Linguistics

Vocabulary:

Linguistics اللغة علم

Scientific علميLanguage اللغة In the middle of منتصف فيCentury القرن Emphasize على يؤكد على، يشددApproach منهاج منهج، أسلوب، طريقة، وسيلة،Developing تطور Traditional تقليدي Philology فقه اللغةLargely غالبا الأغلب، في العموم، علىMatters ،أوامر مسالة، قضاياAttitude ،هيئة موقف، سلوكEmphasis ،توكيد تشديد، اهتمامPurpose الانجاز النتيجة، غاية، هدف،Philologist العالم

اللغة بفقهConcerned بكذا يهتم ب، يتعلقPrimarily الأصل في أولا، رئيسي، بشكل أساسا،Historical التاريخي Manifest جلي أو ظاهرWritten texts المكتوبة النصوصContext

الكلام سياقAssociated مرافق Literature الأدب

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Culture الثقافةLinguist :العالم اللغوي باللغةThough بالرغم أن، مع

أن منInterested يهتمTends ،إلى يجنح

إلى يميلPriority ،أهمية أولوية، الأسبقيةSpoken languages المحكية اللغاتProblems مشاكل Analyzing تحليل Operate تعمل Given معين محدد،Reference to

إلى الإشارةIn principle حيث من المبدأMerely مجرد Great العظيمة المميزة،Literary language الأدبية اللغةWorld العالم Field حقل Conveniently مناسبة أو ملائمة بصورةIn terms of كلمات أو بعبارات كذا، بلغةDichotomies فروع أو أقسامSynchronic التاريخي تطورها إلى النظر دون لغة في معين موضوع بدراسة خاص متزامن

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Versus بالمقابلDiachronic التاريخ أو الزمن عبر متغير ترتيب أو تحليلTheoretical النظري Applied التطبيقيMicrolinguistics Macrolinguistics Description الوصفDescribes يصفStructural changes البنيوية التغيراتTaken place حدثت Successive متتابع متعاقب،Construction إنشاءTheory النظريةStructure بنية أو تركيبFramework ،هيكل أطارControversy ،جدال نقاشAs to ،بخصوص

يتعلق فيماConceptions فكرة مفهوم،Aim الهدف Applied linguistics التطبيقي اللغة علمApplication تطبيق Findings النتائجTechniques الأساليب التقنية، الطرائق

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Variety متنوعPractical عمليTasks مهام Especially خاصة بصورة خصوصا،Elaboration الشرح المفصلImproved المستحسنةMethods طرائقTerms المصطلحان Yet ،الآن حتى بعد،

الآن لغايةWell ،بمهارة جيد، بشكل براعةEstablished ما شيء صحة يبرهن يثبت،In fact الواقع في

الحقيقة أوPurely ،مجرد بصفاء، بنقاوة، فقطConvenience مناسب ملائم،Former الأول Latter الأخير Broader أوسع View ،رأي فكرة، رؤية، ملخصScope

موضوع نطاقSake منفعة فائدة، مصلحة، هدف،

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Social اجتماعيFunction ،دور الوظيفة، عملmanner ،الطريقة الأسلوبAcquired تكتسبPsychological النفسيةMechanisms آليات أو التقنياتUnderlie يكونProduction إنتاج Reception استلامSpeech الكلامAesthetic

فني جمالي،Communicative الحوار الاتصال،So on ،وهكذا

جرا وهلمIn contrast بالمقابلEmbraces ،يتضمن يشملAspects ،جوانب مظاهرAreas ،المعرفة حقول مجالاتTerminological مصطلحات Recognition معرفةPsycholinguistics ) الذهني ) النفسي اللغة علم

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Sociolinguistics الاجتماعي اللغة علمAnthropological linguistics الإنساني اللغة علمDialectology علم اللهجاتMathematical بالرياضيات: متعلق رياضيComputational linguistics الحاسوب اللغة علمStylistics :أشكال أو صيغ عدة في اللغة أساليب دراسة الأسلوبيةIdentified مع يشترك يؤيد، يدعم،Linguistic لغويConcepts ،أفكار مفاهيم، خططInvolve يتضمن

يشمل أوDisciplines فروع

Linguistics is the scientific study of language. The word was first used in the middle of the 19th century to

emphasize the difference between a newer approach to the study of language that was then developing and the

more traditional approach of philology. The differences were and are largely matters of attitude, emphasis,

and purpose. The philologist is concerned primarily with the historical development of languages as it is

manifest in written texts and in the context of the associated literature and culture. The linguist, though he

may be interested in written texts and in the development of languages through time, tends to give priority to

spoken languages and to the problems of analyzing them as they operate at a given point in time, without

reference to their history. The linguist, in principle, is interested in all languages and not merely in the great

literary languages of the world.

The field of linguistics may be conveniently divided in terms of three dichotomies: synchronic versus

diachronic, theoretical versus applied, and microlinguistics versus macrolinguistics. A synchronic description

of a language describes the language as it is at a given time; a diachronic is concerned with the historical de-

velopment of the language and the structural changes that have taken place in it between successive points in

time. The goal of theoretical linguistics is the construction of a general theory of the structure of language or

of a general theoretical framework for the description of languages )there is some controversy as to the

difference between these two conceptions of the subject(; the aim of applied linguistics is the application of

the findings and techniques of the scientific study of language to a variety of practical tasks, especially to the

elaboration of improved methods of language teaching. The terms microlinguistics and macrolinguistics are

not yet well established, and they are, in fact, used here purely for convenience. The former refers to a

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narrower and the latter to a much broader view of the scope of linguistics. According to the microlinguistic

view, languages should be analyzed for their own sake and without reference to their social function, to the

manner in which they are acquired by children, to the psychological mechanisms that underlie the production

and reception of speech, to the literary and the aesthetic or communicative function of language, and so on. In

contrast, macrolinguistics embraces all of these aspects of language. A number of areas within

macrolinguistics have been given terminological recognition: psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics,

anthropological linguistics, dialectology, mathematical and computational linguistics, and stylistics.

