古代日本語古代日本語

A “Brief” LessonA “Brief” Lesson

By:By:Ding Ding ZhengDing Ding ZhengAdam SolomonAdam SolomonDaniel BrunerDaniel BrunerWilliam SmithWilliam Smith

奈良時代奈良時代 Began in 710Began in 710

Capital moved about 20 km north to Capital moved about 20 km north to 平城京（へ平城京（へいじょうきょう） いじょうきょう） from from 藤原京（ふじわら藤原京（ふじわらきょう）きょう）

Ended in 794Ended in 794 Temporary move to Temporary move to 長岡京（ながおかきょう） 長岡京（ながおかきょう）

in modern day in modern day 京都府京都府 (( きょうとふ） きょうとふ） in 784in 784 Capital moved to Capital moved to 平安京（へいあんきょう） 平安京（へいあんきょう）

in 794, beginning the in 794, beginning the 平安時代平安時代

奈良時代奈良時代 PoliticsPolitics

Struggle for power between Struggle for power between 藤原氏（ふじわら藤原氏（ふじわらうじ） うじ） and othersand others

Characterized by familial infighting and disease Characterized by familial infighting and disease induced deathsinduced deaths

Beset by tragedies, Emperor Shomu turns to Beset by tragedies, Emperor Shomu turns to Buddhism, placing strain on peasantsBuddhism, placing strain on peasants

Construction of Construction of 大仏（だいぶつ） 大仏（だいぶつ） and and 東大寺東大寺（とうだいじ）（とうだいじ）

奈良時代奈良時代 Society and EconomySociety and Economy

Social structure based on Chinese systemSocial structure based on Chinese system Not suited for Japan’s agricultural realityNot suited for Japan’s agricultural reality Vast majority of peasants in povertyVast majority of peasants in poverty

Failure allowed for private land ownershipFailure allowed for private land ownership DiplomacyDiplomacy

Tension with KoreaTension with Korea General harmony with ChinaGeneral harmony with China

奈良時代奈良時代 CultureCulture

Major influence from ChinaMajor influence from China Proliferation of BuddhismProliferation of Buddhism Flowering of Japanese fine artsFlowering of Japanese fine arts

LiteratureLiterature Temple and treasure construction by foreign artisansTemple and treasure construction by foreign artisans

平安時代平安時代 Began in 794Began in 794

Unfortunate events of Unfortunate events of 長岡京（ながおかきょう）長岡京（ながおかきょう） Assassination, etc.Assassination, etc.

Capital moved to Capital moved to 平安京（へいあんきょう）平安京（へいあんきょう） , modern , modern day day 京都京都

To escape Buddhist influence in To escape Buddhist influence in 奈良奈良 Fear of spirits of assassinated Crown Prince OsabeFear of spirits of assassinated Crown Prince Osabe Desire to be close to Desire to be close to

Ended in 1185Ended in 1185 Defeat of Defeat of 平氏（たいらうじ） 平氏（たいらうじ） establishing establishing 鎌倉幕府鎌倉幕府

（かまくらばくふ）（かまくらばくふ）

平安時代平安時代 PoliticsPolitics

Phase 1: Attempts to revivePhase 1: Attempts to revive 　律令制度　律令制度 (( りつりつりょうせいど）りょうせいど）

Hierarchy established based on Chinese systemHierarchy established based on Chinese system Purpose of bureaucracy was to control populacePurpose of bureaucracy was to control populace Universal taxation of peasantsUniversal taxation of peasants

Phase 2: Political and financial problemsPhase 2: Political and financial problems Attempt to regulate private land ownership as solutionAttempt to regulate private land ownership as solution Failure to control proliferation of land ownershipFailure to control proliferation of land ownership

平安時代平安時代 PoliticsPolitics

Phase 3: Firm establishment of Phase 3: Firm establishment of 藤原摂関政治藤原摂関政治(( ふじわらせっかんしじふじわらせっかんしじ ) (Fujiwara regency ) (Fujiwara regency politics)politics)

Phase 4: Emperor not born of a Phase 4: Emperor not born of a 藤原 藤原 mothermother Successful use of private base of power not founded on Successful use of private base of power not founded on

Chinese style of administrationChinese style of administration 律令制度律令制度 (( りつりょうせいど）りつりょうせいど）

Nearly phased out by the end of the Nearly phased out by the end of the 平安時代平安時代

平安時代平安時代 CultureCulture

Buddhism flourishedBuddhism flourished 天台宗（てんだいしゅう） 天台宗（てんだいしゅう） Buddhism established at Buddhism established at

延暦寺延暦寺 (( えんりゃくじ） えんりゃくじ） on on 比叡山比叡山 (( ひえいざん）ひえいざん） Temple was believed to protect capital from evil spiritsTemple was believed to protect capital from evil spirits

真言宗真言宗（しんごんしゅう）（しんごんしゅう） Buddhism founded by Buddhism founded by 空空海海 (( くうかいくうかい ) at ) at 高野山（こうやさん） 高野山（こうやさん） iin the n the 紀紀伊（きい） 伊（きい） province, modern day province, modern day 和歌山県和歌山県 (( わかやわかやまけん）まけん）

Popular with court officialsPopular with court officials Source of comfortSource of comfort Impetus for artistic developmentImpetus for artistic development

Establishment of new sects outside of capital allowed for Establishment of new sects outside of capital allowed for separationseparation

