02 Pred - Discrim

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www.curriculumpress.co.uk Number 02

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Explaining Prejudice & Discrimination

FsychologyP actsheets

This Factsheet summarises:

Definitions of prejudice and discrimination;

Explanations of prejudice and discrimination, including

personality theories and environmental/cultural theories.

Introduction

Consider these two statements;

The killing of Americans and their civilian and military

allies is a religious duty for each and every MuslimWe,

with Gods help, call on every Muslim who believes inGodto kill Americans and plunder their money whenever

and wherever they find it. Osama Bin Laden, 1998

Every day in Britain there are four incidents of racial

harassment or abuse every hour.

British Crime Survey, 1998/1999

The first statement is a classic and frightening example of prejudice,

whereas the second statement illustrates the prevalence of prejudice

and discrimination in Britain. Both statements leave us asking why

people are prejudiced.

What, for example, caused Hitler and his people to murder six million

Jews? Social psychology examines prejudice and discrimination byasking what causes prejudice is it a persons personality, their

environment (culture), or both?

What are prejudice and discrimination?

Theories of the origins and maintenance of prejudice and discrimination

Prejudice is an attitude (see glossary), usually negative, towards

members of a group based on their membership of that group (e.g.,

gender, race, religion). It involves a prejudgement of a group and

includes feelings, such as contempt.

Discrimination is a negative behaviour or action (e.g., aggression)

directed at members of a group.

These terms are not interchangeable; they refer to different things.

Prejudice and discrimination do not always occur together. It ispossible to be prejudiced to others without openly behaving in a

hostile way.

Theories of prejudice and discrimination: An Overview

It is possible that both personality and environmental/cultural

theories are involved in a prejudiced person.

What do these theories propose and are they good explanations?

Are they supported by evidence? These questions will be answered

by outlining the principles and evaluating each theory.

Personality Theories

PREJUDICE &

DISCRIMINATION

Environmental/Cultural

Theories

frustration-

aggression

authoritarian

personality

conformity

realistic conflictsocial identity

relative

deprivation

Fig 2. Theories of Prejudice

Fig 1. Prisoners in Dachau concentration camp.

(Photo credit: KZ Gedenksatte Dachau)

Exam hint:Begin an essay on prejudice and discrimination

with brief definitions of each.


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Psychology Factsheet

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02 - Explaining Prejudice & Discrimination

1. Personality (psychodynamic) theories(i.e., prejudice is primarily a problem of personality).

Frustration-aggression hypothesis

Basic principles:

Dollard et al. (1939) proposed that frustration within an individual

or group causes aggression against other individuals and groups.

Frustration produces an unpleasant state of arousal which is

released as aggression, either to the source of frustration or

displaced to a scapegoat if the person cannot vent their anger

on the proper target. A historic example of scapegoating is in

1920s Germany, where there was high inflation and unemployment

and a rapid growth of anti-Semitism (anti-Jewish prejudice).

Evaluation:

The frustration-aggression hypothesis provides a plausible

theory of one factor causing prejudice.

There is evidence that, when asked to imagine frustrating

and non-frustrating situations, participants felt angry in

frustrating situations (Doob and Sears, 1939).

It does not explain why aggression is directed to one

particular group (e.g., Jews).

Frustration can also lead to a resigned attitude, not just

aggression.Exam hint:Be careful not to write about the aggression-

frustration hypothesis in terms of just aggression. It must

be shown how it relates to the origin of prejudice.

Evaluation;

Studies by Adorno et al. (1950) support the validity of the

F-Scale. They found that high scorers on the F-Scale were

more prejudiced than low scorers. Also, high scorers were

treated more harshly in childhood than low scorers. The

F- and E-Scales correlated to +0.75.

Milgram (1974) found that high scorers gave more powerful

electric shocks to another person when urged by anauthority figure than low scorers. This suggests that high

scorers are more deferential to authority, as expected of an

authoritarian personality.

This theory cannot explain widespread uniformity of

prejudice in certain cultural groups. Billig (1976) states that

studying individual personality does not account for the

role of group norms and social context on a persons

attitudes.

Rokeach (1960) states that authoritarian personality can be

applied to extreme left-wing views, not just right-wing views.