Macrolinguistics should not be identified with applied linguistics. The application of linguistic methods and

concepts to language teaching may well involve other disciplines in a way that microlinguistics does not. But

there is, in principle, a theoretical aspect to every part of macrolinguistics, no less than to microlinguistics.

Exercises:

A- Answer each of these questions in a complete sentence:

1- What is linguistics?

2- With what is the philologist concerned?

3- How many dichotomies may the field linguistics be divided? And what are they?

4- What is a diachronic description concerned with?

5- What is the aim of applied linguistics?

6- What are the areas within macrolinguistics?

B- Fill in the blanks with information from the text:

1. The word ‘linguistics’ was first used in ___________ to emphasize the difference between a newer

approach to the study of language.

2. The linguist tends to give priority to ____________ as they operate at a given point in time, without

reference to their history.

3. A synchronic description of a language ____________.

4. The goal of theoretical linguistics is ______________.

5. Concerning the microlinguistics view, languages ___________ without reference to their social function,

psychological mechanism, and so on.

6. Macrolinguistics should not be ____________.

C- Translate the following paragraph from English into Arabic:

Macrolinguistics should not be identified with applied linguistics. The application of linguistic methods and

concepts to language teaching may well involve other disciplines in a way that microlinguistics does not. But

there is, in principle, a theoretical aspect to every part of macrolinguistics, no less than to microlinguistics.

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D- Derive nouns from the following words:

Emphasize, develop, write, associate, analyze, operate, apply, describe, construct, elaborate, improve, establish, produce, speak, communicate, and recognize.

E- Put each of the following words in a grammatical sentence. Do not quote sentences that are found in

the passage:

1- linguistics 2- language

3- approach 4- philology

5- context 6- literature

7- spoken language 8- literary language

9- applied linguistics 10- aesthetic

F- Match the words in column A with their synonyms in column B:

A B

Approach precedence

Attitude situation

Manifest procedure

Context separateness

Priority aspect

Merely clear

Dichotomy only

Landmark

Semantics and PragmaticsVocabulary:Semantics الدلالة علم المعاني، علمPragmatics التداوليةEmpirical تجريبي Existing ،الموجودة الباقية، يتواجدAbstract موضوعي المجرد، نظري،Symbolic رمزي Logic :لتمثيل الرموز من نظام فيه يستخدم الحديث المنطق أشكال من شكل المنطق

والعلاقات المقاديرSystems

مناهج ،أنظمة

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Basic أساسي Concerns أمورObjects الأشياءInterpreters ،المفسرين الشارحينFormal ،شكلي

اسمي رسمي،Signs الإشارات Plato أفلاطون Believed اعتقدPhrases عباراتRelated ترتبط Directly مباشرتاActual ،حققي فعلي، واقعيPick out

ينتقي يختار،Aristotle أرسطو Suggested اقترحIndirect

مباشرة غيرMediated يحدث Social اجتماعيConvention عادة عرف، تقليد،Recently

مؤخرا حديثا،Conceptualist Held امن اعتقد،

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Thoughts الأفكارPhilosopher الفيلسوفDrew a distinction ميز Sense المعنى Expression ،كلمة عبارةReference الإشارة Equivalent متكافئ أو مرادفNamely :،يعني أي بالتحديدPlanet كوكب Venus الزهرة Present الحاليFrance فرنساSignificant مهمFeatures السمات ميزات، البارزةGrowth

نمو تطور،Recognized ،يدركيكتشفForemost

رئيسي أهم،Semanticists الألفاظ دلالات بعلم المتخصصينCent.=century قرن Lead توجيه قيادة،Issues

قضايا مواضيع،Truth

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الحقيقة Publication ،إصدار نشرInfluential مؤثرCriticism النقدStylistics :أشكال أو صيغ عدة في اللغة أساليب دراسة الأسلوبيةMetaphors الاستعارات اللغوية، المجازاتEvoke تثير Feelings المشاعرInvestigate يحقق يبحث، فيOrdinary ،مألوف عادي، معهودDistinguish يميز Influence تأثيرBehaviour السلوك Subfield Contributes يساهم Encompasses يشملSpeech act theory Conversational implicature Talk in interaction Sociology الاجتماع علمStatus الحالة Involved المعنيينInferred استنتاجي استدلالي،Intent ،نية

هدف غرض،In this respect الصدد هذا فيOvercome يتغلب Apparent واضح

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Ambiguity الغموضManner الحالMetapragmatics Awareness المعرفةChallenging Experience الخبرة Actually في الواقعReaction رد فعلStructuralist linguistics البنيويين لغة علمOutlined وضع خطط،Expanded توسع Analyzable للتحليل قابلComposed of من يتكونEngaged in

ب ينشغلAs opposed to ل خلافا عكس، نقيض،Examining ،دراسة تحليلNotion المفهوم Space فضاء Langue Meanwhile خلال أثناء، غضون، فيCome into being تكون أو ظهرChomskyan linguistics جومسكي لأفكار المتبني اللغة علمFamously علانيةRepudiated رفض Bloomfieldian anthropological linguistics

لأفكار المتبني الانثروبولوجي اللغة علمفيلد بلومTradition العرفInfluential figures معين بفكر المتأثرين الأشخاصAccording to

إلى طبقا

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Users المستخدمينFocus التركيز Syntactics وخصائصها والرموز العلامات علمExamines ،يدرس يحللSymbols الرموزImplied meaning المقصود أو الضمني المعنىIn general semantics, is the study of the relationship between words and meanings. The empirical study of word meanings and sentence meanings in existing languages is a branch of linguistics; the abstract study of meaning in relation to language or symbolic logic systems is a branch of philosophy. Both are called semantics. The field of semantics has three basic concerns: the relations of words to the objects denoted by them, the relations of words to the interpreters of them, and, in symbolic logic, the formal relations of signs to one another )syntax(.

