42
El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educación GORDON WELLS Universidad de California, Santa Cruz Resumen En este trabajo he intentado mostrar que los individuos y las sociedades se desarrollan de manera interde- pendiente, en y mediante la participación en actividades conjuntas mediadas por herramientas. Por esta razón, el desarrollo de las especies humanas, de los grupos culturales y de las personas individuales, depende de las herramientas de representación disponibles y de los modos de conocimiento que tales herramientas permiten. Por lo tanto, los educadores, equipando a los alumnos con las habilidades y conocimientos alcanzados por las gene- raciones previas y proporcionándoles guía y ayuda mientras exploran colaborativamente temas y problemas de interés compartido; pueden preparar a los alumnos para desarrollar la disposición a buscar y ampliar la com- prensión que impulsa la acción responsable y para, en el proceso, transformarse a sí mismos, transformar sus sociedades y el mundo que habitan. Palabras clave: Actividad conjunta, modos de representación, modos de conocimiento. The role of activity in development and education Abstract In this paper I have tried to show that it is in and through engagement in tool-mediated joint activities that both individuals and societies develop in mutual interdependence. For this reason, the development of the human species, of cultural groups and of individual persons is dependent on the representational tools available to them and on the modes of knowing that these support. Therefore, by equipping students with the resources of skill, and knowledge achieved by previous generations and by providing them with appropriate guidance and assistance as they collaboratively explore issues and problems of shared interest, educators can enable them to develop the dispo- sition to seek for and extend understanding that empowers responsible action and, in the process, to transform themselves, their societies and the world they inhabit. Keywords: Joint activity, modes of representation,modes of knowing Texto original en ingles al final del artículo –sólo en la versión electrónica– Original text in English at the end of the paper only in the electronic version *Traducido al castellano por J. Ricardo García, Universidad de Salamanca. Correspondencia con el autor: Department of Education, University of California at Santa Cruz. Crown Colege, 1156 High St, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, U.S.A. E-mail: [email protected] Original recibido: Diciembre, 2003. Aceptado: Enero, 2004. © 2004 by Fundación Infancia y Aprendizaje, ISSN: 0210-3702 Infancia y Aprendizaje, 2004, 27 (2), 165-187

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Page 1: Actividad y Aprendizaje

El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo yla educacioacuten

GORDON WELLS

Universidad de California Santa Cruz

ResumenEn este trabajo he intentado mostrar que los individuos y las sociedades se desarrollan de manera interde-

pendiente en y mediante la participacioacuten en actividades conjuntas mediadas por herramientas Por esta razoacutenel desarrollo de las especies humanas de los grupos culturales y de las personas individuales depende de lasherramientas de representacioacuten disponibles y de los modos de conocimiento que tales herramientas permiten Porlo tanto los educadores equipando a los alumnos con las habilidades y conocimientos alcanzados por las gene-raciones previas y proporcionaacutendoles guiacutea y ayuda mientras exploran colaborativamente temas y problemas deintereacutes compartido pueden preparar a los alumnos para desarrollar la disposicioacuten a buscar y ampliar la com-prensioacuten que impulsa la accioacuten responsable y para en el proceso transformarse a siacute mismos transformar sussociedades y el mundo que habitanPalabras clave Actividad conjunta modos de representacioacuten modos de conocimiento

The role of activity in development andeducation

AbstractIn this paper I have tried to show that it is in and through engagement in tool-mediated joint activities that

both individuals and societies develop in mutual interdependence For this reason the development of the humanspecies of cultural groups and of individual persons is dependent on the representational tools available to themand on the modes of knowing that these support Therefore by equipping students with the resources of skill andknowledge achieved by previous generations and by providing them with appropriate guidance and assistance asthey collaboratively explore issues and problems of shared interest educators can enable them to develop the dispo-sition to seek for and extend understanding that empowers responsible action and in the process to transformthemselves their societies and the world they inhabitKeywords Joint activity modes of representation modes of knowing

Texto original en ingles al final del artiacuteculo ndashsoacutelo en la versioacuten electroacutenicandashOriginal text in English at the end of the paper only in the electronic version

Traducido al castellano por J Ricardo Garciacutea Universidad de SalamancaCorrespondencia con el autor Department of Education University of California at Santa Cruz Crown Colege1156 High St Santa Cruz CA 95064 USA E-mail gwellscatsucsceduOriginal recibido Diciembre 2003 Aceptado Enero 2004

copy 2004 by Fundacioacuten Infancia y Aprendizaje ISSN 0210-3702 Infancia y Aprendizaje 2004 27 (2) 165-187

Introduccioacuten

Comparados con otras especies la caracteriacutestica que distingue a los humanoses la habilidad y predisposicioacuten para implicarnos en actividades conjuntasmediadas por herramientas Esta caracteriacutestica ha sido crucial para el desarrollode la cultura humana a lo largo de la historia ya que ha permitido inventar arte-factos de varias clases para adaptarse y explorar los nichos ecoloacutegicos en los que elser humano ha vivido Tambieacuten es crucial para la diversidad de los desarrollospersonales de los individuos que dependen de las actividades particulares en lasque participen De hecho Vygotski (1978 1981) fue uno de los primeros enprecisar que las funciones metales ldquosuperioresrdquo aquellas que nos hacen humanosno son dadas bioloacutegicamente son construidas paulatinamente mediante la apro-piacioacuten de las herramientas y praacutecticas desarrolladas histoacutericamente que sonpuestas de manifiesto para los nintildeos y ldquoandamiadasrdquo en las acciones significativasy en las palabras de los coparticipantes en la actividad conjunta

Antes de continuar los lectores pueden encontrar interesante reflexionarsobre el desarrollo de sus propias trayectorias hasta lo que son hoy Sospecho queestaraacuten de acuerdo con esta idea Quienes hemos llegado a ser depende de la compantildeiacuteaque hemos tenido y de lo que hemos hecho juntos

Breve historia sobre el desarrollo de la actividad conjunta

Leontiev describe de manera sucinta la influencia de Vygotski en el siguienteresumen

ldquoLas ideas iniciales que guiaron a Vygotski a investigar la geacutenesis de la actividad mental inter-na a partir de la actividad externa son esencialmente distintas de las aproximaciones teoacutericasde otros autores modernos Estas ideas proceden del anaacutelisis de las caracteriacutesticas uacutenicas de laactividad de trabajo productivo humano el cual estaacute mediado por herramientas Esta actividades inicialmente de naturaleza social esto es se desarrolla bajo condiciones de cooperacioacuten einteraccioacuten social entre personas Vygotski identificoacute dos caracteriacutesticas principales [de estaactividad] que son necesariamente fundamentales para la psicologiacutea su estructura instrumen-tal y su inclusioacuten en un sistema de interrelaciones con otras personas Estas caracteriacutesticas sonlas que definen la naturaleza de los procesos psicoloacutegicos humanos La herramienta media laactividad y asiacute conecta a los humanos no soacutelo con el mundo de los objetos sino tambieacuten conotras personas Por eso la actividad humana asimila la experiencia de la especie humana Esto sig-nifica que los procesos mentales humanos (sus ldquofunciones psicoloacutegicas superioresrdquo) adquierenuna estructura necesariamente atada a los significados y meacutetodos formados sociohistoacutericamenteque han sido transmitidos a ellos por otros en los procesos de trabajo cooperativo y de interac-cioacuten social Pero es imposible transmitir el significado y los meacutetodos necesarios para realizar unproceso de otra forma que no sea social ndashen la forma de una accioacuten o discurso externondash En otraspalabras los procesos psicoloacutegicos superiores especiacuteficamente humanos soacutelo pueden ser adqui-ridos mediante la interaccioacuten con otros esto es mediante procesos interpsicoloacutegicos que soacutelodespueacutes seraacuten desarrollados independientemente por el individuordquo (Leontiev 1981 pp 55-56las cursivas son del original)

Esta cita es importante para el argumento que quiero desarrollar en este tra-bajo porque enfatiza la naturaleza social y cooperativa de la actividad humana yporque resalta el papel central de la mediacioacuten semioacutetica en el desarrollo el conoci-miento es creado asiacute como apropiado en el discurso entre personas que estaacutentrabajando juntas en una situacioacuten especiacutefica para crear o mejorar un artefacto oresolver un problema de importancia para el grupo Sin embargo Leontiev tam-bieacuten alude a otra aportacioacuten clave de Vygotski para comprender la actividadactual es necesario investigar la historia de tal actividad Me ocupareacute de estepunto en lo que sigue

Analizando la historia del desarrollo humano necesitamos considerar almenos cuatro escalas temporales diferentes La maacutes dilatada es la historia de la

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187166

evolucioacuten cultural de la especie (el nivel filogeneacutetico) la siguiente es el desarrollohistoacuterico de las culturas particulares El tercer nivel (ontogoneacutetico) traza la tra-yectoria de desarrollo del individuo humano sobre el curso del ciclo vital Final-mente el nivel microgeneacutetico tiene que ver con el desarrollo de una actividadparticular

En la praacutectica el uacuteltimo nivel es el que ha sido explorado con maacutes detalle por-que usando la tecnologiacutea contemporaacutenea es relativamente sencillo observar ygrabar la secuencia de acciones mediante las cuales una actividad es representaday las operaciones especiacuteficas que los participantes asumen haciendo uso de losartefactos relevantes que son proporcionados en la situacioacuten (Leontiev 1981)Estos artefactos pueden ser materiales (cuchillos lapiceros automoacuteviles) osimboacutelicos (palabras mapas teoriacuteas) ndashaunque como Cole (1996) ha precisadopara funcionar como mediadores de la actividad conjunta todos los artefactosdeben tener alguna forma de encarnacioacuten material asiacute como un significado sim-boacutelico es decir deben ser manejables y ademaacutes tener un significado cultural ade-cuado a la situacioacutenndash

Sin embargo la forma en que se realiza un caso particular de una actividaddepende no soacutelo de los artefactos que esteacuten disponibles en la situacioacuten sino tam-bieacuten de la experiencia pasada de los participantes con las praacutecticas en las que esosartefactos se usan para mediar en el logro de los objetivos de las acciones que con-tribuyen a la actividad conjunta Asiacute la microgeacutenesis de un caso particular deactividad es necesariamente dependiente del desarrollo ontogeneacutetico de los par-ticipantes es decir de las oportunidades que sus trayectorias vitales les han ofre-cido para apropiarse del conocimiento cultural apropiado mediante la participa-cioacuten en acciones y operaciones similares

Pero en la escala temporal del desarrollo ontogeneacutetico la trayectoria de desa-rrollo de cada individuo estaacute en siacute misma muy influenciada por la cultura en laque estaacute creciendo y por el desarrollo histoacuterico de cada cultura Como Rogoff(2003) ilustra con mucho detalle las culturas variacutean considerablemente tanto atraveacutes del tiempo como a traveacutes de los nichos ecoloacutegicos en relacioacuten a los artefac-tos y praacutecticas que estaacuten disponibles y en el valor relativo que se les asigna Porotra parte en un momento histoacuterico particular de cada cultura los participantesde una actividad incorporan las formas de hacer de las generaciones previas y lasadaptan a las exigencias de las condiciones actuales

Ascendiendo a un nivel maacutes lejano el desarrollo histoacuterico de una cultura par-ticular estaacute incluso determinado en siacute mismo por el desarrollo en la larga escalatemporal de la evolucioacuten cultural y bioloacutegica de las especies Eacutesta es la escalatemporal maacutes difiacutecil de describir con detalle pues se carece de las evidenciasnecesarias Pero pueden hacerse distinciones amplias y seguras entre las comuni-dades humanas en teacuterminos de sus modos de subsistencia y de la mediacioacuten designificados disponibles para la actividad conjunta (Diamond 1998 Donald1991) Como la investigacioacuten reciente ha mostrado nuestros primeros antepasa-dos hace unos cinco millones de antildeos viviacutean en pequentildeos grupos de recolecto-res-cazadores a menudo a la orilla de lagos y oceacuteanos Inicialmente encontrabansus herramientas en los alrededores pero a lo largo de varios millones de antildeosinventaron modos de hacer artefactos maacutes sofisticados como cuchillos puntasde flechas cestas y ropas a partir de piedras huesos pieles y materiales vegetalesEntonces dado que algunos grupos emigraron a partes del mundo particular-mente feacutertiles adoptaron un modo de vida maacutes sedentario y agrario cultivandocosechas y criando animales La habilidad para producir maacutes comida que larequerida inmediatamente condujo alternativamente a la emergencia delcomercio y a la diversidad de trabajadores especializados tales como alfareros y

167El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

sastres que intercambiaron sus productos por comida y otras necesidades Estaetapa vio tambieacuten el desarrollo de grupos poblacionales maacutes amplios con clasesjerarquizadas que incluiacutean sacerdotes recaudadores de impuestos y otros funcio-narios poliacuteticos y religiosos

Mientras la migracioacuten habiacutea sido una caracteriacutestica comuacuten de la existenciahumana en los tiempos tempranos el desarrollo de grandes poblaciones sedenta-rias y de armas de bronce y hierro condujeron a la expansioacuten de ciertos gruposculturales mediante la conquista territorial y la colonizacioacuten por tierra y marConsecuentemente durante los uacuteltimos mil antildeos la uacuteltima fase del desarrollofilogeneacutetico ha estado caracterizada por el auge y la caiacuteda de las culturas imperia-les que han impuesto sus tecnologiacuteas leyes y procedimientos administrativosasiacute como sus religiones artes conocimiento y valores a poblaciones subyugadasmuy diversas Maacutes recientemente el desarrollo adicional de las invenciones queha llevado a la primera revolucioacuten industrial ha servido simplemente para incre-mentar la escala e intensidad de estas tendencias imperialistas Al mismo tiem-po estas invenciones asiacute como las debidas a la actual revolucioacuten industrial hanconducido tambieacuten a un incremento en la comprensioacuten humana de su ambientesocial y material tanto mediante la investigacioacuten social y cientiacutefica comomediante la diseminacioacuten de informacioacuten sobre otros tiempos y lugares debido alos viajes y al uso del material impreso y las tecnologiacuteas electroacutenicas

Al presentar esta condensada siacutentesis del desarrollo filogeneacutetico he enfatizadolas herramientas materiales que han mediado las actividades progresivamentemaacutes complejas y diversas en las que los humanos se han sumergido a lo largo delcurso de la historia de las especies Sin embargo teniendo en mente que la fuerzaconductora del desarrollo humano es la actividad conjunta un determinanteigualmente importante ndashsi no maacutesndash de esta historia es el desarrollo de modos derepresentacioacuten mediante los cuales los humanos han comunicado y ampliado sucomprensioacuten del mundo La tabla I presenta la secuencia de desarrollo de estosmodos de representacioacuten propuesta por Donald (1991) basada en evidenciasarqueoloacutegicas neoroanatoacutemicas e histoacutericas entre otras La tabla ademaacutes incluyelas etapas en el desarrollo histoacuterico de los modos de conocimiento que fueronpropuestos por Wartofsky (1979)

La primera etapa en esta secuencia corresponde a la fase en la cual los proto-humanos comienzan a divergir de otras especies de primates En esta fase comoen el comportamiento de los primates contemporaacuteneos superiores la accioacutenpraacutectica era la forma predominante de comunicacioacuten mediante la que ndashno nece-sariamente de forma deliberadandash los participantes sentildealaban sus intenciones enuna situacioacuten compartida y estas intenciones eran interpretadas y respondidaspor sus co-participantes en la actividad En la segunda etapa la fase gestualndashdesarrollada gradualmente durante muchos mileniosndash la comunicacioacuten se con-virtioacute en algo diferente de la actividad a la cual se referiacutea cuando los humanosusaron deliberadamente gestos mimo expresiones faciales y varios tipos defonacioacuten para comentar y coordinar la accioacuten y los objetivos a los cuaacuteles eacutesta esta-ba dirigida Soacutelo despueacutes con la modificacioacuten gradual del tracto vocal y del cere-bro primate emergioacute la habilidad para comunicarse mediante el habla y por lotanto la habilidad para referirse no soacutelo a objetos particulares y acciones sinotambieacuten a clases generalizadas y para expresar relaciones observadas y deseadasentre objetos acciones y eventos permitiendo de este modo a los participantesplanificar y reflexionar sobre los resultados de su actividad conjunta Finalmen-te la invencioacuten de la escritura en la uacuteltima fase de la secuencia propuesta porDonald ocurrioacute en un momento extremadamente reciente en la larga trayectoriadel desarrollo filogeneacutetico A pesar de todo como con aquellos modos de repre-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187168

sentacioacuten que la precedieron incrementoacute enormemente el repertorio humano demedios para hacer y comunicar significados Esencialmente lo que antildeadioacute fueuna ldquomemoria externardquo Gracias a la creacioacuten de una representacioacuten (relativa-mente) permanente de significados linguumliacutesticos es posible la compilacioacuten y des-tilacioacuten de la informacioacuten transmitida por diferentes fuentes incluyendo los pro-pios pensamientos verbalizados del escritor Esto tambieacuten permitioacute al escritor y aaquellos que leiacutean sus textos repasar criticar y corregir los significados expresa-dos y ponerlos a disposicioacuten de otras personas en tiempos futuros y en otros luga-res permitiendo continuar la construccioacuten del debate y su mejora en el futuro

169El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

TABLA IModos de conocimiento Desarrollo Filogeneacutetico y Cultural (Wells 1999)

Tiempo en antildeos Modo de Participantes Donald (1991) Wartofsky (1979)transcurridos conocimiento

Dos millones de Instrumental Individuos en accioacuten Episoacutedico Artefactosantildeos primarios

herramientasmateriales

1 mdash15 millones Procedimental Entre individuos mientrasde antildeos participacioacuten en la accioacuten Gestual o miacutemico Artefactos

secundariosherramientasy praacutecticasinteraccioacutenmimeacutetica

50000 antildeos Substantivo Entre miembros de un grupo (Linguumliacutestico) Artefactoscultural reflexionando sobre la secundariosaccioacuten como base para la representaciones deplanificacioacuten de acciones futuras herramientas y

praacutecticasinteraccioacutenmediante el habla

50000 antildeos Esteacutetico Entre miembros de un grupo Miacutetico Artefactoscultural dando sentido a las terciariostribulaciones humanas representaciones

artiacutesticas en modode mitosnarracionesgraacuteficos y muacutesica

2500 antildeos Teoacuterico Entre miembros de una Teoacuterico Artefactoscomunidad especializada para terciarios explicar el mundo natural y representaciones humano descontextualizadas

tales comotaxonomiacuteas teoriacuteasmodelos etceacutetera

iquest Meta Entre miembros de u grupo Artefactoscultural tambieacuten entre terciariosindividuos buscando representaciones de comprender y controlar su los procesospropia actividad mental mentales y semioacuteticos

Sin embargo accioacuten gesto habla y escritura no son simplemente modos decomunicacioacuten progresivamente maacutes poderosos Son tambieacuten mediadores de pen-samiento progresivamente maacutes potentes Esto es maacutes evidente con respecto a losmodos linguumliacutesticos de comunicacioacuten Pero incluso antes de la emergencia delhabla la accioacuten y ndashen mayor gradondash la miacutemica permitieron a los humanos pen-sar juntos y consecuentemente crear una interpretacioacuten compartida de sus acti-vidades conjuntas De hecho se ha argumentado que la emergencia del lenguajeno fue simplemente el resultado del desarrollo del cerebro y del tracto vocal sinoque maacutes bien fue parte de un esquema general de adaptacioacuten maacutes amplio queconstruido sobre los eacutexitos cognitivos del conocimiento mimeacutetico se esforzoacute porintegrar las unidades inconexas de informacioacuten en todo maacutes comprensivo y cohe-rente de estar en el mundo (Deacon 1997) Sin embargo es tambieacuten verdad quela disponibilidad del lenguaje intensificoacute sustancial y conjuntamente tanto lacomunicacioacuten como el pensamiento ya que como Halliday observoacute

La gramaacutetica de todas las lenguas naturales es (entre otras cosas) una teoriacutea de la experienciahumana es mediante nuestros actos de significado como transformamos la experiencia en elconjunto coherente de retazos ndashaunque lejos de ser constantendash que aprendemos a proyectarcomo lsquorealidadrsquo (1993 p 46)

En resumen lo que Donald y otros acadeacutemicos argumentan es que las habili-dades mentales contemporaacuteneas son el resultado del desarrollo en el tiempo deuna serie de modos de representacioacuten cada vez maacutes poderosos y flexibles ndasho enteacuterminos Vygotskyanos de mediadores semioacuteticos de las funciones mentalessuperioresndash que han hecho posible la razoacuten los modos de conocimiento teoacuterica-mente orientados que sustentan los logros de la ciencia moderna y sus aplicacio-nes tecnoloacutegicas En palabras del filoacutesofo Wartofsky

nuestra comprensioacuten perceptiva y cognitiva del mundo es en gran medida conformada ymodificada por los artefactos de representacioacuten que nosotros mismos creamos De esta manerasomos en efecto el producto de nuestra propia actividad transformamos nuestros modos per-ceptivos y cognitivos nuestra manera de ver y comprender por medio de las representacionesque hacemos (1979 p xxiii)

Hay sin embargo un aspecto maacutes importante de la tesis de Donald (1991)que es crucial para el argumento que quiero desarrollar Aunque cada sistemasemioacutetico de miacutemica habla y escritura fortalece un nuevo modo de actividadcognitiva no reemplaza a los que les preceden sino que se antildeade a sus efectos Elresultado es que los humanos contemporaacuteneos tienen una variedad de modos deconocimiento a su disposicioacuten cuando se implican en actividades conjuntasAdemaacutes la mayoriacutea de estas actividades requieren maacutes de un modo de conoci-miento y del uso complementario e interdependiente de maacutes de un modo derepresentacioacuten

La actividad conjunta como el lugar del aprendizaje y desarrolloontogeneacutetico

De la concepcioacuten histoacuterica multi-nivel del desarrollo que se acaba de subrayarderivan dos implicaciones importantes

En primer lugar en todo momento el tipo de actividad que se emprenda yla manera especiacutefica en la que se desarrolle son necesariamente dependientesde los antecedentes histoacuterico-culturales de los participantes tanto humanoscomo instrumentales que concurren en su realizacioacuten En particular la mane-ra en la que la situacioacuten es interpretada ndashqueacute objetivos de actuacioacuten se conside-ran apropiados y coacutemo pueden ser alcanzadosndash depende de los motivos valores

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187170

y habilidades de los participantes humanos y de las ventajas ofrecidas por lastecnologiacuteas disponibles

En segundo lugar cualquier instante de la actividad proporciona una ocasioacutenpara una triple transformacioacuten (1) de la situacioacuten en la que la actividad es desa-rrollada (2) de los artefactos y de las praacutecticas que median su implementacioacuten y(3) maacutes importante auacuten del conocimiento y habilidades de los participanteshumanos

Estas dos implicaciones consideradas globalmente clarifican la manera en laque la cultura y el desarrollo individual son mutuamente interdependientes yhunden sus raiacuteces en oportunidades de actividad conjunta particulares y situa-das Como Rogoff (1994) argumenta

Las personas de cada generacioacuten mientras se comprometen en esfuerzos socioculturales conotras personas hacen uso y enriquecen herramientas culturales y praacutecticas heredadas de lasgeneraciones precedentes Ya que las personas se desarrollan mediante el uso compartido depraacutecticas y herramientas culturales contribuyen simultaacuteneamente a la transformacioacuten de lasherramientas culturales praacutecticas e instituciones (p 52)

Potencialmente por lo tanto toda ocasioacuten de actividad conjunta proporcionauna oportunidad para el desarrollo de todos los participantes Eacuteste es un punto alque volvereacute Pero antes quiero considerar con maacutes cuidado el concepto de desa-rrollo mismo

Claramente el concepto de desarrollo implica cambio y tiacutepicamente uncambio en la direccioacuten de incrementar la complejidad y la efectividad En otraspalabras se suele considerar que el desarrollo implica mejora o progreso haciaalguacuten estado o capacidad final ideal Sin embargo a la luz de la discusioacuten previatal progresioacuten aunque puede ser significativa para (alguno de) los participantesde una situacioacuten particular no puede ser entendida en un sentido absoluto Maacutesbien debe considerarse con relatividad si se atiende al despliegue de la trayecto-ria histoacuterica de la especie de una cultura particular y de la comunidad inmediatandashsus valores sus actividades predominantes y las habilidades conocidas que for-man sus recursosndash Ademaacutes al igual que esto ha cambiado en el pasado conti-nuaraacute cambiando en el futuro en respuesta a las demandas de cambio de losambientes cada vez maacutes amplios Por tanto mientras el desarrollo ontogeneacuteticoimplica claramente el incremento de la complejidad y la efectividad de la parti-cipacioacuten de los individuos en los sistemas de actividad en que estaacuten inmersosdurante sus vidas diarias la trayectoria maacutes amplia del desarrollo estaacute emergien-do y su destino no puede ser especificado por adelantado aunque se haga en teacuter-minos de un ideal por alcanzar

Sin embargo esto no significa que no haya fuertes regularidades en la secuen-cia del desarrollo ontogeneacutetico particularmente en los primeros antildeos De hechocomo Nelson (1996) ha sugerido durante los antildeos preescolares los nintildeos siguenuna trayectoria muy similar a la secuencia de desarrollo filogeneacutetico propuestapor Donald (1991) (ver la Tabla I) a medida que se apropian de las herramientassemioacuteticas de representacioacuten facilitadas por la accioacuten el gesto el habla y la escri-tura Por supuesto esto no es una simple recapitulacioacuten los nintildeos crecen en uncultura contemporaacutenea alfabetizada en la que estaacuten rodeados desde el nacimientopor artefactos y praacutecticas que resultan de incorporan todos los modos de conoci-miento disponibles (Cole 1996) Apropiarse de las herramientas culturales exis-tentes es asiacute muy diferente de inventarlas ex novo como Scribner (1985) precisa

Sin embargo dada la combinacioacuten de la herencia bioloacutegica y cultural no essorprendente que en la mayoriacutea de las culturas ndashsi no en todasndash los nintildeos sigan

171El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

la misma secuencia que siguioacute la especie como un todo a lo largo del curso de lahistoria

En las primeras semanas de vida los bebeacutes actuacutean en su entorno inmediatotanto animado como inanimado y comienzan a desarrollar lo que Piaget (1970)llamoacute inteligencia sensorio-motora Aunque eacutesta es la forma maacutes baacutesica de acti-vidad y puede parecer refleja (instintiva) es tambieacuten inherentemente social yaque en primer lugar todos los nintildeos nacen en un entorno que es cultural en elsentido de haber sido compartido por incontables generaciones precedentes yen segundo lugar la accioacuten del recieacuten nacido es realzada en interacciones sociales(Newson 1978) En una segunda fase que comienza generalmente en los prime-ros meses los bebeacutes tambieacuten comienzan a implicarse en la comunicacioacuten ges-tual mediante fijaciones de la mirada expresiones faciales y gestos rudimenta-rios (Bruner 1990) Apoyaacutendose en los teacuterminos de intersubjetividad primaria ysecundaria esta fase ha sido descrita con mucho detalle por Trevarthen (Trevart-hen y Hubley 1978 Trevarthen 1979) La intersubjetividad primaria se desa-rrolla cuando el nintildeo y su progenitor se dirigen mutuamente miradas fijascomunicaacutendose asiacute que se estaacuten atendiendo y respondiendo En la intersubjetivi-dad secundaria la atencioacuten conjunta recae sobre un tercer elemento como cuan-do el progenitor mediante miradas fijas dirige la atencioacuten del bebeacute a un objetode intereacutes potencial o sigue la direccioacuten de la mirada del nintildeo y sentildeala que tam-bieacuten estaacute atendiendo al mismo objeto

Sobre esta base de accioacuten y atencioacuten conjunta hacia el final del primer antildeo elnintildeo comienza a explotar su repertorio creciente de vocalizaciones a menudoacompantildeadas de gestos para empezar a comunicarse mediante el habla Deacuerdo con la investigacioacuten disponible realizada principalmente con nintildeos desociedades ldquooccidentalesrdquo al principio las elocuciones son idiosincraacutesicas dibu-jando soacutelo parcialmente en el habla ndashno del todondash aquello que les rodea sinembargo los padres y otros miembros de la familia tienen pocas dificultadespara interpretarlas dentro de un contexto y de nuevo responden de una maneraque es contingente con su interpretacioacuten estableciendo asiacute la comunicacioacutenhablada como una actividad interactiva conjunta Al final del segundo antildeo sinembargo los nintildeos parecen abandonar su forma indiosincraacutesica ldquoprotolinguumliacutesti-cardquo de comunicacioacuten y comienzan a construir un potencial de significados lin-guumliacutesticos sistemaacuteticamente relacionado con el lenguaje que les dirigen en lasactividades habituales de la vida familiar (Bruner 1990 Halliday 1975 Wells1986) Expresivamente en una comunidad linguumliacutestica particular la secuencia enla que los nintildeos dominan los significados baacutesicos y las formas leacutexicogramaticalesen las que se realizan tiende a ser muy similar de unos nintildeos a otros (Wells1985)

La secuencia de desarrollo que acaba de describirse ndashaccioacuten gesto hablandash escomuacuten a los nintildeos en todas las culturas y en todos los casos tiene lugar con otrosfamiliares y miembros de la comunidad mediante la accioacuten e interaccioacuten conjun-ta Sin embargo aunque la secuencia es universal el modo concreto en el que sedespliega variacutea considerablemente de unas culturas a otras Estas diferenciasdependen de muchos factores determinados culturalmente tales como las expec-tativas de los adultos sobre el desarrollo de sus hijos la posicioacuten en la que el bebeacutees sostenido o llevado ndashdando la cara al cuidador o con la cara vuelta en la mismadireccioacuten que el adultondash la configuracioacuten y tamantildeo de los grupos interaccionalesen los que la comunicacioacuten suele tener lugar y si estos eventos son parte de lavida familiar y comunitaria maacutes general o son deliberadamente disentildeados yestructurados para el supuesto beneficio del nintildeo (Rogoff 2003) En las etapastardiacuteas del desarrollo del lenguaje la gama y amplitud de significados potencia-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187172

les que los nintildeos construyen comienza a variar incluso de manera maacutes ampliadependiendo de las actividades en las que intervengan de los registros linguumliacutesti-cos que se usan en esas actividades y de las posturas tiacutepicamente adoptadas porlos interlocutores hacia el uso del lenguaje en sus interacciones con los nintildeos(Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