平安時代平安時代 CultureCulture

Pure Land Buddhism popularPure Land Buddhism popular Warrior monks to defend private land ownershipWarrior monks to defend private land ownership

Disputes between templesDisputes between temples Influence on nobilityInfluence on nobility

ArtArt Move to wood sculpture form bronzeMove to wood sculpture form bronze Images of Amida Buddha became popularImages of Amida Buddha became popular

Lead to Pure LandLead to Pure Land Secular paintings of landscapes and court lifeSecular paintings of landscapes and court life 源氏物語絵巻（げんじものがたりえまき）源氏物語絵巻（げんじものがたりえまき）

1212thth Century illustration of famous tale Century illustration of famous tale

ImportantImportant Works of the Works of the 奈良時代奈良時代 古事記（こじき）　７１２古事記（こじき）　７１２

““Record of Ancient Matters”Record of Ancient Matters” Compiled by Compiled by 太安万侶（おおの やすまろ） 太安万侶（おおの やすまろ） Written in Written in 変体漢文（へんたいかんぶん） 変体漢文（へんたいかんぶん） Japan’s oldest extant chronicleJapan’s oldest extant chronicle Covers age of gods to the reign of Empress Suiko Covers age of gods to the reign of Empress Suiko

(593–628)(593–628) 日本書紀（にほんしょき）　７２０日本書紀（にほんしょき）　７２０

““Chronicle of Japan”Chronicle of Japan” Written in Written in 漢文（かんぶん）漢文（かんぶん） Oldest official history of JapanOldest official history of Japan Covers age of gods to the reign of Empress Jito Covers age of gods to the reign of Empress Jito

(686–697)(686–697)

ImportantImportant Works of the Works of the 奈良時代奈良時代

万葉集（まんようしゅう）　万葉集（まんようしゅう）　 ca. ca. ７７０７７０ ““Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves” Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves” Believed to be compiled primarily byBelieved to be compiled primarily by 大伴家持大伴家持

(( おおとものやかもち）おおとものやかもち） Earliest extant Earliest extant 和歌（わか） 和歌（わか） collectioncollection 4,516 total poems4,516 total poems Written in Written in 万葉仮名（まんようがな）万葉仮名（まんようがな）

ImportantImportant Works of the Works of the 平安時代平安時代 竹取物語（たけとりものがたり） 竹取物語（たけとりものがたり） end of 9end of 9thth

centurycentury ““The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter”The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter” Oldest known Japanese narrativeOldest known Japanese narrative Fable about the “Shining Princess” that was found in a Fable about the “Shining Princess” that was found in a

stand of bamboostand of bamboo 古今和歌集（こきんわかしゅう） 古今和歌集（こきんわかしゅう） 905905

““Collection of Japanese Poems from Ancient and Modern Collection of Japanese Poems from Ancient and Modern Times”Times”

Main compiler was Main compiler was 紀貫之（きのつれゆき）紀貫之（きのつれゆき） Wrote Japanese prefaceWrote Japanese preface

Collection of 1111 Collection of 1111 和歌和歌 (( わか） わか） poemspoems More than 450 poems written anonymouslyMore than 450 poems written anonymously

ImportantImportant Works of the Works of the 平安時代平安時代 伊勢物語（いせものがたり） 伊勢物語（いせものがたり） early 10early 10thth century century

““Tales of Ise”Tales of Ise” Authorship unknownAuthorship unknown

Possibly based on a collection by Possibly based on a collection by 在原業平（ありわらのなりひら）在原業平（ありわらのなりひら） Collection of about 125 brief episodesCollection of about 125 brief episodes Oldest example of Oldest example of 歌物語（うたものがたり）歌物語（うたものがたり）

Short stories centered on one or more poemsShort stories centered on one or more poems 土佐日記（とさにっき） 土佐日記（とさにっき） circa 935circa 935

““The Tosa Diary”The Tosa Diary” First significant work of First significant work of 日記文学（にっきぶんがく）日記文学（にっきぶんがく） Written by Written by 紀貫之（きのつれゆき）紀貫之（きのつれゆき） Written by a male posing as a womanWritten by a male posing as a woman Written in kana, the language of womenWritten in kana, the language of women

ImportantImportant Works of the Works of the 平安時代平安時代 宇津保物語（うつほものがたり） 宇津保物語（うつほものがたり） 967-984967-984

““Tale of the Hollow Tree”Tale of the Hollow Tree” Author is unknownAuthor is unknown Believed to be the worlds oldest still existing novelBelieved to be the worlds oldest still existing novel Shipwrecked on the way to ChinaShipwrecked on the way to China Taught to play Taught to play 琴（こと）琴（こと）

落窪物語（おちくぼものがたり） 落窪物語（おちくぼものがたり） late 10late 10thth century century ““The Tale of the Lady Ochikubo”The Tale of the Lady Ochikubo” Traditionally attributed to Traditionally attributed to 源順（みなもとのしたがう）源順（みなもとのしたがう）

Authorship disputedAuthorship disputed Oldest fictional example on the “stepchild persecution” themeOldest fictional example on the “stepchild persecution” theme

ImportantImportant Works of the Works of the 平安時代平安時代

蜻蛉日記（かげろうにっき） 蜻蛉日記（かげろうにっき） 974 – 995974 – 995 ““The Gossamer Diary”The Gossamer Diary” Lament of an unhappy wifeLament of an unhappy wife Likely influenced later works such as GenjiLikely influenced later works such as Genji