Linguistic meaning has been studied for thousands of years. Plato believed that words or phrases related directly to the actual objects they pick out. Aristotle suggested that relationships between words and the world are indirect, mediated by social convention. More recently, the conceptualist view of linguistic meaning has held that there is an indirect relationship between words and things, mediated by thoughts in the mind.

The philosopher Gottlob Frege drew a distinction between the sense of a linguistic expression and its reference )the thing in the world that it picks out(. So the meaning of a natural language expression is equivalent to both sense and reference; for example, the phrases ‘the morning star’ and ‘the evening star’ have different senses, but both have the same reference – namely, the planet Venus. Some linguistic expressions can have a reference but no sense )such as the name ‘Fred’(, and some may have sense but no reference )such as ‘the present King of France’(.

In linguistics, semantics has its beginnings in France and Germany in the 1820s when the meanings of words as significant features in the growth of language was recognized. Among the foremost linguistic semanticists of the 20th cent. are Gustaf Stern, Jost Trier, B. L. Whorf, Uriel Weinreich, Stephen Ullmann, Thomas Sebeok, Noam Chomsky etc.

In philosophy, semantics has generally followed the lead of symbolic logic, and many philosophers do not make a distinction between logic and semantics. In this context, semantics is concerned with such issues as meaning and truth, meaning and thought, and the relation between signs and what they mean.

Since the publication of the influential The Meaning of Meaning )1925( by C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards, semantics has also become important to literary criticism and stylistics, in which the way that metaphors evoke feelings is investigated and differences between ordinary and literary language are studied. A related discipline, general semantics )so called to distinguish it from semantics in linguistics or philosophy(, studies the ways in which meanings of words influence human behaviour. General semantics was developed by Alfred Korzybski.

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On the other hand, pragmatics is a subfield of linguistics which studies the ways in which context contributes to meaning. Pragmatics encompasses speech act theory, conversational implicature, talk in interaction and other approaches to language behaviour in philosophy, sociology, and linguistics. It studies how the transmission of meaning depends not only on the linguistic knowledge )e.g. grammar, lexicon etc.( of the speaker and listener, but also on the context of the utterance, knowledge about the status of those involved, the inferred intent of the speaker, and so on. In this respect, pragmatics explains how language users are able to overcome apparent ambiguity, since meaning relies on the manner, place, time etc. of an utterance. The ability to understand another speaker's intended meaning is called pragmatic competence. An utterance describing pragmatic function is described as metapragmatic. Pragmatic awareness is regarded as one of the most challenging aspects of language learning, and comes only through experience. Actually, the meaning of the sentence depends on an understanding of the context and the speaker's intent.

Pragmatics was a reaction to structuralist linguistics as outlined by Ferdinand de Saussure. In many cases, it expanded upon his idea that language has an analyzable structure, composed of parts that can be defined in relation to others. Pragmatics first engaged only in synchronic study, as opposed to examining the historical development of language. However, it rejected the notion that all meaning comes from signs existing purely in the abstract space of langue. Meanwhile, historical pragmatics has also come into being. While Chomskyan linguistics famously repudiated Bloomfieldian anthropological linguistics, pragmatics continues its tradition. Also, some influential figures were Franz Boas, Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf.

According to Charles W. Morris, pragmatics tries to understand the relationship between signs and their users, while semantics tends to focus on the actual objects or ideas to which a word refers, and syntax )or "syntactics"( examines relationships among signs or symbols. Semantics is the literal meaning of an idea whereas pragmatics is the implied meaning of the given idea.

Exercises:

A- Translate the following paragraph from English into Arabic:

According to Charles W. Morris, pragmatics tries to understand the relationship between signs and their users,

while semantics tends to focus on the actual objects or ideas to which a word refers, and syntax )or

"syntactics"( examines relationships among signs or symbols. Semantics is the literal meaning of an idea

whereas pragmatics is the implied meaning of the given idea.

B- Match the phrases and words in column A with their completion in column B:

A B

Pragmatics is the ability to understand another speaker's intended meaning.

General semantics is an utterance describing pragmatic function.

Semantics is the abstract study of meaning in relation to language or symbolic logic systems.

Metapragmatic is a subfield of linguistics which studies the ways in which context contributes to meaning.

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Linguistic meaning is the empirical study of word meanings in existing languages.

Meaning in philosophy studies the ways in which meanings of words influence human behaviour.

is the study of the relation between words.

C- Give another word or phrase to replace these words as they are used in the passage:

Empirical, existing, denote, pick out, suggest, mediate, recently, hold, draw a distinction, equivalent, foremost, semanticist, evoke, encompass, status, inferred, overcome, apparent, actually, as opposed to, purely, repudiated, examine, and given.