Hasta ahora la secuencia de desarrollo ontogeneacutetico que he descrito es baacutesica-mente similar en todas las culturas y sigue la secuencia filogeneacutetica en la que loshumanos han ido acumulando de manera progresiva nuevos recursos semioacuteticosmediacionales a sus repertorios comunicativos De forma llamativa por lo tantoel modo uacuteltimo de representacioacuten en el esquema de Donald que es la escrituraes un extra opcional puesto que muchas culturas han sobrevivido y prosperadosin una modalidad escrita de representacioacuten de significados Ademaacutes incluso enculturas que poseen un sistema de escritura el grado y alcance de alfabetizacioacutenque los individuos logran variacutea considerablemente dependiendo de los sistemasde actividad en los que participan del valor otorgado por la comunidad a los tex-tos escritos de los propoacutesitos a los que sirven y de los geacuteneros que se usan paraalcanzar esos propoacutesitos Sin embargo ya que la alfabetizacioacuten y sus usos estaacutenfuertemente asociados a la escolarizacioacuten maacutes adelante abordareacute con mayor pro-fundidad la discusioacuten de esta modalidad de mediacioacuten semioacutetica

Sin embargo quiero explorar con maacutes detalle el concepto de mediacioacutensemioacutetica antes de concluir esta seccioacuten En uno de los pasajes mejor conocidosde los escritos de Vygotski donde argumenta en favor del origen social y cultu-ral de las funciones metales superiores escribe que cada funcioacuten ocurre en dosplanos primero en la actividad e interaccioacuten entre personas y despueacutes en el apren-diz individual (Vygotski 1981) Lo que sirve de puente entre estos dos planoscomo se aclara en otros escritos suyos es la mediacioacuten semioacutetica Recueacuterdesecoacutemo formula Leontiev este argumento

es imposible transmitir los significados y meacutetodos necesarios para realizar un proceso de otraforma que no sea social ndashen la forma de una accioacuten o habla externandash En otras palabras los pro-cesos psicoloacutegicos superiores exclusivamente humanos soacutelo pueden ser adquiridos mediante lainteraccioacuten con otros esto es a traveacutes de un proceso interpsicoloacutegico que soacutelo maacutes tardecomenzaraacute a ser desarrollado independientemente por el individuo (1981 pp 55-56)

En otras palabras cuando las personas realizan una actividad conjunta susacciones gestos y discurso no soacutelo median la coordinacioacuten de la participacioacutentambieacuten hacen puacuteblicas las actividades mentales implicadas quedando asiacute dis-ponibles para su apropiacioacuten por parte de los participantes novatos1 Halliday sepronuncia con mucha claridad al respecto Aunque la cita siguiente se refieresoacutelo al lenguaje el teacutermino ldquolenguajerdquo podriacutea justificadamente ser reemplazadoaquiacute por ldquomediacioacuten semioacuteticardquo

En el desarrollo del nintildeo como un ser social el lenguaje posee el papel central El lenguaje es elprincipal canal por el que los patrones de vida le son transmitidos mediante el cual aprende aactuar como un miembro de la ldquosociedadrdquo ndashen y mediante la variedad de grupos sociales lafamilia los vecinos etceacuteterandash y a adoptar su ldquoculturardquo su modo de pensar y actuar sus creen-cias y sus valoresrdquo (1978 p 9)

Sin embargo a medida que los nintildeos crecen el lenguaje se convierte en elmodo predominante de mediacioacuten semioacutetica y como el mismo autor escribioacute enun trabajo posterior ldquoEl lenguaje es la condicioacuten esencial del conocimiento elproceso por el que la experiencia se convierte en conocimientordquo (Halliday 1993 p94 cursiva en el original)

173El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Ayuda para aprender en actividades conjuntas

Hasta ahora en la discusioacuten del papel de la actividad conjunta en el desarrollohumano me he centrado en las herramientas y particularmente en los modossemioacuteticos de representacioacuten que median los logros obtenidos como resultado dela actividad En esta seccioacuten en cambio me detendreacute en el papel que jueganotras personas ya sean miembros de la familia o de la comunidad extensa

Hasta este momento me he referido a los coparticipantes en una actividad enteacuterminos generales pero claramente hay distinciones adicionales por hacer Par-ticularmente uacutetil al respecto es el modelo de sistema de actividad de Engestroumlmel cual se representa en la figura 1

Lo que este modelo muestra es que cuando observamos una actividad encurso desde el punto de vista de un participante individual (Sujeto t) ese indivi-duo estaacute atrapado en un nudo de relaciones que le unen a otros ldquoparticipantesrdquolas Herramientas y Artefactos para mediar la accioacuten sobre el Objeto pero tam-bieacuten la Comunidad a la que pertenecen las personas implicadas en la actividadjunto con la Divisioacuten de Trabajo propia de la comunidad y tambieacuten las Reglas yConvenciones que gobierna la manera en la que la actividad se desarrolla(Engestroumlm 1999) Lo que subraya esta uacuteltima categoriacutea de ldquoparticipantesrdquo es ladimensioacuten histoacuterica de un sistema de actividad ya que estas reglas y convencio-nes ndashal igual que las herramientas y artefactosndash traen al presente las praacutecticasdestiladas de las generaciones previas que han participado en la actividad y estaspraacutecticas son interpretadas y utilizadas por la comunidad actual

Para ilustrar la relevancia de este modelo en el desarrollo del nintildeo pequentildeopodemos comparar dos versiones de una actividad similar descrita por WertschMinick y Arns (1984) En este estudio un grupo de nintildeos de Brasil ordenan unpuzzle en dos situaciones distintas la primera con sus madres y la segunda conun profesor de primaria Los investigadores observaron que en general las

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187174

FIGURA 1Triaacutengulo de Actividad

Artefactosherramientas y

praacutecticas

Valores reglasy convenciones

Comunidad Divisioacuten delabor

Engestrom 1999

Objeto ResultadosSujeto

madres y los profesores participan en la actividad de manera sistemaacuteticamentediferente Mientras que las madres tendiacutean a dirigir el comportamiento de losnintildeos o incluso a realizar parte de la tarea ellas mismas para completarla de unamanera eficaz ndashtal y como habriacutean hecho si se tratara de una tarea domeacutesticandashlos profesores tendiacutean a promover la actuacioacuten autoacutenoma de los nintildeos y soacutelo pro-porcionaban consejos y sugerencias cuando lo juzgaban necesario para el avancede la comprensioacuten de los nintildeos Interpretando estos resultados los investigado-res sugeriacutean que los dos grupos de adultos perteneciacutean a dos comunidades dife-rentes (o sistemas de actividad) con diferentes reglas y convenciones sobre la par-ticipacioacuten en actividades conjuntas Y esto alternativamente conduciacutea a la dife-rente divisioacuten del trabajo que ellos observaron De manera similar Rogoff(2003) cita muchos ejemplos de diferencias sustanciales entre culturas en casitodos los aspectos del crecimiento infantil con respecto a sus modos de implicar alos nintildeos en las actividades que consideran importantes

Lo que estaacute claro es que ldquodetraacutes derdquo un adulto particular en contacto directocon el nintildeo ndasho en algunas culturas un hermano mayorndash hay una comunidadamplia formada por los miembros de la familia vecinos y otras personas interesa-das en la educacioacuten del nintildeo que comparten determinadas creencias sobre elmodo maacutes apropiado de introducir a los nintildeos en las actividades de la vida diariaPor eso ya sea en Espantildea Japoacuten o las Montantildeas Peruanas aunque las praacutecticasactuales variacutean a traveacutes de las culturas en todas los responsables del bienestar ydel desarrollo de los nintildeos actuacutean como agentes de una comunidad maacutes ampliacuyas creencias y praacutecticas estaacuten arraigadas en una larga tradicioacuten sobre coacutemodeben llevarse a cabo las actividades Pero igualmente en todas las culturas laspraacutecticas tambieacuten cambian en respuesta a los cambios en el mundo maacutes allaacute deuna comunidad particular En muchos hogares Occidentales por ejemplo losjuegos de ordenadores o los programas de televisioacuten han ocupado recientementeel lugar de los cuentos antes de dormir mientras que en muchas comunidadesindiacutegenas las artes que hasta hace poco soacutelo cubriacutean las necesidades locales sonahora explotadas comercialmente por el mercado turiacutestico cambiando los ritmosde la vida diaria las relaciones entre los miembros de la familia y las actividadesen las que los nintildeos estaacuten inmersos Sin embargo como anteriormente se sugirioacutepara comprender las actividades en las que los nintildeos participan hoy necesitamosmirar no soacutelo a la situacioacuten inmediata sino tambieacuten a la comunidad maacutes ampliay a los cambios que han tenido lugar en las escalas temporales

Microgeacutenesis y Zona de Desarrollo Proacuteximo

Lo inmediato sin embargo es siempre la situacioacuten microgeneacutetica que es ellugar del desarrollo ontogeneacutetico ndashla accioacuten e interaccioacuten entre el aprendiz yaquellos con quien estaacute implicado en la actividad en cursondash Cuando adoptamosesta perspectiva microgeneacutetica sin embargo necesitamos modificar la represen-tacioacuten del sistema de actividad reflejada en la figura 1 Esta representacioacutensubraya el hecho de que la accioacuten estaacute orientada a un propoacutesito De manera dis-tinta ahora conviene resaltar la interaccioacuten entre los participantes ndashsus tentativaspara lograr intersubjetividad con respecto a los objetivos comunes y a las habili-dades complementarias de conocimiento que aportan a la co-construccioacuten delresultado previsto (ver Figura 2)ndash Lo que la figura 2 enfatiza es el hecho de queaunque las herramientas y artefactos que estaacuten disponibles para mediar la accioacutenemprendida conjuntamente son los mismos para cada participante cada unoaporta una familiaridad algo diferente con su uso como resultado de su diferentetrayectoria vital siendo esta variabilidad en su pericia la que hace posible paracada uno de ellos proporcionar asistencia a los otros al menos en algunos aspectos

175El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

de la accioacuten conjunta Visto desde esta perspectiva estaacute claro por queacute Vygotskienfatizoacute el papel de la actividad conjunta en el desarrollo y escribioacute sobre supotencial para permitir a los participantes ldquoir maacutes allaacute de siacute mismosrdquo con laayuda de otros maacutes expertos

La metaacutefora usada por Vygotski para caracterizar el potencial para el aprendi-zaje que esta clase de actividad crea fue ldquozona de desarrollo proacuteximordquo Como eacutelescribioacute cuando otro participante en la actividad proporciona instruccioacuten que essuministrada apropiadamente maacutes allaacute de lo que el aprendiz puede llegar a hacerpor siacute mismo ldquodespierta toda una serie de funciones que estaacuten en estado demaduracioacuten latente en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximordquo (1987 p 212) Vygotskiconceptualizoacute el desarrollo como la formacioacuten de nuevos sistemas funcionales(ldquoneoformacionesrdquo) y de cambios en las relaciones entre sistemas que seguacuten eacutelconsideraba ocurriacutean como una secuencia de ldquocrisis del desarrollordquo particular-mente facilitadas por la participacioacuten en las ldquoactividades guiadasrdquo relevantes decada etapa por ejemplo jugar en la nintildeez y aprender a leer y a escribir en los pri-meros antildeos escolares Sin embargo puede ser un error dirigir la atencioacuten soacutelo alos periodos de cambios revolucionarios ya que como eacutel igualmente enfatizoacutetambieacuten tienen lugar en cualquier momento otros procesos graduales de creci-miento

Los procesos que son liacuteneas centrales de desarrollo en una edad se convierten en liacuteneas perifeacute-ricas de desarrollo en la edad siguiente y contrariamente liacuteneas perifeacutericas de desarrollo deuna edad son traiacutedas a la vanguardia y se convierten en liacuteneas centrales en el momento en elque cambia su significado y su significacioacuten relativa en la estructura total del desarrollo(1987 p 197)2

En la elaboracioacuten de su importante concepto de zona de desarrollo proacuteximoVygotski tendioacute a caracterizar la ayuda proporcionada por otros como ldquoinstruc-cioacutenrdquo asiacute como a ver su valor en ldquoel potencial del nintildeo para elevarse a siacute mismo

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187176

FIGURA 2Diaacutelogo en la Actividad Conjunta (Wells 2002b)

Resultadosmateriales yartefactossemioacuteticos

Herramientasartefactos

Sujeto

Reglasconvenciones

Comunidad Divisioacuten delabor

Sujeto

Herramientasartefactos

gracias a la colaboracioacuten hacia un nivel intelectual mayor de desarrollo despla-zaacutendose mediante la imitacioacuten desde lo que eacutel es hasta lo que eacutel no esrdquo (1987p 210) Sin embargo muchos eruditos contemporaacuteneos que han construidosobre su trabajo han adoptado una visioacuten de conjunto del significado evolutivode la colaboracioacuten en actividades conjuntas y han caracterizado la ayuda propor-cionada en esta relacioacuten con teacuterminos tales como ldquoaprendizajerdquo (Lave y Wenger1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoparticipacioacuten guiadardquo (Rogoff 1994 2003) y ldquoandamia-jerdquo (Wood Bruner y Ross 1976) Sin embargo mientras estas metaacuteforas dife-rentes iluminan caracteriacutesticas diferentes de la relacioacuten lo que tienen todas encomuacuten es la inclusioacuten del aprendizaje en una actividad que ofrezca el nivel deapoyo necesario para ayudar al aprendizaje a completar una actividad en la que eacutelo ella estaacute interesado y a hacer esto de tal manera que eacutel o ella progresen hastapoder participar maacutes plena y autoacutenomamente en el futuro (Maybin Mercer yStierer 1992)

En muchas actividades conjuntas tales como por ejemplo formas tradicio-nales de aprendizaje de oficios la ayuda es proporcionada soacutelo cuando se necesitay de este modo el ldquomaestrordquo la ofrece sin intenciones didaacutecticas deliberadas maacutesallaacute de arropar al principiante para terminar una tarea particular en curso (Lave1996) De manera similar la socializacioacuten en actividades domeacutesticas no necesitauna instruccioacuten expliacutecita ya que los principiantes pueden aprender mucho sim-plemente mirando y escuchando (cf Rogoff 2003) Esto es lo que Lave y Wen-ger (1991) quieren decir cuando insisten en que el aprendizaje no es una activi-dad independiente sino un aspecto intriacutenseco de la ldquoparticipacioacuten perifeacutericalegiacutetimardquo en las actividades de una comunidad Desde su perspectiva por lotanto la educacioacuten formal en la que el aprendizaje es el uacutenico propoacutesito de laactividad tiene algo anoacutemalo particularmente cuando la uacutenica forma de ayudaproporcionada es la instruccioacuten directa del profesor experto y la consiguienteevaluacioacuten del grado de aprendizaje de los alumnos

En muchas discusiones recientes se ha reconocido tambieacuten que no es soacutelo unldquoprofesorrdquo quien puede proporcionar ayuda en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximo Porun lado en una actividad compleja muchos participantes son maacutes expertos queotros en algunos aspectos y por lo tanto en algunas ocasiones estaacuten preparadospara ayudar a aquellos que son menos expertos (Rogoff 1994) Por otro ladoaquellos que proporcionan ayuda no tienen que estar fiacutesicamente presentes lostextos y otros artefactos pueden igualmente ayudar de manera satisfactoria a unparticipante ldquoa ir maacutes allaacute de siacute mismo o siacute mismardquo como ocurre con frecuenciaen el trabajo intelectual como la investigacioacuten y la escritura (Wells 1999) Ade-maacutes como Engestroumlm (1999) y otros ndashbasaacutendose en distintos aspectos de losescritos teoacutericos de Vygotskindash han anotado las herramientas materiales y simboacute-licas que han sido desarrolladas por participantes anteriores en la actividad pue-den tambieacuten proporcionar la misma clase de ayuda Sin embargo el punto maacutesimportante que quizaacutes debe subrayarse es que hay muchas situaciones en las quenadie es un experto incluso como cada uno aporta su propia experiencia pasadaa la solucioacuten de un problema comuacuten el grupo en su conjunto es capaz de alcan-zar maacutes de lo que cualquier miembro singular podriacutea haber hecho de maneraindependiente Evidentemente es esta colaboracioacuten la que ha hecho posible lasinvenciones que han llevado a los mayores avances de las grandes civilizaciones alo largo del curso de la historia cultural

Desarrollo en los antildeos preescolares

La responsabilidad para cuidar a los nintildeos en la nintildeez temprana variacutea conside-rablemente de una sociedad a otra como antes anoteacute Sin embargo en todas las

177El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

sociedades los nintildeos estaacuten inmersos en actividades conjuntas con otros en las quereciben ayuda para participar aunque puedan llevarlas a cabo parcialmente Ensu mayor parte como ya se mencionoacute eacutestas son actividades cotidianas repetidasregularmente en las rutinas establecidas Se espera que el nintildeo aprenderaacute a asu-mirlas y es simplemente ayudado para hacerlo Esta forma de aprendizaje deno-minada habitualmente ldquoenculturacioacutenrdquo asegura la continuidad de las formas devida culturales desde una generacioacuten a la siguiente y como Donald (1991) argu-menta probablemente tuvo lugar incluso antes de la emergencia del habla

Sin embargo en todas las actividades hay ocasiones en las que cuando surgealguacuten problema se requiere alguacuten nivel de toma de decisiones deliberado En estassituaciones la interaccioacuten verbal hace posible un grado de reflexioacuten y planificacioacutenhacia delante en la que las relaciones de causa y efecto intencioacuten accioacuten y resultadose hacen expliacutecitas y abiertas para su anaacutelisis y discusioacuten La conversacioacuten que semantiene en estas ocasiones juega asiacute un papel particularmente importante en laayuda a los nintildeos para atender y comprender el mundo que les rodea de acuerdo conlos modos culturales de ldquodarle sentidordquo Sin embargo estas ocasiones pueden tam-bieacuten abrir posibilidades para el cambio tanto en la forma de la actividad como lacomprensioacuten que de ella alcanzan los participantes Coacutemo los cuidadores tomanhabitualmente estas oportunidades es de gran relevancia aquiacute ya que juega en la for-macioacuten de las disposiciones intelectuales con las que los nintildeos entran en la escuelaun papel importante (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo y Sterponi 2002)

En esta seccioacuten incluyo algunos ejemplos representativos del modo de hablarque surge de las actividades conjuntas en el hogar Estos ejemplos se han extraiacute-do de observaciones realizadas en contextos ingleses (Wells 1986) y australianos(Hasan 2002) donde los nintildeos pequentildeos observados pasaban la mayor parte desu tiempo en el hogar en compantildeiacutea de un progenitor o algunas veces con uno omaacutes hermanos mientras que el resto del tiempo se entreteniacutean ellos solos (conuna participacioacuten esporaacutedica del adulto) o algo que haciacutean con frecuencia mira-ban y ldquoayudabanrdquo a sus progenitores con tareas domeacutesticas de diferente tipo

En el primer ejemplo James (de tres antildeos y medio de edad) ha estado jugandosolo en el jardiacuten y cuando entra de nuevo en casa su madre intenta que se quitelos zapatos embarrados Sin embargo en ese momento ve un paacutejaro fuera que leinteresa maacutes que cambiarse de zapatos

Ejemplo 1Madre Alliacute Vamoshellip Alliacutehellip Una zapatilla enJames Puedo ver un paacutejaroMadre iquestUn queacute amorJames Mira un paacutejaroMadre (Susurrando) iquestEstaacute alliacute iquestFueraJames (Sentildealando y susurrando) Siacute mira

(Ambos continuacutean hablando muy suavemente)Madre iquestEstaacute comiendo algoJames NoMadre iquestDoacutende Oh siacute estaacute consiguiendo iquestSabes queacute estaacute haciendoJames NoMadre Estaacute yendo al saco de papel para intentar escoger algunos pedazos

Oh tiene un poco de alimento alliacute Y espero que escoja algunos pedazos de hilodel saco para ir y hacer su nido bajo la azotea James Espera un minuto y [James ahora quiere salir a ver maacutes cerca pero en ese momento el paacutejaro se escapavolando]

James Se ha ido

En el segundo ejemplo Elizabeth (de cuatro antildeos de edad) que estaacute ayudandoen la limpieza de casa mira con intereacutes coacutemo su madre mete en un cubo la cenizade la lentildea de la chimenea

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187178

Ejemplo 2Elizabeth iquestPara queacute estaacutes haciendo esoMadre Estoy recogieacutendolo y ponieacutendolo fuera para que papaacute pueda ponerlo en el jardiacutenElizabeth iquestPor queacute lo tiene que poner en el jardiacuten Madre Para abonar bienElizabeth iquestEso hace que la hierba crezcaMadre SiacuteElizabeth iquestPor queacuteMadre Sabes que te digo que necesitas comer cosas diferentes como huevos y col y

pudin de arroz para convertirte en una nintildea mayor Elizabeth SiacuteMadre Bien las plantas tambieacuten necesitan comida diferente Y la ceniza es una de las

cosas buenas para ellas

El tercer ejemplo se refiere a James de nuevo ahora 18 meses mayor Por lamantildeana temprano ha estado ayudando a su madre con la elaboracioacuten de unos dul-ces en el horno Ahora vuelve a la cocina cuando su madre estaacute sacando las bande-jas fuera del horno Oye un ruidoso ldquocrackrdquo metaacutelico y solicita una explicacioacuten

Ejemplo 3James iquestQuieacuten hizo esoMadre Espero que fuera la contraccioacuten de la lata James iquestQueacute lataMadre La que estaacute con los pasteles dentro James iquestPor queacute hizo ese ruidoMadre Bien cuando estaba en el horno se calentoacute mucho y se estiroacute un pedacito Ape-

nas la he sacado del horno y se estaacute enfriando muy raacutepido mira y ese ruido ocu-rre cuando se hace maacutes pequentildea otra vez y vuelve a su forma normal

James Oh iquesttiene una forma diferente en el horno Madre Oh no muy diferente Soacutelo un poco mayor James Pequentildea lata traviesa Puede que consigas que te den un azote si lo haces otra vez

En estos tres ejemplos la madre responde con prontitud a los intereses delnintildeo y proporciona informacioacuten para explicar el significado de lo que los nintildeosestaacuten viendo u oyendo incluso cuando inicialmente esto interrumpe los planesde la madre Los tres casos muestran coacutemo la participacioacuten de los nintildeos en la acti-vidad con el adulto garantiza una atencioacuten intersubjetiva hacia los intereses delnintildeo lo que permite a la madre proporcionar informacioacuten relevante Esto es cla-ramente una forma de ldquoinstruccioacutenrdquo sin embargo es espontaacutenea y contingentecon los intereses de los nintildeos en lugar de ser presentada como parte de un curri-culum pre-planificado

El tercer ejemplo es particularmente interesante desde este punto de vista yaque el fenoacutemeno que despierta el intereacutes de James requiere una explicacioacuten algoteacutecnica En alguacuten momento del futuro sin duda la dilatacioacuten del metal cuandose calienta y su consiguiente contraccioacuten cuando es apartado del calor figuraraacuteen el curriculum de ciencias de la escuela en relacioacuten con el estudio sistemaacuteticodel calor aquiacute sin embargo es un efecto secundario de la elaboracioacuten de los pas-teles en el horno y la explicacioacuten de la madre aunque teacutecnica en cuanto al conte-nido se asienta en el lenguaje cotidiano y no en los teacuterminos abstractos de lageneralizacioacuten cientiacutefica Como Hasan (2002) ha observado

el discurso del conocimiento quasi especializado tiene lugar lsquoen medio dersquo las actividades dia-rias y necesariamente exige una buena disposicioacuten por parte de la madre para acoger los cam-bios contextuales para tener la voluntad de reclasificar el contexto del discurso en marcha Latendencia a conectar con el discurso en movimiento del nintildeo la buena disposicioacuten para reclasi-ficar el contexto es una caracteriacutestica discursiva del mismo grupo de madres que con frecuen-cia lanzan preguntas precisas para la calificacioacuten de los objetos que atienden a las preguntas desus hijos y que les proporcionan respuestas bien desarrolladas (p 123)

179El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

No todos los nintildeos experimentan esta clase de respuesta altamente informati-va para sus intereses por supuesto Sobre la base de un corpus sustancial de inte-racciones madre-hijo Hasan (2002) siguiendo a Bernstein (1982) distingueentre mediacioacuten semioacutetica ldquovisiblerdquo e ldquoinvisiblerdquo Mientras que todos los ejem-plos citados anteriormente giran sobre la actividad conjunta y las preguntas delos nintildeos merecen una exploracioacuten adicional en un modo expliacutecito ldquovisiblerdquo lostemas de las contribuciones de muchos otros nintildeos a la actividad y la interaccioacutenson tratados por los padres como ldquoobviosrdquo y por lo tanto como si no requirieranexplicacioacuten En este sentido la mediacioacuten de las creencias culturales y de laspraacutecticas permanece ldquoinvisiblerdquo esto es la forma de ser del mundo y el tema nomerece una discusioacuten adicional El Ejemplo 4 (tomado de Hasan 2002) bajoestaacutes liacuteneas proporciona una buena ilustracioacuten

Ejemplo 4 Madre Ponlo sobre la estufa y deacutejalo alliacuteKaren iquestPor queacuteMadre PorqueKaren iquestAquiacute es doacutende va Madre SiacuteUn poco despueacutesKaren iquestCoacutemo conseguiste esoiquestNo saliste Madre Camineacute encima y lo conseguiacute iquestno me viste Karen HmmMadre Debes estar ciega

Los dos breves extractos del Ejemplo 4 son tiacutepicos de un estilo muy diferentede interaccioacuten comparados con los anteriores Aquiacute el eacutenfasis de los padres enconseguir que el nintildeo se adapte a los modos de la cultura local de actuar y pensarcon eficacia suprime la curiosidad del nintildeo y el deseo de comprender lo quetambieacuten hace menos probable que el nintildeo desarrolle la capacidad para cuestionarel status quo y participar en los esfuerzos por cambiarlo y mejorarlo

Finalmente antes de dejar el tema del aprendizaje a traveacutes de la conversacioacutenen actividades conjuntas es importante considerar la actividad conjunta en elcontexto del juego Vygotski (1978) consideroacute el juego como la actividad princi-pal en los antildeos preescolares ya que anima al nintildeo a explorar las posibilidades dela mediacioacuten semioacutetica mediante el uso de objetos presentes que pueden ser uti-lizados para representar otros objetos no presentes mediante el ldquorole playrdquo en elque el lenguaje crea un mundo imaginario En el Ejemplo 5 James ahora contres antildeos y nueve meses estaacute sentaacutendose en el brazo de un sofaacute conduciendo untren imaginario con su madre como pasajera

Ejemplo 5Madre Aquiacute estamos Me sentareacute al lado Perfecto iquestestaacutes listo iquestTodo a punto

Bien Quita el frenoJames Comenzareacute a levantarloMadre Oh perdoacuten Estaacute bienJames Mamaacute no conduzcas todaviacuteaMadre Oh BienJames [Hace un ruido simulando arrancar el motor]Madre iexclOh Este motor arranca raacutepido Muy bien iquestHay suficiente carboacuten en la parte

posterior iquestHas cargado suficiente carboacuten JamesJames SiacuteMadre Bien Entonces vaacutemonos lejos Despiacutedete de tus amigos James [Suena el ruido del motor que acelera Se riacutee y hace el sonido del silbido del

motor]Madre Ahora vamos muy raacutepido iquestPuedes sentir el traqueteo de los vagones James Siacute

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187180

Madre Oh todo me da vueltas Oh mi desayuno estaacute retumbando en mi barriga iexclOhiexclOh iexclOh

James [Hace el ruido del motor]Madre Creo que deberiacuteamos disminuir la velocidad iquestNo crees James Mm (asintiendo)Madre Creo que estamos yendo un poco raacutepido

Es mejor es maacutes faacutecil ahora iquestno James Mm (asintiendo)Madre [Muje] Mira las vacas en el campo JamesJames MmMadre Y hay un granjero mira El granjero te estaacute saludando

Como contar historias compartidas que es otra actividad conjunta importan-te a esta edad el juego imaginario tambieacuten tiene una funcioacuten importante en lapreparacioacuten del nintildeo para explorar el poder del lenguaje ldquopara crear un mundomediante las palabrasrdquo Como seraacute discutido debajo este uso del lenguaje pararepresentar objetos y eventos no presentes y las relaciones entre ellos adoptagran significado en el contexto de la escolarizacioacuten puacuteblica tiacutepica donde propor-ciona los significados mediacionales principales mediante los que gran parte delcurriculum se materializa (Wells 1986)

En suma con la excepcioacuten del Ejemplo 4 todos los extractos precedentes sonejemplos claros de un adulto ldquotrabajando en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximo delnintildeordquo (Vygotski 1987) ya que se implican en la interaccioacuten en el proceso dedesarrollar la actividad en la que estaacuten conjuntamente inmersos Como Vygotski(1987) enfatizoacute en la actividad conjunta colaborativa el nintildeo puede siemprehacer maacutes de lo que le es posible hacer independientemente La actividad pro-porciona el marco organizacional en el que parte de la conversacioacuten dirige ycomenta la actividad y parte explora los resultados a los que conduce En estecontexto el adulto hace disponible para la apropiacioacuten del nintildeo no soacutelo infor-macioacuten especiacutefica como respuesta a los intereses del nintildeo sino tambieacuten una pos-tura hacia la experiencia que valora la actitud de investigacioacuten Tratando las pre-guntas del nintildeo como dignas de respuesta expliacutecita el adulto apoya el desarrollode una disposicioacuten a plantearse preguntas y a buscarles respuesta mediante lainvestigacioacuten futura (Wells 1999)