枕草子（まくらのそうし） 枕草子（まくらのそうし） 1000 – 10171000 – 1017 ““The Pillow Book of Sei Shonagon”The Pillow Book of Sei Shonagon” First example of First example of 随筆随筆 (( ずいひつ）ずいひつ）

Spur of the moment collection of thoughtsSpur of the moment collection of thoughts

Detailed description of events and customs of Heian courtDetailed description of events and customs of Heian court

ImportantImportant Works of the Works of the 平安時代平安時代

源氏物語（げんじものがたり） 源氏物語（げんじものがたり） early 11early 11thth century century ““The Tale of Genji”The Tale of Genji” Believed to have been written by Believed to have been written by 紫式部（むらさきしき紫式部（むらさきしき

ぶ）ぶ） World’s first ‘great novel’World’s first ‘great novel’ Details life of the members of the Heian courtDetails life of the members of the Heian court

大鏡（おおかがみ） 大鏡（おおかがみ） early 11early 11thth century century ““The Great Mirror”The Great Mirror” Author UnknownAuthor Unknown Language close to spoken language of the timeLanguage close to spoken language of the time Focuses on the lives of the Fujiwara from 850 to 1025Focuses on the lives of the Fujiwara from 850 to 1025

ImportantImportant Works of the Works of the 平安時代平安時代 栄華物語（栄花物語）栄華物語（栄花物語）

““A Tale of Flowering Fortunes”A Tale of Flowering Fortunes” 40 Chapters total40 Chapters total First 30 credited to First 30 credited to 赤染衛門（あかぞめえもん）赤染衛門（あかぞめえもん） Last 10 to Idewa no BenLast 10 to Idewa no Ben First history written in First history written in 仮名（かな）仮名（かな） First example of First example of 歴史物語（れきしものがたり）歴史物語（れきしものがたり）

更級日記（さらしなにっき） 更級日記（さらしなにっき） circa 1060circa 1060 ““As I Crossed a Bridge of Dreams”As I Crossed a Bridge of Dreams” AnonymousAnonymous Details the life of a Tales obsessed womanDetails the life of a Tales obsessed woman

ImportantImportant Works of the Works of the 平安時代平安時代

今昔物語集（こんじゃくものがたりしゅう） 今昔物語集（こんじゃくものがたりしゅう） early 12early 12thth century century ““Tales of Times Now Past”Tales of Times Now Past” Collection of more than 1,000 short talesCollection of more than 1,000 short tales Compiled by Minamoto no Takakuni in Compiled by Minamoto no Takakuni in 宇治（うじ）宇治（うじ） Said to have been collected from passerbySaid to have been collected from passerby

方丈記（ほうじょうき） 方丈記（ほうじょうき） 12121212 ““An Account of My Hut”An Account of My Hut” Written byWritten by 鴨長明鴨長明 (( かものちょうめい）かものちょうめい） Short example of Short example of 随筆随筆 (( ずいひつ）ずいひつ）

The Six Inflected FormsThe Six Inflected Forms of verbs, adjectives, adjectival verbs, and auxiliary verbs

未然形（みぜんけい） MZ - The MZ is the imperfective form (literally, “not-yet-realized” form), and generally signifies an action(s) that has not yet taken place. Depending upon what auxiliary verbs or particles follow it, the MZ can express many things: negation intention, conjecture, or desire hypothetical situation desire or request potential, passive, spontaneous, honorific, and causative

The MZ is sometimes referred to as the negative form because the negative ず often follows the MZ form.

The Six Inflected Forms cont.The Six Inflected Forms cont.

連用形（れんようけい） RY - The RY is the continuative form and signifies that an action or process expressed by the verb is either taking place or has already taken place. Again, depending upon what follows it, the RY can indicate: ongoing action, action that has already taken place consecutive or simultaneous action prohibition, hypothetical concession nominalization

The RY is also referred to as the conjunctive form.

The Six Inflected Forms cont.The Six Inflected Forms cont.

終止形（しゅうしけい） SS - The SS is the final form. It indicates the end of the sentence as well as current action [unless it also has a temporal marker, such as 昔（むかし） ]. The SS can also express: speculation doubt/rhetorical questioning prohibition hypothetical concession.

The Six Inflected Forms cont.The Six Inflected Forms cont.

連体形（れんたいけい） RT - The RT is known as the attributive form, and it directly modifies a noun/pronoun, even an implied noun/pronoun. Depending upon what follows OR precedes it, the RT can also express: end of a sentence exclamation speculation nominalization

The Six Inflected Forms cont.The Six Inflected Forms cont.

已然形（いぜんけい） IZ - The IZ is the perfective (literally “already-realized”) form and expresses action that has already occurred. IZ can indicate: logical connection the resultative/continuative/perfective form concession emphasis

命令形（めいれいけい） MR - The MR form expresses a command.