Pre-Islamic Literature

Vocabulary:

Rise of نشوء

Period of ignorance الجاهلية

Religious ديني

Oral شفهي

Tradition ،معرفة عرف،تراث

Postulated يطالب

Tales حكايات قصص،

Sinbad السندباد

Current متداول

Recorded سجلت

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Later أو بعد ما في اللاحقين

Flowering ازدهار

Lively ،نشطقوي واضح،

Captured ظهر

Compilations مجموعات

The suspended المعلقات

Reputedly شائع أو معروف هو ما على بناء

Sufficiently وافية بصورة

Outstanding بارز رائع،

Hung تعلق

Collections مجاميع

Biased مروبة منحرف،

Poem قصيدة

Novels روايات

Fairy tales قصص خيالية

As a matter of fact والواقع الحقيقية في

Well-suited ،ملائممناسب

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Harmonious متناسق

Word-patterns الكلمات انماط أو الكلمات نماذج

Elaborate في يتوسع يسهب، الاسهاب،

Rhymes القوافي

Rhythms الاوزنالشعرية

Emerged ظهر

Arabia الجزيرة شبه العربية

AD= Anno Domini الميلادي التقويم

Recited ينشد

Handed down from من يتوارث

Typical نموذجي

Ode القصيدة

Pairs زوج

Half-lines ) العجز ) أو الصدر اي شعري بيت نصف

Traditionally تقليدي نحو على عادة، تقليديا،

Nomadic بدوي

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Lament رثاء

Abandoned مهجور

Camp مخيم

Praises ،يمدحعلى يثني

Camel الجمل

Journey رحلة

Hardships ،الشدائد المشقات

Entails يستلزم يستدعي،

Main اساسي رئيسي،

Theme ،الفكرة الموضوع

Extolling في يفرط يمجد، المديح

Vilifying يذم

Striking للنظر ملفت

Unexpectedness التوقع عدم

All of a sudden فجاءة

Literary ادبي

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Art فن

Perfection كمال تمام،

Unequalled متكافئ أو متعادل غير

Sprang يظهر أو يبرز فجاءة

Complex أو معقد صعب

Series سلسلة

Vigour ،قوةحيوية نشاط،

Vividness مفعم بالحيوية

Imagination خيال

Precision احكام دقة،

Imagery المجاز الاستعارة الصورة،

Articulated تلفظ بوضوح

Traces اثار

Dialect لهجة

Mostly في الاغلب

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Survived بقيت

The tales of Arabs العرب اخبار

Their days of warfare العرب ايام

Anonymously مجهول أو اسم بدون

Accredited يعزو أو ينسب الى

Individual فرد أو معينProverbs الامثالOrations الخطبSources المصادرRegarding بخصوصFragments اجزاء Verse قصيدة الشعر،Afterwards

بعد فيماValue

اهمية قيمة،Seldom نادراCommentary تفسير شرح، تعليق،Attached

يلحق يرفق،Scholars الادباءCurious غريبة Throwing light الضوء يسلطTraditions روايات

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Legends الاساطيرBesides على علاوة الى بالإضافةNumerous متعدد Romances الرومانسية الغرامية، القصصRecounted يقص يسرد، يروي،Glorious

البهية الرائعةDeeds اعمال

The period before the writing of the Qur'an and the rise of Islam is known to Muslims as ‘the period of ignorance.’ While this ignorance refers mainly to religious ignorance, there is little written literature before this time, although significant oral tradition is postulated. Tales like those about Sinbad and Antar bin Shaddad were probably current, but they were recorded later. The final decades of the sixth century, however, begin to show the flowering of a lively written tradition. This tradition was captured over two centuries later with two important compilations of the Mufaddaliyat and the Mu'allaqat )‘the suspended’(. The Mu'allaqat were called so reputedly because they were considered sufficiently outstanding to be hung on the walls of the ka'ba in Mecca. These collections probably give us a biased picture of the writings of the time as only the bests are preserved; some of the poems may represent only the best part of a long poem. However, they can be stories and novels and even fairy tales as well.

As a matter of fact, the structure of the Arabic language is well-suited to harmonious word-patterns, with elaborate rhymes and rhythms. The earliest known literature emerged in northern Arabia around 500 AD and took the form of poetry which was recited aloud, memorized and handed down from one generation to another.

The typical poem of this period is the ode, which normally consists of 70-80 pairs of half-lines. Traditionally, the odes describe the nomadic life, opening with a lament at an abandoned camp for a lost love. The second part praises the poet's horse or camel and describes a journey, with the hardships it entails. The third section contains the main theme of the poem, often extolling the poet's tribe and vilifying its enemies.

The most striking feature in Arabic literature is its unexpectedness. All of a sudden, a new literary art emerged, with a perfection unequalled before. Many poets sprang up all over northern Arabia, reciting complex odes. In these odes a series of themes are elaborated with vigour vividness of imagination, and precision of imagery. The language was rich and highly articulated, showing little or no traces of dialect.

Pre-Islamic literature is mostly poetry, but some prose has survived like “the tales of the Arabs” and their “days of warfare”. Both the tales and the days are told anonymously, unlike poetry which was always accredited to individual poets. Other forms of prose include proverbs and orations.

Our sources of information regarding the pre-Islamic period may be classified as follows:

1- Poems and fragments of verse which were preserved by oral tradition and were written down two or three hundred years afterwards.

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2- Proverbs: These are of less value, as they seldom explain themselves. The commentary attached to them is the work of later scholars. Famous collections include Mufaddal bin Salama’s. They include a lot of curious information throwing light on every aspect of pre-Islamic life.

3- Traditions and Legends. Besides proverbs and orations, there were numerous histories, legends, and romances which recounted the glorious deeds of tribes and individuals. The best source of these stories is the Book of Songs by Abul-Faraj al-Isfahani )976 A.D.(.

Exercises:

A- Translate the following paragraph into Arabic:

As a matter of fact, the structure of the Arabic language is well-suited to harmonious word-patterns, with elaborate rhymes and rhythms. The earliest known literature emerged in northern Arabia around 500 AD and took the form of poetry which was recited aloud, memorized and handed down from one generation to another.

B- Give for each a word or phrase of opposite meaning to that used in the passage:Anonymous, fragments, seldom, abandoned, vilify, hardships, main, unexpectedness, vigour, precision, outstanding, flowering, oral, biased, fairy tales, elaborate, emerge, and complex.