El papel de la actividad en la educacioacuten

Aunque el teacutermino ldquoeducacioacutenrdquo se emplea a menudo como sinoacutenimo deldquoescolarizacioacutenrdquo seguacuten una interpretacioacuten maacutes amplia la educacioacuten viene refi-rieacutendose a los primeros antildeos del nintildeo y de hecho como se vio arriba hay muchasocasiones en las que un coparticipante en una actividad en curso proporciona ins-truccioacuten expliacutecita Sin embargo la educacioacuten ndashen el sentido de escolarizacioacutenndashtiende a ser muy diferente de la clase de actividades ilustradas maacutes arriba Maacutesimportante en las escuelas la instruccioacuten es tanto deliberada como sistemaacutetica yes gobernada no por los intereses de los alumnos sino por un curriculum que hasido disentildeado por expertos que no estaacuten familiarizados con los alumnos que van aser instruidos Como resultado a menudo lo que se ensentildea en la escuela no estaacuterelacionado con aquello que a los alumnos maacutes les interesa aprender y es muyprobable que no se obtengan beneficios de las oportunidades que la escuelapodriacutea proporcionar

En las primeras secciones de este trabajo se ha argumentado que el aprendi-zaje no es un fin en siacute mismo sino un aspecto integrado del domino de nuevasformas de actividad que tienen significado y valor para el desarrollo de los apren-dices como miembros de una comunidad y como individuos autoacutenomos uacutenicos

181El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Como Wygotsky insistentemente precisoacute el aprendizaje conduce el desarrollo yla instruccioacuten deberiacutea estar organizada para ayudar a este proceso

La instruccioacuten es soacutelo uacutetil cuando se mueve delante del desarrollo Cuando esto ocurre impulsao despierta toda una serie de funciones que estaacuten en estado de maduracioacuten latente en la zona dedesarrollo proacuteximo (1987 p 212)

La pregunta central para la escolarizacioacuten debe por lo tanto ser coacutemo ofrecerinstruccioacuten que sea relevante para las trayectorias de desarrollo de los alumnos yque de manera adecuada ldquose situacutee dentrordquo de sus zonas de desarrollo proacuteximoJunto a esta una segunda pregunta es coacutemo proporcionar ayuda a los alumnosindividuales para que su aprendizaje les permita de hecho avanzar en su desa-rrollo

Procurando proporcionar respuesta a estas preguntas el concepto de ldquoactivi-dad guiadardquo junto con el de recapitulacioacuten de la secuencia de desarrollo de losmodos de conocimiento puede ofrecer un comienzo uacutetil Los nintildeos cuandoingresan en la escuela han dominado en gran parte los modos de conocimientoasociados con la accioacuten el gesto y el habla (Nelson 1996) Lo que ahora necesi-tan es un aprendizaje de los modos de conocimiento asociado con el lenguajeescrito y de las distintas clases de representacioacuten simboacutelica que derivan de eacutelndashmatemaacutetica cientiacutefica musical etceacuteterandash Es decir necesitan aprenderlos parausar estas formas de representacioacuten como herramienta para la deliberacioacutenmediada la comunicacioacuten reflexiva y el pensamiento y para apropiarse de losdiferentes dominios de conocimiento teoacuterico que han sido construidos acumula-tivamente por las generaciones previas con la ayuda de las ventajas que confierenesos sistemas de ldquomemoria externardquo (Donald 1991)

La recapitulacioacuten del desarrollo histoacuterico cultural orienta la trayectoria a largoplazo para la educacioacuten formal en la escuela y en otras instituciones Pero inclusomaacutes importante para procurar responder la pregunta central presentada arriba esdeterminar los procedimientos efectivos para organizar los pequentildeos pasos queconfiguran las lecciones las unidades curriculares y los programas anuales a lolargo de esta trayectoria Basaacutendonos en las ideas presentadas en la seccioacuten ante-rior dos principios parecen en siacute mismos evidentes En primer lugar los encuen-tros educativos necesitan para estar organizados ser ldquoactividades conjuntasrdquo enlas que todos los participantes contribuyen a las metas convenidas con lo mejorde sus habilidades Y en segundo lugar debe convertirse en norma dar y recibirayuda por parte de cada participante Una de las implicaciones de estos dos prin-cipios es que no puede haber formas universales mejores para participar en alguacutenaspecto del curriculum puesto que cada clase variacutea en las experiencias e interesesque sus miembros aportan y en los valores y praacutecticas aprendidos culturalmenteque motivan y dirigen su implicacioacuten con el nuevo conocimiento y con las habi-lidades que estaacuten esperando dominar

Aunque siempre es importante reconocer valorar y construir sobre las expe-riencias previas de los alumnos ha llegado a ser incluso maacutes necesario a medidaque la migracioacuten tanto inter como intra paiacuteses ha aumentado significativamen-te ya que las diferentes etnias clases y religiones en las comunidades han dadolugar a su vez a comunidades de escuela y aula cada vez maacutes diversas ndashy estadiversidad es incluso mayor donde una proporcioacuten sustancial de alumnos estaacuteaprendiendo la lengua de clase como una segunda lengua (o subsiguiente)ndash Taldiversidad en el bagaje cultural y en la experiencia previa es generalmente vistocomo un problema que necesita ser superado en paiacuteses donde los disentildeadores delcurriculum apuntan a estandarizar la instruccioacuten para alcanzar ideacutenticos resulta-dos para todos los estudiantes como es hoy el caso en Estados Unidos Sin

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187182

embargo cuando las diferencias entre personas en teacuterminos de experiencia valo-res y praacutecticas son reconocidas como normales y deseables esta diversidad puedeconvertirse en una ventaja en la clase ya que las praacutecticas y puntos de vista alter-nativos que afloran pueden enriquecer la comunidad de clase y conducir a discu-siones valiosas en las que las creencias dadas por sentadas sean modificadas y sealcance una comprensioacuten maacutes profunda de los puntos considerados (Wells1999)

En este contexto he encontrado de ayuda pensar en el aprendizaje basado enla escuela en teacuterminos de una espiral del conocimiento donde el resultado espe-rado con cada giro de la espiral es una mayor comprensioacuten (Wells 1999) (verFigura 3) En la primera fase cuando la clase se embarca en un nuevo aspecto delcurriculum es importante animar a los alumnos a compartir sus experienciasprevias ya que como las investigaciones en campos muy diferentes han mostra-do (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotski) esas experiencias proporcionan elpunto de partida para su aprendizaje sean o no reconocidas puacuteblicamente Des-cubriendo lo que los estudiantes ya saben y aquello que les interesa explorar conmaacutes detalle el profesor puede tambieacuten planificar la unidad en cooperacioacuten conlos alumnos (Donoahue 2003) La segunda fase de la espiral conlleva varios acer-camientos a la nueva informacioacuten ndashmediante la explicacioacuten del profesor a traveacutesde materiales impresos o medios audiovusiales o en la forma de feedback de laspropias acciones e investigaciones de los alumnosndash Es importante reconocer sinembargo que la recepcioacuten de la nueva informacioacuten no asegura en siacute misma unaumento de la comprensioacuten Para que esto ocurra la nueva informacioacuten debearticularse con la comprensioacuten existente y con la experiencia previa relevantepara ser despueacutes puesta a prueba mediante la accioacuten en el mundo ndashobteniendofeedback (informacioacuten adicional)ndash yo mediante el diaacutelogo con otros para laconstruccioacuten del conocimiento donde el propoacutesito es llegar a una eleccioacuten con-sensuada entre las teoriacuteas alternativas demandas o interpretaciones sobre la basede una consideracioacuten de las evidencias y argumentos apropiados Finalmentepara consolidar la nuevas comprensiones obtenidas es valioso para la clase com-pleta reflexionar juntos sobre lo que han aprendido y sobre el proceso de cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento en el que han participado sobre las implicaciones quela nueva comprensioacuten tiene para sus propias acciones ndashtanto fuera como dentrode clasendash y sobre las preguntas importantes a las que ellos deben ahora dirigir susinvestigaciones futuras En otras palabras la fase final en el ciclo implica a lacomunidad en un ldquoacercamiento lsquometarsquordquo (Olson y Bruner 1996) es decir en laadopcioacuten de una perspectiva metacognitiva sobre su propio aprendizaje que a lolargo de miles de antildeos probablemente ha jugado un importante papel en eldesarrollo de cada modo de conocimiento presentado en la siacutentesis del desarrollohistoacuterico cultural de Donald (1991)3

Esta espiral necesita varias anotaciones adicionales La primera tiene quever con la naturaleza incompleta y provisional del conocimiento eacuteste estaacutesiempre abierto a la mejora mediante ciclos futuros a traveacutes de la espiral Lasegunda anotacioacuten concierne a la naturaleza esencialmente interactiva ysocial del crecimiento individual y comunitario en la comprensioacuten eacutesta seconsigue gracias a los esfuerzos de los participantes para clarificar sus pro-pios significados a los otros y alternativamente para tener en cuenta y res-ponder a los de los demaacutes (Bajtiacuten 1986) En tercer lugar es necesario enfati-zar que el crecimien to en la comprensioacuten requeriraacute espirales futuras queactiven los diferentes modos de conocimiento ya que la mayoriacutea de los cam-bios y problemas que ocurren en las instituciones maacutes allaacute del aula deman-dan un conocimiento procedimental substantivo y esteacutetico al igual que

183El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

teoacuterico y cada modo de conocimiento tiene una contribucioacuten que hacer aleacutexito de soluciones comprensivas que realcen significativamente la com-prensioacuten Finalmente en la representacioacuten de estas relaciones en la figura 3la espiral tambieacuten resalta la interdependencia de los individuos y la comuni-dad Mientras que la experiencia y la comprensioacuten son esencialmente indivi-duales en su naturaleza crecen fuera de eacutel y adoptan su significado de la par-ticipacioacuten de los individuos en el intercambio de informacioacuten y en su com-promiso en la construccioacuten de conocimiento en la comunidad extensa de laque cada individuo es miembro

Desafortunadamente muchos educadores no comprenden estas relacionesfundamentales y por eso su instruccioacuten no es conceptualizada y planificada demanera que sea oacuteptima para el desarrollo de los estudiantes Como numerososestudios han mostrado (Langer y Applebee 1987 Nystrand y Gamoran 1991)en la mayoriacutea de las clases la que gobierna la praacutectica es la concepcioacuten bancariadel conocimiento (Freire 1970) seguacuten la cual el propoacutesito de la instruccioacuten quetiene lugar en el aula es que un alumno individual esteacute preparado para puntuarbien en los tests y no tanto ampliar su conocimiento Dada esta orientacioacuten lasactividades en las que se pide a los alumnos que participen estaacuten determinadaspor la guiacutea curricular del libro de texto maacutes que por el conocimiento de los pro-fesores sobre los intereses y habilidades de los alumnos particulares de los queson responsables A esto es a lo que Tharp y Gallimore (1988) se refieren con laexpresioacuten ldquoguioacuten recitativordquo unido a la ocupacioacuten de un lugar individual de tra-bajo que domina la rutina diaria Ademaacutes los planes sobre coacutemo proceder sonndashcomo cabiacutea esperarndash unilateralmente impuestos en lugar de ser configuradossobre la base de las decisiones tomadas por la comunidad de clase como un todoy el modus operandi es la competicioacuten en lugar de la colaboracioacuten

Sin embargo como he argumentado en otra parte (Wells 1986 19992002a) eacuteste no es el uacutenico modo en el que la escolarizacioacuten puede ser condu-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187184

FIGURA 3La espiral del conocimiento

ACCIOacuteN Construccioacuten

deconocimiento

ComprensioacutenSubstantivo

Esteacutetico

Teoacuterico

Procedimental

Instrumental

Experiencia Informacioacuten

Modos de conocimiento

cida ndasha pensar de la larga historia de la recitacioacuten que se remonta a maacutes detres mil antildeos a las tempranas instituciones que entrenaban a los escribas yadministradores para leer y escribir (Cole 1996)ndash Pero probablemente elmodo por defecto de la escolarizacioacuten es parecido a una preparacioacuten para ldquolavida adultardquo y no una etapa criacutetica del desarrollo que merece la pena y essignificativa en siacute misma Como Vygotski argumentoacute sobre el dominio de laalfabetizacioacuten ldquola ensentildeanza debe organizarse de tal manera que la lectura yla escritura sean necesarias para algo La escritura debe ser incorporada enuna tarea relevante y necesaria para la vidardquo (1978 pp117-118) Y porldquovidardquo quiere decir no la vida futura sino la totalidad de los intereses y pre-ocupaciones actuales de los aprendices

En los uacuteltimos antildeos se han divulgado proyectos de una variedad de paiacuteses enlos que educadores universitarios han procurado crear condiciones para elldquoaprendizaje auteacutenticordquo en las aulas En todos estos proyectos se ha otorgado unpapel central a las actividades colaborativas que alternando entre los formatos departicipacioacuten individual en pequentildeo grupo y de la clase completa implican alos estudiantes en la exploracioacuten de temas centrales mediante investigacionespraacutecticas y tambieacuten teoacutericas y en la discusioacuten criacutetica y constructiva de sus hallaz-gos y de las implicaciones para futuras acciones El espacio no permite aquiacute unadiscusioacuten individual de estos proyectos pero lo que puede ser dicho sobre todosellos es que en sus diferentes formas valoran tanto los intereses de los alumnoscomo sus experiencias previas y persiguen ayudarles a desarrollar la disposicioacutenpara buscar la comprensioacuten maacutes que la acumulacioacuten simple de informacioacuten ypara valorar la colaboracioacuten maacutes que la competicioacuten como el medio para alcanzaresta menta4

En este contexto es digno atraer la atencioacuten hacia varias instituciones poste-riores a la escuela tales como la Fifth Dimension donde la participacioacuten en activi-dades elegidas personalmente ndasha menudo basadas en ordenadoresndash requiere a losnintildeos dominar habilidades que son tambieacuten necesarias para la escolarizacioacuten y lesproporcionan oportunidades para interactuar con voluntarios universitarios enuna posicioacuten de igualdad (Brown y Cole 2002) De manera similar algunosprogramas basados en museos (Leinhardst Crowley y Kuntson 2002) y variasformas de educacioacuten al aire libre tambieacuten capitalizan los intereses de los estu-diantes para implicarles en actividades desafiantes que demandan para la cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento procesos de diaacutelogo y toma de decisiones comparablesa aquellos encontrados en los contextos escolares previamente descritos

Finalmente si estas praacutecticas pioneras arraigan e influyen en la educacioacutenpuacuteblica con mayor amplitud es esencial que los profesores tengan oportunidadessimilares para desarrollar las disposiciones y pericia necesarias para actuar comoagentes de cambio y liacutederes de una reforma en las instituciones en las que traba-jan Es por lo tanto estimulante ver que a pesar del eacutenfasis de los dirigentes poliacute-ticos en estandarizar los curricula y en los resultados cuantificables algunos pro-gramas de formacioacuten de profesores y desarrollo profesional anima a los profeso-res sobre la base de investigaciones sobre su propia praacutectica a tomar sus propiasdecisiones sobre queacute debe ser ensentildeado y coacutemo y a compartir los resultados desus investigaciones con los compantildeeros Este ha sido el motor de mi propio tra-bajo en los antildeos recientes ya que he participado en la investigacioacuten colaborativacon profesores para crear y mantener comunidades de investigacioacuten tanto en cla-ses como entre los mismos profesores5

185El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Notas1 La secuencia temporal implicada por esta formulacioacuten ha sido ampliamente debatida y especialmente el movimiento desde fueraa dentro que sugiere Mi propia comprensioacuten de lo que la apropiacioacuten supone se capta mejor con el ejemplo de aprender a bailarmediante la inmersioacuten en la actividad con otros (Wells 1999) En muchos casos no hay separacioacuten entre antes y despueacutes o entrefuera y dentro y no hay necesidad de demostracioacuten o ejemplificacioacuten En lugar de esto estando inmerso en la actividad conjuntael principiante es literalmente entrenado fiacutesicamente por los movimiento del coparticipante mientras que al mismo tiempoconstruye su propia organizacioacuten ndashy quizaacute incluso una representacioacuten esquemaacuteticandash de los movimientos corporales A lo largo deltiempo este esquema estaacute tan bien organizado que el principiante se convierte en un experto que estaacute preparado paralelamentepara introducir a otros en la actividad Esto es lo que Lave y Wenger (1991) y Rogoff (2003) quieren decir por desarrollo median-te la participacioacuten en actividades culturales

2 Estoy agradecido a Natalia Gajdamaschko y Steve Gabosch por sus valiosas discusiones de esta distincioacuten durante el XMCA cursoonline sobre la teoriacutea de la actividad histoacuterico cultural Abril 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Aunque estaacute incluido en la Tabla I este modo de conocimiento no ha sido discutido aquiacute ya que el reconocimiento expliacutecito deeste importante modo de conocimiento es muy reciente (Brown 1975) Sin embargo eso no significa que sea en siacute mismo unnuevo fenoacutemeno

4 Para algunos ejemplos representativos veacutease Brown y Campione 1994 Lampert Rittenhouse y Crumbaugh 1996 McMahonRaphael Goatley y Pardo 1997 Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford y Brown 1998 Scardamalia Bereiter y Lamon 1994

5 Juntos formamos un grupo de investigacioacuten colaborativo DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project)(Wells (Ed) 2001)

ReferenciasBAJTIacuteN M M (1986) Speech genres and other late essays Austin University of Texas PressBERNSTEIN B (1982) Codes modalities and the process of cultural reproduction A model En M Apple (Ed) Cultural and econo-

mic reproduction in education (pp 304-355) Londres Routledge amp Kegan PaulBROWN A L (1975) The development of memory Knowing knowing about knowing and knowing how to know En H W

Reese (Ed) Advances in child development and behavior (Vol 10 pp 103-152) Nueva York Academic Press BROWN A L amp CAMPIONE J C (1994) Guided discovery in a community of learners En K McGilly (Ed) Integrating cognitive

theory and classroom practice Classroom lessons (pp 229-270) Cambridge MA MIT PressBradford BooksBROWN K amp COLE M (2002) Cultural historical activity theory and the expansion of opportunities for learning after school En

G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 225-238)Oxford Blackwell

BRUNER J S (1990) Acts of meaning Cambridge MA Harvard University PressCARR M (2002) Emerging learning narratives A perspective from early childhood education En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds)

Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 99-111) Oxford BlackwellCOLE M (1996) Cultural psychology A once and future discipline Cambridge MA The Bellknap Press of Harvard University PressDEACON T W (1997) The symbolic species The co-evolution of language and the brain Nueva York NortonDIAMOND J (1998) Guns germs and steel The fates of human societies Nueva York NortonDONALD M (1991) Origins of the Modern Mind Three Stages in the Evolution of Culture and Cognition Cambridge MA Harvard

University PressDONOAHUE Z (2003) Science teaching and learning Teachers and children plan together Networks 6(1) httpwwwoiseuto-

rontoca~ctdnetworksjournal Vol 6 (1) 2003marchENGESTROumlM Y (1999) Activity theory and individual and social transformation Y En Engestrom R Miettinen amp R-L Puna-

maki (Eds) Perspectives on activity theory (pp 19-38) Cambridge Cambridge University PressFREIRE P (1970) Pedagogy of the oppressed Nueva York Herder and HerderHALLIDAY M A K (1975) Learning how to mean Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1978) Language as social semiotic The social interpretation of language and meaning Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1993) Towards a language-based theory of learning Linguistics and Education 5 93-116HASAN R (2002) Semiotic mediation and mental development in pluralistic societies Some implications for tomorrowrsquos schoo-

ling En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural peerspectives on the future of education (pp112-126) Oxford Blackwell

HEATH S B (1983) Ways with words Cambridge Cambridge University PressLAMPERT M RITTENHOUSE P amp CRUMBAUGH C (1996) Agreeing to disagree Developing sociable mathematical discourse En

D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook of education and human development (pp 731-764) Cambridge MA Blackwell LANGER J A amp APPLEBEE A N (1987) How writing shapes thinking A study of teaching and learning Urbana IL National Council

of Teachers of EnglishLAVE J (1996) Teaching as learning in practice Mind Culture and Activity 3 (3) 149-164LAVE J amp WENGER E (1991) Situated Learning Legitimate peripheral participation Nueva York Cambridge University PressLEINHARDT G CROWLEY K amp KNUTSON K (2002) Learning conversations Explanation and identity in museums Mahwah NJ

Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesLEONTIEV A N (1981) The problem of activity in psychology En J VWertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 37-71) Armonk NY SharpeMAYBIN J MERCER N amp STIERER B (1992) lsquoScaffoldingrsquo learning in the classroom En K Norman (Ed) Thinking voices The

work of the National Oracy Project (pp 186-195) Londres Hodder amp StoughtonMCMAHON S I RAPHAEL T E GOATLEY V J amp PARDO L S (Eds) (1997) The Book Club connection Literacy learning and class-

room talk Nueva York Teachers College PressNELSON K (1996) Language in cognitive development The emergence of the mediated mind Nueva York Cambridge University PressNEWSON J (1978) Dialogue and development En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol The emergence of language (pp 31-42)

New York Academic Press

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187186

NYSTRAND M amp GAMORAN A (1991) Student engagement When recitation becomes conversation En H C Waxman amp H JWalberg (Eds) Effective teaching Current research (pp 257-276)Berkeley CA McCutchan Publishing Corp

OLSON D R amp BRUNER J S (1996) Folk psychology and folk pedagogy En D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook ofeducation and human development (pp 9-27) Cambridge MA Blackwell

PALINCSAR A MAGNUSSON S MARANO N FORD D amp BROWN N (1998) Designing a community of practice Principlesand practices of the GIsML Community Teaching and Teacher Education 14 (1) 5-20

PIAGET J (1970) Piagetrsquos theory En P H Mussen (Ed) Carmichaelrsquos handbook of child development (pp 703-732) Nueva YorkWiley

PONTECORVO C amp STERPONI L (2002) Learning to argue and reason through discourse in educational settings En G Wells ampG Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 127-140) OxfordBlackwell

ROGOFF B (1990) Apprenticeship in thinking Cognitive development in social context Nueva York Oxford University PressROGOFF B (1994) Developing understanding of the idea of Communities of Learners Mind Culture and Activity 1 (4) 209-

229ROGOFF B (2003) The cultural nature of human development Nueva York Oxford University PressROSENBLATT L (1978) The reader the text the poem The transactional theory of the literary work Carbondale IL Southern Illinois

University PressSCARDAMALIA M C BEREITER amp LAMON M (1994) The CSILE project Trying to bring the classroom into World 3 En K

McGilley (Ed) Classroom lessons Integrating cognitive theory and classroom practice (pp 201-228) Cambridge MA MITPress

SCRIBNER S (1985) Vygotskyrsquos uses of history En J V Wertsch (Ed) Culture communication and cognition Vygotskian perspectives(pp 119-145) Cambridge Cambridge University Press

THARP R amp GALLIMORE R (1988) Rousing minds to life Nueva York Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C (1979) Communication and cooperation in early infancy a description of primary intersubjectivity En M

Bullowa (Ed) Before speech The beginning of interpersonal communication (pp 321-348) Cambridge Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C amp HUBLEY P (1978) Secondary intersubjectivity Confidence confiding and acts of meaning in the first year

En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol the emergence of language (pp 183-230) Nueva York Academic PressVYGOTSKI L S (1978)Mind in society The development of higher psychological processes Cambridge MA Harvard University PressVYGOTSKI L S (1981) The genesis of higher mental functions En J V Wertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 144-188) Armonk NY SharpeVYGOTSKI L S (1987) Thinking and speech En R W Rieber amp A S Carton (Eds) The collected works of L S Vygotsky Volumen

1 Problems of general psychology (pp 39-285) Nueva York PlenumWARTOFSKY M (1979) Models representation and scientific understanding Boston ReidelWELLS G (1985) Language development in the pre-school years Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (1986) The meaning makers Children learning language and using language to learn Portsmouth NH HeinemannWELLS G (1999) Dialogic inquiry Towards a sociocultural practice and theory of education Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (Ed) (2001) Action talk and text Learning and teaching through inquiry Nueva York Teachers College PressWELLS G (2002a) Learning and teaching for understanding The key role of collaborative knowledge building En J Brophy

(Ed) Social constructivist teaching Affordances and constraints (pp 1-41) Osford Elsevier ScienceJAIWELLS G (2002b) The role of dialogue in activity theory Mind Culture and Activity 9 (1) 43-66WERTSCH J V MINICK N amp ARNS F J (1984) The creation of context in joint problem solving En B Rogoff amp J Lave (Eds)

Everyday cognition Its development in social context (pp 151-171) Cambridge Cambridge University PressWOOD D BRUNER J S amp ROSS G (1976) The role of tutoring in problem-solving Journal of Child Psychology and Child Psy-

chiatry 17 89-100

187El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Original text

Introduction

Compared with other species the characteristic that distinguishes humans isthe ability and proclivity to engage in tool-mediated joint activity with otherhumans It is this characteristic that accounts for the development of human cul-tures over the course of history as they invented artefacts of various kinds inorder to adapt to and exploit the ecological niches in which they found themsel-ves It also accounts for the diversity of individual personsrsquo development whichdepend on the particular activities in which they participate As Vygotsky(1978 1981) was one of the first to point out the lsquohigherrsquo mental functions thatmake us human are not biologically given but are developmentally constructedthrough the appropriation of historically developed tools and practices that aremade manifest to the child and lsquoscaffoldedrsquo in the meaningful actions and utte-rances of the coparticipants in joint activity

Before continuing readers might find it interesting to reflect on their owndevelopmental trajectories to who they are today I suspect that they may findthemselves agreeing that Who we become depends on the company we keep and what wedo together

A Brief History of the Development of Joint Activity

Leontrsquoev provides a succinct account of Vygotskyrsquos insight in the followingsummary

The initial ideas that led Vygotsky to investigate the genesis of internal mental activity fromexternal activity are fundamentally different from the theoretical approaches of other modernauthors These ideas came from the analysis of the features unique to human productive laboractivity which is mediated by tools This activity is initially social in nature that is it is deve-loped under the conditions of cooperation and social interaction among people Vygotskyidentified two main interconnected features [of this activity] that are necessarily fundamentalfor psychology its tool-like (lsquoinstrumentalrsquo) structure and its inclusion in a system of interre-lations with other people It is these features that define the nature of human psychologicalprocesses The tool mediates activity and thus connects humans not only with the world ofobjects but also with other people Because of this humanrsquos activity assimilates the experience ofhumankind This means that humansrsquo mental processes (their lsquohigher psychological functionsrsquo)acquire a structure necessarily tied to the sociohistorically formed means and methods trans-mitted to them by others in the process of cooperative labor and social interaction But it isimpossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in any way otherthan a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words higher psycho-logical processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction with others thatis through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried out indepen-dently by the individual (Leontrsquoev 1981 pp 55-56 emphases in the original)

As well as emphasizing the social and cooperative nature of human activity thisquotation is important with respect to the arguments that I want to develop inthis paper as it highlights the central role of semiotic mediation in developmentKnowledge is created as well as appropriated in the discourse among peoplewho are working together in a specific situation in order to create or improve anartefact or to solve a problem of importance to the group However Leontrsquoevalso alludes to another of Vygotskyrsquos key insights namely that in order tounderstand current activity it is necessary to investigate the history of that acti-vity It is to this that I next turn

In analyzing the history of human development at least four different time-scales need to be considered The longest is the history of the cultural evolution of

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

the species (the phylogenetic level) next is the historical development of particu-lar cultures The third level (ontogenetic) traces the developmental trajectory ofindividual humans over the course of the lifespan Finally the microgenetic levelis concerned with the development of an instance of a particular activity

In practice it is the latter that has been explored in most detail for usingcontemporary technology it is relatively easy to observe and record the sequenceof actions through which an activity is enacted and the specific operations inwhich the participants engage making use of the relevant artefacts that are avai-lable in the situation (Leontrsquoev 1981) These artefacts may be either material(knives pencils automobiles) or symbolic (utterances maps theories) ndashthoughas Cole (1996) has pointed out to function as mediators of joint activity all arte-facts must have some form of material embodiment as well as a symbolic mea-ning that is to say they must be ready to hand and also have a cultural signifi-cance relevant to the situation

However the form in which a particular instance of activity is realizeddepends not only on the artefacts that are to hand in the situation but also onthe participantsrsquo past experiences with the practices in which the artefacts areused to mediate achievement of the action goals that contribute to the joint acti-vity Thus the microgenesis of a particular instance of activity is necessarilydependent upon the ontogenetic development of the participants that is to sayupon the opportunities their life trajectories have afforded them to appropriatethe relevant cultural knowledge through participation in instances of similaractions and operations

But on the time-scale of ontogenetic development each individualrsquos trajectoryof development is itself strongly influenced by the culture in which he or she isgrowing up and on the historical development of that culture As Rogoff (2003)illustrates in considerable detail cultures vary considerably both over time andacross ecological niches in what mediating artefacts and practices are available andin the relative value accorded to each Moreover within each culture at any parti-cular historical moment participants in activities both incorporate the ways ofprevious generations and adapt them to the exigencies of current conditions