There are 9 verb conjugations: 5 are regular and 4 are There are 9 verb conjugations: 5 are regular and 4 are irregularirregular

Regular conjugationsRegular conjugations

四段（よだん） Four-grade conjugationFour-grade conjugation

上一段（かみいちだん） Upper one-grade conjugationUpper one-grade conjugation

下一段（しもいちだん） Lower one-grade conjugationLower one-grade conjugation

上二段（かみにだん） Upper two grade conjugationUpper two grade conjugation

下二段（しもにだん） Lower two-grade conjugationLower two-grade conjugation

Irregular conjugationsIrregular conjugations

カ行変格（かぎょうへんかく） kk-row irregular conjugation-row irregular conjugation

サ行変格（さぎょうへんかく） ss-row irregular conjugation-row irregular conjugation

ラ行変格（らぎょうへんかく） rr-row irregular conjugation-row irregular conjugation

ナ行変格（なぎょうへんかく） nn-row irregular conjugation-row irregular conjugation

四段（よだん） verbs are the most common of the verb conjugations

思ふ（おもふ） 聞く（きく）

MZMZ おもは

RYRY おもひ

SSSS おもふ

RTRT おもふ

IZIZ おもへ

MRMR おもへ

MZMZ きか

RYRY きき

SSSS きく

RTRT きく

IZIZ きけ

MRMR きけ

Adjectives and Adjectival VerbsAdjectives and Adjectival Verbs ク活（かつよ） - usually expresses

physical characteristics. 清し（きよし）　

シク活（かつよ） - usually expresses emotional characteristics.

楽し（たのし）　

ク カリ

MZMZ 〇〇 きよから

RYRY きよく きよかり

SSSS きよし 〇〇

RTRT きよき きよかる

IZIZ きよけれ 〇〇

MRMR 〇〇 きよかれ

ク are usually forms used mostly with aux. Verbs while カリ are usually forms mainly used with adverbs, or in modifying a noun, etc.

シク シカリ

MZMZ 〇〇 たのしか ら

RYRY たのし く

たのしかり

SSSS たのし

〇〇

RTRT たのしき たのしかる

IZIZ たのしけれ 〇〇

MRMR 〇〇 たのしかれ

Negative Auxiliary Verb Negative Auxiliary Verb ずAlways follows the MZ

MZMZ （な） 〇〇 ざら

RYRY （に） ず ざり

SSSS 〇〇 ず 〇〇

RTRT ぬ 〇〇 ざる

IZIZ ね 〇〇 ざれ

MRMR 〇〇 〇〇 ざれ

ず example sentencesexample sentences

京には見えぬ鳥なれば、みな人見知らず。（みやこにはみえぬとりなればみなひとみしらず。） “Since it was a bird (tori) that does not appear (mie-nu) in

the capital (miyako), no one (mina) recognized it (mi-shira-zu). (Ise Monogatari, sec. 9, NKBT 9:117)” (65).).

月なく、雪も降らず。（つきなく、ゆきもふらず。） “There is no (naku) moon (tsuki), and the snow (yuki) does

not fall (fura-zu). (Sarashina Nikki, NKBT 20:515)” (24).

魚は水に飽かず。（いをはみずにあかず。） “As for fish (io), they never tire (aka-zu) of the water

(mizu). (Houjouki, NKBT 30:43)” (65).

Recollective Auxiliary Verbs Recollective Auxiliary Verbs き き and and けりけりBoth follow the RY and are relate with the past tense or recollectionBoth follow the RY and are relate with the past tense or recollection

き き - personal past, recollection- personal past, recollection けりけり – – hearsay past, exclamatory hearsay past, exclamatory recognition, and direct, recognition, and direct, impersonal pastimpersonal pastMZMZ （せ）（せ）

RYRY 〇〇

SSSS きき

RTRT しし

IZIZ しかしか

MRMR 〇〇

MZMZ （けら）（けら）

RYRY 〇〇

SSSS けりけり

RTRT けるける

IZIZ けれけれ

MRMR 〇〇

き and and けり examplesexamples

京より下りし時に、みな人、子どもなかりき。（きやうよりくだりしときに、みなひと、こどもなかりき。）

“When we left (kudari-shi) the capital, no one had (nakari-ki) children (kodomo). (Tosa Nikki, NKBT 20:55)” (69).

鬼のやうなるもの出で来て殺さんとしき。（おにのやうなるものいできてころさんとしき。）

“Something (mono) that looked like (you naru) a demon (oni) came out (ideki-te) and tried to kill us (korosa-n to shi-ki). (Taketori Monogatari, NKBT 9:37)” (428).

行かずなりにけり。（いかずなりにけり。） “I ended up (nari-ni-keri) not going (ika-zu). (Ise Monogatari, sec. 23, NKBT

9:127)” (429).

今夜は十五夜なりけり。（こよひはじゅうごやなりけり。） “Tonight (koyoi) is the fifteenth night (juugoya nari-keri)! (Genji Monogatari,

Suma, NKBT 15:41)” (430).

Copula Copula なりなり and and たりたり

なりなり - follows noun or the RT- follows noun or the RT たり たり – – follows nominalsfollows nominals

MZMZ ならなら

RYRY なり・になり・に

SSSS なりなり

RTRT なるなる

IZIZ なれなれ

MRMR なれなれ

MZMZ たらたら

RYRY たり・とたり・と

SSSS たりたり

RTRT たるたる

IZIZ たれたれ

MRMR たれたれ

Perfective and Continuative Auxiliary VerbsPerfective and Continuative Auxiliary VerbsInstead of tense, these aux. verbs have to do with aspectInstead of tense, these aux. verbs have to do with aspect

ぬぬ – – follows the RY; follows the RY; nahennahen cconjugation. Indicates the onjugation. Indicates the perfective, or certainty/emphasisperfective, or certainty/emphasis

つ つ – – follows the RY; follows the RY; shimo-nidanshimo-nidan conjugation. Indicates the perfective conjugation. Indicates the perfective and certaintyand certainty

MZMZ なな

RYRY にに

SSSS ぬぬ

RTRT ぬるぬる

IZIZ ぬれぬれ

MRMR ねね

MZMZ てて

RYRY てて

SSSS つつ

RTRT つるつる

IZIZ つれつれ

MRMR てよてよ

Perfective and Continuative Auxiliary Verbs cont.Perfective and Continuative Auxiliary Verbs cont.