C-Write the pattern number after each sentence:1- Tales like those about Sinbad and Antar bin Shaddad were probably current.2- These collections probably give us a biased picture of the writings of the time as only the best poems are preserved.3- The typical poem of this period is the ode.4- The most striking feature in Arabic literature is its unexpectedness.5- The third section contains the main theme of the poem. 6- Pre-Islamic literature is mostly poetry.7- Both the tales and the days are told anonymously.8- The best source of these stories is the Book of Songs.

Islamic LiteratureVocabulary Europeans الاوربيين Middle Ages الوسطى العصورBenefited استفاد Treatises بحوث رسائل،Medicine الطب Mathematics الرياضيات Astronomy الفلك علمAcquainted معرفة أو اطلاع علىOriginal الاصلي Creations ابداعات Heritage تراث ارث، تركة،Hardly بصعوبة West الغرب Except for ماعدا Holy مقدس Thousand and One Nights ليلة و ليلة الفArabian Nights ليلة و ليلة الفUnfamiliarity ما بشيء المعرفة عدمDue to بسبب

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In part ما حد الى جزئيا،Quite بعيد حد الى ما، حد الى تماما،Translate يترجم Script خط Applied to على ينطبقTraditional تقليدي Rigid صلب Distinctive مميز Forms صيغ Stylized واقعية أو طبيعية غير بصورة أو بطريقةDramas المسرحية Specific خاص Dominated على يهيمن على، يسيطرFrequently قصيرة فترات في تكرارا، كثيرا،Detriment of في ضررContent المحتوى Classical قديم Principle قاعدة مبدأ،Monorhyme الموحدة أو الواحدة القافيةEmployed يستخدم يستعمل، يوظف،Rhyming pattern القافية اشكال أو نماذجMeters شعرية اوزان أو ابحرPoet الشاعر Allowed ب يسمحCourse غضون سياق، سير،Chief رئيسي هام،Poetic شعري Ghazel الغزل Masnavi المزدوج النظم معنوي، مثنوي أو المثنويQuatrain الرباعيات Genre ادبي نوعMaqamah المقام Endured يدوم يبقى،Up to حتى Elaborately مفصل نحو علىStructured المبنية المنظومة،Verses نظم الشعر، من ابياتMaintains يحتفظ Piece المقطع Prelude تمهيد استهلال، مقدمة،To get reader's attention القارء انتباه يجذبScenes مشاهد Events احداثTribute للتقدير رمز ب، اشادةPatron الراعي الحامي، الظهير، النصير،Served ك تستخدمInstrument اداة God الله Eulogies تأبين مديح، ثناء،)P.b.u.3H.( = Peace be upon him and his household

وسلم واله عليه الله صلىCommendation إطراء المديح،Saints الله اولياءLent itself to ما لغرض تصلحDisplays اظهار عرض،Lyric الغنائي الشعر من قصيدةOriginated نشاءة بدأت،Opening افتتاح افتتاحية، بداية،Section قسم جزء،

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Secular دنيوي Combination مزيج مزج،Serious هام جاد،Satire الهجاء قدح،Jokes فكاهة نكتة،Word games الكلمات خدع الكلمات، العابCodes الشفرات Persia ايران فارس، بلادCountry بلد Ancient قديم The double one معنوي مثنوي أو المثنويRhyming couplet المزدوج النظمPopular معروف شائع،Enabled يمكن Stringing يربطClosest اقرب Approach اسلوب منهاج، منهج،Epic بطولي ملحمي، ملحمة،Rejected رفض Fiction القصصي الادب رواية، قصة،Akin to يشابه يماثل،Falsehood الكذب Expression التعبير Spirit روح Basically جوهريا اساسيا،Entertaining مسلي Extremely بالغ شديد،Complicated معقد Style اسلوب Author's الكاتب Wit فطنة ذكاء،Eloquence فصاحة بلاغة،Tangled التعقيد شديد متحابك، متشابك،Convoluted ملتف معقد،Terminology مصطلحات Comprehend يستوعب يفهم،Almost الاغلب فيMatter-of-fact الحقيقة في الواقع، في عملي، واقعي،Artificial واقعي غير متكلف، زائف،Roots جذور Persian ايراني فارسي،Four-line verse الشعر من ابيات اربع

Although Europeans during the Middle Ages benefited from Islamic treatises on medicine, geography, mathematics, astronomy, and philosophy, they did not become acquainted with the original literary creations of the Muslim world. Even today, the rich heritage of Islamic literature is hardly known in the West, except for a few examples such as the Koran, the holy book of Islam; the `Thousand and One Nights' , or `Arabian Nights'; the `Rubiyaat' of Omar Khayyam; and the 20th-century works of Khalil Gibran. This unfamiliarity is due in part to the fact that almost all of this literature was written in languages that often were quite difficult to translate, in part because they used an alphabet in Semitic script.

Literary Types

The difficulty of translation applied especially to Islamic poetry, which for centuries used traditional, rigid, and distinctive forms in a highly stylized way. Prose, in the Western sense of novels, short stories, and dramas, was not known in the Islamic world until the modern period. What prose writing there was also used

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specific forms, and often it, like poetry, was rhymed. This emphasis on form and style dominated Islamic literature until the early 19th century, frequently to the detriment of content.

Classical Arabic poetry was built on the principle of the monorhyme, and the single rhyme was employed throughout a poem, whether it was long or short. Within the rhyming pattern, there were 16 basic meters in five groupings, but the poet was not allowed to change the meter in the course of a poem.

The chief literary types, all poetic forms developed according to traditional rules, were the ode, the ghazel, the qitah, the masnavi, and the quatrain. In prose, the chief genre was the maqamah.

