , . , (computed tomography) , . , , . , . : ; 142

; . , .

. 7.10. .

: , . , 256x256x256 , 16 ; , ; ; , . 7.1.4 (. 7.11). (i,j) zi,j. (i,j) (,). dx dy . , (, ), .

. 7.11.

143

. 7.12. (x, y, z)

. , , z=f(xy). , , . . , . , , , . . , . (, ). z. 2 ( 7.12). i j :

][ , , . , , . .

, xj+1 - xj = dx, :

z, :

:

dy : 1.

z = z + (y yi)

ZB ZA

144

2. . : 1. , , 2. , 3. , . , . 7.1.5 . {(0, 0, z0), (1, 1, z1), ..., (n-1, n-1, zn-1)} . } , , - . . , . , . , . , .

. 7.13.

, . , . . , , - (, ) z. , , (x,y). , , . . , . (. 7.13). . , , . , . , . . . (. 7.14).

145

c , , , . , . , . , , .. . . . : TIN (Triangulated Irregular Network) , , , . , , ( ), .

. 7.14.

. , , (. 7.15). ( ""). , , . , . , , . , . , , . . , . , , , - -. . . , , .

146

. 7.15 : ; ; ; ( )

. , , . ( , ). . : , ; , , , , . : ; . 7.2. - . , , , - . : 1. 2. 3. , , , , . , , . . , z=f(x,y) ( ) ,

147

. . , , . . , , . , , , . . 7.2.1 , , . , , , . . . ( ), . 7.2.2 . : , , Z- .. . . , , (. 7.16). , . , z=f(x,y).

. 7.16. ? .

. , (z-). , P. , Q P. 1. P Q - Ox? - Oy? 148

2. ? 3. P , Q, ()? 4. (2), .. Q , P, ()?

. 7.17. .

, , , , P , . 3. 4. . , , . . , , , . , . , z=f(x,y). . Z=f(x, y), . . P(x, y, z) [(p,e1), (p, e2)] , e1= (cos, sin, 0) e2= (sin, sinq, - cos sinq, cosq), : e3= (sin cosq, - cos - cosq, sinq), [0, 2], q[-/2, /2], - , =1 , =2, .. 1 y max )

, . , 1 (. ) n (Xn , Yn). , . F -, , : 0, -1, 1,

154

8. : , (). : , , , .. . 8.1 , - , . 8.1.1 , , . . . , (. 8.1).

. 8.1.

, - , . . . . , , , : , . , 0.5 . , , . , , . . , 90 .

155

. 8.2. p

, , , , . . , . , , , (cosa) . 1 1000 . : Is = I cos p , I - . . , , . , , , , . , : Id = I cos , I . , , , . , . :

Kd . Kd 0 1, Kd + = 1. . , , (. 8.3).

156

. 8.3.

: I = IaKa + IdKd + IsKs = IaKa + I (Kd cos +Ks cos p ) Ia - , . , ,

R - , F(R) . . . , :

8.1.2 . , , , , . . . , , , . ,

:

157

- . . , (. 8.4). , . , , 1-2 1-3. -. -, , 1, . :

. 8.4.

-

(1-2) , (1-3) , . 8.4. , N. (', ', ')

. , . , , (N).

158

, , , , . . . . -, . S. - S N .

S N , |S|*|N| = 1. , . -. , Z , Z -

. , - S, , - N. . - . R. , . 8.5.

. 8.5. R1, S1 N1

159

R1, S1, N1. , , R1 + S1 = N1, N1 , y . N1 2cos . N1 N1,

:

cos . N S:

R1:

, , , .. R = S R1 , :

. R:

. K -, . :

160

S, N R ( R ). 8.2 , . , , , . , . . , , , . , , . . . . (. 8.6).

. 8.6.

. , . ()

(, , ) . (. 8.7).

. 8.7.

161

I (X, ) ,

I1 I2

8.3 , , . . . . . . () . , , . , (. 8.8). . .

162

. 8.8.

, . . . . , ( ), , , . 8.4. , . , , , , . . , . . , . - DOT3. , (. 8.9). , ? , , . , .

. 8.9. DOT3 Bump Mapping

163

24- RGB UVN. UVN (. 8.10).

. 8.10.

UVN U N , T YT, N . L. , , , , L Nbump: = ( ) x DOT3(L, Nbump) D (bot product) ( D ing). , L Nbump . Nbump , L ( ). , L UVN. . . , , ( ). 1, 2. , n1sin 1 = n2 sin 2 164

n1 n2 .

. 8.11.

. 8.11 . (, ). , 1 4, 2 3. , . . , . , , , , . . (, ). , . 1.00029, 1.33, : 1.52 ( ), 1.65 ( ). , , . (n1/2), . , . , . , . 8.5 (Ray Tracing) . . , , , .