たりたり - follows the RY; - follows the RY; rahenrahen conjugation. Indicates resultative, conjugation. Indicates resultative, continuative/durative, perfective, continuative/durative, perfective, parallel, future realizationparallel, future realization

りり - follows the IZ of yodan verbs - follows the IZ of yodan verbs and the MZ of sahen verbs; has a and the MZ of sahen verbs; has a rahen conjugation. Indicates rahen conjugation. Indicates resulatative, continuative, and resulatative, continuative, and perfectiveperfective

MZMZ たらたら

RYRY たりたり

SSSS たりたり

RTRT たるたる

IZIZ たれたれ

MRMR たれたれ

MZMZ らら

RYRY りり

SSSS りり

RTRT るる

IZIZ れれ

MRMR れれ

ぬ、つ、たり ぬ、つ、たり & & り り examplesexamples

舟こぞりて泣き舟こぞりて泣きににけり。（ふねこぞりてなきけり。（ふねこぞりてなきににけり。）けり。） ““In the boat (In the boat (funefune) everyone at once () everyone at once (kozori-tekozori-te) ) ended upended up weeping ( weeping (naki-ni-naki-ni-

kerikeri). (). (Ise MonogatariIse Monogatari, sec. 9, NKBT 9:117)” (77)., sec. 9, NKBT 9:117)” (77).

なよ竹のかぐや姫とつけなよ竹のかぐや姫とつけつつ。（なよたけのかぐやひめとつけ。（なよたけのかぐやひめとつけつつ。）。） ““(He) (He) ended upended up naming ( naming (to tsuke-tsuto tsuke-tsu) her Shining Princess () her Shining Princess (KaguyahimeKaguyahime) of ) of

the Supple Bamboo (the Supple Bamboo (nayotakenayotake). (). (Taketori MonogatariTaketori Monogatari, NKBT 9:30)” (79). , NKBT 9:30)” (79).

筒の中光り筒の中光りたりたり。（つつのなかひかり。（つつのなかひかりたりたり。）。） ““It was shining (It was shining (hikari-tarihikari-tari) in the middle () in the middle (nakanaka) of (bamboo) stalk. () of (bamboo) stalk. (Taketori Taketori

MonogatariMonogatari, NKBT 9:29)” (435)., NKBT 9:29)” (435).

いと思ひの外なる人の言へいと思ひの外なる人の言へれれば、人々あやしがる。（いとおもひのほかなば、人々あやしがる。（いとおもひのほかなるひとのいへるひとのいへれれば、ひとびとあやしがる。）ば、ひとびとあやしがる。）

““Since a very (Since a very (itoito) unexpected () unexpected (omoi no hoka naruomoi no hoka naru) person recited () person recited (ie-re-baie-re-ba) ) ((the poemthe poem), everyone (), everyone (hitobitohitobito) thought it was strange () thought it was strange (ayashigaruayashigaru). (). (Tosa Tosa NikkiNikki, NKBT 20:53)” (436)., NKBT 20:53)” (436).

Rhetorical Techniques of Japanese Poetry: Nara periodRhetorical Techniques of Japanese Poetry: Nara period 枕詞（まくらことば）枕詞（まくらことば） - literally means “pillow-word.” Generally five syllables in length, the - literally means “pillow-word.” Generally five syllables in length, the makura-kotobamakura-kotoba is a is a

fixed expression that people used in poetry to elevate the tone and rhythm of the poem. Arose during the Nara fixed expression that people used in poetry to elevate the tone and rhythm of the poem. Arose during the Nara period, and most of the original meanings of period, and most of the original meanings of makura-kotobamakura-kotoba are already lost. are already lost.

Ex. Ex. 久方の久方のひかりのどけき春の日にしづ心なく花のちるらむ。（ひかりのどけき春の日にしづ心なく花のちるらむ。（ひさかたのひさかたのひかりのどけきはるのひかりのどけきはるのひにしづごころなくはなのちるらむ。）ひにしづごころなくはなのちるらむ。）

““Why (Why (ramuramu) do the cherry blossoms () do the cherry blossoms (hanahana) scatter () scatter (chiruchiru) with unsettled hearts () with unsettled hearts (shizu-gokoro nakushizu-gokoro naku) ) on a spring day (on a spring day (haru no hiharu no hi) of gentle () of gentle (nodokekinodokeki) light () light (hikarihikari)? ()? (KokinwakashuuKokinwakashuu, no. 84, NKBT , no. 84, NKBT 8:120)” (364).8:120)” (364).

The The 久方の 久方の is the is the makura-kotobamakura-kotoba, and while the original meaning has been lost, it generally means “from a , and while the original meaning has been lost, it generally means “from a distant (hisa) direction (kata),” and modifies words that are related to the sky and other celestial objects.distant (hisa) direction (kata),” and modifies words that are related to the sky and other celestial objects.