The ode was developed by pre-Islamic Arabs and has endured in Arabic literary history up to the present. It consists of an elaborately structured ode of from 20 to 100 verses and maintains a single end rhyme through the entire piece. The poem opens with a short prelude, usually a love poem, to get the reader's attention. This is followed by an account of the poet's scenes and events. The main theme, at the end, is a tribute to the poet's patron, his tribe, or even himself. After the coming of Islam, the ode served as an instrument of praise to God, eulogies of the prophet Muhammad )P.b.u.3H.(, and songs of commendation or lament for the saints. It was a type of poem that lent itself to displays of the poet's own knowledge.

The ghazel is a love lyric of from five to 12 verses that probably originated as an elaboration of the ode's opening section. The content was religious, secular, or a combination of both.

The qitah is a literary form used for the less serious matters of everyday life. Its main function was for satire, jokes, word games, and codes.

The masnavi originated in Persia, a country with its own ancient literary tradition. The term means "the doubled one," or rhyming couplet. The masnavi became very popular because it enabled the poet to tell a long story by stringing together thousands of verses. It was the closest approach to the epic poem that developed in Islamic literature. The Arabs rejected the epic as a form of fiction, which they felt was akin to falsehood.

The maqamah is the most typical expression of the Arabic spirit in rhymed prose. It was used to tell basically simple and entertaining stories in an extremely complicated style. Because the maqamah was frequently used to display the author's wit, learning, and eloquence, it often became so tangled in convoluted terminology and grammar that it was quite difficult to comprehend and therefore almost impossible to translate. Only in the late 19th century, under the influence of translations from the European languages, did its style take on a matter-of-fact manner that made it less artificial.

The quatrain also has its roots in pre-Islamic Persian poetic tradition. Its form is a quatrain )four-line verse( in which the first, second, and fourth lines rhyme. The most famous example of the quatrain is the Rubiyaat of Omar Khayyam.

Exercises:

A- Translate the following paragraph into Arabic:

The maqamah is the most typical expression of the Arabic spirit in rhymed prose. It was used to tell basically simple and entertaining stories in an extremely complicated style. Because the maqamah was frequently used to display the author's wit, learning, and eloquence, it often became so tangled in convoluted terminology and grammar that it was quite difficult to comprehend and therefore almost impossible to translate. Only in the

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late 19th century, under the influence of translations from the European languages, did its style take on a matter-of-fact manner that made it less artificial.

B- Find the best Arabic equivalents of the following words and phrases as they are used in the passage:

1- Islamic literature 2- geography 3- Muslim world 4- rich heritage 5- 20 th century 6- languages 7- Semitic script 8- literary types 9- prose 10- Western sense of 11- novel 12- short stories 13- poet 14- according to 15- traditional rules 16- love poem 17- an account of 18- desert 19- theme 20- translate 21- grammar.

C- Drive adverbs from the following words:

Original, unfamiliarity, part, traditional, specific, frequent, chief, according, present, elaborate, entire, serious, popular, typical, basic, and extreme.

Modern Arabic Literature

Vocabulary:Revival انبعاث احياء، نهضة،Took place حدث Along with الى بالإضافةRenaissance النهضة Resurgence جديدة ولادة انبعاث،Confined يقتصر Mainly الغالب فيEgypt مصر Spread انتشر Region المنطقة Revived جدد انتعش،Tropes مجازية عبارات أو كلمات المجازات،Previous السابقServed ادى عمل،Ornate مزخرف منمق،Dropped يستخدم لم ازال،Greek اغريقي أو يونانيVitalize ينشط يحي،Success نجاح Count :أوربي نبيل الكونتTranslators مترجمين Major رئيسي Mid منتصف Writers كاتب Suffered عانى Censorship المطبوعات مراقبة رقابة،Imprisoned يسجن يحبس،Praiseworthy بالثناء جدير

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Promoted رفع رقى،Authority سلطة Non-fiction واقعية روايات أو قصصAcademics :بالأدب العلاقة ذوي الأكاديميينPolemics والمناظرة المجادلة فن جدلي،Re-shape صياغة يعيد تشكيل، يعيدNationalism قومية للوطن، اخلاص وطنية،Campaigns فيها يشترك أو حملة يديرRights حقوق Characteristic مميزة صفة الميزة،Distinct بارز متميز،Trends اتجاهات Neo-classical Sought بحث Rediscover اكتشاف اعادةModernist للعصر المواكبين أو العصرينImitating محاكاة تقليد،Prominent بارز Critiqued انتقد Egyptian مصري Society المجتمع Constitutes يشكل يكون،Stage مرحلةFurthered يؤيد يعزز،Lebanese لبناني Immigrated هاجر Family عائلة Following تبع Damascus دمشق Riots فوضى بالأمن، اخلال شغب،Serialized متسلسل نحو على نشرNewspaper صحيفة جريدة،Clarity وضوح Vivid المشرق القوي،Incorporated يجسد يدمج،Musings تأملات Nevertheless ذلك وبرغم ذلك، معCritics النقاد Indications علامات اشارات، دلالات،Assume يفترض Point to الى يشيرCommon شائعResonance القارء دماغ الى والمشاعر الصور جذب قوةAvoid يتجنب Conflicts صراعات Acting بعمل يقوم يعمل،Background خلفية Scale Depict بالكلمات يصف يصور،Cairoالقاهرة Trilogy :الصلة شديد ولكنه نفسه ذات في تام منها كل أو ادبية مؤلفات ثلاثة أو مسرحيات ثلاث من سلسلة الثلاثية

واحدا موضوعا واياهما يشكل بشقيقته

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Struggles الصراعات Across عبر Won فازNobel Prize نوبل جائزةWin يفوز Plays مسرحيات Chiefly رئيسية بصفةFrench فرنسي Distinctly ريب غير من بوضوح،Flavour غالبة أو مميزة صفة نكهة،Playwright مسرحي مؤلف أو كاتبRe-telling اخر بشكل أو ثانية يرويSeven Sleepers الكهف اهلEpilogue خاتمة Dramatists المسرحيين الكتابInherent متأصل ملازم،Start