Stepping up one further level the historical development of a particular cul-tures is itself shaped by development on the even larger timescale of the culturaland biological evolution of the species This is the most difficult timescale todescribe in detail for lack of the necessary evidence But certain broad distinc-tions between human communities can be made in terms of their modes of sub-sistence and of the mediating means available for joint activity (Diamond 1998Donald 1991) As recent research has shown our earliest ancestors some 5million years ago lived in small bands of hunter gatherers often on the edge oflakes and oceans Initially their tools were found in the surroundings but overseveral million years they invented ways of making more sophisticated artefactssuch as knives arrowheads baskets and clothing from flints bones skins andvegetable materials Then as some groups migrated to particularly fertile partsof the world they adopted a more settled agrarian way of life growing cropsand breeding animals The resulting ability to produce more food than imme-diately required led in turn to the emergence of trade and to a diversity of spe-cialist occupations such as potters and tailors who exchanged their products forfood and other necessities This stage also saw the development of much largerpopulation groupings with hierarchical class structures that included prieststax collectors and other religious and political functionaries

While migration had been a common feature of human existence from theearliest times the development of large settled populations and of weapons

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

made of bronze and iron led to the expansion of certain cultural groups throughterritorial conquest and colonization by sea and by land As a result during thelast few thousand years the latest phase of phylogenetic development has beencharacterized by the rise and fall of imperial cultures which have imposed theirtechnologies laws and administrative procedures as well as their religions artsknowledge and values on widely diverse subjugated populations Most recentlythe further development of the inventions that led to the first industrial revolu-tion has simply served to increase the scale and intensity of these imperialisttrends At the same time these inventions as well as those of the current indus-trial revolution have also led to a great increase in humansrsquo understanding oftheir social and material environment both through scientific and social rese-arch and through the dissemination of information about other times and placesresulting from travel and the use of print and electronic technologies

In presenting this very condensed account of phylogenetic development Ihave emphasized the material tools that have mediated the progressively morecomplex and diverse activities in which humans have engaged over the course ofthe speciesrsquo history However bearing in mind that what has been the drivingforce of human development is joint activity an equally ndashif not morendash impor-tant determinant of this history is the development of the modes of representa-tion through which humans have communicated and developed their unders-tanding of the world Table I presents the developmental sequence proposed byDonald (1991) based on archeological neuroanatomical historical and othertypes of evidence The table also includes the stages in the historical develop-ment of ways of knowing that were proposed by Wartofsky (1979)

The first stage in this sequence corresponds to the phase in which proto-humans began to diverge from other primate species In this phase as in thebehavior of contemporary higher primates practical action was the predomi-nant form of communication as ndashnot necessarily deliberatelyndash participants sig-naled their intentions in a shared situation and these intentions were interpre-ted and responded to by their co-participants in the activity In the secondmimetic phase which must have developed gradually over many millenniacommunication became somewhat differentiated from the activity to which itreferred as humans deliberately used gestures mime facial expression andvarious types of phonation to comment on as well as to coordinate action and theobjects to which it was directed Later still with the gradual modification of thevocal tract and of the primate brain there emerged the ability to communicatethrough speech and hence the ability to refer not only to particular objects andactions but also to generalized classes and to express observed and intendedrelationships between objects actions and events thus allowing participants toplan for and reflect on the outcomes of joint activity Finally the invention ofwriting which ushered in the final phase in Donaldrsquos proposed sequence occu-rred extremely recently in the long trajectory of phylogenetic development Yetas with those that preceded it enormously increased the human repertoire ofmeans for making and communicating meaning Essentially what it added wasan ldquoexternal memoryrdquo By creating a (relatively) permanent representation oflinguistic meaning it made possible the compilation and distillation of repor-ted information from many sources including the writerrsquos own verbalizedthoughts It also allowed the writer and those who read his or her written textto review critique and revise the meanings expressed and to make the resultsavailable to people in later times and other places for further constructive debateand improvement

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

However action gesture speech and writing are not simply progressivelymore powerful modes of communication They are also progressively morepowerful mediators of thinking This is most obvious with respect to the lin-guistic modes of communication But even before the emergence of speechaction and ndashto an even greater extentndash mimesis enabled humans to think toget-her and thereby to create a shared interpretation of their joint activities In fact ithas been argued that the emergence of language was not simply the result ofbrain and vocal tract development but rather was part of a more general patternof adaptation that building upon the cognitive achievements of mimetic kno-wing strove to integrate the unconnected bits of information in a more compre-hensive and coherent account of being-in-the-world (Deacon 1997) Neverthe-less it is also true that the availability of language greatly enhanced both com-munication and thinking together for as Halliday observed

the grammar of every natural language is (among other things) a theory of human experienceit is through our acts of meaning that we transform experience into the coherent -though farfrom consistent- patchwork that we learn to project as lsquorealityrsquo (1993 p 46)

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

TABLE IModes Of Knowing Phylogenetic And Cultural Development (from Wells 1999)

Time Mode of Participants Donald(1991) Wartofsky(1979)Years BP Knowing

2 million Instrumental Individual in action Episodic Primary artifactsyears material tools

1 -- 15 million Procedural Between individuals while Mimetic Secondaryyears engaged in action artifacts tools

and practicesmimeticinteraction

50000 Substantive Among members of a (Linguistic) Secondaryyears cultural group reflecting on artifacts

action and as a basis for representations ofplanning further action tools and

practices spokeninteraction

50000 Aesthetic Among members of a Mythic Tertiary artifactsyears cultural group making sense artistic represent-

of the human predicament ations in mythnarrative graphicand musical modes

2500 Theoretical Among members of a Theoretic Tertiary artifactsyears specialist community decontextualized

seeking to explain the natural representationsand human world such as

taxonomiestheories models etc

Meta Among members of a Tertiary artifacts cultural group also representations ofindividuals seeking to mental andunderstand and control their semioticown mental activity processes

In sum what Donald and other scholars argue is that contemporary mentalabilities are the outcome of the development over time of a series of progressi-vely more powerful and flexible modes of representation ndashor in Vygotskyanterms of semiotic mediators of higher mental functions- that have made possi-ble the rational theoretically oriented modes of knowing that underpin theachievements of modern science and its technological applications In the philo-sopher Wartofskyrsquos words

our own perceptual and cognitive understanding of the world is in large part shaped andchanged by the representational artifacts we ourselves create We are in effect the products ofour own activity in this way we transform our own perceptual and cognitive modes our waysof seeing and of understanding by means of the representations we make (1979 p xxiii)

There is however one further important aspect of Donaldrsquos (1991) thesis thatis crucial for the argument that I wish to develop Although the semiotic sys-tems of mimesis speech and writing each powered a new mode of cognitiveactivity they did not replace those that preceded but were additive in theireffects The result is that contemporary humans have a variety of modes of kno-wing at their disposal as they engage in joint activity Furthermore most suchactivities call for more than one mode of knowing and require the complemen-tary and interdependent use of more than one mode of representation

Joint Activity as the Site of Ontogenetic Learning and Development

Two important implications follow from the multi-level historical concep-tion of development just outlined First on any occasion the type of activitythat is undertaken and the specific manner in which it is enacted are necessarilydependent on the particular cultural-historical antecedents of the participantsboth human and artefactual that come together in its realization In particularthe manner in which the situation is interpreted ndashin terms of what action goalsare appropriate and how they can be achievedndash depends on the motives valuesand knowledgeable skills of the human participants and on the affordances ofthe technologies available in the situation And second every instance of an acti-vity provides an occasion for a triple transformation of the situation in whichthe activity is carried out of the artefacts and practices that mediate its enact-ment and most importantly of the knowledge and skills of the human partici-pants Taken together these propositions clarify the way in which cultural andindividual development are both interdependent and rooted in particular situa-ted occasions of joint activity As Rogoff (1994) argues

People of each generation as they engage in sociocultural endeavors with other people makeuse of and extend cultural tools and practices inherited from previous generations As peopledevelop through their shared use of cultural tools and practices they simultaneously contribu-te to the transformation of cultural tools practices and institutions (p 52)

Potentially therefore every occasion of joint activity provides an opportunityfor development on the part of all participants This is a point to which I shallreturn But first I want to consider more carefully the concept of developmentitself

Clearly built into the concept of development is the implication of change andtypically of change in the direction of increasing complexity and effectiveness Inother words development is typically taken to imply improvement or progresstoward some ideal end state or capability However in the light of the previousdiscussion such a progression while it may be meaningful to (some of the) partici-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

pants in any particular situation cannot be understood in any absolute sense butmust be seen as relative to the unfolding historical trajectory of the species of aparticular culture and of the immediate community ndashits values its dominantactivities and the knowledgeable skills that form its resources Furthermore just asthese have changed in the past they will continue to change in the future in res-ponse to the changing demands of the larger environment So while ontogeneticdevelopment does indeed involve increasing complexity and effectiveness of indi-vidualsrsquo participation in the activity systems in which they are involved in theirdaily lives the overall trajectory of development is emergent and its endpoint cannever be specified in advance even in terms of an ideal to be attained

Nevertheless this does not mean that there are not strong regularities in thesequence of ontogenetic development particularly in the early years Indeed asNelson (1996) has suggested during the preschool years children follow a trajec-tory very similar to the sequence of phylogenetic development proposed byDonald (1991) (see Table I above) as they appropriate the semiotic tools of repre-sentation afforded by action mimesis speech and writing Of course this is not asimple recapitulation children growing up in a contemporary literate culture forexample are surrounded from birth by artifacts and practices that result from andembody all the available modes of knowing (Cole 1996) Appropriating existingcultural tools is thus very different from inventing them ex novo as Scribner (1985)points out Nevertheless given the combination of biological and cultural inheri-tance it is not surprising that in most if not all cultures children follow the samesequence as did the species as a whole over the course of history

In the first weeks of life infants act on their immediate surroundings bothanimate and inanimate and begin to develop what Piaget (1970) called sensori-motor intelligence However although this most basic form of activity mayappear to be instinctual it is nevertheless also inherently social First all infantsare born into an environment that is cultural in the sense of having been shapedby countless preceding generations and second the infantrsquos actions are treatedas being intentional and are responded to as such So from the beginning theinfant is caught up in social interaction (Newson 1978) In the second phasewhich typically begins in the first few months the infant also begins to engagein mimetic communication through gaze facial expression and rudimentarygesture (Bruner 1990) Couched in terms of primary and secondary intersubjec-tivity this phase has been described in considerable detail by Trevarthen (19781979) Primary intersubjectivity develops as the infant and parent engage inmutual gaze thereby communicating that they are attending to and respondingto each other In secondary intersubjectivity third parties are brought into jointattention as the parent through gaze directs the infantrsquos attention to an object ofpotential interest or follows the childrsquos direction of gaze and signals that he orshe is also attending to the same object

It is on this basis of joint action and attention that towards the end of thefirst year the child begins to exploit his or her growing command of vocaliza-tion often accompanied by gesture to begin to communicate through speechFrom research predominantly involving children in ldquoWesternrdquo societies it hasbeen established that at first the childrsquos utterances are idiosyncratic drawingonly partially ndashif at allndash on the speech of those around him or her neverthelessparents and other family members have little difficulty in interpreting them incontext and once again they respond in a manner that is contingent on theirinterpretation thereby establishing spoken communication as a joint interactiveactivity By the end of the second year however children appear to abandon thisidiosyncratic ldquoprotolanguagerdquo form of communication and begin to construct a

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

linguistic meaning potential that is systematically related to the language thatis addressed to them in the oft-repeated activities of family life (Bruner 1990Halliday 1975 Wells 1986) Significantly within particular language com-munities the sequence in which children master the basic meanings and thelexicogrammatical forms in which they are realized tends to be very similar fromchild to child (Wells 1985)

The developmental sequence just described ndashaction mimesis speechndash is com-mon to children in all cultures and in all cases takes place in and through jointactivity and interaction with other family and community members Howeveralthough the sequence is universal the manner and pace at which it proceeds varyvery considerably across cultures These differences depend upon many culturally-determined factors such as adult expectations about their childrenrsquos developmentthe position in which the infant is typically held or carried facing the caregiver orturned outwards to face in the same direction as the caregiver the makeup and sizeof the interactional groups in which communication typically occurs and whetherthese events are part of family and community life more generally or are delibera-tely arranged and structured for the presumed benefit of the child (Rogoff 2003)In the later stages of language development the range and extent of the meaningpotential that children construct begins to vary even more widely depending onthe activities in which they engage the linguistic registers that are used in thoseactivities and the stances typically adopted by interlocutors toward the use of lan-guage in their interactions with children (Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

So far the ontogenetic developmental sequence I have described is funda-mentally similar across cultures and follows the phylogenetic sequence in whichhumans have progressively added new semiotic mediational means to theircommunicative repertoires In an important sense therefore the final mode ofrepresentation in Donaldrsquos scheme that of writing is an optional extra sincemany cultures have survived and prospered without a written mode of represen-ting meaning Moreover even in cultures that have a writing system the extentand scope of literacy that individuals attain varies very considerably dependingon the activity systems in which they participate the value that is placed onwritten texts by those communmities the purposes to which they are put andthe genres that are used for those purposes However since literacy and its usesare so strongly associated with schooling I shall leave further discussion of thismode of semiotic mediation to a later part of this paper

Before concluding this section however I want to explore further the con-cept of semiotic mediation In one of the better known passages in Vygotskyrsquoswritings where he argued for the social and cultural origin of higher mentalfunctions he wrote that every function occurs on two planes first in activity andinteraction between people and then within the individual learner (Vygotsky1981) What bridges between these two planes as is clear from his other wri-tings is semiotic mediation To recall Leontrsquoevrsquos formulation of this argument

hellip it is impossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in anyway other than a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words hig-her psychological processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction withothers that is through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried outindependently by the individual (1981 pp 55-56)

In other words when people engage in joint activity their actions gesturesand speech not only mediate the coordination of participation but they alsomake overt the mental activities involved and so render them available forappropriation by novice participants1 Halliday is very clear about this Alt-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

hough the following quotation refers only to language the term lsquolanguagersquocould justifiably be replaced by lsquosemiotic mediationrsquo

In the development of the child as a social being language has the central role Language is themain channel through which the patterns of living are transmitted to him through which helearns to act as a member of lsquosocietyrsquo ndashin and through the various social groups the family theneighbourhood and so onndash and to adopt its lsquoculturersquo its modes of thought and action itsbeliefs and its values (1978 p 9)

However as the child grows older language does become the predominantmode of semiotic mediation and as he wrote in a later paper ldquoLanguage is theessential condition of knowing the process by which experience becomes know-ledge (Halliday 1993 p 94 original emphasis)

Assistance for Learning in Joint Activitie

So far in the discussion of the role of joint activity in human development Ihave concentrated on the tools and particularly the semiotic modes of represen-tation that mediate the achievement of the outcome of activity In this sectionon the other hand I turn to the role of other people in this process both familymembers and the larger community

Until now I have referred to coparticipants in an activity in general termsbut clearly there are further distinctions to be made Particularly helpful in thisrespect is Engestroumlmrsquos model of an activity system which is shown in figure 1

What this model shows is that when we look at an ongoing activity from thepoint of view of an individual participant (t Subject) that individual is involvedin a nexus of other relationships that link him or her to other lsquoparticipantsrsquo theTools and artifacts to mediate action on the Object but also the Community of

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 1The Triangle of Activity

Artifactstools andpractices

Values rulesamp conventions

Community Divisioacutenof labor

Engestrom 1999

Object OutcomeSubject

others engaged in the activity together with the Division of Labor within thatcommunity and also the Rules and Conventions that govern the manner inwhich the activity is carried out (Engestroumlm 1999) What this latter category oflsquoparticipantrsquo underscores is the historical dimension of an activity system sincethese rules and conventions ndashas well as the tools and artifactsndash bring into thepresent the distilled practices of previous generations who have engaged in theactivity as these are interpreted and utilized by the current community

To illustrate the relevance of this model to the development of the youngchild we might compare two versions of a similar activity reported by WertschMinick and Arns (1984) In their study Brazilian children carried out a puzzletask on two occasions first with the mother and secondly with a primary tea-cher What the researchers found was that in general the mothers and teachersengaged in the activity in systematically different ways Whereas the motherstended to direct the childrenrsquos behavior or even carry out parts of the task them-selves in order to complete it in an efficient manner ndashjust as they would havedone if engaged in a household taskndash the teachers tended to encourage thechildrsquos autonomous performance and only provided hints and suggestions whenthey judged them to be necessary to advance the childrenrsquos understandingInterpreting these results the researchers suggested that the two groups ofadults belonged to two different communities (or activity systems) that had dif-ferent rules and conventions about engaging in this joint activity And this inturn led to the different divisions of labor that they observed Similarly Rogoff(2003) cites many examples of substantial differences between cultures inalmost all aspects of child rearing with respect to their ways of engaging chil-dren in the activities that they consider important

What is clear is that ldquobehindrdquo the particular adult ndashor older siblings in someculturesndash who are directly engaged with the child there is a wider communityof family members neighbors and others who have an interest in the upbrin-ging of children and who share beliefs about appropriate ways to involve themin the activities of daily life So whether in Spain Japan or the Peruvian High-lands although the actual practices vary across cultures in each those responsi-ble for childrenrsquos well-being and development act as agents of a wider commu-nity whose beliefs and practices are rooted in a long tradition concerning howactivities should be carried out But equally in all cultures practices also changein response to changes in the world beyond the particular community In manyWestern homes for example computer games or television programs haverecently taken the place of the bedtime story while in many indigenous com-munities crafts that until recently only supplied local needs are now exploitedcommercially for the tourist trade changing the rhythms of daily life and therelationships among family members and the activities in which children areinvolved As suggested earlier therefore in order to understand the activities inwhich children participate today we need to look not only at the immediatesituation but also at the wider community and the changes taking place on allthese time-scales

Microgenesis and the Zone of Proximal Development

It is nevertheless always the immediate microgenetic situation that isthe site of ontogenetic development ndashthe action and interaction between thelearner and those with whom he or she is engaged in the activity in pro-gress When we adopt this microgenetic perspective however we need tomodify the representation of an activity system presented in figure 1 Inthat representation the focus was on the goal-oriented nature of action

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Here we need to focus on the interaction among the participants ndashtheirattempt to attain intersubjectivity with respect to the common object andthe complementarity of the knowledgeable skills they bring to the cocons-truction of the intended outcome (see Figure 2) What figure 2 emphasizesis the fact that although the tools and artefacts that are available to mediatethe jointly undertaken action are the same for each participant each bringsa somewhat different familiarity with their use as a result of their differentlife trajectories and it is this variability in their expertise that makes it pos-sible for each to provide assistance to the others in at least some aspects ofthe joint action Viewed in this light it is clear why Vygotsky emphasizedthe role of joint activity in development and wrote of its potential to enablelearners ldquoto go beyond themselvesrdquo with the assistance of more expertothers

The metaphor Vygotsky used to characterize the potential for learning thatthis sort of activity creates was the ldquozone of proximal developmentrdquo As hewrote when another participant in the activity provides instruction that isappropriately pitched beyond what the learner can manage to do on his or herown it ldquowakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturationlying in the zone of proximal developmentrdquo (1987 p 212) Vygotsky concep-tualized development as the formation of new functional systems (ldquoneoforma-tionsrdquo) and of changes in the relationships among systems which he consideredto occur as a succession of ldquocrises of developmentrdquo that are particularly facilitatedby engagement in the relevant ldquoleading activityrdquo at each stage for example playin childhood and learning to read and write in the early school yearsHowever itwould be a mistake to focus only on the periods of revolutionary change since ashe equally emphasized at any time there are also other more gradual processes ofgrowth

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 2Dialogue in Joint Activity(from Wells2002b)

Outcomematerial ampsemioticartefacts

Toolsartefacts

Subject

Rulesconventions

Community Divisionof labor

Subject

Toolsartefacts

Processes that are central lines of development at one age become peripheral lines of develop-ment at the following age and conversely peripheral lines of development of one age arebrought to the forefront and become central lines since their meaning and relative significancein the total structure of development changes (p 197)2

In developing his important concept of the zone of proximal developmentVygotsky tended to characterize the assistance given by others as ldquoinstructionrdquoand to see its value in ldquothe childrsquos potential to raise himself to a higher intellec-tual level of development through collaboration to move from what he has towhat he does not have through imitationrdquo (1987 p 210) However manyrecent scholars who have built on his work have taken a broader view of thedevelopmental significance of collaboration in joint activities and have characte-rized the assistance that is provided within this relationship in terms such asldquoapprenticeshiprdquo (Lave amp Wenger 1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoguided participationrdquo(Rogoff 1994 2003) and ldquoscaffoldingrdquo (Wood et al 1976) Neverthelesswhile these different metaphors highlight different features of the relationshipwhat they all have in common is the inclusion of the learner in an activity inwhich there is provision of the assistance necessary to help the learner to comple-te an activity in which he or she is interested and to do so in such a way that heor she makes progress toward being able to participate more fully and autono-mously in the future (Maybin Mercer and Stierer 1992)

In many joint activities such as for example traditional forms of craftapprenticeship assistance is only provided when needed and the ldquomasterrdquo doesso with no deliberate didactic intention beyond that of involving the novice inthe completion of the particular task in hand (Lave 1996) Similarly in sociali-zation into activities around the home no explicit instruction is necessary fornovices can learn a great deal by simply watching and listening (cf Rogoff2003) This is what Lave and Wenger (1991) mean when they insist that lear-ning is not an independent activity but an intrinsic aspect of ldquolegitimate perip-heral participationrdquo in a communityrsquos activities From their perspective therefo-re formal education in which learning is the sole purpose of the activity issomething of an anomaly particularly when the only form of assistance providedis the expert teacherrsquos direct instruction and subsequent evaluation of the extentof the studentsrsquo learning

In many recent discussions it has also been recognized that it is not only aldquoteacherrdquo who can provide assistance in the zpd On the one hand in a com-plex activity many participants are more expert than others in some aspectsand therefore on some occasions are able to help those who are less expert(Rogoff 1994) and on the other hand those who provide assistance do nothave to be physically present texts and other artifacts can equally well helpa participant ldquoto go beyond himherselfrdquo as is often the case in intellectualwork such as research and writ ing (Wells 1999) Furthermore asEngestroumlm (1999) and others ndashbuilding on other aspects of Vygotskyrsquos theo-retical writingsndash have noted the material and symbolic tools that have beendeveloped by previous participants in the activity can also provide the samesort of assistance However perhaps the most important point to emphasizeis that there are many situations in which no-one is an expert yet as eachbrings his or her own past experience to the solution of a common problemthe group together is able to achieve more than any single member couldhave done alone Clearly it is such collaboration that has made possible theinventions that have led to the major advances of great civilizations over thecourse of cultural history

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Development in the Pre-School Years

As noted above the responsibility for caring for children in early childhoodvaries very considerably from one society to another Nevertheless in all socie-ties children are involved in joint activities with others in which they receiveassistance with respect to their participation however that may be locally achie-ved For the most part as already mentioned these are activities that are regu-larly repeated in the taken-for-granted routines of daily life The expectation isthat the child will learn to fit in and is simply helped to do so Often referred toas ldquoenculturationrdquo this form of apprenticeship ensures the continuity of the cul-turersquos way of life from one generation to the next and as Donald (1991) arguedit probably occurred even before the emergence of speech

However in all activities there are occasions when problems arise that callfor some level of deliberate decision-making In these situations spoken interac-tion makes possible a degree of reflection and forward planning in which therelations of cause and effect intention action and outcome are made explicitand open to question and discussion The talk that occurs on these occasionsthus plays a particularly important role in helping children to attend to andunderstand the world around them in terms of the culturersquos ways of ldquomakingsenserdquo of it However these occasions can also open up possibilities for changeboth in the form of the activity and in the participantsrsquo understanding of itHow caregivers habitually take up these opportunities is particularly importantfor it plays an important part in shaping the intellectual dispositions withwhich children enter school (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo amp Sterponi2002)

In this section I include some representative examples of kinds of talk thatarise from joint activities in the home These examples are drawn from observa-tions made in settings in England (Wells 1986) and Australia (Hasan 2002) inwhich the young children observed spent most of their time at home with oneparent sometimes with one or more siblings some of the time they entertainedthemselves with occasional adult involvement but they also frequently watchedand ldquohelpedrdquo the parent with household tasks of various kinds

In the first example James (aged 3 12 years) has been playing alone in thegarden and as he reenters the house his mother tries to get him to take off hismuddy shoes However at that moment he sees a bird outside which interestshim more than changing his shoes

Example 1Mother There we are there one slipper onJames I can see a birdMother A what loveJames See a bird Mother (whispering) Is there OutsideJames (pointing and whispering) Yes see

(both continue to speak very softly)Mother Is he eating anythingJames NoMother Where Oh yes hersquos getting- do you know what hersquos doingJames NoMother Hersquos going to the- the paper sack to try to pick out some pieces-

Oh hersquos got some food there and I expect hersquoll pick out somepieces of thread from the sack to go and make his nest under the roofJames Wait a minute and Irsquoll-[James now wants to go out to see more closely but at that moment thebird flies away]

James That birdrsquos gone

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

In the second example Elizabeth (aged 4 years) who is helping with thehouse cleaning watches with interest as her mother shovels wood ash from thefireplace into a bucket

Example 2Elizabeth What are you doing that forMother Irsquom gathering it up and putting it outside so that Daddy can put it on the gardenElizabeth Why does he have to put it on the gardenMother To make the compost rightElizabeth Does that make the grass growMother YesElizabeth Why does itMother You know how I tell you that you need to eat different things like eggs and cab-

bage and rice pudding to make you grow into a big girlElizabeth YesMother Well plants need different foods too and ash is one of the things thatrsquos

good for them

The third example involves James again now eighteen months older Earlierin the afternoon he had been helping his mother with the baking Now hecomes back into the kitchen as his mother is taking the baking trays out of theoven He hears a loud metallic ldquocrackrdquo and asks for an explanation

Example 3James Who did thatMother I expect it was the tin contractingJames Which tinMother The one with your pastry inJames Why did it make that noiseMother Well when it was in the oven it got very hot and stretched a bit Irsquove just taken

it out of the oven and itrsquos cooling down very quickly you see and that noisehappens when it gets smaller again and goes back to its normal shape

James Oh was it a different shape in the ovenMother Oh not very different just a little biggerJames Naughty little tin you might get smacked if you do it again

In all three of these examples the mother willingly responds to the childrsquosinterest and provides information to explain the significance of what the child isseeing or hearing even when in the first this interrupts the motherrsquos plan Allthree cases show how the childrsquos participation in the activity with the adult assu-res that there is intersubjectivity of attention to what interests the child and thisenables the mother to provide relevant information Clearly this is a form ofldquoinstructionrdquo however it is spontaneous and contingent on the childrsquos interestrather than presented as part of a pre-planned curriculum

The third example is particularly interesting from this point of view as thephenomenon of interest to James requires a somewhat technical explanation Atsome point in the future no doubt the expansion of metal when heated and itssubsequent contraction when removed from the heat will figure in the schoolscience curriculum in relation to the systematic study of heat here however itis an interesting side-effect of baking and the motherrsquos explanation while tech-nical in content is couched in everyday language rather than in the abstractterms of scientific generalization As Hasan (2002) has observed

the discourse of quasi specialised knowledge occurs in the lsquomiddle ofrsquo daily activities and bynecessity it calls for a readiness on the motherrsquos part to entertain contextual shifts to bewilling to reclassify the context of the on-going discourse The tendency to move with thechildrsquos moving discourse the readiness to re-classify context is a discourse characteristic of thesame group of mothers who frequently ask questions made precise by qualification and whoattend to their childrenrsquos questions and provide them with well developed answers (p 123)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 2: Actividad y Aprendizaje

Introduccioacuten

Comparados con otras especies la caracteriacutestica que distingue a los humanoses la habilidad y predisposicioacuten para implicarnos en actividades conjuntasmediadas por herramientas Esta caracteriacutestica ha sido crucial para el desarrollode la cultura humana a lo largo de la historia ya que ha permitido inventar arte-factos de varias clases para adaptarse y explorar los nichos ecoloacutegicos en los que elser humano ha vivido Tambieacuten es crucial para la diversidad de los desarrollospersonales de los individuos que dependen de las actividades particulares en lasque participen De hecho Vygotski (1978 1981) fue uno de los primeros enprecisar que las funciones metales ldquosuperioresrdquo aquellas que nos hacen humanosno son dadas bioloacutegicamente son construidas paulatinamente mediante la apro-piacioacuten de las herramientas y praacutecticas desarrolladas histoacutericamente que sonpuestas de manifiesto para los nintildeos y ldquoandamiadasrdquo en las acciones significativasy en las palabras de los coparticipantes en la actividad conjunta

Antes de continuar los lectores pueden encontrar interesante reflexionarsobre el desarrollo de sus propias trayectorias hasta lo que son hoy Sospecho queestaraacuten de acuerdo con esta idea Quienes hemos llegado a ser depende de la compantildeiacuteaque hemos tenido y de lo que hemos hecho juntos