A study by Altemeyer (1981) did not replicate Adorno etals (1950) findings that the type of childhood produced an

authoritarian personality.

It may be social and cultural experience, not just the pattern

of childrearing, which determines prejudice. For example,

Pettigrew (1958) found high levels of prejudice in South

Africans against blacks, but they did not appear to have

particularly high levels of authoritarianism. Despite overtly

racist attitudes, their personality types were similar to

normal populations.

Authoritarian personality

Basic principles;

Adorno et al. (1950) stated that prejudice is the result of an

authoritarian personality. An authoritarian personality has

certain traits and ways of viewing the social world, in particular

being preoccupied with power, and fearing and rejecting groups

to which they do not belong (outgroups). Childhood experiences

are involved in the development of an authoritarian personality.

If a child is treated harshly by its parents, the childs hostilitytowards them remains repressed and is later directed to

innocent groups. In other words, their aggression is displaced.

Adorno et al. (1950) used two questionnaires to examine

authoritarian personality the E-scale (Ethnocentrism scale)

and the F-Scale (Fascism scale). The E-Scale measured the belief

that a persons own ethnic group is superior to all others. The

F-Scale measured attitudes of authoritarian personality by

agreement/disagreement with statements, such as Homosexuals

are hardly better than criminals and should be punished.

Strict parental regime

imposing good

behaviour

Hostility to individualsnot part of in-group

Child develops simplistic

view of people and their

actions

Young adult continuesstereotype


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Social identity theory (intergroup approach)

Basic principles:

Tajfel (1981) proposed that we see ourselves as belonging to

categories (e.g., racial group, gender) and compare the groups we

are in (ingroups) to other groups that we do not belong to

(outgroups). Our self-esteem is increased by regarding our own

group as superior to others, which leads to a biased view of in- and

outgroup members, causing prejudice. Tajfel proposes that mere

identification with a group is enough to cause hostility to other

groups.

Evaluation:

Tajfel supported his theory with evidence from minimal

group studies (see box). These experiments showed how

social identity can be easily formed.

Social identity theory is supported by Locksley et al. (1982)

who found that participants still showed strong preferences

to their ingroup even when they knew that they were

randomly allocated to groups.

Lemyre and Smith (1985) found that people who discriminate

in favour of the ingroup have higher self-esteem than those

unable to discriminate, supporting the role of self-esteem in

prejudice.

A criticism of social identity theory is that it cannot explain

the fact that some groups have low self-esteem because the

group is assigned to an inferior role. Social identity theory

predicts that such individuals would not identify with the

ingroup.

Minimal group experiments are artificial and may not

generalise to the real world.

Social identity theory explains stereotypes and intergroup

attitudes but does not explain the hostility that goes along

with prejudice.

A flaw in this theory is shown when self-interest can outweigh

social identity. Rabbie, Schot and Visser (1989) found that

participants exhibit outgroup favouritism when they are told

that they will receive only what outgroup members give them.

Social identity theory is not appropriate for some cultures

where beliefs and values vary. Some cultures (e.g., Polynesian)

show co-operation to outgroups and little ingroup favouritism

(Wetherall, 1982).


2. Environmental or cultural theories (i.e., prejudice is a consequence of social groups)

Relative deprivation (intergroup approach)

Basic principles:

Relative deprivation refers to the gap between what a person

has/has done and what they expect or feel they deserve to have/

have done. Runciman (1966) proposed that prejudice arises whenthere are feelings of deprivation. Relative deprivation intensifies

prejudices about an outgroup, especially when in situations of

economic hardship, and is expressed as aggression. He proposed

two forms of deprivation egotistic deprivation an d

fraternalistic deprivation. Egotistic deprivation arises from

comparing the self to other individuals. Fraternalistic deprivation

arises from comparing our own group to other groups.

Evaluation:

This theory is supported by Vanneman and Pettigrew (1972)

who asked white Americans how well off they felt compared

with other white Americans and black Americans. Those

who did not feel well off compared to other white Americans

showed higher levels of prejudice to black Americans. Realistic conflict theory helps us to understand prejudice.

One of its strengths is that it is based on both group norms

(fraternalistic deprivation) and individual levels of prejudice

(egotistic deprivation).