البدايةFestivals مهرجانات Pitched يختار Against ضد Deemed يعتبر Audience المستمعين جمهورAdopted تبنى Official رسمي Status رتبة مكانة،Crass تام Miracle اعجاز Inimitable يضاهى لا فريد، فذ،Divinely سماوي الهي،Inspired الهام وحي،Analysis تحليل مفصلة، دراسةPermitted ب يسمحMessage الرسالة Facilitated يبسط يسهل،Interpretation تفسير Regularly بانتظام Worthy جدير يستحق،Contrasting مقارنة In order to لكي Determine يحدد Plagiarism :كلماته أو اخر مؤلف اراء انتحال الانتحالExercising استعمال ممارسة،Concerns عمل اهتمام،Particularly خصوصا With this concern الخصوص بهذاArrogant متغطرس متعجرف، متكبر،Self-regard الشخصية بالمصلحة الاهتمامEndear يحبب Looked for عن بحثSource مصدر اصل، سبب،Detailing مفصلا

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Figure رمز Guides الارشادات At first الامر بادئ فيCompared قارنت Unfavorably سلبية بصورة أو بها مرغوب غير بصورةIdeals المثلى الشخصيات العليا، الامثالStandards المعايير المقاييس،Adoption تبنيRomantic رومانسي Dictated يأمر يستكتب، يملئ،Introduction تمهيد مقدمة،Keen on ب ولوع الى، مشتاق ب، مهتمDare to يتجاسر يجرؤ،Challenge يتحدى Pointed out ان بينBorrowed استعيرت

A revival took place in Arabic literature during the nineteenth century along with much of Arabic culture and it is referred to in Arabic as Renaissance. This resurgence of writing in Arabic was confined mainly to Egypt until the twentieth century when it spread to other countries in the region. This Renaissance was not only felt within the Arab world but also beyond with a great interest in the translating of Arabic works into European languages. Although the use of the Arabic language was revived, many of the tropes of the previous literature which served to make it so ornate and complicated were dropped. Also the western forms of the short story and the novel were preferred over the traditional Arabic forms.

Just as in the eighth century when a movement to translate ancient Greek and other literature helped vitalize Arabic literature, another translation movement would offer new ideas and material for Arabic. An early popular success was The Count of Monte Cristo which spurred a host of historical novels on Arabic subjects. Two important translators were Rifa'ah al -Tahtawi and Jabra Ibrahim Jabra.

Major political change in the region during the mid-twentieth century caused problems for writers. Many suffered censorship and some, such as Sun'allah Ibrahim and Abdul Rahman Munif, were imprisoned. At the same time, others who had written works supporting or praiseworthy of governments were promoted to positions of authority within cultural bodies. Non-fiction writers and academics have also produced political polemics and criticisms aiming to re-shape Arabic politics. Some of the best known are Taha Hussein's The Future of Culture in Egypt which was an important work of Egyptian nationalism and the works of Nawal el-Saadawi who campaigns for women's rights.

Modern Arabic novels

Characteristic of the renaissance period of revival were two distinct trends. The Neo-Classical movement sought to rediscover the literary traditions of the past, and was influenced by traditional literary genres such as the maqama and the Thousand and One Nights. In contrast, the Modernist movement began by translating Western works, primarily novels, into Arabic.

Individual authors in Syria, Lebanon, and Egypt created original works by imitating the classical maqama. The most prominent of these was al-Muwaylihi, whose book, The Hadith of Issa ibn Hisham, critiqued Egyptian society in the period of Ismail. This work constitutes the first stage in the development of the modern Arabic novel. This trend was furthered by Georgy Zeidan, a Lebanese Christian writer who

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immigrated with his family to Egypt following the Damascus riots of 1860. In the early twentieth century, Zeidan serialized his historical novels in the Egyptian newspaper al-Hilal. These novels were extremely popular because of their clarity of language, simple structure, and the author's vivid imagination. Two other important writers from this period were Khalil Gibran and Mikha'il Na'ima, both of whom incorporated philosophical musings into their works.

Nevertheless, literary critics do not consider the works of these four authors to be true novels, but rather indications of the form that the modern novel would assume. Many of these critics point to Zaynab, a novel by Muhammad Hussein Haykal as the first true Arabic-language novel, while others point to Adraa Denshawi by Muhammad Tahir Haqqi.

A common theme in the modern Arabic novel is the study of family life with obvious resonances with the wider family of the Arabic world. Many of the novels have been unable to avoid the politics and conflicts of the region with war often acting as background to small scale family dramas. The works of Naguib Mahfouz depict life in Cairo, and his Cairo Trilogy, describing the struggles of a modern Cairene family across three generations, won him a Nobel prize for literature in 1988. He was the first Arabic writer to win the prize.

Modern plays

Modern Arabic drama began to be written in the nineteenth century chiefly in Egypt and mainly influenced and in imitation of French works. It was not until the twentieth century that it began to develop a distinctly Arab flavour and be seen elsewhere. The most important Arab playwright was Tawfiq al-Hakim whose first play was a re-telling of the Qur'anic story of the Seven sleepers and the second an epilogue for the Thousand and One Nights. Other important dramatists of the region include Yusuf al'Ani of Iraq and Saadallah Wannous of Syria.

Literary criticism

Criticism has been inherent in Arabic literature from the start. The poetry festivals of the pre-Islamic period often pitched two poets against each other in a war of verse in which one would be deemed to have won by the audience. The subject adopted a more official status with Islamic study of the Qur'an. Although nothing as crass as literary criticism could be applied to a work which was a miracle or inimitable and divinely inspired, analysis was permitted. This study allowed for better understanding of the message and facilitated interpretation for practical use, all of which help the development of a critical method important for later work on other literature. A clear distinction regularly drawn between works in literary language and popular works has meant that only part of the literature in Arabic was usually considered worthy of study and criticism.