165

. 8.12. : , - , , , , - ,

? -, , . , , . , : ; ; .

. 8.13. , -

. , , , . ( ) (, , ). ( ) (), (), -. () . . , (. 8.12 8.14). , . , . , . , . 8.13. 166

, , . , , , , . , () , , .

. 8.14. , -

. , , , , . , , , , . , , . , () . . , ( ). , , . . ( , , ). , ( ) . , , , , . , , , . (, ), , . , . , . , , . , 167

. , . , , .

. 8.15.

. . , . , , . . . . , , ? , . - (, , ), , , . , , . . 80- , - . , ' . , . , . , . . () (. 8.15). . , . , , .

168

. 8.16. ,

( ), , , , . . , ? , . . . " "? , , . , , : . " ". , . ( , ), , , , . , , . , , . , , , . , . , , (. 8.16). , , , , , . , , . , . , , , . , , , . , . . , , 169

, , , , ? , . . , , . . 1. , . , ( ). 2. . 3. , . (reflection) , . r . (Specular) . , (r). , . . 4. . . , , , , . . 5. (15() . , I . 6. , , (bient). 7. , , . I( ) = KaIa( )C( ) + KdId( )C( ) + KsIs( ) + KrIr( ) + KtIt( ) - , () - , , Kd, Ks, Kr t , , , , , Ia - , Id - , , Is - , , Ir - , , It - , . (1) . .

170

Id =i

I i ( ) cos

i

Ii() i-ro , i i-vi . : I i ( ) cos p i Id =i

- ( ), i ( ) '- . (Ir), (It), , , . - d d - , , , . , . , , . , , , , -. . . , , , , . . . , , . , , , , , . , , , . . , , (. 8.17). . , Y . . . , , ( ), .

171

. 8.17. , : - ,

. , , , . . . , , . , . . 1. , . . . 2. . ( ), . , , . 3. ( ) , . 4. , () (). 5. , , . 1. 2. . .

172

8.6 . , . , - . , : "" "". . "" , "" ' , . "" ( ) . " ", , , . , ( ) - (). , "" , , : . , : , (1825 .) (1834 .). , , . . XX ( ), . . : ( ) , , - tween ). , . , Blend (), . , Macromedia Flash. Flash . motion tween ( ) shape tween ( ). , , , , . (motion path), (easy in/easy out). : 2D - D - . , , 2D- D- . 2D- , . , . 173

, . . . 2D- . , , , , . 3D-. D-. , , 20-, D-. . - ( ), , ( ) . . , , , . & D- - tweening - ( ). , , 2D- D-. . () (, , ). , , . ( , , , . .). , () . . , , , , . (FFD free-form deformation), . , - , , . , - , . , , , , . , , , . -, , , . . 174

, , ( ). " . ( , , , . .). , . . "" , ( ) , . , , , , . " " . , , , , , . () ( , ). , , , , ( ). , "" . (, , . .), . . , , . , , (tweening) . , ( ). , ( ), (, ). ( metamorphosing ). () () . , , , . , . , , , . , , 175

. - . . : , , . . "" , . , "" (bones), - "" (skeleton). , . (. 8.18). - . . 90 . . . . , . . 8.18 .

. 8.18.

. , , - , , , , (. 8.19).

176

() ( . 8.19 ). i- : (li) . , , . , . , - . . . , (i).

. 8.19.

, , . (. 8.20). (0, 0, z0) ( 0 ). (1) ( ). , : = R1 T1 R2 2 2, 2 , (2, y2, z2), , R1 R2 1 2, 1 T2 z . . = * P n , , , . : i = 1,2, , n, Mi = Mi-1 x Ri x Ti, M1 = R1 x T1. 177

. 8.20. .

( ) , , , . , i. , . , . (, , ..), ( , . .). . , , . ( / ). , , (root) , . , . , . , . , , , . ( vertex blending). vertex skinning . vertex skinning , ( , , ) , , . , . , skinning matrices. . , , 178

. ( ) , , , . , V vertex blending : V= V1 x k + V2 x (1-k), V1 , V2 , k 0 1. vertex skinning - vertex blending , (1,2): V = V1 x M1 x k + V2 x M2 x (1-k). ATI (matrix skinning) RADEON. , .. "" , . - , , ( ). . , . - , , . , , . : , , ; ( ) ; -, . . - , . , , , . , . (Forward Kinematics) , . . (, ) ( ), , -. , , , , . -, . () (Inverse Kinematics) , , . , . ( 179

), (, , ..) . , : , , , .. , , ( ) . . 8.21 , .

