语用学和认知语言学语用学和认知语言学

Lecture 2Lecture 2

The scope of pragmatics

Background

The term pragmatics stems from Charles Morris (1938), who was actually interested in semiotics (or semiotic). Morris distinguished three branches of study within semiotics:

syntactics (or syntax), the study of the formal relation of signs to one another”,

semantics, the study of the relations of signs to the objects to which signs are applicable”, and

pragmatics, the study of the relation of signs to interpreters” (1938:6).

background

According to Morris (1971:24), each branch of semiotics can be further divided into pure studies and descriptive studies.

background

Morris defined the scope of pragmatics as follows: 

It is a sufficiently accurate characterization of pragmatics to say that it deals with the biotic aspects of semiosis, that is, with all the psychological, biological, and sociological phenomena which occur in the functioning of signs.(Morris,1938:108)

background

Levinson(1983:2) holds that this scope of pragmatics is very much wider than the work that currently goes on under the rubric of linguistic pragmatics, for it would include what is now known as psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, neurolinguistics and much besides.

background

I am Zhang Xiao, Zhang Xiao is a girl, therefore I am a girl.

If the first two premises are true and the speaker of the conclusion is the same speaker as the speaker of the first premise, then we say the statement is necessarily true.

Bar-Hillel (1954) took the view that pragmatics is the study of languages, both natural and artificial, that contain indexical or deictic terms.

background

Levinson (1983) : Pragmatics is the study of those principles that will account for why a certain set of sentences are anomalous, or not possible utterances. (Levinson, 1983:6) e.g.

(1) ??Come there please! (2) ??Aristotle was Greek, but I don’t

believe it

background

(3) ??John’s children are hippies, and he has no children

(4) ??I order you not to obey this order (5) ??I hereby sing (6) ??As everyone knows, the earth please

revolves around the sun

Background

The explanation of these anomalies might be provided by pointing out that there are no, or at least no ordinary, contexts in which they could be appropriately used.

Background

Pragmatics is the study of those relations between language and context that are grammaticalized, or encoded in the structure of a language.

the role of pragmatics

For example, the meaning of words like well, oh and anyway in English cannot be explicated simply by statements of context-independent content.

We cano refer to pragmatic concepts like relevance, implicature, or discourse structure.

Current interests in Pragmatics

quantifier some in the following means ‘some and not all’: Some ten cent pieces are rejected by this vending

machine. But suppose I am trying to use the machine, and I try coin

after coin unsuccessfully, and I utter the above sentence; I might then very well communicate:

Some, and perhaps all, ten cent pieces are rejected by this vending machine.

Current interests in Pragmatics

(1) A: I could eat the whole of that cake [implication: I compliment you on the cake]

B: Oh thanks (2) A: Do you have coffee to go? [Implication: Sell me coffee to go

if you can] B: Cream and sugar? (3) A: Hi John B: How’re you doing? A: Say, what’re you doing [Implication: I’ve got a suggestion

about what we might do together] B: Well, we’re going out. Why? A: Oh I was just going to say come out ...

Understanding and Using Language

P: What’s your name by the way S: Stephen P: You haven’t asked my name back S: What’s your name P: It’s Pat

Understanding and Using Language

Appropriacy I think you could go in now you know Are we all here Non-literal or indirect meaning Right, shall we begin Inference I’m a man. (a woman colleague says) Female toilet on floor above (a sign on the door of the

gentlemen’s toilet)

Understanding and Using Language

Indeterminacy (utterances are underdetermined) I’m a man I really like your new haircut Are you here Peter Context I’m tired (say at night or in the morning) Relevance I suppose today it’s especially important to be thinking

carefully about what our students say to us

Understanding and Using Language

Misfires (misfires are important because they tell us that there are expected norms for talk by showing us the effect when the norm is not achieved.)

–– Will you have some more chocolate –– I didn’t even have any to begin with

Pragmatics in China

外语教学的语用学研究翻译研究面向汉语语法的语用学研究英汉对比研究跨文化交际研究 1989年全国首届语用学研讨会

Introduction

Cognitive Linguistics is a new approach to the study of language that emerged in the 1970’s.