Some of the first studies of the poetry are The Rules of Poetry by Tha'lab and Poetic Criticism by Qudamah ibn Ja'far. Other works tended to continue the tradition of contrasting two poets in order to determine which one best follows the rule of classical poetic structure. Plagiarism also became a significant idea exercising the critics' concerns. The works of al-Mutanabbi were particularly studied with this concern. He was considered by many the greatest of all Arab poets but his own arrogant self-regard for his abilities did not endear him to other writers and they looked for a source for his verse. Just as there were collections of facts written about many different subjects, numerous collections detailing every possible rhetorical figure used in literature emerged as well as how to write guides.

Modern criticism at first compared the new works unfavorably with the classical ideals of the past but these standards were soon rejected as too artificial. The adoption of the forms of European romantic poetry dictated the introduction of corresponding critical standards. Taha Hussayn, himself keen on European

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thought, would even dare to challenge the Qur'an with modern critical analysis in which he pointed out the ideas and stories borrowed from pre-Islamic poetry.

Exercises:

A- Fill in the blanks with information from the text:

1- The revival in Arabic literature is referred to in Arabic as _____________.

2- This resurgence of writing in Arabic was confined mainly to_____________ until the twentieth century

when it spread to _____________.

3- An early success was The Count of Monte Christo which spurred _____________.

4- Many suffered censorship and some, such as _____________, were important.

5- Writers who had written works supporting or praiseworthy of government were _____________.

6- Some of the best known are Taha Hussein's _____________ which was an important work of Egyptian

nationalism and the works of Nawal El-Saadawi who _____________.

7- _____________ sought to rediscover the literary traditions of the past, and was influenced by traditional

literary genres.

8- _____________ created original works by imitating the classical maqama.

9- _____________ critiqued Egyptian society in the period of Ismail.

10- _____________serialized his historical novels in the Egyptian newspaper Al-Hilal.

11- Literary critics do not consider the works of these four authors to be true novels, but _____________.

12- Many of these critics point to _____________, a novel by_____________ as the first true Arabic

language novel, while others point to _____________ by _____________.

13- Mahfouz was the first Arabic writer to _____________ in _____________.

14- The most important Arab playwright was _____________ and the second _____________.

15- _____________ has been inherent in Arabic literature from the start.

16- Other works tended to continue the tradition of contrasting two poets so as to _____________.

17- Al-Mutanabbi was considered by many the greatest of all Arab poets, but _____________ endear him to

other writers.

18- The adoption of the formsof European romantic poetry dictated _____________.

19- Taha Hussein pointed out the ideas and stories in the holy Qur'an borrowed from _____________.

B- Construct nineteen Wh-questions from the following statements:

1- Revival took place in Arabic literature during the nineteenth century.

2- This Renaissance was not only felt within the Arab world but also beyond with a great interest in the

translating of Arabic works into European languages.

3- A movement to translate ancient Greek and other literature help vitalized Arabic literature.

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4- Two important translators were Rifa'a Al-Tahtawi and Jabra Ibrahim Jabra.

5- Major political change in the region during the mid-twentieth century caused problems for writers.

6- Non-fiction writers and academics have also produced political polemics and criticism aiming to re-shape

Arabic politics.

7- Characteristics of renaissance were two distinct trends.

8- The modernist movement began by translating Western works into Arabic.

9- Al-Muwaylihi wrote Hadith of Issa ibn Hisham.

10- Hadith of Issa ibn Hisham constitutes the first stage in the development of the modern Arabic novel.

11- The novels of Zeidan and Al-Muwaylihi were extremely popular because of their clarity of language,

simple structure, the author's vivid imagination.

12- A common theme in the modern Arabic novel is the study of family life.

13- The works of Naguib Mahfouz depict life in Cairo.

14- Modern Arabic drama began to be written in the nineteenth century.

15- Tha'lab studied the rules of poetry.

16- Qudamah ibn Ja'far studied poetic criticism.

17- Plagiarism also became a significant idea excercising the critic's concern.

18- Modern criticism at first compared the new works unfavorably with the classical ideals of the past.

19- Taha Hussein would even dareto challenge the Qur'an with modern critical analysis.

C-Correct the underlined words in the following sentences:

1-The earlist poetesses was Al-Khansa and Layla Al-Akhyaliyyah of the 7th century.

2-Modern Arabic literature had allowed a greater number of female writers works to be published.

3-Characteristic of renaissance were two important trends.

4-The poetry festivals of the recent period often pitched two poets against each other in a war of verse.

5-One of the most prominent poet was Al-Mutanabbi.

6-When the professor asked us to prepare the poem of Al-Mutanabbi, I am already memorized his poem.

7-A revival happens in modern Arabic literature during the 19th century.

8-who wrote 'Book of the Flower'.

D-Translate the following paragraph from English into Arabic:

Modern plays

Modern Arabic drama began to be written in the nineteenth century chiefly in Egypt and mainly influenced and in imitation of French works. It was not until the twentieth century that it began to develop a distinctly Arab flavour and be seen elsewhere. The most important Arab playwright was Tawfiq al-Hakim whose first play was a re-telling of the Qur'anic story of the Seven sleepers and the second an epilogue for the Thousand and One Nights. Other important dramatists of the region include Yusuf al'Ani of Iraq and Saadallah Wannous of Syria.

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E-Match the words in colmn A with their authors in column B:

A BAdraa Denshawi Taha HusseinThe Hadith of Issa ibn Hisham Naguib Mahfouz Zaynab Al-MuwaylihiThe Future of Culture in Egypt Georgy Zeidan Cairo Trilogy Muhammad Hussein Haykal Muhammad Tahir Haqqi

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