Breve historia sobre el desarrollo de la actividad conjunta

Leontiev describe de manera sucinta la influencia de Vygotski en el siguienteresumen

ldquoLas ideas iniciales que guiaron a Vygotski a investigar la geacutenesis de la actividad mental inter-na a partir de la actividad externa son esencialmente distintas de las aproximaciones teoacutericasde otros autores modernos Estas ideas proceden del anaacutelisis de las caracteriacutesticas uacutenicas de laactividad de trabajo productivo humano el cual estaacute mediado por herramientas Esta actividades inicialmente de naturaleza social esto es se desarrolla bajo condiciones de cooperacioacuten einteraccioacuten social entre personas Vygotski identificoacute dos caracteriacutesticas principales [de estaactividad] que son necesariamente fundamentales para la psicologiacutea su estructura instrumen-tal y su inclusioacuten en un sistema de interrelaciones con otras personas Estas caracteriacutesticas sonlas que definen la naturaleza de los procesos psicoloacutegicos humanos La herramienta media laactividad y asiacute conecta a los humanos no soacutelo con el mundo de los objetos sino tambieacuten conotras personas Por eso la actividad humana asimila la experiencia de la especie humana Esto sig-nifica que los procesos mentales humanos (sus ldquofunciones psicoloacutegicas superioresrdquo) adquierenuna estructura necesariamente atada a los significados y meacutetodos formados sociohistoacutericamenteque han sido transmitidos a ellos por otros en los procesos de trabajo cooperativo y de interac-cioacuten social Pero es imposible transmitir el significado y los meacutetodos necesarios para realizar unproceso de otra forma que no sea social ndashen la forma de una accioacuten o discurso externondash En otraspalabras los procesos psicoloacutegicos superiores especiacuteficamente humanos soacutelo pueden ser adqui-ridos mediante la interaccioacuten con otros esto es mediante procesos interpsicoloacutegicos que soacutelodespueacutes seraacuten desarrollados independientemente por el individuordquo (Leontiev 1981 pp 55-56las cursivas son del original)

Esta cita es importante para el argumento que quiero desarrollar en este tra-bajo porque enfatiza la naturaleza social y cooperativa de la actividad humana yporque resalta el papel central de la mediacioacuten semioacutetica en el desarrollo el conoci-miento es creado asiacute como apropiado en el discurso entre personas que estaacutentrabajando juntas en una situacioacuten especiacutefica para crear o mejorar un artefacto oresolver un problema de importancia para el grupo Sin embargo Leontiev tam-bieacuten alude a otra aportacioacuten clave de Vygotski para comprender la actividadactual es necesario investigar la historia de tal actividad Me ocupareacute de estepunto en lo que sigue

Analizando la historia del desarrollo humano necesitamos considerar almenos cuatro escalas temporales diferentes La maacutes dilatada es la historia de la

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187166

evolucioacuten cultural de la especie (el nivel filogeneacutetico) la siguiente es el desarrollohistoacuterico de las culturas particulares El tercer nivel (ontogoneacutetico) traza la tra-yectoria de desarrollo del individuo humano sobre el curso del ciclo vital Final-mente el nivel microgeneacutetico tiene que ver con el desarrollo de una actividadparticular

En la praacutectica el uacuteltimo nivel es el que ha sido explorado con maacutes detalle por-que usando la tecnologiacutea contemporaacutenea es relativamente sencillo observar ygrabar la secuencia de acciones mediante las cuales una actividad es representaday las operaciones especiacuteficas que los participantes asumen haciendo uso de losartefactos relevantes que son proporcionados en la situacioacuten (Leontiev 1981)Estos artefactos pueden ser materiales (cuchillos lapiceros automoacuteviles) osimboacutelicos (palabras mapas teoriacuteas) ndashaunque como Cole (1996) ha precisadopara funcionar como mediadores de la actividad conjunta todos los artefactosdeben tener alguna forma de encarnacioacuten material asiacute como un significado sim-boacutelico es decir deben ser manejables y ademaacutes tener un significado cultural ade-cuado a la situacioacutenndash

Sin embargo la forma en que se realiza un caso particular de una actividaddepende no soacutelo de los artefactos que esteacuten disponibles en la situacioacuten sino tam-bieacuten de la experiencia pasada de los participantes con las praacutecticas en las que esosartefactos se usan para mediar en el logro de los objetivos de las acciones que con-tribuyen a la actividad conjunta Asiacute la microgeacutenesis de un caso particular deactividad es necesariamente dependiente del desarrollo ontogeneacutetico de los par-ticipantes es decir de las oportunidades que sus trayectorias vitales les han ofre-cido para apropiarse del conocimiento cultural apropiado mediante la participa-cioacuten en acciones y operaciones similares

Pero en la escala temporal del desarrollo ontogeneacutetico la trayectoria de desa-rrollo de cada individuo estaacute en siacute misma muy influenciada por la cultura en laque estaacute creciendo y por el desarrollo histoacuterico de cada cultura Como Rogoff(2003) ilustra con mucho detalle las culturas variacutean considerablemente tanto atraveacutes del tiempo como a traveacutes de los nichos ecoloacutegicos en relacioacuten a los artefac-tos y praacutecticas que estaacuten disponibles y en el valor relativo que se les asigna Porotra parte en un momento histoacuterico particular de cada cultura los participantesde una actividad incorporan las formas de hacer de las generaciones previas y lasadaptan a las exigencias de las condiciones actuales

Ascendiendo a un nivel maacutes lejano el desarrollo histoacuterico de una cultura par-ticular estaacute incluso determinado en siacute mismo por el desarrollo en la larga escalatemporal de la evolucioacuten cultural y bioloacutegica de las especies Eacutesta es la escalatemporal maacutes difiacutecil de describir con detalle pues se carece de las evidenciasnecesarias Pero pueden hacerse distinciones amplias y seguras entre las comuni-dades humanas en teacuterminos de sus modos de subsistencia y de la mediacioacuten designificados disponibles para la actividad conjunta (Diamond 1998 Donald1991) Como la investigacioacuten reciente ha mostrado nuestros primeros antepasa-dos hace unos cinco millones de antildeos viviacutean en pequentildeos grupos de recolecto-res-cazadores a menudo a la orilla de lagos y oceacuteanos Inicialmente encontrabansus herramientas en los alrededores pero a lo largo de varios millones de antildeosinventaron modos de hacer artefactos maacutes sofisticados como cuchillos puntasde flechas cestas y ropas a partir de piedras huesos pieles y materiales vegetalesEntonces dado que algunos grupos emigraron a partes del mundo particular-mente feacutertiles adoptaron un modo de vida maacutes sedentario y agrario cultivandocosechas y criando animales La habilidad para producir maacutes comida que larequerida inmediatamente condujo alternativamente a la emergencia delcomercio y a la diversidad de trabajadores especializados tales como alfareros y

167El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

sastres que intercambiaron sus productos por comida y otras necesidades Estaetapa vio tambieacuten el desarrollo de grupos poblacionales maacutes amplios con clasesjerarquizadas que incluiacutean sacerdotes recaudadores de impuestos y otros funcio-narios poliacuteticos y religiosos

Mientras la migracioacuten habiacutea sido una caracteriacutestica comuacuten de la existenciahumana en los tiempos tempranos el desarrollo de grandes poblaciones sedenta-rias y de armas de bronce y hierro condujeron a la expansioacuten de ciertos gruposculturales mediante la conquista territorial y la colonizacioacuten por tierra y marConsecuentemente durante los uacuteltimos mil antildeos la uacuteltima fase del desarrollofilogeneacutetico ha estado caracterizada por el auge y la caiacuteda de las culturas imperia-les que han impuesto sus tecnologiacuteas leyes y procedimientos administrativosasiacute como sus religiones artes conocimiento y valores a poblaciones subyugadasmuy diversas Maacutes recientemente el desarrollo adicional de las invenciones queha llevado a la primera revolucioacuten industrial ha servido simplemente para incre-mentar la escala e intensidad de estas tendencias imperialistas Al mismo tiem-po estas invenciones asiacute como las debidas a la actual revolucioacuten industrial hanconducido tambieacuten a un incremento en la comprensioacuten humana de su ambientesocial y material tanto mediante la investigacioacuten social y cientiacutefica comomediante la diseminacioacuten de informacioacuten sobre otros tiempos y lugares debido alos viajes y al uso del material impreso y las tecnologiacuteas electroacutenicas

Al presentar esta condensada siacutentesis del desarrollo filogeneacutetico he enfatizadolas herramientas materiales que han mediado las actividades progresivamentemaacutes complejas y diversas en las que los humanos se han sumergido a lo largo delcurso de la historia de las especies Sin embargo teniendo en mente que la fuerzaconductora del desarrollo humano es la actividad conjunta un determinanteigualmente importante ndashsi no maacutesndash de esta historia es el desarrollo de modos derepresentacioacuten mediante los cuales los humanos han comunicado y ampliado sucomprensioacuten del mundo La tabla I presenta la secuencia de desarrollo de estosmodos de representacioacuten propuesta por Donald (1991) basada en evidenciasarqueoloacutegicas neoroanatoacutemicas e histoacutericas entre otras La tabla ademaacutes incluyelas etapas en el desarrollo histoacuterico de los modos de conocimiento que fueronpropuestos por Wartofsky (1979)

La primera etapa en esta secuencia corresponde a la fase en la cual los proto-humanos comienzan a divergir de otras especies de primates En esta fase comoen el comportamiento de los primates contemporaacuteneos superiores la accioacutenpraacutectica era la forma predominante de comunicacioacuten mediante la que ndashno nece-sariamente de forma deliberadandash los participantes sentildealaban sus intenciones enuna situacioacuten compartida y estas intenciones eran interpretadas y respondidaspor sus co-participantes en la actividad En la segunda etapa la fase gestualndashdesarrollada gradualmente durante muchos mileniosndash la comunicacioacuten se con-virtioacute en algo diferente de la actividad a la cual se referiacutea cuando los humanosusaron deliberadamente gestos mimo expresiones faciales y varios tipos defonacioacuten para comentar y coordinar la accioacuten y los objetivos a los cuaacuteles eacutesta esta-ba dirigida Soacutelo despueacutes con la modificacioacuten gradual del tracto vocal y del cere-bro primate emergioacute la habilidad para comunicarse mediante el habla y por lotanto la habilidad para referirse no soacutelo a objetos particulares y acciones sinotambieacuten a clases generalizadas y para expresar relaciones observadas y deseadasentre objetos acciones y eventos permitiendo de este modo a los participantesplanificar y reflexionar sobre los resultados de su actividad conjunta Finalmen-te la invencioacuten de la escritura en la uacuteltima fase de la secuencia propuesta porDonald ocurrioacute en un momento extremadamente reciente en la larga trayectoriadel desarrollo filogeneacutetico A pesar de todo como con aquellos modos de repre-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187168

sentacioacuten que la precedieron incrementoacute enormemente el repertorio humano demedios para hacer y comunicar significados Esencialmente lo que antildeadioacute fueuna ldquomemoria externardquo Gracias a la creacioacuten de una representacioacuten (relativa-mente) permanente de significados linguumliacutesticos es posible la compilacioacuten y des-tilacioacuten de la informacioacuten transmitida por diferentes fuentes incluyendo los pro-pios pensamientos verbalizados del escritor Esto tambieacuten permitioacute al escritor y aaquellos que leiacutean sus textos repasar criticar y corregir los significados expresa-dos y ponerlos a disposicioacuten de otras personas en tiempos futuros y en otros luga-res permitiendo continuar la construccioacuten del debate y su mejora en el futuro

169El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

TABLA IModos de conocimiento Desarrollo Filogeneacutetico y Cultural (Wells 1999)

Tiempo en antildeos Modo de Participantes Donald (1991) Wartofsky (1979)transcurridos conocimiento

Dos millones de Instrumental Individuos en accioacuten Episoacutedico Artefactosantildeos primarios

herramientasmateriales

1 mdash15 millones Procedimental Entre individuos mientrasde antildeos participacioacuten en la accioacuten Gestual o miacutemico Artefactos

secundariosherramientasy praacutecticasinteraccioacutenmimeacutetica

50000 antildeos Substantivo Entre miembros de un grupo (Linguumliacutestico) Artefactoscultural reflexionando sobre la secundariosaccioacuten como base para la representaciones deplanificacioacuten de acciones futuras herramientas y

praacutecticasinteraccioacutenmediante el habla

50000 antildeos Esteacutetico Entre miembros de un grupo Miacutetico Artefactoscultural dando sentido a las terciariostribulaciones humanas representaciones

artiacutesticas en modode mitosnarracionesgraacuteficos y muacutesica

2500 antildeos Teoacuterico Entre miembros de una Teoacuterico Artefactoscomunidad especializada para terciarios explicar el mundo natural y representaciones humano descontextualizadas

tales comotaxonomiacuteas teoriacuteasmodelos etceacutetera

iquest Meta Entre miembros de u grupo Artefactoscultural tambieacuten entre terciariosindividuos buscando representaciones de comprender y controlar su los procesospropia actividad mental mentales y semioacuteticos

Sin embargo accioacuten gesto habla y escritura no son simplemente modos decomunicacioacuten progresivamente maacutes poderosos Son tambieacuten mediadores de pen-samiento progresivamente maacutes potentes Esto es maacutes evidente con respecto a losmodos linguumliacutesticos de comunicacioacuten Pero incluso antes de la emergencia delhabla la accioacuten y ndashen mayor gradondash la miacutemica permitieron a los humanos pen-sar juntos y consecuentemente crear una interpretacioacuten compartida de sus acti-vidades conjuntas De hecho se ha argumentado que la emergencia del lenguajeno fue simplemente el resultado del desarrollo del cerebro y del tracto vocal sinoque maacutes bien fue parte de un esquema general de adaptacioacuten maacutes amplio queconstruido sobre los eacutexitos cognitivos del conocimiento mimeacutetico se esforzoacute porintegrar las unidades inconexas de informacioacuten en todo maacutes comprensivo y cohe-rente de estar en el mundo (Deacon 1997) Sin embargo es tambieacuten verdad quela disponibilidad del lenguaje intensificoacute sustancial y conjuntamente tanto lacomunicacioacuten como el pensamiento ya que como Halliday observoacute

La gramaacutetica de todas las lenguas naturales es (entre otras cosas) una teoriacutea de la experienciahumana es mediante nuestros actos de significado como transformamos la experiencia en elconjunto coherente de retazos ndashaunque lejos de ser constantendash que aprendemos a proyectarcomo lsquorealidadrsquo (1993 p 46)

En resumen lo que Donald y otros acadeacutemicos argumentan es que las habili-dades mentales contemporaacuteneas son el resultado del desarrollo en el tiempo deuna serie de modos de representacioacuten cada vez maacutes poderosos y flexibles ndasho enteacuterminos Vygotskyanos de mediadores semioacuteticos de las funciones mentalessuperioresndash que han hecho posible la razoacuten los modos de conocimiento teoacuterica-mente orientados que sustentan los logros de la ciencia moderna y sus aplicacio-nes tecnoloacutegicas En palabras del filoacutesofo Wartofsky

nuestra comprensioacuten perceptiva y cognitiva del mundo es en gran medida conformada ymodificada por los artefactos de representacioacuten que nosotros mismos creamos De esta manerasomos en efecto el producto de nuestra propia actividad transformamos nuestros modos per-ceptivos y cognitivos nuestra manera de ver y comprender por medio de las representacionesque hacemos (1979 p xxiii)

Hay sin embargo un aspecto maacutes importante de la tesis de Donald (1991)que es crucial para el argumento que quiero desarrollar Aunque cada sistemasemioacutetico de miacutemica habla y escritura fortalece un nuevo modo de actividadcognitiva no reemplaza a los que les preceden sino que se antildeade a sus efectos Elresultado es que los humanos contemporaacuteneos tienen una variedad de modos deconocimiento a su disposicioacuten cuando se implican en actividades conjuntasAdemaacutes la mayoriacutea de estas actividades requieren maacutes de un modo de conoci-miento y del uso complementario e interdependiente de maacutes de un modo derepresentacioacuten

La actividad conjunta como el lugar del aprendizaje y desarrolloontogeneacutetico

De la concepcioacuten histoacuterica multi-nivel del desarrollo que se acaba de subrayarderivan dos implicaciones importantes

En primer lugar en todo momento el tipo de actividad que se emprenda yla manera especiacutefica en la que se desarrolle son necesariamente dependientesde los antecedentes histoacuterico-culturales de los participantes tanto humanoscomo instrumentales que concurren en su realizacioacuten En particular la mane-ra en la que la situacioacuten es interpretada ndashqueacute objetivos de actuacioacuten se conside-ran apropiados y coacutemo pueden ser alcanzadosndash depende de los motivos valores

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187170

y habilidades de los participantes humanos y de las ventajas ofrecidas por lastecnologiacuteas disponibles

En segundo lugar cualquier instante de la actividad proporciona una ocasioacutenpara una triple transformacioacuten (1) de la situacioacuten en la que la actividad es desa-rrollada (2) de los artefactos y de las praacutecticas que median su implementacioacuten y(3) maacutes importante auacuten del conocimiento y habilidades de los participanteshumanos

Estas dos implicaciones consideradas globalmente clarifican la manera en laque la cultura y el desarrollo individual son mutuamente interdependientes yhunden sus raiacuteces en oportunidades de actividad conjunta particulares y situa-das Como Rogoff (1994) argumenta

Las personas de cada generacioacuten mientras se comprometen en esfuerzos socioculturales conotras personas hacen uso y enriquecen herramientas culturales y praacutecticas heredadas de lasgeneraciones precedentes Ya que las personas se desarrollan mediante el uso compartido depraacutecticas y herramientas culturales contribuyen simultaacuteneamente a la transformacioacuten de lasherramientas culturales praacutecticas e instituciones (p 52)

Potencialmente por lo tanto toda ocasioacuten de actividad conjunta proporcionauna oportunidad para el desarrollo de todos los participantes Eacuteste es un punto alque volvereacute Pero antes quiero considerar con maacutes cuidado el concepto de desa-rrollo mismo

Claramente el concepto de desarrollo implica cambio y tiacutepicamente uncambio en la direccioacuten de incrementar la complejidad y la efectividad En otraspalabras se suele considerar que el desarrollo implica mejora o progreso haciaalguacuten estado o capacidad final ideal Sin embargo a la luz de la discusioacuten previatal progresioacuten aunque puede ser significativa para (alguno de) los participantesde una situacioacuten particular no puede ser entendida en un sentido absoluto Maacutesbien debe considerarse con relatividad si se atiende al despliegue de la trayecto-ria histoacuterica de la especie de una cultura particular y de la comunidad inmediatandashsus valores sus actividades predominantes y las habilidades conocidas que for-man sus recursosndash Ademaacutes al igual que esto ha cambiado en el pasado conti-nuaraacute cambiando en el futuro en respuesta a las demandas de cambio de losambientes cada vez maacutes amplios Por tanto mientras el desarrollo ontogeneacuteticoimplica claramente el incremento de la complejidad y la efectividad de la parti-cipacioacuten de los individuos en los sistemas de actividad en que estaacuten inmersosdurante sus vidas diarias la trayectoria maacutes amplia del desarrollo estaacute emergien-do y su destino no puede ser especificado por adelantado aunque se haga en teacuter-minos de un ideal por alcanzar

Sin embargo esto no significa que no haya fuertes regularidades en la secuen-cia del desarrollo ontogeneacutetico particularmente en los primeros antildeos De hechocomo Nelson (1996) ha sugerido durante los antildeos preescolares los nintildeos siguenuna trayectoria muy similar a la secuencia de desarrollo filogeneacutetico propuestapor Donald (1991) (ver la Tabla I) a medida que se apropian de las herramientassemioacuteticas de representacioacuten facilitadas por la accioacuten el gesto el habla y la escri-tura Por supuesto esto no es una simple recapitulacioacuten los nintildeos crecen en uncultura contemporaacutenea alfabetizada en la que estaacuten rodeados desde el nacimientopor artefactos y praacutecticas que resultan de incorporan todos los modos de conoci-miento disponibles (Cole 1996) Apropiarse de las herramientas culturales exis-tentes es asiacute muy diferente de inventarlas ex novo como Scribner (1985) precisa

Sin embargo dada la combinacioacuten de la herencia bioloacutegica y cultural no essorprendente que en la mayoriacutea de las culturas ndashsi no en todasndash los nintildeos sigan

171El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

la misma secuencia que siguioacute la especie como un todo a lo largo del curso de lahistoria

En las primeras semanas de vida los bebeacutes actuacutean en su entorno inmediatotanto animado como inanimado y comienzan a desarrollar lo que Piaget (1970)llamoacute inteligencia sensorio-motora Aunque eacutesta es la forma maacutes baacutesica de acti-vidad y puede parecer refleja (instintiva) es tambieacuten inherentemente social yaque en primer lugar todos los nintildeos nacen en un entorno que es cultural en elsentido de haber sido compartido por incontables generaciones precedentes yen segundo lugar la accioacuten del recieacuten nacido es realzada en interacciones sociales(Newson 1978) En una segunda fase que comienza generalmente en los prime-ros meses los bebeacutes tambieacuten comienzan a implicarse en la comunicacioacuten ges-tual mediante fijaciones de la mirada expresiones faciales y gestos rudimenta-rios (Bruner 1990) Apoyaacutendose en los teacuterminos de intersubjetividad primaria ysecundaria esta fase ha sido descrita con mucho detalle por Trevarthen (Trevart-hen y Hubley 1978 Trevarthen 1979) La intersubjetividad primaria se desa-rrolla cuando el nintildeo y su progenitor se dirigen mutuamente miradas fijascomunicaacutendose asiacute que se estaacuten atendiendo y respondiendo En la intersubjetivi-dad secundaria la atencioacuten conjunta recae sobre un tercer elemento como cuan-do el progenitor mediante miradas fijas dirige la atencioacuten del bebeacute a un objetode intereacutes potencial o sigue la direccioacuten de la mirada del nintildeo y sentildeala que tam-bieacuten estaacute atendiendo al mismo objeto

Sobre esta base de accioacuten y atencioacuten conjunta hacia el final del primer antildeo elnintildeo comienza a explotar su repertorio creciente de vocalizaciones a menudoacompantildeadas de gestos para empezar a comunicarse mediante el habla Deacuerdo con la investigacioacuten disponible realizada principalmente con nintildeos desociedades ldquooccidentalesrdquo al principio las elocuciones son idiosincraacutesicas dibu-jando soacutelo parcialmente en el habla ndashno del todondash aquello que les rodea sinembargo los padres y otros miembros de la familia tienen pocas dificultadespara interpretarlas dentro de un contexto y de nuevo responden de una maneraque es contingente con su interpretacioacuten estableciendo asiacute la comunicacioacutenhablada como una actividad interactiva conjunta Al final del segundo antildeo sinembargo los nintildeos parecen abandonar su forma indiosincraacutesica ldquoprotolinguumliacutesti-cardquo de comunicacioacuten y comienzan a construir un potencial de significados lin-guumliacutesticos sistemaacuteticamente relacionado con el lenguaje que les dirigen en lasactividades habituales de la vida familiar (Bruner 1990 Halliday 1975 Wells1986) Expresivamente en una comunidad linguumliacutestica particular la secuencia enla que los nintildeos dominan los significados baacutesicos y las formas leacutexicogramaticalesen las que se realizan tiende a ser muy similar de unos nintildeos a otros (Wells1985)

La secuencia de desarrollo que acaba de describirse ndashaccioacuten gesto hablandash escomuacuten a los nintildeos en todas las culturas y en todos los casos tiene lugar con otrosfamiliares y miembros de la comunidad mediante la accioacuten e interaccioacuten conjun-ta Sin embargo aunque la secuencia es universal el modo concreto en el que sedespliega variacutea considerablemente de unas culturas a otras Estas diferenciasdependen de muchos factores determinados culturalmente tales como las expec-tativas de los adultos sobre el desarrollo de sus hijos la posicioacuten en la que el bebeacutees sostenido o llevado ndashdando la cara al cuidador o con la cara vuelta en la mismadireccioacuten que el adultondash la configuracioacuten y tamantildeo de los grupos interaccionalesen los que la comunicacioacuten suele tener lugar y si estos eventos son parte de lavida familiar y comunitaria maacutes general o son deliberadamente disentildeados yestructurados para el supuesto beneficio del nintildeo (Rogoff 2003) En las etapastardiacuteas del desarrollo del lenguaje la gama y amplitud de significados potencia-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187172

les que los nintildeos construyen comienza a variar incluso de manera maacutes ampliadependiendo de las actividades en las que intervengan de los registros linguumliacutesti-cos que se usan en esas actividades y de las posturas tiacutepicamente adoptadas porlos interlocutores hacia el uso del lenguaje en sus interacciones con los nintildeos(Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

Hasta ahora la secuencia de desarrollo ontogeneacutetico que he descrito es baacutesica-mente similar en todas las culturas y sigue la secuencia filogeneacutetica en la que loshumanos han ido acumulando de manera progresiva nuevos recursos semioacuteticosmediacionales a sus repertorios comunicativos De forma llamativa por lo tantoel modo uacuteltimo de representacioacuten en el esquema de Donald que es la escrituraes un extra opcional puesto que muchas culturas han sobrevivido y prosperadosin una modalidad escrita de representacioacuten de significados Ademaacutes incluso enculturas que poseen un sistema de escritura el grado y alcance de alfabetizacioacutenque los individuos logran variacutea considerablemente dependiendo de los sistemasde actividad en los que participan del valor otorgado por la comunidad a los tex-tos escritos de los propoacutesitos a los que sirven y de los geacuteneros que se usan paraalcanzar esos propoacutesitos Sin embargo ya que la alfabetizacioacuten y sus usos estaacutenfuertemente asociados a la escolarizacioacuten maacutes adelante abordareacute con mayor pro-fundidad la discusioacuten de esta modalidad de mediacioacuten semioacutetica

Sin embargo quiero explorar con maacutes detalle el concepto de mediacioacutensemioacutetica antes de concluir esta seccioacuten En uno de los pasajes mejor conocidosde los escritos de Vygotski donde argumenta en favor del origen social y cultu-ral de las funciones metales superiores escribe que cada funcioacuten ocurre en dosplanos primero en la actividad e interaccioacuten entre personas y despueacutes en el apren-diz individual (Vygotski 1981) Lo que sirve de puente entre estos dos planoscomo se aclara en otros escritos suyos es la mediacioacuten semioacutetica Recueacuterdesecoacutemo formula Leontiev este argumento

es imposible transmitir los significados y meacutetodos necesarios para realizar un proceso de otraforma que no sea social ndashen la forma de una accioacuten o habla externandash En otras palabras los pro-cesos psicoloacutegicos superiores exclusivamente humanos soacutelo pueden ser adquiridos mediante lainteraccioacuten con otros esto es a traveacutes de un proceso interpsicoloacutegico que soacutelo maacutes tardecomenzaraacute a ser desarrollado independientemente por el individuo (1981 pp 55-56)

En otras palabras cuando las personas realizan una actividad conjunta susacciones gestos y discurso no soacutelo median la coordinacioacuten de la participacioacutentambieacuten hacen puacuteblicas las actividades mentales implicadas quedando asiacute dis-ponibles para su apropiacioacuten por parte de los participantes novatos1 Halliday sepronuncia con mucha claridad al respecto Aunque la cita siguiente se refieresoacutelo al lenguaje el teacutermino ldquolenguajerdquo podriacutea justificadamente ser reemplazadoaquiacute por ldquomediacioacuten semioacuteticardquo

En el desarrollo del nintildeo como un ser social el lenguaje posee el papel central El lenguaje es elprincipal canal por el que los patrones de vida le son transmitidos mediante el cual aprende aactuar como un miembro de la ldquosociedadrdquo ndashen y mediante la variedad de grupos sociales lafamilia los vecinos etceacuteterandash y a adoptar su ldquoculturardquo su modo de pensar y actuar sus creen-cias y sus valoresrdquo (1978 p 9)

Sin embargo a medida que los nintildeos crecen el lenguaje se convierte en elmodo predominante de mediacioacuten semioacutetica y como el mismo autor escribioacute enun trabajo posterior ldquoEl lenguaje es la condicioacuten esencial del conocimiento elproceso por el que la experiencia se convierte en conocimientordquo (Halliday 1993 p94 cursiva en el original)

173El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Ayuda para aprender en actividades conjuntas

Hasta ahora en la discusioacuten del papel de la actividad conjunta en el desarrollohumano me he centrado en las herramientas y particularmente en los modossemioacuteticos de representacioacuten que median los logros obtenidos como resultado dela actividad En esta seccioacuten en cambio me detendreacute en el papel que jueganotras personas ya sean miembros de la familia o de la comunidad extensa

Hasta este momento me he referido a los coparticipantes en una actividad enteacuterminos generales pero claramente hay distinciones adicionales por hacer Par-ticularmente uacutetil al respecto es el modelo de sistema de actividad de Engestroumlmel cual se representa en la figura 1

Lo que este modelo muestra es que cuando observamos una actividad encurso desde el punto de vista de un participante individual (Sujeto t) ese indivi-duo estaacute atrapado en un nudo de relaciones que le unen a otros ldquoparticipantesrdquolas Herramientas y Artefactos para mediar la accioacuten sobre el Objeto pero tam-bieacuten la Comunidad a la que pertenecen las personas implicadas en la actividadjunto con la Divisioacuten de Trabajo propia de la comunidad y tambieacuten las Reglas yConvenciones que gobierna la manera en la que la actividad se desarrolla(Engestroumlm 1999) Lo que subraya esta uacuteltima categoriacutea de ldquoparticipantesrdquo es ladimensioacuten histoacuterica de un sistema de actividad ya que estas reglas y convencio-nes ndashal igual que las herramientas y artefactosndash traen al presente las praacutecticasdestiladas de las generaciones previas que han participado en la actividad y estaspraacutecticas son interpretadas y utilizadas por la comunidad actual

Para ilustrar la relevancia de este modelo en el desarrollo del nintildeo pequentildeopodemos comparar dos versiones de una actividad similar descrita por WertschMinick y Arns (1984) En este estudio un grupo de nintildeos de Brasil ordenan unpuzzle en dos situaciones distintas la primera con sus madres y la segunda conun profesor de primaria Los investigadores observaron que en general las