序詞（じょことば）序詞（じょことば） - a poetic preface-phrase that began in the Nara period. Usually over seven syllables in - a poetic preface-phrase that began in the Nara period. Usually over seven syllables in length, the length, the jokotobajokotoba modifies a particular word, and possesses unfixed wording and content, unlike the modifies a particular word, and possesses unfixed wording and content, unlike the makura-makura-kotobakotoba. It is generally “linked to the main body by a repetition of or a similarity in sound and often functions as a . It is generally “linked to the main body by a repetition of or a similarity in sound and often functions as a metaphor for or a description of the main body of the poem” (365).metaphor for or a description of the main body of the poem” (365).

Ex. Ex. 葦引の山鳥の尾のしだり尾の葦引の山鳥の尾のしだり尾のながながし夜をひとりかも寝む。（ながながし夜をひとりかも寝む。（あしひきのやまどりのおのしあしひきのやまどりのおのしだりおのだりおのながながしよをひとりかもねむ。）ながながしよをひとりかもねむ。）

““I will sleep (I will sleep (nemunemu) by myself () by myself (hitorihitori) this ) this longlong ( (naganagashinaganagashi) night () night (yoyo), ), longlong as the as the (long) drooping (long) drooping tail (tail (shidari-oshidari-o) of the tail () of the tail (oo) of the copper pheasant () of the copper pheasant (yamadoriyamadori).). (Hitomaro, (Hitomaro, ShuuishuuShuuishuu, Love 3, no. , Love 3, no. 778, SNKBT 7:226)” (366).778, SNKBT 7:226)” (366).

““The entire underlined sentence is the The entire underlined sentence is the jokotobajokotoba, which is linked to the main body by the adjective , which is linked to the main body by the adjective naganagashinaganagashi, ‘long, long,’ which modifies both ‘night’ (, ‘long, long,’ which modifies both ‘night’ (yoyo) and the drooping tail () and the drooping tail (shidari-oshidari-o) of the copper ) of the copper pheasant (pheasant (yamadoriyamadori…). Here, the …). Here, the jokotobajokotoba functions as a metaphor… for the main body of the poem” (366). functions as a metaphor… for the main body of the poem” (366).

Rhetorical Techniques of Japanese Poetry: Heian periodRhetorical Techniques of Japanese Poetry: Heian period 掛詞（かけことば）掛詞（かけことば） - a pivot word that arose in the Heian period; It is a pun that involves one word - a pivot word that arose in the Heian period; It is a pun that involves one word

being used in two senses.being used in two senses.

Ex. Ex. あきののに人あきののに人まつまつ虫の声すなり我かとゆきていざとぶらはん。（あきののにひと虫の声すなり我かとゆきていざとぶらはん。（あきののにひとまつまつむむしのこえすなりわれかとゆきていざとぶらはん。）しのこえすなりわれかとゆきていざとぶらはん。）

““I hear (I hear (narinari) the voice () the voice (koekoe) of the ) of the pinepine cricket ( cricket (matsu-mushimatsu-mushi) ) waitingwaiting ( (matsumatsu) for someone ) for someone ((hitohito) in the autumn () in the autumn (akiaki) field () field (nono). Is it me (the ). Is it me (the matsu-mushimatsu-mushi is waiting for)? Well ( is waiting for)? Well (izaiza), let me ), let me go (go (yuki-teyuki-te) and visit () and visit (toburawa-ntoburawa-n). (). (KokinwakashuuKokinwakashuu, Autumn 1, no. 202, NKBT 8:142)” (366)., Autumn 1, no. 202, NKBT 8:142)” (366).

The pine cricket (The pine cricket (matsu-mushimatsu-mushi) is crying as if it is waiting () is crying as if it is waiting (matsumatsu) for someone to visit.) for someone to visit.

縁語（えんご）縁語（えんご） - - coming into existence in the Heian period, coming into existence in the Heian period, engoengo are associated words. That is, words are associated words. That is, words that “are not linked grammatically but are associated by meaning and by close cultural and poetic that “are not linked grammatically but are associated by meaning and by close cultural and poetic associations” (367). associations” (367). EngoEngo give “deeper connotations and added interest” to the poem (367). give “deeper connotations and added interest” to the poem (367).

Ex. Ex. 浅緑浅緑糸よりかけて糸よりかけて白露を珠にも白露を珠にもぬけるぬける春の柳か。（あさみどり春の柳か。（あさみどりいとよりかけていとよりかけてしらつゆしらつゆおたまにもおたまにもぬけるぬけるはるのやなぎか。）はるのやなぎか。）

““Twining (Twining (yorikaketeyorikakete) the light green () the light green (asa-midoriasa-midori) (branches) into threads () (branches) into threads (itoito) and ) and passingpassing them (them (nuke-runuke-ru) through the white dew () through the white dew (shira-tsuyushira-tsuyu) to make beads () to make beads (tamatama) – the spring () – the spring (haruharu) ) willow (willow (yanagiyanagi)! ()! (KokinwakashuuKokinwakashuu, Spring 1, no. 27, NKBT 8:109)” (368)., Spring 1, no. 27, NKBT 8:109)” (368).