Cognitive Linguistics is not a totally homogeneous framework. Ungerer and Schmid (1997) distinguish three main approaches: Experiental view, the Prominence view and the Attentional view of language.

Introduction

The ‘Experiental view’. It is the user of the language who tells us what is going on in their minds when they produce and understand words and sentences.

Eleanor Rosch et al. (1977, 1978) carried out the first research to study cognitive categories, which led to the prototype theory.

Introduction

Lakoff and Johnson (1980) were among the first ones to pinpoint this conceptual potential, especially in the case of metaphors.

Introduction

The ‘Prominence view’ is based on concepts of profiling and figure/ground segregation. The prominence principle explains why, when we look at an object in our environment, we single it out as a perceptually prominent figure standing out from the ground.

Introduction

The ‘Attentional view’ assumes that what we actually express reflects which parts of an event attract our attention.

Fillmore’s (1975) notion of ‘frame’: an assemblage of the knowledge we have about a certain situation.

Introduction

There is a complex relationship between language, experience, and the mind.

Cognitive perspective: language is part of a cognitive system which comprises perception, emotions, categorization, abstraction processes, and reasoning. All these cognitive abilities interact with language and are influenced by language.

Introduction

It emphasizes the effect of human experience of the world, the unique way humans perceive and conceptualize that experience, and how these are in turn reflected in the structure of language itself.

Introduction

Meaning is said to reside in conceptualization, and grammar is not seen as autonomous.

Introduction

Language is much more than just a mirror. It describes our individual and collective experiences of the world.

Introduction

Cognitive Linguistics is cross-disciplinary. Its related fields include:e psychology, neurophysiology, computer science and general cogntive science.

So far, much of the research has focused on metaphor,  prototype, categorisation, radial structures, mental spaces, embodiment and so on.

Cognitive Linguistics: both the design features of languages, and our ability to learn and use them are accounted for by general cognitive abilities, our human categorisation strategies, together with our cultural, contextual and functional parameters.

Human conceptual categories, the meaning of words and sentences and the meaning of linguistic structures are not a set of universal abstract features or uninterpreted symbols.

They are motivated and grounded more or less directly in our bodily, physical, social and cultural experiences.

Cognitive Linguistics: meanings do not exist independently from the people that create and use them; meaning is based on individual experience as well as collective experience.

Human categorisation: the ability to judge that a particular thing is or is not an instance of a particular category.

When experience is used to guide the interpretation of a new experience, the ability to categorise becomes indispensable.

human categories have two types of members: the ‘prototype’ and several less-central members related to the former in a motivated way.

The prototype is the most typical member of a category.

Metaphor occupies a central position in Cognitive Linguistics.

Another important and interesting area of research is the interaction between metaphor and metonymy.

Knowledge

Getting knowledge about something is like making a map of a place or like travelling there. Teaching someone is like showing them how to reach a place.

This term, we will be exploring the psychology of sport.

In today’s class, I will map out the most important concepts.

Knowledge

We can approach the subject from several directions. Can you give me a few pointers? What should I read first? It is an excellent guide to English vocabulary. The program allows you to navigate the Web more easily. The first step in learning a language is to learn its sounds. This aspect of his work is very much uncharted territory. We’re on surer/more familiar ground here. New students have to take an orientation course.

Knowledge

When you have some knowledge about something, it is as if you are shining a light on it. Not having knowledge is

like being in darkness. Allow me to shed/throw some light on the matter. Can you enlighten me as to what your intentions are? There are a couple of points that I’d like you to clear up. Her work has greatly illuminated this aspect of the subject.

Knowledge

This spotlights/highlights the problems of bilingual children. He kept us in the dark about his plans. The book concerns the shadowy world of

espionage. I only have a dim recollection of what happened

next. I haven’t got the foggiest/faintest idea.

Achievement

An achievement is like a building, and the process of achieving is like the process of building.