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187174

FIGURA 1Triaacutengulo de Actividad

Artefactosherramientas y

praacutecticas

Valores reglasy convenciones

Comunidad Divisioacuten delabor

Engestrom 1999

Objeto ResultadosSujeto

madres y los profesores participan en la actividad de manera sistemaacuteticamentediferente Mientras que las madres tendiacutean a dirigir el comportamiento de losnintildeos o incluso a realizar parte de la tarea ellas mismas para completarla de unamanera eficaz ndashtal y como habriacutean hecho si se tratara de una tarea domeacutesticandashlos profesores tendiacutean a promover la actuacioacuten autoacutenoma de los nintildeos y soacutelo pro-porcionaban consejos y sugerencias cuando lo juzgaban necesario para el avancede la comprensioacuten de los nintildeos Interpretando estos resultados los investigado-res sugeriacutean que los dos grupos de adultos perteneciacutean a dos comunidades dife-rentes (o sistemas de actividad) con diferentes reglas y convenciones sobre la par-ticipacioacuten en actividades conjuntas Y esto alternativamente conduciacutea a la dife-rente divisioacuten del trabajo que ellos observaron De manera similar Rogoff(2003) cita muchos ejemplos de diferencias sustanciales entre culturas en casitodos los aspectos del crecimiento infantil con respecto a sus modos de implicar alos nintildeos en las actividades que consideran importantes

Lo que estaacute claro es que ldquodetraacutes derdquo un adulto particular en contacto directocon el nintildeo ndasho en algunas culturas un hermano mayorndash hay una comunidadamplia formada por los miembros de la familia vecinos y otras personas interesa-das en la educacioacuten del nintildeo que comparten determinadas creencias sobre elmodo maacutes apropiado de introducir a los nintildeos en las actividades de la vida diariaPor eso ya sea en Espantildea Japoacuten o las Montantildeas Peruanas aunque las praacutecticasactuales variacutean a traveacutes de las culturas en todas los responsables del bienestar ydel desarrollo de los nintildeos actuacutean como agentes de una comunidad maacutes ampliacuyas creencias y praacutecticas estaacuten arraigadas en una larga tradicioacuten sobre coacutemodeben llevarse a cabo las actividades Pero igualmente en todas las culturas laspraacutecticas tambieacuten cambian en respuesta a los cambios en el mundo maacutes allaacute deuna comunidad particular En muchos hogares Occidentales por ejemplo losjuegos de ordenadores o los programas de televisioacuten han ocupado recientementeel lugar de los cuentos antes de dormir mientras que en muchas comunidadesindiacutegenas las artes que hasta hace poco soacutelo cubriacutean las necesidades locales sonahora explotadas comercialmente por el mercado turiacutestico cambiando los ritmosde la vida diaria las relaciones entre los miembros de la familia y las actividadesen las que los nintildeos estaacuten inmersos Sin embargo como anteriormente se sugirioacutepara comprender las actividades en las que los nintildeos participan hoy necesitamosmirar no soacutelo a la situacioacuten inmediata sino tambieacuten a la comunidad maacutes ampliay a los cambios que han tenido lugar en las escalas temporales

Microgeacutenesis y Zona de Desarrollo Proacuteximo

Lo inmediato sin embargo es siempre la situacioacuten microgeneacutetica que es ellugar del desarrollo ontogeneacutetico ndashla accioacuten e interaccioacuten entre el aprendiz yaquellos con quien estaacute implicado en la actividad en cursondash Cuando adoptamosesta perspectiva microgeneacutetica sin embargo necesitamos modificar la represen-tacioacuten del sistema de actividad reflejada en la figura 1 Esta representacioacutensubraya el hecho de que la accioacuten estaacute orientada a un propoacutesito De manera dis-tinta ahora conviene resaltar la interaccioacuten entre los participantes ndashsus tentativaspara lograr intersubjetividad con respecto a los objetivos comunes y a las habili-dades complementarias de conocimiento que aportan a la co-construccioacuten delresultado previsto (ver Figura 2)ndash Lo que la figura 2 enfatiza es el hecho de queaunque las herramientas y artefactos que estaacuten disponibles para mediar la accioacutenemprendida conjuntamente son los mismos para cada participante cada unoaporta una familiaridad algo diferente con su uso como resultado de su diferentetrayectoria vital siendo esta variabilidad en su pericia la que hace posible paracada uno de ellos proporcionar asistencia a los otros al menos en algunos aspectos

175El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

de la accioacuten conjunta Visto desde esta perspectiva estaacute claro por queacute Vygotskienfatizoacute el papel de la actividad conjunta en el desarrollo y escribioacute sobre supotencial para permitir a los participantes ldquoir maacutes allaacute de siacute mismosrdquo con laayuda de otros maacutes expertos

La metaacutefora usada por Vygotski para caracterizar el potencial para el aprendi-zaje que esta clase de actividad crea fue ldquozona de desarrollo proacuteximordquo Como eacutelescribioacute cuando otro participante en la actividad proporciona instruccioacuten que essuministrada apropiadamente maacutes allaacute de lo que el aprendiz puede llegar a hacerpor siacute mismo ldquodespierta toda una serie de funciones que estaacuten en estado demaduracioacuten latente en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximordquo (1987 p 212) Vygotskiconceptualizoacute el desarrollo como la formacioacuten de nuevos sistemas funcionales(ldquoneoformacionesrdquo) y de cambios en las relaciones entre sistemas que seguacuten eacutelconsideraba ocurriacutean como una secuencia de ldquocrisis del desarrollordquo particular-mente facilitadas por la participacioacuten en las ldquoactividades guiadasrdquo relevantes decada etapa por ejemplo jugar en la nintildeez y aprender a leer y a escribir en los pri-meros antildeos escolares Sin embargo puede ser un error dirigir la atencioacuten soacutelo alos periodos de cambios revolucionarios ya que como eacutel igualmente enfatizoacutetambieacuten tienen lugar en cualquier momento otros procesos graduales de creci-miento

Los procesos que son liacuteneas centrales de desarrollo en una edad se convierten en liacuteneas perifeacute-ricas de desarrollo en la edad siguiente y contrariamente liacuteneas perifeacutericas de desarrollo deuna edad son traiacutedas a la vanguardia y se convierten en liacuteneas centrales en el momento en elque cambia su significado y su significacioacuten relativa en la estructura total del desarrollo(1987 p 197)2

En la elaboracioacuten de su importante concepto de zona de desarrollo proacuteximoVygotski tendioacute a caracterizar la ayuda proporcionada por otros como ldquoinstruc-cioacutenrdquo asiacute como a ver su valor en ldquoel potencial del nintildeo para elevarse a siacute mismo

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187176

FIGURA 2Diaacutelogo en la Actividad Conjunta (Wells 2002b)

Resultadosmateriales yartefactossemioacuteticos

Herramientasartefactos

Sujeto

Reglasconvenciones

Comunidad Divisioacuten delabor

Sujeto

Herramientasartefactos

gracias a la colaboracioacuten hacia un nivel intelectual mayor de desarrollo despla-zaacutendose mediante la imitacioacuten desde lo que eacutel es hasta lo que eacutel no esrdquo (1987p 210) Sin embargo muchos eruditos contemporaacuteneos que han construidosobre su trabajo han adoptado una visioacuten de conjunto del significado evolutivode la colaboracioacuten en actividades conjuntas y han caracterizado la ayuda propor-cionada en esta relacioacuten con teacuterminos tales como ldquoaprendizajerdquo (Lave y Wenger1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoparticipacioacuten guiadardquo (Rogoff 1994 2003) y ldquoandamia-jerdquo (Wood Bruner y Ross 1976) Sin embargo mientras estas metaacuteforas dife-rentes iluminan caracteriacutesticas diferentes de la relacioacuten lo que tienen todas encomuacuten es la inclusioacuten del aprendizaje en una actividad que ofrezca el nivel deapoyo necesario para ayudar al aprendizaje a completar una actividad en la que eacutelo ella estaacute interesado y a hacer esto de tal manera que eacutel o ella progresen hastapoder participar maacutes plena y autoacutenomamente en el futuro (Maybin Mercer yStierer 1992)

En muchas actividades conjuntas tales como por ejemplo formas tradicio-nales de aprendizaje de oficios la ayuda es proporcionada soacutelo cuando se necesitay de este modo el ldquomaestrordquo la ofrece sin intenciones didaacutecticas deliberadas maacutesallaacute de arropar al principiante para terminar una tarea particular en curso (Lave1996) De manera similar la socializacioacuten en actividades domeacutesticas no necesitauna instruccioacuten expliacutecita ya que los principiantes pueden aprender mucho sim-plemente mirando y escuchando (cf Rogoff 2003) Esto es lo que Lave y Wen-ger (1991) quieren decir cuando insisten en que el aprendizaje no es una activi-dad independiente sino un aspecto intriacutenseco de la ldquoparticipacioacuten perifeacutericalegiacutetimardquo en las actividades de una comunidad Desde su perspectiva por lotanto la educacioacuten formal en la que el aprendizaje es el uacutenico propoacutesito de laactividad tiene algo anoacutemalo particularmente cuando la uacutenica forma de ayudaproporcionada es la instruccioacuten directa del profesor experto y la consiguienteevaluacioacuten del grado de aprendizaje de los alumnos

En muchas discusiones recientes se ha reconocido tambieacuten que no es soacutelo unldquoprofesorrdquo quien puede proporcionar ayuda en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximo Porun lado en una actividad compleja muchos participantes son maacutes expertos queotros en algunos aspectos y por lo tanto en algunas ocasiones estaacuten preparadospara ayudar a aquellos que son menos expertos (Rogoff 1994) Por otro ladoaquellos que proporcionan ayuda no tienen que estar fiacutesicamente presentes lostextos y otros artefactos pueden igualmente ayudar de manera satisfactoria a unparticipante ldquoa ir maacutes allaacute de siacute mismo o siacute mismardquo como ocurre con frecuenciaen el trabajo intelectual como la investigacioacuten y la escritura (Wells 1999) Ade-maacutes como Engestroumlm (1999) y otros ndashbasaacutendose en distintos aspectos de losescritos teoacutericos de Vygotskindash han anotado las herramientas materiales y simboacute-licas que han sido desarrolladas por participantes anteriores en la actividad pue-den tambieacuten proporcionar la misma clase de ayuda Sin embargo el punto maacutesimportante que quizaacutes debe subrayarse es que hay muchas situaciones en las quenadie es un experto incluso como cada uno aporta su propia experiencia pasadaa la solucioacuten de un problema comuacuten el grupo en su conjunto es capaz de alcan-zar maacutes de lo que cualquier miembro singular podriacutea haber hecho de maneraindependiente Evidentemente es esta colaboracioacuten la que ha hecho posible lasinvenciones que han llevado a los mayores avances de las grandes civilizaciones alo largo del curso de la historia cultural

Desarrollo en los antildeos preescolares

La responsabilidad para cuidar a los nintildeos en la nintildeez temprana variacutea conside-rablemente de una sociedad a otra como antes anoteacute Sin embargo en todas las

177El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

sociedades los nintildeos estaacuten inmersos en actividades conjuntas con otros en las quereciben ayuda para participar aunque puedan llevarlas a cabo parcialmente Ensu mayor parte como ya se mencionoacute eacutestas son actividades cotidianas repetidasregularmente en las rutinas establecidas Se espera que el nintildeo aprenderaacute a asu-mirlas y es simplemente ayudado para hacerlo Esta forma de aprendizaje deno-minada habitualmente ldquoenculturacioacutenrdquo asegura la continuidad de las formas devida culturales desde una generacioacuten a la siguiente y como Donald (1991) argu-menta probablemente tuvo lugar incluso antes de la emergencia del habla

Sin embargo en todas las actividades hay ocasiones en las que cuando surgealguacuten problema se requiere alguacuten nivel de toma de decisiones deliberado En estassituaciones la interaccioacuten verbal hace posible un grado de reflexioacuten y planificacioacutenhacia delante en la que las relaciones de causa y efecto intencioacuten accioacuten y resultadose hacen expliacutecitas y abiertas para su anaacutelisis y discusioacuten La conversacioacuten que semantiene en estas ocasiones juega asiacute un papel particularmente importante en laayuda a los nintildeos para atender y comprender el mundo que les rodea de acuerdo conlos modos culturales de ldquodarle sentidordquo Sin embargo estas ocasiones pueden tam-bieacuten abrir posibilidades para el cambio tanto en la forma de la actividad como lacomprensioacuten que de ella alcanzan los participantes Coacutemo los cuidadores tomanhabitualmente estas oportunidades es de gran relevancia aquiacute ya que juega en la for-macioacuten de las disposiciones intelectuales con las que los nintildeos entran en la escuelaun papel importante (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo y Sterponi 2002)

En esta seccioacuten incluyo algunos ejemplos representativos del modo de hablarque surge de las actividades conjuntas en el hogar Estos ejemplos se han extraiacute-do de observaciones realizadas en contextos ingleses (Wells 1986) y australianos(Hasan 2002) donde los nintildeos pequentildeos observados pasaban la mayor parte desu tiempo en el hogar en compantildeiacutea de un progenitor o algunas veces con uno omaacutes hermanos mientras que el resto del tiempo se entreteniacutean ellos solos (conuna participacioacuten esporaacutedica del adulto) o algo que haciacutean con frecuencia mira-ban y ldquoayudabanrdquo a sus progenitores con tareas domeacutesticas de diferente tipo

En el primer ejemplo James (de tres antildeos y medio de edad) ha estado jugandosolo en el jardiacuten y cuando entra de nuevo en casa su madre intenta que se quitelos zapatos embarrados Sin embargo en ese momento ve un paacutejaro fuera que leinteresa maacutes que cambiarse de zapatos

Ejemplo 1Madre Alliacute Vamoshellip Alliacutehellip Una zapatilla enJames Puedo ver un paacutejaroMadre iquestUn queacute amorJames Mira un paacutejaroMadre (Susurrando) iquestEstaacute alliacute iquestFueraJames (Sentildealando y susurrando) Siacute mira

(Ambos continuacutean hablando muy suavemente)Madre iquestEstaacute comiendo algoJames NoMadre iquestDoacutende Oh siacute estaacute consiguiendo iquestSabes queacute estaacute haciendoJames NoMadre Estaacute yendo al saco de papel para intentar escoger algunos pedazos

Oh tiene un poco de alimento alliacute Y espero que escoja algunos pedazos de hilodel saco para ir y hacer su nido bajo la azotea James Espera un minuto y [James ahora quiere salir a ver maacutes cerca pero en ese momento el paacutejaro se escapavolando]

James Se ha ido

En el segundo ejemplo Elizabeth (de cuatro antildeos de edad) que estaacute ayudandoen la limpieza de casa mira con intereacutes coacutemo su madre mete en un cubo la cenizade la lentildea de la chimenea

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187178

Ejemplo 2Elizabeth iquestPara queacute estaacutes haciendo esoMadre Estoy recogieacutendolo y ponieacutendolo fuera para que papaacute pueda ponerlo en el jardiacutenElizabeth iquestPor queacute lo tiene que poner en el jardiacuten Madre Para abonar bienElizabeth iquestEso hace que la hierba crezcaMadre SiacuteElizabeth iquestPor queacuteMadre Sabes que te digo que necesitas comer cosas diferentes como huevos y col y

pudin de arroz para convertirte en una nintildea mayor Elizabeth SiacuteMadre Bien las plantas tambieacuten necesitan comida diferente Y la ceniza es una de las

cosas buenas para ellas

El tercer ejemplo se refiere a James de nuevo ahora 18 meses mayor Por lamantildeana temprano ha estado ayudando a su madre con la elaboracioacuten de unos dul-ces en el horno Ahora vuelve a la cocina cuando su madre estaacute sacando las bande-jas fuera del horno Oye un ruidoso ldquocrackrdquo metaacutelico y solicita una explicacioacuten

Ejemplo 3James iquestQuieacuten hizo esoMadre Espero que fuera la contraccioacuten de la lata James iquestQueacute lataMadre La que estaacute con los pasteles dentro James iquestPor queacute hizo ese ruidoMadre Bien cuando estaba en el horno se calentoacute mucho y se estiroacute un pedacito Ape-

nas la he sacado del horno y se estaacute enfriando muy raacutepido mira y ese ruido ocu-rre cuando se hace maacutes pequentildea otra vez y vuelve a su forma normal

James Oh iquesttiene una forma diferente en el horno Madre Oh no muy diferente Soacutelo un poco mayor James Pequentildea lata traviesa Puede que consigas que te den un azote si lo haces otra vez

En estos tres ejemplos la madre responde con prontitud a los intereses delnintildeo y proporciona informacioacuten para explicar el significado de lo que los nintildeosestaacuten viendo u oyendo incluso cuando inicialmente esto interrumpe los planesde la madre Los tres casos muestran coacutemo la participacioacuten de los nintildeos en la acti-vidad con el adulto garantiza una atencioacuten intersubjetiva hacia los intereses delnintildeo lo que permite a la madre proporcionar informacioacuten relevante Esto es cla-ramente una forma de ldquoinstruccioacutenrdquo sin embargo es espontaacutenea y contingentecon los intereses de los nintildeos en lugar de ser presentada como parte de un curri-culum pre-planificado

El tercer ejemplo es particularmente interesante desde este punto de vista yaque el fenoacutemeno que despierta el intereacutes de James requiere una explicacioacuten algoteacutecnica En alguacuten momento del futuro sin duda la dilatacioacuten del metal cuandose calienta y su consiguiente contraccioacuten cuando es apartado del calor figuraraacuteen el curriculum de ciencias de la escuela en relacioacuten con el estudio sistemaacuteticodel calor aquiacute sin embargo es un efecto secundario de la elaboracioacuten de los pas-teles en el horno y la explicacioacuten de la madre aunque teacutecnica en cuanto al conte-nido se asienta en el lenguaje cotidiano y no en los teacuterminos abstractos de lageneralizacioacuten cientiacutefica Como Hasan (2002) ha observado

el discurso del conocimiento quasi especializado tiene lugar lsquoen medio dersquo las actividades dia-rias y necesariamente exige una buena disposicioacuten por parte de la madre para acoger los cam-bios contextuales para tener la voluntad de reclasificar el contexto del discurso en marcha Latendencia a conectar con el discurso en movimiento del nintildeo la buena disposicioacuten para reclasi-ficar el contexto es una caracteriacutestica discursiva del mismo grupo de madres que con frecuen-cia lanzan preguntas precisas para la calificacioacuten de los objetos que atienden a las preguntas desus hijos y que les proporcionan respuestas bien desarrolladas (p 123)

179El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

No todos los nintildeos experimentan esta clase de respuesta altamente informati-va para sus intereses por supuesto Sobre la base de un corpus sustancial de inte-racciones madre-hijo Hasan (2002) siguiendo a Bernstein (1982) distingueentre mediacioacuten semioacutetica ldquovisiblerdquo e ldquoinvisiblerdquo Mientras que todos los ejem-plos citados anteriormente giran sobre la actividad conjunta y las preguntas delos nintildeos merecen una exploracioacuten adicional en un modo expliacutecito ldquovisiblerdquo lostemas de las contribuciones de muchos otros nintildeos a la actividad y la interaccioacutenson tratados por los padres como ldquoobviosrdquo y por lo tanto como si no requirieranexplicacioacuten En este sentido la mediacioacuten de las creencias culturales y de laspraacutecticas permanece ldquoinvisiblerdquo esto es la forma de ser del mundo y el tema nomerece una discusioacuten adicional El Ejemplo 4 (tomado de Hasan 2002) bajoestaacutes liacuteneas proporciona una buena ilustracioacuten

Ejemplo 4 Madre Ponlo sobre la estufa y deacutejalo alliacuteKaren iquestPor queacuteMadre PorqueKaren iquestAquiacute es doacutende va Madre SiacuteUn poco despueacutesKaren iquestCoacutemo conseguiste esoiquestNo saliste Madre Camineacute encima y lo conseguiacute iquestno me viste Karen HmmMadre Debes estar ciega

Los dos breves extractos del Ejemplo 4 son tiacutepicos de un estilo muy diferentede interaccioacuten comparados con los anteriores Aquiacute el eacutenfasis de los padres enconseguir que el nintildeo se adapte a los modos de la cultura local de actuar y pensarcon eficacia suprime la curiosidad del nintildeo y el deseo de comprender lo quetambieacuten hace menos probable que el nintildeo desarrolle la capacidad para cuestionarel status quo y participar en los esfuerzos por cambiarlo y mejorarlo

Finalmente antes de dejar el tema del aprendizaje a traveacutes de la conversacioacutenen actividades conjuntas es importante considerar la actividad conjunta en elcontexto del juego Vygotski (1978) consideroacute el juego como la actividad princi-pal en los antildeos preescolares ya que anima al nintildeo a explorar las posibilidades dela mediacioacuten semioacutetica mediante el uso de objetos presentes que pueden ser uti-lizados para representar otros objetos no presentes mediante el ldquorole playrdquo en elque el lenguaje crea un mundo imaginario En el Ejemplo 5 James ahora contres antildeos y nueve meses estaacute sentaacutendose en el brazo de un sofaacute conduciendo untren imaginario con su madre como pasajera

Ejemplo 5Madre Aquiacute estamos Me sentareacute al lado Perfecto iquestestaacutes listo iquestTodo a punto

Bien Quita el frenoJames Comenzareacute a levantarloMadre Oh perdoacuten Estaacute bienJames Mamaacute no conduzcas todaviacuteaMadre Oh BienJames [Hace un ruido simulando arrancar el motor]Madre iexclOh Este motor arranca raacutepido Muy bien iquestHay suficiente carboacuten en la parte

posterior iquestHas cargado suficiente carboacuten JamesJames SiacuteMadre Bien Entonces vaacutemonos lejos Despiacutedete de tus amigos James [Suena el ruido del motor que acelera Se riacutee y hace el sonido del silbido del

motor]Madre Ahora vamos muy raacutepido iquestPuedes sentir el traqueteo de los vagones James Siacute

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187180

Madre Oh todo me da vueltas Oh mi desayuno estaacute retumbando en mi barriga iexclOhiexclOh iexclOh

James [Hace el ruido del motor]Madre Creo que deberiacuteamos disminuir la velocidad iquestNo crees James Mm (asintiendo)Madre Creo que estamos yendo un poco raacutepido

Es mejor es maacutes faacutecil ahora iquestno James Mm (asintiendo)Madre [Muje] Mira las vacas en el campo JamesJames MmMadre Y hay un granjero mira El granjero te estaacute saludando

Como contar historias compartidas que es otra actividad conjunta importan-te a esta edad el juego imaginario tambieacuten tiene una funcioacuten importante en lapreparacioacuten del nintildeo para explorar el poder del lenguaje ldquopara crear un mundomediante las palabrasrdquo Como seraacute discutido debajo este uso del lenguaje pararepresentar objetos y eventos no presentes y las relaciones entre ellos adoptagran significado en el contexto de la escolarizacioacuten puacuteblica tiacutepica donde propor-ciona los significados mediacionales principales mediante los que gran parte delcurriculum se materializa (Wells 1986)

En suma con la excepcioacuten del Ejemplo 4 todos los extractos precedentes sonejemplos claros de un adulto ldquotrabajando en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximo delnintildeordquo (Vygotski 1987) ya que se implican en la interaccioacuten en el proceso dedesarrollar la actividad en la que estaacuten conjuntamente inmersos Como Vygotski(1987) enfatizoacute en la actividad conjunta colaborativa el nintildeo puede siemprehacer maacutes de lo que le es posible hacer independientemente La actividad pro-porciona el marco organizacional en el que parte de la conversacioacuten dirige ycomenta la actividad y parte explora los resultados a los que conduce En estecontexto el adulto hace disponible para la apropiacioacuten del nintildeo no soacutelo infor-macioacuten especiacutefica como respuesta a los intereses del nintildeo sino tambieacuten una pos-tura hacia la experiencia que valora la actitud de investigacioacuten Tratando las pre-guntas del nintildeo como dignas de respuesta expliacutecita el adulto apoya el desarrollode una disposicioacuten a plantearse preguntas y a buscarles respuesta mediante lainvestigacioacuten futura (Wells 1999)

El papel de la actividad en la educacioacuten

Aunque el teacutermino ldquoeducacioacutenrdquo se emplea a menudo como sinoacutenimo deldquoescolarizacioacutenrdquo seguacuten una interpretacioacuten maacutes amplia la educacioacuten viene refi-rieacutendose a los primeros antildeos del nintildeo y de hecho como se vio arriba hay muchasocasiones en las que un coparticipante en una actividad en curso proporciona ins-truccioacuten expliacutecita Sin embargo la educacioacuten ndashen el sentido de escolarizacioacutenndashtiende a ser muy diferente de la clase de actividades ilustradas maacutes arriba Maacutesimportante en las escuelas la instruccioacuten es tanto deliberada como sistemaacutetica yes gobernada no por los intereses de los alumnos sino por un curriculum que hasido disentildeado por expertos que no estaacuten familiarizados con los alumnos que van aser instruidos Como resultado a menudo lo que se ensentildea en la escuela no estaacuterelacionado con aquello que a los alumnos maacutes les interesa aprender y es muyprobable que no se obtengan beneficios de las oportunidades que la escuelapodriacutea proporcionar

En las primeras secciones de este trabajo se ha argumentado que el aprendi-zaje no es un fin en siacute mismo sino un aspecto integrado del domino de nuevasformas de actividad que tienen significado y valor para el desarrollo de los apren-dices como miembros de una comunidad y como individuos autoacutenomos uacutenicos

181El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Como Wygotsky insistentemente precisoacute el aprendizaje conduce el desarrollo yla instruccioacuten deberiacutea estar organizada para ayudar a este proceso

La instruccioacuten es soacutelo uacutetil cuando se mueve delante del desarrollo Cuando esto ocurre impulsao despierta toda una serie de funciones que estaacuten en estado de maduracioacuten latente en la zona dedesarrollo proacuteximo (1987 p 212)

La pregunta central para la escolarizacioacuten debe por lo tanto ser coacutemo ofrecerinstruccioacuten que sea relevante para las trayectorias de desarrollo de los alumnos yque de manera adecuada ldquose situacutee dentrordquo de sus zonas de desarrollo proacuteximoJunto a esta una segunda pregunta es coacutemo proporcionar ayuda a los alumnosindividuales para que su aprendizaje les permita de hecho avanzar en su desa-rrollo

Procurando proporcionar respuesta a estas preguntas el concepto de ldquoactivi-dad guiadardquo junto con el de recapitulacioacuten de la secuencia de desarrollo de losmodos de conocimiento puede ofrecer un comienzo uacutetil Los nintildeos cuandoingresan en la escuela han dominado en gran parte los modos de conocimientoasociados con la accioacuten el gesto y el habla (Nelson 1996) Lo que ahora necesi-tan es un aprendizaje de los modos de conocimiento asociado con el lenguajeescrito y de las distintas clases de representacioacuten simboacutelica que derivan de eacutelndashmatemaacutetica cientiacutefica musical etceacuteterandash Es decir necesitan aprenderlos parausar estas formas de representacioacuten como herramienta para la deliberacioacutenmediada la comunicacioacuten reflexiva y el pensamiento y para apropiarse de losdiferentes dominios de conocimiento teoacuterico que han sido construidos acumula-tivamente por las generaciones previas con la ayuda de las ventajas que confierenesos sistemas de ldquomemoria externardquo (Donald 1991)

La recapitulacioacuten del desarrollo histoacuterico cultural orienta la trayectoria a largoplazo para la educacioacuten formal en la escuela y en otras instituciones Pero inclusomaacutes importante para procurar responder la pregunta central presentada arriba esdeterminar los procedimientos efectivos para organizar los pequentildeos pasos queconfiguran las lecciones las unidades curriculares y los programas anuales a lolargo de esta trayectoria Basaacutendonos en las ideas presentadas en la seccioacuten ante-rior dos principios parecen en siacute mismos evidentes En primer lugar los encuen-tros educativos necesitan para estar organizados ser ldquoactividades conjuntasrdquo enlas que todos los participantes contribuyen a las metas convenidas con lo mejorde sus habilidades Y en segundo lugar debe convertirse en norma dar y recibirayuda por parte de cada participante Una de las implicaciones de estos dos prin-cipios es que no puede haber formas universales mejores para participar en alguacutenaspecto del curriculum puesto que cada clase variacutea en las experiencias e interesesque sus miembros aportan y en los valores y praacutecticas aprendidos culturalmenteque motivan y dirigen su implicacioacuten con el nuevo conocimiento y con las habi-lidades que estaacuten esperando dominar

Aunque siempre es importante reconocer valorar y construir sobre las expe-riencias previas de los alumnos ha llegado a ser incluso maacutes necesario a medidaque la migracioacuten tanto inter como intra paiacuteses ha aumentado significativamen-te ya que las diferentes etnias clases y religiones en las comunidades han dadolugar a su vez a comunidades de escuela y aula cada vez maacutes diversas ndashy estadiversidad es incluso mayor donde una proporcioacuten sustancial de alumnos estaacuteaprendiendo la lengua de clase como una segunda lengua (o subsiguiente)ndash Taldiversidad en el bagaje cultural y en la experiencia previa es generalmente vistocomo un problema que necesita ser superado en paiacuteses donde los disentildeadores delcurriculum apuntan a estandarizar la instruccioacuten para alcanzar ideacutenticos resulta-dos para todos los estudiantes como es hoy el caso en Estados Unidos Sin

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187182

embargo cuando las diferencias entre personas en teacuterminos de experiencia valo-res y praacutecticas son reconocidas como normales y deseables esta diversidad puedeconvertirse en una ventaja en la clase ya que las praacutecticas y puntos de vista alter-nativos que afloran pueden enriquecer la comunidad de clase y conducir a discu-siones valiosas en las que las creencias dadas por sentadas sean modificadas y sealcance una comprensioacuten maacutes profunda de los puntos considerados (Wells1999)