A criticism is that it does not provide much detail of the

processes involved in producing fraternalistic deprivation.

Conformity

Another general theory is that a person may express predjudice

to conform to a group norm. We will not deal with this theory

here, but it is described in Eysenck and Flanagan (2001)

(Psychology for A2 level Psychology)

Realistic conflict theory (intergroup approach)

Basic principles:

Muzafer Sherif proposed that prejudice is caused by intergroup

conflict. When two groups compete for limited resources or the

same goal (e.g., limited number of jobs), it causes frustration and

therefore conflict, prejudice and discrimination. Sherif et al. (1961)

demonstrated this in the Robbers Cave study (see box). He found

that competition between groups was enough to cause hostility.

Evaluation:

Sherifs theory is supported by Andreeva (1984) who found

the same results in a Russian youth camp.

Realistic conflict theory explains the hostility part of prejudicebut not for the origin of prejudice.

This theory is criticised by Tyerman and Spencer (1983) who

found that competition did not produce such negative effects

when all the individuals already knew each other well. In Sherifs

experiment the boys had not previously formed friendships.

Robbers Cave study

Sherif et al. (1961) divided boys on a summer camp into two groups

(Eagles and Rattlers). Once each group had formed its own social

identity, the boys were given competitive activities between the groups

to create realistic conflict.

A fight broke out between the two groups, with each individual

regarding their own group as friendly and brave, and the others asliars etc. The boys were then asked to co-operate on a task and

prejudice was reduced. Sherif proposed that competition was sufficient

to cause the development of prejudice and discrimination.

Minimal group studies

In one of the minimal group studies (Tajfel, 1970), participants

(14/15 year old boys) were asked to estimate the number of dots

in a briefly seen display. The boys were then randomly assigned

to two minimal groups over-estimators and under-estimators.

Next, the boys were asked to award points to other individuals

who belonged to the same group or the other group. Nearly all

the boys awarded more points to their own group members than

to other group members.

In general, the minimal group studies assigned participants to

groups with limited or non-existent justification. It was found

that groupings resulted in ingroup favouritism. Mere

membership seemed to be sufficient to make participants thinkthat their own group was the best for them.


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Glossary

Attitude: a relatively stable evaluation of a person, object, situation

or issue. It is an organisation of beliefs, emotion or behaviour

directed at something or someone.

Authoritarian personality: a personality which is rigidly

conventional, has high respect for authority and is hostile to those

who defy social norms.

Correlated: Where factors are linked. A positive correlation is

where high values of one factor are associated with high values of

another factor. A correlation of +1 is a perfect positive correlation.

Displaced: a term used by Freud to describe where one target is

substituted with another.

Fascism: a type of government characterised by strong, often

dictatorial control, warlike nationalism and brutal suppression of

ethnic minorities and political dissidents.

Minimal group: where the experimental procedure creates

impromptu groups.

Norm: a pattern of behaviour that is typical of a group (e.g., a

culture, a population).Outgroup: a group to which a person does not belong.

Repressed: a term used by Freud to describe where painful memories

are forced out of the conscious mind.

Validity: the extent to which something is true.

Acknowledgements: This Psychology Factsheet was researched and written byAmanda Albon.

The Curriculum Press, Bank House, 105 King Street, Wellington, Shropshire, TF1 1NU.

Psychology Factsheets may be copied free of charge by teaching staff or students, provided

that their school is a registered subscriber. No part of these Factsheets may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any other form or by any other means, without

the prior permission of the publisher. ISSN 1351-5136


Summary of Factsheet

Prejudice is a (usually negative) attitude towards members of a

group.

Discrimination is a (usually negative) action or behaviour

towards members of a group.

Theories of prejudice can be based on personality or on

environmental/cultural factors.

Theories based on personality factors include the authoritarian

personality and the frustration-aggression hypothesis.

o The authoritarian personality is where a persons

personality type underlies prejudiced behaviour.

o The frustration-aggression hypothesis states that

frustration within a person or group leads to aggressive

behaviour to other people or groups.