They built up the business over 20 years. The organization was built on traditional

principles. This web site is still under construction. They laid the foundations for future success with a

carefully balanced range of products.

Achievement

This was the blueprint for success. She was the architect of the company’s expansion overseas. It is a towering achievement. These developments threatened the whole edifice of

government. All her life’s work was in ruins. Strong foreign markets are the building blocks of a

successful economy. Everything seemed to come crashing down around them.

Angry

Being angry is like being hot or on fire. She burned with indignation. He has a fiery temper. Jack was a hot-tempered young man. Their parents were having a heated argument/debate about

where to go. They were having a blazing/flaming row. She often flares up over nothing. It made my blood boil. I lost my cool. Alison was getting very hot under the collar.

Angry

Losing your temper is like an explosion. When she told him, he nearly exploded. He blew up at her. Steve couldn’t contain his anger any longer. It was an explosive situation. I’m sorry I blew my top. There was another angry outburst from Chris. Alex was bursting with anger. She’ll blow a fuse/a gasket if she finds out. Bob went ballistic when he saw what they had done. A major row erupted at the meeting.

Argument

An argument is like a fight or war, with people attacking each other’s opinions and defending their own. She tried to defend herself against his attacks on her ideas. She shot down his argument. That is an indefensible point of view. I decided to pursue another line of attack. We had a big fight last night, and I went home early. There was a lot of conflict over what to do next. It was a real battle of wits. We did battle with the council about the plans. I’ve crossed swords with them before.

Confused

Being confused is like being lost or in the wrong place or position.

You’ve lost me. What do you mean? I was completely at sea: it was all so new to me. I felt adrift and alone, with no real sense of

direction. I seem to have lost my bearings. I don’t know if I’m coming or going. I feel like a fish out of water. You’ve got it all back to front.

Conversation

A conversation or discussion is like a journey, with the speakers going from one place to another.

Let’s go back to what you were saying earlier. Can we return to the previous point? I can’t quite see where you’re heading. The conversation took an unexpected turn/direction. I’m listening – Go on! We’ve covered a lot of ground. I was just coming to that.

Conversation

We eventually arrived at a conclusion. It’s a roundabout way of saying she’s refusing our

offer. You’re on the right/wrong track. We wandered off the topic. The conversation drifted rather aimlessly. We kept going round and round in circles.

Mind

Your mind is like a container or area, with thoughts being stored there or going in and out.

The memory of that day is still fresh in my mind. A few doubts remained at the back of my mind. Can’t you get it into your head that I’m not interested? His head is filled with useless facts and figures. I’ve been searching my memory, but I still don’t know who

she is.

Mind

Try to relax: empty your mind. I pushed/drove the thought out of my mind. It crossed her mind that he was lying. The idea never entered my head. The name was fixed/stuck in her mind. I have my suspicions, but I’m trying to keep an

open mind. His mind is closed to any new ideas.

Life

Life is like a journey, and your experiences are like different parts of a journey. Dying is like travelling to another place.

The baby arrived just after midnight. He came into the world in 1703. I set out to become a doctor, but it never worked out. She went through life without ever knowing the truth. It’s all been an uphill struggle. We seem to be at a crossroads.

Life

His life took an unexpected direction. He embarked on a new career. You’ve got to move on and forget about what’s

happened. Will they go the distance? She’s well on the way to recovery. They’re over the hill now. His grandmother passed away/on last year. They remembered the departed in their prayers.

Life

Events in your life are like games, with people trying to win, or with things happening by chance.

I’m on a winning/losing streak. You win some, you lose some. It’s all been a race against time. This is not a level playing field. They’re planning to drop out of the rat race. Is he in/out of the running? The election will be a one-horse race. They asked, but their parents wouldn’t play ball.

Life

This development has been on/in the cards for some time.

If you play your cards right, you shouldn’t have any problems.

The cards were stacked against us. Then they played their trump card and we gave in. We just had a lucky throw of the dice. All bets are off – nobody knows what will happen

now.