En este contexto he encontrado de ayuda pensar en el aprendizaje basado enla escuela en teacuterminos de una espiral del conocimiento donde el resultado espe-rado con cada giro de la espiral es una mayor comprensioacuten (Wells 1999) (verFigura 3) En la primera fase cuando la clase se embarca en un nuevo aspecto delcurriculum es importante animar a los alumnos a compartir sus experienciasprevias ya que como las investigaciones en campos muy diferentes han mostra-do (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotski) esas experiencias proporcionan elpunto de partida para su aprendizaje sean o no reconocidas puacuteblicamente Des-cubriendo lo que los estudiantes ya saben y aquello que les interesa explorar conmaacutes detalle el profesor puede tambieacuten planificar la unidad en cooperacioacuten conlos alumnos (Donoahue 2003) La segunda fase de la espiral conlleva varios acer-camientos a la nueva informacioacuten ndashmediante la explicacioacuten del profesor a traveacutesde materiales impresos o medios audiovusiales o en la forma de feedback de laspropias acciones e investigaciones de los alumnosndash Es importante reconocer sinembargo que la recepcioacuten de la nueva informacioacuten no asegura en siacute misma unaumento de la comprensioacuten Para que esto ocurra la nueva informacioacuten debearticularse con la comprensioacuten existente y con la experiencia previa relevantepara ser despueacutes puesta a prueba mediante la accioacuten en el mundo ndashobteniendofeedback (informacioacuten adicional)ndash yo mediante el diaacutelogo con otros para laconstruccioacuten del conocimiento donde el propoacutesito es llegar a una eleccioacuten con-sensuada entre las teoriacuteas alternativas demandas o interpretaciones sobre la basede una consideracioacuten de las evidencias y argumentos apropiados Finalmentepara consolidar la nuevas comprensiones obtenidas es valioso para la clase com-pleta reflexionar juntos sobre lo que han aprendido y sobre el proceso de cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento en el que han participado sobre las implicaciones quela nueva comprensioacuten tiene para sus propias acciones ndashtanto fuera como dentrode clasendash y sobre las preguntas importantes a las que ellos deben ahora dirigir susinvestigaciones futuras En otras palabras la fase final en el ciclo implica a lacomunidad en un ldquoacercamiento lsquometarsquordquo (Olson y Bruner 1996) es decir en laadopcioacuten de una perspectiva metacognitiva sobre su propio aprendizaje que a lolargo de miles de antildeos probablemente ha jugado un importante papel en eldesarrollo de cada modo de conocimiento presentado en la siacutentesis del desarrollohistoacuterico cultural de Donald (1991)3

Esta espiral necesita varias anotaciones adicionales La primera tiene quever con la naturaleza incompleta y provisional del conocimiento eacuteste estaacutesiempre abierto a la mejora mediante ciclos futuros a traveacutes de la espiral Lasegunda anotacioacuten concierne a la naturaleza esencialmente interactiva ysocial del crecimiento individual y comunitario en la comprensioacuten eacutesta seconsigue gracias a los esfuerzos de los participantes para clarificar sus pro-pios significados a los otros y alternativamente para tener en cuenta y res-ponder a los de los demaacutes (Bajtiacuten 1986) En tercer lugar es necesario enfati-zar que el crecimien to en la comprensioacuten requeriraacute espirales futuras queactiven los diferentes modos de conocimiento ya que la mayoriacutea de los cam-bios y problemas que ocurren en las instituciones maacutes allaacute del aula deman-dan un conocimiento procedimental substantivo y esteacutetico al igual que

183El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

teoacuterico y cada modo de conocimiento tiene una contribucioacuten que hacer aleacutexito de soluciones comprensivas que realcen significativamente la com-prensioacuten Finalmente en la representacioacuten de estas relaciones en la figura 3la espiral tambieacuten resalta la interdependencia de los individuos y la comuni-dad Mientras que la experiencia y la comprensioacuten son esencialmente indivi-duales en su naturaleza crecen fuera de eacutel y adoptan su significado de la par-ticipacioacuten de los individuos en el intercambio de informacioacuten y en su com-promiso en la construccioacuten de conocimiento en la comunidad extensa de laque cada individuo es miembro

Desafortunadamente muchos educadores no comprenden estas relacionesfundamentales y por eso su instruccioacuten no es conceptualizada y planificada demanera que sea oacuteptima para el desarrollo de los estudiantes Como numerososestudios han mostrado (Langer y Applebee 1987 Nystrand y Gamoran 1991)en la mayoriacutea de las clases la que gobierna la praacutectica es la concepcioacuten bancariadel conocimiento (Freire 1970) seguacuten la cual el propoacutesito de la instruccioacuten quetiene lugar en el aula es que un alumno individual esteacute preparado para puntuarbien en los tests y no tanto ampliar su conocimiento Dada esta orientacioacuten lasactividades en las que se pide a los alumnos que participen estaacuten determinadaspor la guiacutea curricular del libro de texto maacutes que por el conocimiento de los pro-fesores sobre los intereses y habilidades de los alumnos particulares de los queson responsables A esto es a lo que Tharp y Gallimore (1988) se refieren con laexpresioacuten ldquoguioacuten recitativordquo unido a la ocupacioacuten de un lugar individual de tra-bajo que domina la rutina diaria Ademaacutes los planes sobre coacutemo proceder sonndashcomo cabiacutea esperarndash unilateralmente impuestos en lugar de ser configuradossobre la base de las decisiones tomadas por la comunidad de clase como un todoy el modus operandi es la competicioacuten en lugar de la colaboracioacuten

Sin embargo como he argumentado en otra parte (Wells 1986 19992002a) eacuteste no es el uacutenico modo en el que la escolarizacioacuten puede ser condu-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187184

FIGURA 3La espiral del conocimiento

ACCIOacuteN Construccioacuten

deconocimiento

ComprensioacutenSubstantivo

Esteacutetico

Teoacuterico

Procedimental

Instrumental

Experiencia Informacioacuten

Modos de conocimiento

cida ndasha pensar de la larga historia de la recitacioacuten que se remonta a maacutes detres mil antildeos a las tempranas instituciones que entrenaban a los escribas yadministradores para leer y escribir (Cole 1996)ndash Pero probablemente elmodo por defecto de la escolarizacioacuten es parecido a una preparacioacuten para ldquolavida adultardquo y no una etapa criacutetica del desarrollo que merece la pena y essignificativa en siacute misma Como Vygotski argumentoacute sobre el dominio de laalfabetizacioacuten ldquola ensentildeanza debe organizarse de tal manera que la lectura yla escritura sean necesarias para algo La escritura debe ser incorporada enuna tarea relevante y necesaria para la vidardquo (1978 pp117-118) Y porldquovidardquo quiere decir no la vida futura sino la totalidad de los intereses y pre-ocupaciones actuales de los aprendices

En los uacuteltimos antildeos se han divulgado proyectos de una variedad de paiacuteses enlos que educadores universitarios han procurado crear condiciones para elldquoaprendizaje auteacutenticordquo en las aulas En todos estos proyectos se ha otorgado unpapel central a las actividades colaborativas que alternando entre los formatos departicipacioacuten individual en pequentildeo grupo y de la clase completa implican alos estudiantes en la exploracioacuten de temas centrales mediante investigacionespraacutecticas y tambieacuten teoacutericas y en la discusioacuten criacutetica y constructiva de sus hallaz-gos y de las implicaciones para futuras acciones El espacio no permite aquiacute unadiscusioacuten individual de estos proyectos pero lo que puede ser dicho sobre todosellos es que en sus diferentes formas valoran tanto los intereses de los alumnoscomo sus experiencias previas y persiguen ayudarles a desarrollar la disposicioacutenpara buscar la comprensioacuten maacutes que la acumulacioacuten simple de informacioacuten ypara valorar la colaboracioacuten maacutes que la competicioacuten como el medio para alcanzaresta menta4

En este contexto es digno atraer la atencioacuten hacia varias instituciones poste-riores a la escuela tales como la Fifth Dimension donde la participacioacuten en activi-dades elegidas personalmente ndasha menudo basadas en ordenadoresndash requiere a losnintildeos dominar habilidades que son tambieacuten necesarias para la escolarizacioacuten y lesproporcionan oportunidades para interactuar con voluntarios universitarios enuna posicioacuten de igualdad (Brown y Cole 2002) De manera similar algunosprogramas basados en museos (Leinhardst Crowley y Kuntson 2002) y variasformas de educacioacuten al aire libre tambieacuten capitalizan los intereses de los estu-diantes para implicarles en actividades desafiantes que demandan para la cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento procesos de diaacutelogo y toma de decisiones comparablesa aquellos encontrados en los contextos escolares previamente descritos

Finalmente si estas praacutecticas pioneras arraigan e influyen en la educacioacutenpuacuteblica con mayor amplitud es esencial que los profesores tengan oportunidadessimilares para desarrollar las disposiciones y pericia necesarias para actuar comoagentes de cambio y liacutederes de una reforma en las instituciones en las que traba-jan Es por lo tanto estimulante ver que a pesar del eacutenfasis de los dirigentes poliacute-ticos en estandarizar los curricula y en los resultados cuantificables algunos pro-gramas de formacioacuten de profesores y desarrollo profesional anima a los profeso-res sobre la base de investigaciones sobre su propia praacutectica a tomar sus propiasdecisiones sobre queacute debe ser ensentildeado y coacutemo y a compartir los resultados desus investigaciones con los compantildeeros Este ha sido el motor de mi propio tra-bajo en los antildeos recientes ya que he participado en la investigacioacuten colaborativacon profesores para crear y mantener comunidades de investigacioacuten tanto en cla-ses como entre los mismos profesores5

185El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Notas1 La secuencia temporal implicada por esta formulacioacuten ha sido ampliamente debatida y especialmente el movimiento desde fueraa dentro que sugiere Mi propia comprensioacuten de lo que la apropiacioacuten supone se capta mejor con el ejemplo de aprender a bailarmediante la inmersioacuten en la actividad con otros (Wells 1999) En muchos casos no hay separacioacuten entre antes y despueacutes o entrefuera y dentro y no hay necesidad de demostracioacuten o ejemplificacioacuten En lugar de esto estando inmerso en la actividad conjuntael principiante es literalmente entrenado fiacutesicamente por los movimiento del coparticipante mientras que al mismo tiempoconstruye su propia organizacioacuten ndashy quizaacute incluso una representacioacuten esquemaacuteticandash de los movimientos corporales A lo largo deltiempo este esquema estaacute tan bien organizado que el principiante se convierte en un experto que estaacute preparado paralelamentepara introducir a otros en la actividad Esto es lo que Lave y Wenger (1991) y Rogoff (2003) quieren decir por desarrollo median-te la participacioacuten en actividades culturales

2 Estoy agradecido a Natalia Gajdamaschko y Steve Gabosch por sus valiosas discusiones de esta distincioacuten durante el XMCA cursoonline sobre la teoriacutea de la actividad histoacuterico cultural Abril 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Aunque estaacute incluido en la Tabla I este modo de conocimiento no ha sido discutido aquiacute ya que el reconocimiento expliacutecito deeste importante modo de conocimiento es muy reciente (Brown 1975) Sin embargo eso no significa que sea en siacute mismo unnuevo fenoacutemeno

4 Para algunos ejemplos representativos veacutease Brown y Campione 1994 Lampert Rittenhouse y Crumbaugh 1996 McMahonRaphael Goatley y Pardo 1997 Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford y Brown 1998 Scardamalia Bereiter y Lamon 1994

5 Juntos formamos un grupo de investigacioacuten colaborativo DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project)(Wells (Ed) 2001)

ReferenciasBAJTIacuteN M M (1986) Speech genres and other late essays Austin University of Texas PressBERNSTEIN B (1982) Codes modalities and the process of cultural reproduction A model En M Apple (Ed) Cultural and econo-

mic reproduction in education (pp 304-355) Londres Routledge amp Kegan PaulBROWN A L (1975) The development of memory Knowing knowing about knowing and knowing how to know En H W

Reese (Ed) Advances in child development and behavior (Vol 10 pp 103-152) Nueva York Academic Press BROWN A L amp CAMPIONE J C (1994) Guided discovery in a community of learners En K McGilly (Ed) Integrating cognitive

theory and classroom practice Classroom lessons (pp 229-270) Cambridge MA MIT PressBradford BooksBROWN K amp COLE M (2002) Cultural historical activity theory and the expansion of opportunities for learning after school En

G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 225-238)Oxford Blackwell

BRUNER J S (1990) Acts of meaning Cambridge MA Harvard University PressCARR M (2002) Emerging learning narratives A perspective from early childhood education En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds)

Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 99-111) Oxford BlackwellCOLE M (1996) Cultural psychology A once and future discipline Cambridge MA The Bellknap Press of Harvard University PressDEACON T W (1997) The symbolic species The co-evolution of language and the brain Nueva York NortonDIAMOND J (1998) Guns germs and steel The fates of human societies Nueva York NortonDONALD M (1991) Origins of the Modern Mind Three Stages in the Evolution of Culture and Cognition Cambridge MA Harvard

University PressDONOAHUE Z (2003) Science teaching and learning Teachers and children plan together Networks 6(1) httpwwwoiseuto-

rontoca~ctdnetworksjournal Vol 6 (1) 2003marchENGESTROumlM Y (1999) Activity theory and individual and social transformation Y En Engestrom R Miettinen amp R-L Puna-

maki (Eds) Perspectives on activity theory (pp 19-38) Cambridge Cambridge University PressFREIRE P (1970) Pedagogy of the oppressed Nueva York Herder and HerderHALLIDAY M A K (1975) Learning how to mean Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1978) Language as social semiotic The social interpretation of language and meaning Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1993) Towards a language-based theory of learning Linguistics and Education 5 93-116HASAN R (2002) Semiotic mediation and mental development in pluralistic societies Some implications for tomorrowrsquos schoo-

ling En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural peerspectives on the future of education (pp112-126) Oxford Blackwell

HEATH S B (1983) Ways with words Cambridge Cambridge University PressLAMPERT M RITTENHOUSE P amp CRUMBAUGH C (1996) Agreeing to disagree Developing sociable mathematical discourse En

D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook of education and human development (pp 731-764) Cambridge MA Blackwell LANGER J A amp APPLEBEE A N (1987) How writing shapes thinking A study of teaching and learning Urbana IL National Council

of Teachers of EnglishLAVE J (1996) Teaching as learning in practice Mind Culture and Activity 3 (3) 149-164LAVE J amp WENGER E (1991) Situated Learning Legitimate peripheral participation Nueva York Cambridge University PressLEINHARDT G CROWLEY K amp KNUTSON K (2002) Learning conversations Explanation and identity in museums Mahwah NJ

Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesLEONTIEV A N (1981) The problem of activity in psychology En J VWertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 37-71) Armonk NY SharpeMAYBIN J MERCER N amp STIERER B (1992) lsquoScaffoldingrsquo learning in the classroom En K Norman (Ed) Thinking voices The

work of the National Oracy Project (pp 186-195) Londres Hodder amp StoughtonMCMAHON S I RAPHAEL T E GOATLEY V J amp PARDO L S (Eds) (1997) The Book Club connection Literacy learning and class-

room talk Nueva York Teachers College PressNELSON K (1996) Language in cognitive development The emergence of the mediated mind Nueva York Cambridge University PressNEWSON J (1978) Dialogue and development En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol The emergence of language (pp 31-42)

New York Academic Press

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187186

NYSTRAND M amp GAMORAN A (1991) Student engagement When recitation becomes conversation En H C Waxman amp H JWalberg (Eds) Effective teaching Current research (pp 257-276)Berkeley CA McCutchan Publishing Corp

OLSON D R amp BRUNER J S (1996) Folk psychology and folk pedagogy En D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook ofeducation and human development (pp 9-27) Cambridge MA Blackwell

PALINCSAR A MAGNUSSON S MARANO N FORD D amp BROWN N (1998) Designing a community of practice Principlesand practices of the GIsML Community Teaching and Teacher Education 14 (1) 5-20

PIAGET J (1970) Piagetrsquos theory En P H Mussen (Ed) Carmichaelrsquos handbook of child development (pp 703-732) Nueva YorkWiley

PONTECORVO C amp STERPONI L (2002) Learning to argue and reason through discourse in educational settings En G Wells ampG Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 127-140) OxfordBlackwell

ROGOFF B (1990) Apprenticeship in thinking Cognitive development in social context Nueva York Oxford University PressROGOFF B (1994) Developing understanding of the idea of Communities of Learners Mind Culture and Activity 1 (4) 209-

229ROGOFF B (2003) The cultural nature of human development Nueva York Oxford University PressROSENBLATT L (1978) The reader the text the poem The transactional theory of the literary work Carbondale IL Southern Illinois

University PressSCARDAMALIA M C BEREITER amp LAMON M (1994) The CSILE project Trying to bring the classroom into World 3 En K

McGilley (Ed) Classroom lessons Integrating cognitive theory and classroom practice (pp 201-228) Cambridge MA MITPress

SCRIBNER S (1985) Vygotskyrsquos uses of history En J V Wertsch (Ed) Culture communication and cognition Vygotskian perspectives(pp 119-145) Cambridge Cambridge University Press

THARP R amp GALLIMORE R (1988) Rousing minds to life Nueva York Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C (1979) Communication and cooperation in early infancy a description of primary intersubjectivity En M

Bullowa (Ed) Before speech The beginning of interpersonal communication (pp 321-348) Cambridge Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C amp HUBLEY P (1978) Secondary intersubjectivity Confidence confiding and acts of meaning in the first year

En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol the emergence of language (pp 183-230) Nueva York Academic PressVYGOTSKI L S (1978)Mind in society The development of higher psychological processes Cambridge MA Harvard University PressVYGOTSKI L S (1981) The genesis of higher mental functions En J V Wertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 144-188) Armonk NY SharpeVYGOTSKI L S (1987) Thinking and speech En R W Rieber amp A S Carton (Eds) The collected works of L S Vygotsky Volumen

1 Problems of general psychology (pp 39-285) Nueva York PlenumWARTOFSKY M (1979) Models representation and scientific understanding Boston ReidelWELLS G (1985) Language development in the pre-school years Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (1986) The meaning makers Children learning language and using language to learn Portsmouth NH HeinemannWELLS G (1999) Dialogic inquiry Towards a sociocultural practice and theory of education Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (Ed) (2001) Action talk and text Learning and teaching through inquiry Nueva York Teachers College PressWELLS G (2002a) Learning and teaching for understanding The key role of collaborative knowledge building En J Brophy

(Ed) Social constructivist teaching Affordances and constraints (pp 1-41) Osford Elsevier ScienceJAIWELLS G (2002b) The role of dialogue in activity theory Mind Culture and Activity 9 (1) 43-66WERTSCH J V MINICK N amp ARNS F J (1984) The creation of context in joint problem solving En B Rogoff amp J Lave (Eds)

Everyday cognition Its development in social context (pp 151-171) Cambridge Cambridge University PressWOOD D BRUNER J S amp ROSS G (1976) The role of tutoring in problem-solving Journal of Child Psychology and Child Psy-

chiatry 17 89-100

187El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Original text

Introduction

Compared with other species the characteristic that distinguishes humans isthe ability and proclivity to engage in tool-mediated joint activity with otherhumans It is this characteristic that accounts for the development of human cul-tures over the course of history as they invented artefacts of various kinds inorder to adapt to and exploit the ecological niches in which they found themsel-ves It also accounts for the diversity of individual personsrsquo development whichdepend on the particular activities in which they participate As Vygotsky(1978 1981) was one of the first to point out the lsquohigherrsquo mental functions thatmake us human are not biologically given but are developmentally constructedthrough the appropriation of historically developed tools and practices that aremade manifest to the child and lsquoscaffoldedrsquo in the meaningful actions and utte-rances of the coparticipants in joint activity

Before continuing readers might find it interesting to reflect on their owndevelopmental trajectories to who they are today I suspect that they may findthemselves agreeing that Who we become depends on the company we keep and what wedo together

A Brief History of the Development of Joint Activity

Leontrsquoev provides a succinct account of Vygotskyrsquos insight in the followingsummary

The initial ideas that led Vygotsky to investigate the genesis of internal mental activity fromexternal activity are fundamentally different from the theoretical approaches of other modernauthors These ideas came from the analysis of the features unique to human productive laboractivity which is mediated by tools This activity is initially social in nature that is it is deve-loped under the conditions of cooperation and social interaction among people Vygotskyidentified two main interconnected features [of this activity] that are necessarily fundamentalfor psychology its tool-like (lsquoinstrumentalrsquo) structure and its inclusion in a system of interre-lations with other people It is these features that define the nature of human psychologicalprocesses The tool mediates activity and thus connects humans not only with the world ofobjects but also with other people Because of this humanrsquos activity assimilates the experience ofhumankind This means that humansrsquo mental processes (their lsquohigher psychological functionsrsquo)acquire a structure necessarily tied to the sociohistorically formed means and methods trans-mitted to them by others in the process of cooperative labor and social interaction But it isimpossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in any way otherthan a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words higher psycho-logical processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction with others thatis through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried out indepen-dently by the individual (Leontrsquoev 1981 pp 55-56 emphases in the original)

As well as emphasizing the social and cooperative nature of human activity thisquotation is important with respect to the arguments that I want to develop inthis paper as it highlights the central role of semiotic mediation in developmentKnowledge is created as well as appropriated in the discourse among peoplewho are working together in a specific situation in order to create or improve anartefact or to solve a problem of importance to the group However Leontrsquoevalso alludes to another of Vygotskyrsquos key insights namely that in order tounderstand current activity it is necessary to investigate the history of that acti-vity It is to this that I next turn

In analyzing the history of human development at least four different time-scales need to be considered The longest is the history of the cultural evolution of

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

the species (the phylogenetic level) next is the historical development of particu-lar cultures The third level (ontogenetic) traces the developmental trajectory ofindividual humans over the course of the lifespan Finally the microgenetic levelis concerned with the development of an instance of a particular activity

In practice it is the latter that has been explored in most detail for usingcontemporary technology it is relatively easy to observe and record the sequenceof actions through which an activity is enacted and the specific operations inwhich the participants engage making use of the relevant artefacts that are avai-lable in the situation (Leontrsquoev 1981) These artefacts may be either material(knives pencils automobiles) or symbolic (utterances maps theories) ndashthoughas Cole (1996) has pointed out to function as mediators of joint activity all arte-facts must have some form of material embodiment as well as a symbolic mea-ning that is to say they must be ready to hand and also have a cultural signifi-cance relevant to the situation

However the form in which a particular instance of activity is realizeddepends not only on the artefacts that are to hand in the situation but also onthe participantsrsquo past experiences with the practices in which the artefacts areused to mediate achievement of the action goals that contribute to the joint acti-vity Thus the microgenesis of a particular instance of activity is necessarilydependent upon the ontogenetic development of the participants that is to sayupon the opportunities their life trajectories have afforded them to appropriatethe relevant cultural knowledge through participation in instances of similaractions and operations

But on the time-scale of ontogenetic development each individualrsquos trajectoryof development is itself strongly influenced by the culture in which he or she isgrowing up and on the historical development of that culture As Rogoff (2003)illustrates in considerable detail cultures vary considerably both over time andacross ecological niches in what mediating artefacts and practices are available andin the relative value accorded to each Moreover within each culture at any parti-cular historical moment participants in activities both incorporate the ways ofprevious generations and adapt them to the exigencies of current conditions

Stepping up one further level the historical development of a particular cul-tures is itself shaped by development on the even larger timescale of the culturaland biological evolution of the species This is the most difficult timescale todescribe in detail for lack of the necessary evidence But certain broad distinc-tions between human communities can be made in terms of their modes of sub-sistence and of the mediating means available for joint activity (Diamond 1998Donald 1991) As recent research has shown our earliest ancestors some 5million years ago lived in small bands of hunter gatherers often on the edge oflakes and oceans Initially their tools were found in the surroundings but overseveral million years they invented ways of making more sophisticated artefactssuch as knives arrowheads baskets and clothing from flints bones skins andvegetable materials Then as some groups migrated to particularly fertile partsof the world they adopted a more settled agrarian way of life growing cropsand breeding animals The resulting ability to produce more food than imme-diately required led in turn to the emergence of trade and to a diversity of spe-cialist occupations such as potters and tailors who exchanged their products forfood and other necessities This stage also saw the development of much largerpopulation groupings with hierarchical class structures that included prieststax collectors and other religious and political functionaries

While migration had been a common feature of human existence from theearliest times the development of large settled populations and of weapons

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

made of bronze and iron led to the expansion of certain cultural groups throughterritorial conquest and colonization by sea and by land As a result during thelast few thousand years the latest phase of phylogenetic development has beencharacterized by the rise and fall of imperial cultures which have imposed theirtechnologies laws and administrative procedures as well as their religions artsknowledge and values on widely diverse subjugated populations Most recentlythe further development of the inventions that led to the first industrial revolu-tion has simply served to increase the scale and intensity of these imperialisttrends At the same time these inventions as well as those of the current indus-trial revolution have also led to a great increase in humansrsquo understanding oftheir social and material environment both through scientific and social rese-arch and through the dissemination of information about other times and placesresulting from travel and the use of print and electronic technologies

In presenting this very condensed account of phylogenetic development Ihave emphasized the material tools that have mediated the progressively morecomplex and diverse activities in which humans have engaged over the course ofthe speciesrsquo history However bearing in mind that what has been the drivingforce of human development is joint activity an equally ndashif not morendash impor-tant determinant of this history is the development of the modes of representa-tion through which humans have communicated and developed their unders-tanding of the world Table I presents the developmental sequence proposed byDonald (1991) based on archeological neuroanatomical historical and othertypes of evidence The table also includes the stages in the historical develop-ment of ways of knowing that were proposed by Wartofsky (1979)

The first stage in this sequence corresponds to the phase in which proto-humans began to diverge from other primate species In this phase as in thebehavior of contemporary higher primates practical action was the predomi-nant form of communication as ndashnot necessarily deliberatelyndash participants sig-naled their intentions in a shared situation and these intentions were interpre-ted and responded to by their co-participants in the activity In the secondmimetic phase which must have developed gradually over many millenniacommunication became somewhat differentiated from the activity to which itreferred as humans deliberately used gestures mime facial expression andvarious types of phonation to comment on as well as to coordinate action and theobjects to which it was directed Later still with the gradual modification of thevocal tract and of the primate brain there emerged the ability to communicatethrough speech and hence the ability to refer not only to particular objects andactions but also to generalized classes and to express observed and intendedrelationships between objects actions and events thus allowing participants toplan for and reflect on the outcomes of joint activity Finally the invention ofwriting which ushered in the final phase in Donaldrsquos proposed sequence occu-rred extremely recently in the long trajectory of phylogenetic development Yetas with those that preceded it enormously increased the human repertoire ofmeans for making and communicating meaning Essentially what it added wasan ldquoexternal memoryrdquo By creating a (relatively) permanent representation oflinguistic meaning it made possible the compilation and distillation of repor-ted information from many sources including the writerrsquos own verbalizedthoughts It also allowed the writer and those who read his or her written textto review critique and revise the meanings expressed and to make the resultsavailable to people in later times and other places for further constructive debateand improvement

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

However action gesture speech and writing are not simply progressivelymore powerful modes of communication They are also progressively morepowerful mediators of thinking This is most obvious with respect to the lin-guistic modes of communication But even before the emergence of speechaction and ndashto an even greater extentndash mimesis enabled humans to think toget-her and thereby to create a shared interpretation of their joint activities In fact ithas been argued that the emergence of language was not simply the result ofbrain and vocal tract development but rather was part of a more general patternof adaptation that building upon the cognitive achievements of mimetic kno-wing strove to integrate the unconnected bits of information in a more compre-hensive and coherent account of being-in-the-world (Deacon 1997) Neverthe-less it is also true that the availability of language greatly enhanced both com-munication and thinking together for as Halliday observed

the grammar of every natural language is (among other things) a theory of human experienceit is through our acts of meaning that we transform experience into the coherent -though farfrom consistent- patchwork that we learn to project as lsquorealityrsquo (1993 p 46)

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

TABLE IModes Of Knowing Phylogenetic And Cultural Development (from Wells 1999)

Time Mode of Participants Donald(1991) Wartofsky(1979)Years BP Knowing

2 million Instrumental Individual in action Episodic Primary artifactsyears material tools

1 -- 15 million Procedural Between individuals while Mimetic Secondaryyears engaged in action artifacts tools

and practicesmimeticinteraction

50000 Substantive Among members of a (Linguistic) Secondaryyears cultural group reflecting on artifacts

action and as a basis for representations ofplanning further action tools and

practices spokeninteraction

50000 Aesthetic Among members of a Mythic Tertiary artifactsyears cultural group making sense artistic represent-

of the human predicament ations in mythnarrative graphicand musical modes

2500 Theoretical Among members of a Theoretic Tertiary artifactsyears specialist community decontextualized

seeking to explain the natural representationsand human world such as

taxonomiestheories models etc

Meta Among members of a Tertiary artifacts cultural group also representations ofindividuals seeking to mental andunderstand and control their semioticown mental activity processes

In sum what Donald and other scholars argue is that contemporary mentalabilities are the outcome of the development over time of a series of progressi-vely more powerful and flexible modes of representation ndashor in Vygotskyanterms of semiotic mediators of higher mental functions- that have made possi-ble the rational theoretically oriented modes of knowing that underpin theachievements of modern science and its technological applications In the philo-sopher Wartofskyrsquos words

our own perceptual and cognitive understanding of the world is in large part shaped andchanged by the representational artifacts we ourselves create We are in effect the products ofour own activity in this way we transform our own perceptual and cognitive modes our waysof seeing and of understanding by means of the representations we make (1979 p xxiii)

There is however one further important aspect of Donaldrsquos (1991) thesis thatis crucial for the argument that I wish to develop Although the semiotic sys-tems of mimesis speech and writing each powered a new mode of cognitiveactivity they did not replace those that preceded but were additive in theireffects The result is that contemporary humans have a variety of modes of kno-wing at their disposal as they engage in joint activity Furthermore most suchactivities call for more than one mode of knowing and require the complemen-tary and interdependent use of more than one mode of representation