. 8.21. : , -

. . , , , , . , () . , . . . , , , .. , , , . (particle systems). , "" : , , . . (particles) ( , , ). , , - , , , , , .. , RealSoft OY 3D RealSoft 4D : 1D, 2D, 3D, NURBS (NURBS Non Uniform Rational B-Spline - ), . 180

, , , . , . , , , .. , (, , ) . , , . , RealSoft 4D Envelope System , . , . NURBS 4D- , . (channel animation) - (). , , , . , , , ( ) -, , . , , . , . real tim e performance animation, () (Motion Capture), , . . , . , . , , . .

181

9. : , , /, . , . , , Unix, - Windows. . 3D . 1980 2005 . 2 . 9.1 (3D , ) ( /, ). : 32/64- (); / ; , Z-; 32- ; (FDDI, Ethernet Token Ring); (IPI, SCSI); 16 256 ; / (VME, EISA, MCA) ; ; , , ; Unix, X Window, NFS, PHIGS, GKS, C, Fortran, TCP-IP, , . 9.2

. 9.1.

BitBlt ; - ; , , . 9.3 1) , - , . .

182

(Intel, i82786); 2) - (), (National Smiconductor, DP 85xx); 3) - , (Texas Instruments, TMS 34010, TMS 34020 Intel, i860). 9.4 i82786

. 9.2. i82786

: Intel, , . 22- - 4 , 16- , - 10 , - 25 , - 25 . /, : 6404808 102410242, - 40964096 : , , , , . , . . -. - 1/16 .

183

. 9.3.

9.5 () , . , AGCS 85xx (Advanced Graphics Chip Set) National Semiconductor : DP-8500 - (RGP - Raster Graphics Processor), DP-8510 (BPU - BitBlt Processing Unit), DP-8512 - (VCG Video Clock Generator), DP-8515 - (VSR - Video Shift Register).

184

. 9.4. AGCS 85xx

9.6 DP-8500

. 9.5. DP-8500

: 20 , 100 , 10 160 /, , 28 , 16 , , 16 , 16 , , , , 185

, , , . 9.7 . : 1. . , , . 2. "" , ( , , , ..) .. , , , (endpoint shape). 3. , , . . . 4. , . (, / .) - , . RISC i860 : 50 ; - 40 MIPS 80 MFLOPS; - 8, 16 32- ; ; 64- ; - 8/16/32 ; 3D ; Z-; - 50000 /; 500 000 /.

186

. 9.6 . RISC

9.8 , , , . : (Silicon Graphics); , (Stardent); () Silicon Graphics (James Clark) 1981 . , 3D . . 1982 . Silicon Graphics, 1984 . . . 1988 . SG RISC- MIPS.

. 9.7 . Silicon Graphics

187

106 Z- . - 20106 ./. : R, G, B - 8 , Z-, R, G, B -, , ( , / ).

. 9.8. RISC- MIPS.

9.9 () , ( , ..). , . GS2000 Stardent.

188

. 9.9.

VFP (600 K 3D ), . RP 80 /. (600 K 3D /, 10 160 K 100 c Z-).

189

10. , , , . . , , " ". . -, - , , , ..; -, - , , . , . , , . 10.1 NGP (Network graphics rotocol) ARPA - . . 10.1

. 10.1.

, , , . / , . - . , , , - . : . , (, , ). . , . , , , . 190

, , , (/), , , : 1) , , ; 2) , "" . , p . . , . 10.2 . 1974 . GSPC /SIGGRAPH. 1975 . - DIN-NI/UA-5.9. 1977 . (ISO) TC97/SC5/WG2 " " . (), WG 5.2 IFIP 1976 . . , - , ( ), , - , . : ; ; ; . , , (. 10.2).

. 10.2.

(. 10.3): 1. . - , , () . . 191

2. . , , .. , , , 0.0 1.0. 3. . ( ), , , . 4. . 3D 2D . , 2D 3D , . , , . - , . 5. . - . .

.10.3.

. 10.4. , . - IGES . - (GKS) . . - (CGI) /, . -.

192

. 10.4.

ISO, IEC ISO (International Organization for Standartization) IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission). 1987 . (JTC1) ISO/IEC . 24- (ISO/IEC JTC1/SC24). 1988 . . : 1. GKS (Graphical Kernel System) - 2D . 2. GKS-3D (Graphical Kernel System for 3 Dimensions) - GKS 3D. 3. PHIGS (Programmer's Hierarchical Interactive Graphics System) - 3D GKS-3D, GKS-3D, , , . PHIGS , , . 4. (Language bindings) - . 5. CGM (Computer Graphics Metafile) - - . , . 6. CGI (Computer Graphics Interafce) - - - . 7. CGRM (Computer Graphics Reference Model) - , . 8. - , , escape- ( ) . 9. - : , , . 24- 5 (WG): 193

WG1: . - CGRM - . WG2: . . WG3: . , . WG4: . . WG5: , . . 10.3 . 10.4 , : , .. ( ) - Core System, GKS, GKS-3D, PMIG, PHIGS, PHIGS+ .. ( ) - IGES, CGM . , , , - - - CGM . Core-System CORE-SYSTEM (GSPC-77) , . 10.5. , CORE : ; ; - , , , ; , ; , ; . : ; ; (, , ..) (, , ..); ; , , , , ; . 1979 . CORE-SYSTEM (GSPC79) . , ( ) . 266 , , .