The speaker of this poem “treats the branches of the budding willow tree (The speaker of this poem “treats the branches of the budding willow tree (yanagiyanagi) as light green ) as light green threads (threads (itoito), which are passed through beads of white dew (), which are passed through beads of white dew (shira tsuyushira tsuyu). The words ). The words yorikakuyorikaku (to (to twist together) and twist together) and nukerunukeru (to pass through) are (to pass through) are engoengo of the word of the word itoito (thread), adding a rich layer of (thread), adding a rich layer of associations that complement the images of willows and dew.associations that complement the images of willows and dew.

What IsWhat Is 古代日本語古代日本語 ??

古代日本語古代日本語 was the language as spoken and was the language as spoken and written during the Nara and Heian eras of written during the Nara and Heian eras of Japan, circa 710–1185 CE. Japan, circa 710–1185 CE.

Nara Japan is characterized by an enormous Nara Japan is characterized by an enormous influx of Chinese vocabulary and widespread influx of Chinese vocabulary and widespread changes in the phonology.changes in the phonology.

Contrasts Between Old and Contrasts Between Old and ClassicalClassical

Whereas early old Japanese had 88 different possible Whereas early old Japanese had 88 different possible syllables, the native vocabulary of classical had 66.syllables, the native vocabulary of classical had 66.

KanaKana as a script emerged at the beginning of the as a script emerged at the beginning of the Heian period, and fairly accurately reflects the Heian period, and fairly accurately reflects the contemporary system.contemporary system.

Imported Chinese WordsImported Chinese Words

The first round of this linguistic import took place The first round of this linguistic import took place between the years 222-589AD. Buddhist terms were between the years 222-589AD. Buddhist terms were mainly chosen.mainly chosen.

The second round was between the years 618-The second round was between the years 618-907AD. The terms used for administrative purposes 907AD. The terms used for administrative purposes were targeted.were targeted.

The third round occurred between the years 960-The third round occurred between the years 960-1279AD, when the Chinese developed about 33,000 1279AD, when the Chinese developed about 33,000 hanzihanzi at that time. The targeted terms were linked at that time. The targeted terms were linked with Zen terminology.with Zen terminology.

上代 上代 (( じょうだいじょうだい ) ) 日本語日本語 Shortly after the Shortly after the KojikiKojiki, the distinction between mo1 , the distinction between mo1

and mo2 is quickly lost reducing the total syllable and mo2 is quickly lost reducing the total syllable count to 87.count to 87.

Many hypotheses have been proposed to explain the Many hypotheses have been proposed to explain the syllable doublets, including:syllable doublets, including:

an eight-vowel system an eight-vowel system palatalization of the previous constant palatalization of the previous constant a six-vowel system a six-vowel system *This issue is still strongly argued, and there is no *This issue is still strongly argued, and there is no

general consensus.general consensus.

中古 中古 (( ちゅうこちゅうこ ) ) 日本語日本語 The change of the prenasalized consonants to voiced The change of the prenasalized consonants to voiced

consonants.consonants. The addition of long vowels and closed syllables to The addition of long vowels and closed syllables to

syllable inventory.syllable inventory. The elision of certain consonants in certain The elision of certain consonants in certain

environments.environments. The lenition of [p] to the bilabial fricative [Ф].The lenition of [p] to the bilabial fricative [Ф]. The change in timing from syllable-timing to mora-The change in timing from syllable-timing to mora-

timing.timing.

This table of 50 sounds is the historical This table of 50 sounds is the historical kanakana system established system established in the Heian periodin the Heian period

aa-vowel-vowel ii-vowel-vowel uu-vowel-vowel ee-vowel-vowel oo-vowel-vowel

aa-row-row ああ いい うう ええ おおkk-row-row かかss-row-row ささtt-row-row たたnn-row-row ななhh-row-row ははmm-row-row ままyy-row-row ややrr-row-row ららww-row-row わわ ゐゐ うう ゑゑ をを

Today, the two kana, Today, the two kana, ゐゐ ((wiwi or or ii) and ) and ゑゑ ((wewe or or ee) are no longer used.) are no longer used.

Voiced sounds existed as early as the Nara Voiced sounds existed as early as the Nara period, but the voiced period, but the voiced ss-row -row じじ and the and the tt-row -row ぢぢ , as well as the , as well as the ss-row -row ず ず and the and the tt-row -row づづ , respectively, were pronounced differently , respectively, were pronounced differently from one another. In modern Japanese, from one another. In modern Japanese, however, such distinction in pronunciation is however, such distinction in pronunciation is dropped.dropped.

The nasalized The nasalized んん also emerged during the also emerged during the Heian period.Heian period.

万葉仮名 万葉仮名 (( まんようがなまんようがな ))

Created in the Created in the 奈良時代 奈良時代 (( ならじだい ならじだい 710-710-794)794)

Was the predecessor to Was the predecessor to ひらがな ひらがな andand カタカタカナカナ

ひらがな ひらがな was developed using the sosho, or was developed using the sosho, or grass style of writing.grass style of writing.

Modern Uses of KobunModern Uses of Kobun

れんぱならず れんぱならず – – does notdoes not win two consecutive win two consecutive championshipschampionships

かはんすうにとどかず　－　かはんすうにとどかず　－　 does not reach the does not reach the majoritymajority

Aru and SuruAru and Suru

The Shuushikei of ari, “to be,” became The Shuushikei of ari, “to be,” became aruaru, , which is what it is today in modern Japanese.which is what it is today in modern Japanese.