Theories based on environmental/cultural factors include,

relative deprivation (intergroup approach), social identity theory

(intergroup approach) and realistic conflict theory (intergroup

approach).

o Relative deprivation is when people feel they have less

than they deserve, which leads to feelings of aggression

which is expressed to other groups.

o Social identity theory is when our identification with a social

group causes prejudice to other groups.

o Realistic conflict theory is where competition between

groups causes prejudice.

Exam Hints

Which theory? It is best to describe and evaluate one of the six

theories mentioned in this Factsheet. Be careful not to get

confused with using social learning theory or deindividuation.

Social learning theory describes how aggression is learnt. It

describes how attitudes and behaviours (e.g., prejudice) may

be learnt from others (e.g., parents, peers). It should not be

discussed (or only very briefly) in a theory on prejudice.

Deindividuation is often illustrated by the behaviour of the Ku

Klux Klan but it is not a theory of prejudice.

Numbers! If the exam question asks for two theories of

prejudice, make sure that you write about the correct number.

Outlining only one theory will automatically reduce your

possible marks. If the question asks for one theory, do not

waste time writing about more than one, unless it is included

when evaluating other theories. For example, relative

deprivation theory can be used to evaluate authoritarian

personality as it takes into account the effect of group norms

whereas authoritarian personality does not.

If the exam question asks for theories of prejudice, do not

write about the reduction of prejudice.

To gain high marks, outline/describe theories in detail and

accurately. Evaluate them thoroughly by writing about research

which both supports and criticises the theory, do not just criticise

the theory. Write clearly, with correct spelling and grammar.

Include psychological terms (e.g., ingroups, outgroups, norms).

Example Exam Questions

1. (a) Outline two theories of the origins of prejudice.

(b) Evaluate one of these theories.

2. Describe and evaluate one theory of the origin of prejudice.

3. Discuss research into the origins of prejudice.

4. Discuss theories which view personality as underlying prejudice.

OutlineAnswers

1.Inpart(a),youwouldneedtooutline(i.e.,giveabriefsummary)two

ofthetheoriesmentionedinthisfactsheet(e.g.,frustration-aggression

hypothesisandsocialidentitytheory).

Inpart(b),youshouldevaluateoneofthesetheories.Evaluatemeans

togiveaninformedanalysisofthetheory.Theevaluationshould

includeexperimentalevidencethatsupportsandcriticisesthetheory.

Forexample,socialidentitytheoryissupportedbytheminimalgroup

studiesbutiscriticisedfornotexplainingthehostilitythatgoeswith

prejudice.

2.Theessayshouldbewrittenasforessayquestion1butonlyfocusing

ononetheory.Asitisonlyonetheory,itwouldneedamorethorough

descriptionofthetheorythanwouldbedonefortwotheories.

3.Discussmeanstodescribeandevaluate.Youcandrawfromtherange

oftheoriesmentionedinthefactsheet.Thediscussionshouldreferto

differentviewpoints.Forexample,someresearchfocusesonprejudice

asarisingfrompersonalitywhereasotherresearchviewsprejudiceas

havingenvironmentalorculturalorigins.

Youcouldalsorelatethetheories.Forexample,thefrustration-

aggressionhypothesiscannotexplainwhyaggressionisdirectedtoa

particulargroupwhereasrealisticconflicttheorydoesbyproposing

thataggressionisdirectedtoothergroupsthatarecompetingforthe

sameresources.

4.Theessayforthisquestionisasforessayquestion3,butyouwould

needtofocusthediscussiononfrustration-aggressionhypothesisand

authoritarianpersonalitytheory.Provideabriefdescriptionofeach

andthencompareandcontrasttheirstrengthsandweaknesses.


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02 - Explaining Prejudice & Discrimination Psychology Factsheet

Worksheet: Explaining Prejudice & Discrimination

Name

1. What do psychologists mean by prejudice and discrimination?

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2. How might frustration cause people to be prejudiced?

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3. Outline two characteristics of an authoritarian personality.

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4. Give two criticisms of the authoritarian personality theory.

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5. Briefly describe one theory of prejudice which views it as a product of social groups.

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6. Which theory of prejudice is supported by minimal group studies?

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7. Which theory proposes that competition between groups is enough to cause prejudice?

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8. Give one strength and one weakness of realistic conflict theory.

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02 Pred - Discrim