194

. 10.5. , CORE-SYSTEM

, , , , . - , , . -. : , , , ; - , . : , .. ; - , .. ; - , . , , , , . : 2D 2D ; 3D - 2D 3D . GSPC . GKS (Graphical Kernel System) GKS. , , . 10.6. 1979 . GKS . GKS , CORE-SYSTEM, . , /, . : ; , ; , , , ; , , .. ; , 195

- , , ; . , , . - . , GKS /, CORE. GKS CORE, (; ; ; , "" , , , ; , ; , ). CORE GKS , . GKS 2 . - CORE, , . - . , . , () , , GKS, CORE, , / . GKS CORE, GKS - - (). , GKS .

. 10.6. , GKS

GKS, CORE, . . : 0: . . , . . - . - . 196

1: . 0. . . . . / . / . ( ). . 2: - . 1. . : A: . B: . , (request). C: . B. (event sample). 1985 . GKS . 1988 . GKS c Fortran, Pascal, Ada, C . GKS-3D (Graphical Kernel System for Three Dimensions) GKS-3D GKS 3D : (9 ); ); GKS GKS-3D, .. 2D , GKS, 3D - . 1988 . GKS-3D . 1988 1990 . ISO 8806 GKS-3D . 1991 . . PHIGS (Programmer's Hierarchical Interactive Graphics System) ( , , , , ..). GKS GKS-3D , , / . PHIGS , . PHIGS , GKS-3D "annotation text relative" . PHIGS GKS , PHIGS -

197

(CSS - Centralized Structure Store) . . CSS. . 9 : 10.1. CSS

; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; . .. . " " , . "" , . . " " . " " . . PHIGS GKS-3D " " (Execute Structure), . , , . , " ". . , . , , . PHIGS , GKS, , , , . PHIGS+ PHIGS+ - PHIGS, , , ( ), . 1-3 PHIGS 4 . " ", .

198

" ". , ( ) ( ). , , . CGI (Computer Graphics Interface) ISO - ( ) (). ( ANSI) . CGI - : , , , , , . CGI ( ) : , , , . CGI . CGI . , , . . 10.4 : - , - , , 10.4.1 - - , . . . , . - . , 199

. TEKTRONIX, REGIS HPGL. . TEKTRONIX , . TEKTRONIX' . (, VTERM, ST240, TEEMTALK) IBM PC. TEKTRONIX, 4010/12/14 41, 42, 43. 4010/12/14 . TEKTRONIX 41XX - , (hardcopy, , ). ( - Esc), . REGIS VT (240 ). LabTam . REGIS IBM PC (VTERM, ST240). REGIS TEKTRONIX. , , , , , , . HP-GL HP-GL ( Graphic Language) Hewlett Packard 1976 . , . HP-GL/2. , . 88 , 9 . 5 55 , . 3 33 . , , . 10.4.2 , . . : 1. - .

200

2. , , . . , (). PostScript PostScript , Adobe , - . PostScript - . , , , . PostScript' , . ( ) PostScript . , PostScript, . . - , (, ). , . - , , , (, ). . , , . (, , ) LIFO. : ; , , ; (, , , ..); , , , . PostScript "-" , . 201

, PostScript, Xerox ( Interpress) Imagen ( DDL). PostScript Sun Microsystems NEWS (the Network extensible Window System) . PCL Printer Communication Language (PCL) Hewlett-Packard . PCL5 64 , 10 . Esc ( 01BH) . , PCL, , , PostScript, . 10.4.3 - - . , ( ) . , . - NAPLPS, GKSM, CGM WMF - Microsoft . NAPLPS - North American Presentation Level Protocol Syntax VIDEOTEX ( - SET). : - , . , 7- 8- ASCII. , . GKSM - Graphical Kernel System Metafile de-facto GKS ( GKS). GKS . , , GKS. GKSM- ( GKS) , , ( 5), 202

. ESCAPE- ( ) . GKSM , (, ) NAPLPS CGM. CGM - Computer Graphics Metafile ISO . CGI (Computer Graphics Interface), . CGM . CGM - , . ( NAPLPS) . . . . DXF AutoCad. - , ( ) . , Autocad. WMF - Windows Metafile Format Windows Microsoft . WMF - , , , , . GDI (Graphical Device Interface) . - , (placeable) (clipboard). . Windows . - 2- , 3D . , CGM 3D . ,

203

(, ).

10.4.4 - - . ( ), , . . , , , ( ) . , , , .. , (