The Rentaikei form of the verb The Rentaikei form of the verb su,su, suru, began suru, began to be used as the Shuushikei at the end of the to be used as the Shuushikei at the end of the Heian era, which is the same way it is used in Heian era, which is the same way it is used in modern times.modern times.

The “na” adjective in modern Japanese derived The “na” adjective in modern Japanese derived from the Kobun adjectival verb “nari.” ex. from the Kobun adjectival verb “nari.” ex. ししずかなリずかなリ→→しずかなしずかな

The modern “The modern “ 行ったっけ” 行ったっけ” which means which means ”Did I go there?” comes from the classical ”Did I go there?” comes from the classical combination combination たりけるたりける

Uses of Kobun todayUses of Kobun today

Modern Tanka (31 syllable equivilent of Modern Tanka (31 syllable equivilent of classical Waka)classical Waka)

Modern HaikuModern Haiku LiteratureLiterature Classical Japanese fell into decline during the Classical Japanese fell into decline during the

Meiji restoration.Meiji restoration. However, it was still used in many official However, it was still used in many official

documents.documents.

VocabularyVocabulary

Modern Japanese Modern Japanese WordWord

Classical Classical Japanese WordJapanese Word

MeaningMeaning

a, anoa, ano ka, kanoka, kanoThat (Over That (Over

there)there)

soresore sasa That That

arukuaruku arikuariku To walk To walk

muzukashiimuzukashii katashikatashi Difficult Difficult

tegamitegami fumifumi DocumentDocument

Vocab

ulary Issu

esV

ocabu

lary Issues

WordWordClassical Classical MeaningMeaning

Modern Modern MeaningMeaning

tameshitameshi ExampleExample Test/AttemptTest/Attempt

SunawachiSunawachiSoon/Soon/

ImmediatelyImmediately““In other In other words…”words…”

utsukushiutsukushiBeloved/Beloved/

AttractiveAttractiveBeautifulBeautiful

mezamashimezamashiAmazing/Amazing/

InterestingInterestingWaking-upWaking-up

ashitaashita MorningMorning TomorrowTomorrow

mutsukashimutsukashiUnpleasant, Unpleasant, EerieEerie

DifficultDifficult

nonoshirunonoshiru To shout/CallTo shout/Call To revileTo revile

ariari To beTo beTo be(Things To be(Things only).only).

VocabularyVocabulary  Classical JapaneseClassical Japanese MeaningMeaning

yamugotonashiyamugotonashiexalted; unable to be exalted; unable to be

ignoredignored

itoito Very Very

ikadeikade In what manner?In what manner?

saranarisaranari Of courseOf course

atenariatenari First RateFirst Rate

imijiimiji Great/ImpressiveGreat/Impressive

kokoroushikokoroushi DifficultDifficult

ashiashi Evil/WrongEvil/Wrong

ItsukuItsuku Revere/WorshipRevere/Worship

Disappearance of Conjugation TypesDisappearance of Conjugation Types

Classical Japanese Classical Japanese ConjugationsConjugations

Modern Japanese Modern Japanese ConjugationsConjugations

YodanYodan

NahenNahen

RahenRahen

Shimo-IchidanShimo-Ichidan

GodanGodan

Kami-IchidanKami-Ichidan

Kami-NidanKami-NidanKami-IchidanKami-Ichidan

Shimo-NidanShimo-Nidan Shimo-IchidanShimo-Ichidan

SahenSahen SahenSahen

KahenKahen KahenKahen

Works ReferencedWorks Referenced

““Heian Literature.” Heian Literature.” The Kodansha Encyclopedia of The Kodansha Encyclopedia of JapanJapan. <http://www.ency-japan.com>. <http://www.ency-japan.com>

““Heian Period.” Heian Period.” The Kodansha Encyclopedia of JapanThe Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan. . <http://www.ency-japan.com><http://www.ency-japan.com>

““Heian Period.” Heian Period.” WikipediaWikipedia. . <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heian_period><http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heian_period>

““Late Old Japanese.” Late Old Japanese.” WikipediaWikipedia. . <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Japanese><http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Japanese>

Works ReferencedWorks Referenced

““Nara Period.” Nara Period.” The Kodansha Encyclopedia of JapanThe Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan. . <http://www.ency-japan.com><http://www.ency-japan.com>

““Nara Period.” Nara Period.” WikipediaWikipedia. . <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nara_Period><http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nara_Period>

Oshima, David Y. Oshima, David Y. JPN494/598 History of the Japanese JPN494/598 History of the Japanese LanguageLanguage. <http://www.public.asu.edu/~dyoshima/494-. <http://www.public.asu.edu/~dyoshima/494-598.htm>598.htm>

““Old Japanese.” Old Japanese.” WikipediaWikipedia. . <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Japanese><http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Japanese>

Works ReferencedWorks Referenced

““Ritsuryo System.” Ritsuryo System.” The Kodansha Encyclopedia of The Kodansha Encyclopedia of JapanJapan. <http://www.ency-japan.com>. <http://www.ency-japan.com>

Shirane, Haruo. Shirane, Haruo. Classical JapaneseClassical Japanese. New York: . New York: Columbia University Press, 2005. Columbia University Press, 2005.

Tsujimura, Natsuko. Tsujimura, Natsuko. Japanese LinguisticsJapanese Linguistics. Malden, . Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing, 1996.Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing, 1996.

山口 仲美 山口 仲美 (2006) (2006) 『『日本語の歴史日本語の歴史 』 』 岩波書店岩波書店 . .