Joint Activity as the Site of Ontogenetic Learning and Development

Two important implications follow from the multi-level historical concep-tion of development just outlined First on any occasion the type of activitythat is undertaken and the specific manner in which it is enacted are necessarilydependent on the particular cultural-historical antecedents of the participantsboth human and artefactual that come together in its realization In particularthe manner in which the situation is interpreted ndashin terms of what action goalsare appropriate and how they can be achievedndash depends on the motives valuesand knowledgeable skills of the human participants and on the affordances ofthe technologies available in the situation And second every instance of an acti-vity provides an occasion for a triple transformation of the situation in whichthe activity is carried out of the artefacts and practices that mediate its enact-ment and most importantly of the knowledge and skills of the human partici-pants Taken together these propositions clarify the way in which cultural andindividual development are both interdependent and rooted in particular situa-ted occasions of joint activity As Rogoff (1994) argues

People of each generation as they engage in sociocultural endeavors with other people makeuse of and extend cultural tools and practices inherited from previous generations As peopledevelop through their shared use of cultural tools and practices they simultaneously contribu-te to the transformation of cultural tools practices and institutions (p 52)

Potentially therefore every occasion of joint activity provides an opportunityfor development on the part of all participants This is a point to which I shallreturn But first I want to consider more carefully the concept of developmentitself

Clearly built into the concept of development is the implication of change andtypically of change in the direction of increasing complexity and effectiveness Inother words development is typically taken to imply improvement or progresstoward some ideal end state or capability However in the light of the previousdiscussion such a progression while it may be meaningful to (some of the) partici-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

pants in any particular situation cannot be understood in any absolute sense butmust be seen as relative to the unfolding historical trajectory of the species of aparticular culture and of the immediate community ndashits values its dominantactivities and the knowledgeable skills that form its resources Furthermore just asthese have changed in the past they will continue to change in the future in res-ponse to the changing demands of the larger environment So while ontogeneticdevelopment does indeed involve increasing complexity and effectiveness of indi-vidualsrsquo participation in the activity systems in which they are involved in theirdaily lives the overall trajectory of development is emergent and its endpoint cannever be specified in advance even in terms of an ideal to be attained

Nevertheless this does not mean that there are not strong regularities in thesequence of ontogenetic development particularly in the early years Indeed asNelson (1996) has suggested during the preschool years children follow a trajec-tory very similar to the sequence of phylogenetic development proposed byDonald (1991) (see Table I above) as they appropriate the semiotic tools of repre-sentation afforded by action mimesis speech and writing Of course this is not asimple recapitulation children growing up in a contemporary literate culture forexample are surrounded from birth by artifacts and practices that result from andembody all the available modes of knowing (Cole 1996) Appropriating existingcultural tools is thus very different from inventing them ex novo as Scribner (1985)points out Nevertheless given the combination of biological and cultural inheri-tance it is not surprising that in most if not all cultures children follow the samesequence as did the species as a whole over the course of history

In the first weeks of life infants act on their immediate surroundings bothanimate and inanimate and begin to develop what Piaget (1970) called sensori-motor intelligence However although this most basic form of activity mayappear to be instinctual it is nevertheless also inherently social First all infantsare born into an environment that is cultural in the sense of having been shapedby countless preceding generations and second the infantrsquos actions are treatedas being intentional and are responded to as such So from the beginning theinfant is caught up in social interaction (Newson 1978) In the second phasewhich typically begins in the first few months the infant also begins to engagein mimetic communication through gaze facial expression and rudimentarygesture (Bruner 1990) Couched in terms of primary and secondary intersubjec-tivity this phase has been described in considerable detail by Trevarthen (19781979) Primary intersubjectivity develops as the infant and parent engage inmutual gaze thereby communicating that they are attending to and respondingto each other In secondary intersubjectivity third parties are brought into jointattention as the parent through gaze directs the infantrsquos attention to an object ofpotential interest or follows the childrsquos direction of gaze and signals that he orshe is also attending to the same object

It is on this basis of joint action and attention that towards the end of thefirst year the child begins to exploit his or her growing command of vocaliza-tion often accompanied by gesture to begin to communicate through speechFrom research predominantly involving children in ldquoWesternrdquo societies it hasbeen established that at first the childrsquos utterances are idiosyncratic drawingonly partially ndashif at allndash on the speech of those around him or her neverthelessparents and other family members have little difficulty in interpreting them incontext and once again they respond in a manner that is contingent on theirinterpretation thereby establishing spoken communication as a joint interactiveactivity By the end of the second year however children appear to abandon thisidiosyncratic ldquoprotolanguagerdquo form of communication and begin to construct a

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

linguistic meaning potential that is systematically related to the language thatis addressed to them in the oft-repeated activities of family life (Bruner 1990Halliday 1975 Wells 1986) Significantly within particular language com-munities the sequence in which children master the basic meanings and thelexicogrammatical forms in which they are realized tends to be very similar fromchild to child (Wells 1985)

The developmental sequence just described ndashaction mimesis speechndash is com-mon to children in all cultures and in all cases takes place in and through jointactivity and interaction with other family and community members Howeveralthough the sequence is universal the manner and pace at which it proceeds varyvery considerably across cultures These differences depend upon many culturally-determined factors such as adult expectations about their childrenrsquos developmentthe position in which the infant is typically held or carried facing the caregiver orturned outwards to face in the same direction as the caregiver the makeup and sizeof the interactional groups in which communication typically occurs and whetherthese events are part of family and community life more generally or are delibera-tely arranged and structured for the presumed benefit of the child (Rogoff 2003)In the later stages of language development the range and extent of the meaningpotential that children construct begins to vary even more widely depending onthe activities in which they engage the linguistic registers that are used in thoseactivities and the stances typically adopted by interlocutors toward the use of lan-guage in their interactions with children (Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

So far the ontogenetic developmental sequence I have described is funda-mentally similar across cultures and follows the phylogenetic sequence in whichhumans have progressively added new semiotic mediational means to theircommunicative repertoires In an important sense therefore the final mode ofrepresentation in Donaldrsquos scheme that of writing is an optional extra sincemany cultures have survived and prospered without a written mode of represen-ting meaning Moreover even in cultures that have a writing system the extentand scope of literacy that individuals attain varies very considerably dependingon the activity systems in which they participate the value that is placed onwritten texts by those communmities the purposes to which they are put andthe genres that are used for those purposes However since literacy and its usesare so strongly associated with schooling I shall leave further discussion of thismode of semiotic mediation to a later part of this paper

Before concluding this section however I want to explore further the con-cept of semiotic mediation In one of the better known passages in Vygotskyrsquoswritings where he argued for the social and cultural origin of higher mentalfunctions he wrote that every function occurs on two planes first in activity andinteraction between people and then within the individual learner (Vygotsky1981) What bridges between these two planes as is clear from his other wri-tings is semiotic mediation To recall Leontrsquoevrsquos formulation of this argument

hellip it is impossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in anyway other than a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words hig-her psychological processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction withothers that is through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried outindependently by the individual (1981 pp 55-56)

In other words when people engage in joint activity their actions gesturesand speech not only mediate the coordination of participation but they alsomake overt the mental activities involved and so render them available forappropriation by novice participants1 Halliday is very clear about this Alt-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

hough the following quotation refers only to language the term lsquolanguagersquocould justifiably be replaced by lsquosemiotic mediationrsquo

In the development of the child as a social being language has the central role Language is themain channel through which the patterns of living are transmitted to him through which helearns to act as a member of lsquosocietyrsquo ndashin and through the various social groups the family theneighbourhood and so onndash and to adopt its lsquoculturersquo its modes of thought and action itsbeliefs and its values (1978 p 9)

However as the child grows older language does become the predominantmode of semiotic mediation and as he wrote in a later paper ldquoLanguage is theessential condition of knowing the process by which experience becomes know-ledge (Halliday 1993 p 94 original emphasis)

Assistance for Learning in Joint Activitie

So far in the discussion of the role of joint activity in human development Ihave concentrated on the tools and particularly the semiotic modes of represen-tation that mediate the achievement of the outcome of activity In this sectionon the other hand I turn to the role of other people in this process both familymembers and the larger community

Until now I have referred to coparticipants in an activity in general termsbut clearly there are further distinctions to be made Particularly helpful in thisrespect is Engestroumlmrsquos model of an activity system which is shown in figure 1

What this model shows is that when we look at an ongoing activity from thepoint of view of an individual participant (t Subject) that individual is involvedin a nexus of other relationships that link him or her to other lsquoparticipantsrsquo theTools and artifacts to mediate action on the Object but also the Community of

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 1The Triangle of Activity

Artifactstools andpractices

Values rulesamp conventions

Community Divisioacutenof labor

Engestrom 1999

Object OutcomeSubject

others engaged in the activity together with the Division of Labor within thatcommunity and also the Rules and Conventions that govern the manner inwhich the activity is carried out (Engestroumlm 1999) What this latter category oflsquoparticipantrsquo underscores is the historical dimension of an activity system sincethese rules and conventions ndashas well as the tools and artifactsndash bring into thepresent the distilled practices of previous generations who have engaged in theactivity as these are interpreted and utilized by the current community

To illustrate the relevance of this model to the development of the youngchild we might compare two versions of a similar activity reported by WertschMinick and Arns (1984) In their study Brazilian children carried out a puzzletask on two occasions first with the mother and secondly with a primary tea-cher What the researchers found was that in general the mothers and teachersengaged in the activity in systematically different ways Whereas the motherstended to direct the childrenrsquos behavior or even carry out parts of the task them-selves in order to complete it in an efficient manner ndashjust as they would havedone if engaged in a household taskndash the teachers tended to encourage thechildrsquos autonomous performance and only provided hints and suggestions whenthey judged them to be necessary to advance the childrenrsquos understandingInterpreting these results the researchers suggested that the two groups ofadults belonged to two different communities (or activity systems) that had dif-ferent rules and conventions about engaging in this joint activity And this inturn led to the different divisions of labor that they observed Similarly Rogoff(2003) cites many examples of substantial differences between cultures inalmost all aspects of child rearing with respect to their ways of engaging chil-dren in the activities that they consider important

What is clear is that ldquobehindrdquo the particular adult ndashor older siblings in someculturesndash who are directly engaged with the child there is a wider communityof family members neighbors and others who have an interest in the upbrin-ging of children and who share beliefs about appropriate ways to involve themin the activities of daily life So whether in Spain Japan or the Peruvian High-lands although the actual practices vary across cultures in each those responsi-ble for childrenrsquos well-being and development act as agents of a wider commu-nity whose beliefs and practices are rooted in a long tradition concerning howactivities should be carried out But equally in all cultures practices also changein response to changes in the world beyond the particular community In manyWestern homes for example computer games or television programs haverecently taken the place of the bedtime story while in many indigenous com-munities crafts that until recently only supplied local needs are now exploitedcommercially for the tourist trade changing the rhythms of daily life and therelationships among family members and the activities in which children areinvolved As suggested earlier therefore in order to understand the activities inwhich children participate today we need to look not only at the immediatesituation but also at the wider community and the changes taking place on allthese time-scales

Microgenesis and the Zone of Proximal Development

It is nevertheless always the immediate microgenetic situation that isthe site of ontogenetic development ndashthe action and interaction between thelearner and those with whom he or she is engaged in the activity in pro-gress When we adopt this microgenetic perspective however we need tomodify the representation of an activity system presented in figure 1 Inthat representation the focus was on the goal-oriented nature of action

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Here we need to focus on the interaction among the participants ndashtheirattempt to attain intersubjectivity with respect to the common object andthe complementarity of the knowledgeable skills they bring to the cocons-truction of the intended outcome (see Figure 2) What figure 2 emphasizesis the fact that although the tools and artefacts that are available to mediatethe jointly undertaken action are the same for each participant each bringsa somewhat different familiarity with their use as a result of their differentlife trajectories and it is this variability in their expertise that makes it pos-sible for each to provide assistance to the others in at least some aspects ofthe joint action Viewed in this light it is clear why Vygotsky emphasizedthe role of joint activity in development and wrote of its potential to enablelearners ldquoto go beyond themselvesrdquo with the assistance of more expertothers

The metaphor Vygotsky used to characterize the potential for learning thatthis sort of activity creates was the ldquozone of proximal developmentrdquo As hewrote when another participant in the activity provides instruction that isappropriately pitched beyond what the learner can manage to do on his or herown it ldquowakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturationlying in the zone of proximal developmentrdquo (1987 p 212) Vygotsky concep-tualized development as the formation of new functional systems (ldquoneoforma-tionsrdquo) and of changes in the relationships among systems which he consideredto occur as a succession of ldquocrises of developmentrdquo that are particularly facilitatedby engagement in the relevant ldquoleading activityrdquo at each stage for example playin childhood and learning to read and write in the early school yearsHowever itwould be a mistake to focus only on the periods of revolutionary change since ashe equally emphasized at any time there are also other more gradual processes ofgrowth

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 2Dialogue in Joint Activity(from Wells2002b)

Outcomematerial ampsemioticartefacts

Toolsartefacts

Subject

Rulesconventions

Community Divisionof labor

Subject

Toolsartefacts

Processes that are central lines of development at one age become peripheral lines of develop-ment at the following age and conversely peripheral lines of development of one age arebrought to the forefront and become central lines since their meaning and relative significancein the total structure of development changes (p 197)2

In developing his important concept of the zone of proximal developmentVygotsky tended to characterize the assistance given by others as ldquoinstructionrdquoand to see its value in ldquothe childrsquos potential to raise himself to a higher intellec-tual level of development through collaboration to move from what he has towhat he does not have through imitationrdquo (1987 p 210) However manyrecent scholars who have built on his work have taken a broader view of thedevelopmental significance of collaboration in joint activities and have characte-rized the assistance that is provided within this relationship in terms such asldquoapprenticeshiprdquo (Lave amp Wenger 1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoguided participationrdquo(Rogoff 1994 2003) and ldquoscaffoldingrdquo (Wood et al 1976) Neverthelesswhile these different metaphors highlight different features of the relationshipwhat they all have in common is the inclusion of the learner in an activity inwhich there is provision of the assistance necessary to help the learner to comple-te an activity in which he or she is interested and to do so in such a way that heor she makes progress toward being able to participate more fully and autono-mously in the future (Maybin Mercer and Stierer 1992)

In many joint activities such as for example traditional forms of craftapprenticeship assistance is only provided when needed and the ldquomasterrdquo doesso with no deliberate didactic intention beyond that of involving the novice inthe completion of the particular task in hand (Lave 1996) Similarly in sociali-zation into activities around the home no explicit instruction is necessary fornovices can learn a great deal by simply watching and listening (cf Rogoff2003) This is what Lave and Wenger (1991) mean when they insist that lear-ning is not an independent activity but an intrinsic aspect of ldquolegitimate perip-heral participationrdquo in a communityrsquos activities From their perspective therefo-re formal education in which learning is the sole purpose of the activity issomething of an anomaly particularly when the only form of assistance providedis the expert teacherrsquos direct instruction and subsequent evaluation of the extentof the studentsrsquo learning

In many recent discussions it has also been recognized that it is not only aldquoteacherrdquo who can provide assistance in the zpd On the one hand in a com-plex activity many participants are more expert than others in some aspectsand therefore on some occasions are able to help those who are less expert(Rogoff 1994) and on the other hand those who provide assistance do nothave to be physically present texts and other artifacts can equally well helpa participant ldquoto go beyond himherselfrdquo as is often the case in intellectualwork such as research and writ ing (Wells 1999) Furthermore asEngestroumlm (1999) and others ndashbuilding on other aspects of Vygotskyrsquos theo-retical writingsndash have noted the material and symbolic tools that have beendeveloped by previous participants in the activity can also provide the samesort of assistance However perhaps the most important point to emphasizeis that there are many situations in which no-one is an expert yet as eachbrings his or her own past experience to the solution of a common problemthe group together is able to achieve more than any single member couldhave done alone Clearly it is such collaboration that has made possible theinventions that have led to the major advances of great civilizations over thecourse of cultural history

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Development in the Pre-School Years

As noted above the responsibility for caring for children in early childhoodvaries very considerably from one society to another Nevertheless in all socie-ties children are involved in joint activities with others in which they receiveassistance with respect to their participation however that may be locally achie-ved For the most part as already mentioned these are activities that are regu-larly repeated in the taken-for-granted routines of daily life The expectation isthat the child will learn to fit in and is simply helped to do so Often referred toas ldquoenculturationrdquo this form of apprenticeship ensures the continuity of the cul-turersquos way of life from one generation to the next and as Donald (1991) arguedit probably occurred even before the emergence of speech

However in all activities there are occasions when problems arise that callfor some level of deliberate decision-making In these situations spoken interac-tion makes possible a degree of reflection and forward planning in which therelations of cause and effect intention action and outcome are made explicitand open to question and discussion The talk that occurs on these occasionsthus plays a particularly important role in helping children to attend to andunderstand the world around them in terms of the culturersquos ways of ldquomakingsenserdquo of it However these occasions can also open up possibilities for changeboth in the form of the activity and in the participantsrsquo understanding of itHow caregivers habitually take up these opportunities is particularly importantfor it plays an important part in shaping the intellectual dispositions withwhich children enter school (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo amp Sterponi2002)

In this section I include some representative examples of kinds of talk thatarise from joint activities in the home These examples are drawn from observa-tions made in settings in England (Wells 1986) and Australia (Hasan 2002) inwhich the young children observed spent most of their time at home with oneparent sometimes with one or more siblings some of the time they entertainedthemselves with occasional adult involvement but they also frequently watchedand ldquohelpedrdquo the parent with household tasks of various kinds

In the first example James (aged 3 12 years) has been playing alone in thegarden and as he reenters the house his mother tries to get him to take off hismuddy shoes However at that moment he sees a bird outside which interestshim more than changing his shoes

Example 1Mother There we are there one slipper onJames I can see a birdMother A what loveJames See a bird Mother (whispering) Is there OutsideJames (pointing and whispering) Yes see

(both continue to speak very softly)Mother Is he eating anythingJames NoMother Where Oh yes hersquos getting- do you know what hersquos doingJames NoMother Hersquos going to the- the paper sack to try to pick out some pieces-

Oh hersquos got some food there and I expect hersquoll pick out somepieces of thread from the sack to go and make his nest under the roofJames Wait a minute and Irsquoll-[James now wants to go out to see more closely but at that moment thebird flies away]

James That birdrsquos gone

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

In the second example Elizabeth (aged 4 years) who is helping with thehouse cleaning watches with interest as her mother shovels wood ash from thefireplace into a bucket

Example 2Elizabeth What are you doing that forMother Irsquom gathering it up and putting it outside so that Daddy can put it on the gardenElizabeth Why does he have to put it on the gardenMother To make the compost rightElizabeth Does that make the grass growMother YesElizabeth Why does itMother You know how I tell you that you need to eat different things like eggs and cab-

bage and rice pudding to make you grow into a big girlElizabeth YesMother Well plants need different foods too and ash is one of the things thatrsquos

good for them

The third example involves James again now eighteen months older Earlierin the afternoon he had been helping his mother with the baking Now hecomes back into the kitchen as his mother is taking the baking trays out of theoven He hears a loud metallic ldquocrackrdquo and asks for an explanation

Example 3James Who did thatMother I expect it was the tin contractingJames Which tinMother The one with your pastry inJames Why did it make that noiseMother Well when it was in the oven it got very hot and stretched a bit Irsquove just taken

it out of the oven and itrsquos cooling down very quickly you see and that noisehappens when it gets smaller again and goes back to its normal shape

James Oh was it a different shape in the ovenMother Oh not very different just a little biggerJames Naughty little tin you might get smacked if you do it again

In all three of these examples the mother willingly responds to the childrsquosinterest and provides information to explain the significance of what the child isseeing or hearing even when in the first this interrupts the motherrsquos plan Allthree cases show how the childrsquos participation in the activity with the adult assu-res that there is intersubjectivity of attention to what interests the child and thisenables the mother to provide relevant information Clearly this is a form ofldquoinstructionrdquo however it is spontaneous and contingent on the childrsquos interestrather than presented as part of a pre-planned curriculum

The third example is particularly interesting from this point of view as thephenomenon of interest to James requires a somewhat technical explanation Atsome point in the future no doubt the expansion of metal when heated and itssubsequent contraction when removed from the heat will figure in the schoolscience curriculum in relation to the systematic study of heat here however itis an interesting side-effect of baking and the motherrsquos explanation while tech-nical in content is couched in everyday language rather than in the abstractterms of scientific generalization As Hasan (2002) has observed

the discourse of quasi specialised knowledge occurs in the lsquomiddle ofrsquo daily activities and bynecessity it calls for a readiness on the motherrsquos part to entertain contextual shifts to bewilling to reclassify the context of the on-going discourse The tendency to move with thechildrsquos moving discourse the readiness to re-classify context is a discourse characteristic of thesame group of mothers who frequently ask questions made precise by qualification and whoattend to their childrenrsquos questions and provide them with well developed answers (p 123)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 3: Actividad y Aprendizaje

evolucioacuten cultural de la especie (el nivel filogeneacutetico) la siguiente es el desarrollohistoacuterico de las culturas particulares El tercer nivel (ontogoneacutetico) traza la tra-yectoria de desarrollo del individuo humano sobre el curso del ciclo vital Final-mente el nivel microgeneacutetico tiene que ver con el desarrollo de una actividadparticular

En la praacutectica el uacuteltimo nivel es el que ha sido explorado con maacutes detalle por-que usando la tecnologiacutea contemporaacutenea es relativamente sencillo observar ygrabar la secuencia de acciones mediante las cuales una actividad es representaday las operaciones especiacuteficas que los participantes asumen haciendo uso de losartefactos relevantes que son proporcionados en la situacioacuten (Leontiev 1981)Estos artefactos pueden ser materiales (cuchillos lapiceros automoacuteviles) osimboacutelicos (palabras mapas teoriacuteas) ndashaunque como Cole (1996) ha precisadopara funcionar como mediadores de la actividad conjunta todos los artefactosdeben tener alguna forma de encarnacioacuten material asiacute como un significado sim-boacutelico es decir deben ser manejables y ademaacutes tener un significado cultural ade-cuado a la situacioacutenndash

Sin embargo la forma en que se realiza un caso particular de una actividaddepende no soacutelo de los artefactos que esteacuten disponibles en la situacioacuten sino tam-bieacuten de la experiencia pasada de los participantes con las praacutecticas en las que esosartefactos se usan para mediar en el logro de los objetivos de las acciones que con-tribuyen a la actividad conjunta Asiacute la microgeacutenesis de un caso particular deactividad es necesariamente dependiente del desarrollo ontogeneacutetico de los par-ticipantes es decir de las oportunidades que sus trayectorias vitales les han ofre-cido para apropiarse del conocimiento cultural apropiado mediante la participa-cioacuten en acciones y operaciones similares

Pero en la escala temporal del desarrollo ontogeneacutetico la trayectoria de desa-rrollo de cada individuo estaacute en siacute misma muy influenciada por la cultura en laque estaacute creciendo y por el desarrollo histoacuterico de cada cultura Como Rogoff(2003) ilustra con mucho detalle las culturas variacutean considerablemente tanto atraveacutes del tiempo como a traveacutes de los nichos ecoloacutegicos en relacioacuten a los artefac-tos y praacutecticas que estaacuten disponibles y en el valor relativo que se les asigna Porotra parte en un momento histoacuterico particular de cada cultura los participantesde una actividad incorporan las formas de hacer de las generaciones previas y lasadaptan a las exigencias de las condiciones actuales

Ascendiendo a un nivel maacutes lejano el desarrollo histoacuterico de una cultura par-ticular estaacute incluso determinado en siacute mismo por el desarrollo en la larga escalatemporal de la evolucioacuten cultural y bioloacutegica de las especies Eacutesta es la escalatemporal maacutes difiacutecil de describir con detalle pues se carece de las evidenciasnecesarias Pero pueden hacerse distinciones amplias y seguras entre las comuni-dades humanas en teacuterminos de sus modos de subsistencia y de la mediacioacuten designificados disponibles para la actividad conjunta (Diamond 1998 Donald1991) Como la investigacioacuten reciente ha mostrado nuestros primeros antepasa-dos hace unos cinco millones de antildeos viviacutean en pequentildeos grupos de recolecto-res-cazadores a menudo a la orilla de lagos y oceacuteanos Inicialmente encontrabansus herramientas en los alrededores pero a lo largo de varios millones de antildeosinventaron modos de hacer artefactos maacutes sofisticados como cuchillos puntasde flechas cestas y ropas a partir de piedras huesos pieles y materiales vegetalesEntonces dado que algunos grupos emigraron a partes del mundo particular-mente feacutertiles adoptaron un modo de vida maacutes sedentario y agrario cultivandocosechas y criando animales La habilidad para producir maacutes comida que larequerida inmediatamente condujo alternativamente a la emergencia delcomercio y a la diversidad de trabajadores especializados tales como alfareros y

167El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

sastres que intercambiaron sus productos por comida y otras necesidades Estaetapa vio tambieacuten el desarrollo de grupos poblacionales maacutes amplios con clasesjerarquizadas que incluiacutean sacerdotes recaudadores de impuestos y otros funcio-narios poliacuteticos y religiosos

Mientras la migracioacuten habiacutea sido una caracteriacutestica comuacuten de la existenciahumana en los tiempos tempranos el desarrollo de grandes poblaciones sedenta-rias y de armas de bronce y hierro condujeron a la expansioacuten de ciertos gruposculturales mediante la conquista territorial y la colonizacioacuten por tierra y marConsecuentemente durante los uacuteltimos mil antildeos la uacuteltima fase del desarrollofilogeneacutetico ha estado caracterizada por el auge y la caiacuteda de las culturas imperia-les que han impuesto sus tecnologiacuteas leyes y procedimientos administrativosasiacute como sus religiones artes conocimiento y valores a poblaciones subyugadasmuy diversas Maacutes recientemente el desarrollo adicional de las invenciones queha llevado a la primera revolucioacuten industrial ha servido simplemente para incre-mentar la escala e intensidad de estas tendencias imperialistas Al mismo tiem-po estas invenciones asiacute como las debidas a la actual revolucioacuten industrial hanconducido tambieacuten a un incremento en la comprensioacuten humana de su ambientesocial y material tanto mediante la investigacioacuten social y cientiacutefica comomediante la diseminacioacuten de informacioacuten sobre otros tiempos y lugares debido alos viajes y al uso del material impreso y las tecnologiacuteas electroacutenicas

Al presentar esta condensada siacutentesis del desarrollo filogeneacutetico he enfatizadolas herramientas materiales que han mediado las actividades progresivamentemaacutes complejas y diversas en las que los humanos se han sumergido a lo largo delcurso de la historia de las especies Sin embargo teniendo en mente que la fuerzaconductora del desarrollo humano es la actividad conjunta un determinanteigualmente importante ndashsi no maacutesndash de esta historia es el desarrollo de modos derepresentacioacuten mediante los cuales los humanos han comunicado y ampliado sucomprensioacuten del mundo La tabla I presenta la secuencia de desarrollo de estosmodos de representacioacuten propuesta por Donald (1991) basada en evidenciasarqueoloacutegicas neoroanatoacutemicas e histoacutericas entre otras La tabla ademaacutes incluyelas etapas en el desarrollo histoacuterico de los modos de conocimiento que fueronpropuestos por Wartofsky (1979)

La primera etapa en esta secuencia corresponde a la fase en la cual los proto-humanos comienzan a divergir de otras especies de primates En esta fase comoen el comportamiento de los primates contemporaacuteneos superiores la accioacutenpraacutectica era la forma predominante de comunicacioacuten mediante la que ndashno nece-sariamente de forma deliberadandash los participantes sentildealaban sus intenciones enuna situacioacuten compartida y estas intenciones eran interpretadas y respondidaspor sus co-participantes en la actividad En la segunda etapa la fase gestualndashdesarrollada gradualmente durante muchos mileniosndash la comunicacioacuten se con-virtioacute en algo diferente de la actividad a la cual se referiacutea cuando los humanosusaron deliberadamente gestos mimo expresiones faciales y varios tipos defonacioacuten para comentar y coordinar la accioacuten y los objetivos a los cuaacuteles eacutesta esta-ba dirigida Soacutelo despueacutes con la modificacioacuten gradual del tracto vocal y del cere-bro primate emergioacute la habilidad para comunicarse mediante el habla y por lotanto la habilidad para referirse no soacutelo a objetos particulares y acciones sinotambieacuten a clases generalizadas y para expresar relaciones observadas y deseadasentre objetos acciones y eventos permitiendo de este modo a los participantesplanificar y reflexionar sobre los resultados de su actividad conjunta Finalmen-te la invencioacuten de la escritura en la uacuteltima fase de la secuencia propuesta porDonald ocurrioacute en un momento extremadamente reciente en la larga trayectoriadel desarrollo filogeneacutetico A pesar de todo como con aquellos modos de repre-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187168

sentacioacuten que la precedieron incrementoacute enormemente el repertorio humano demedios para hacer y comunicar significados Esencialmente lo que antildeadioacute fueuna ldquomemoria externardquo Gracias a la creacioacuten de una representacioacuten (relativa-mente) permanente de significados linguumliacutesticos es posible la compilacioacuten y des-tilacioacuten de la informacioacuten transmitida por diferentes fuentes incluyendo los pro-pios pensamientos verbalizados del escritor Esto tambieacuten permitioacute al escritor y aaquellos que leiacutean sus textos repasar criticar y corregir los significados expresa-dos y ponerlos a disposicioacuten de otras personas en tiempos futuros y en otros luga-res permitiendo continuar la construccioacuten del debate y su mejora en el futuro

169El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

TABLA IModos de conocimiento Desarrollo Filogeneacutetico y Cultural (Wells 1999)

Tiempo en antildeos Modo de Participantes Donald (1991) Wartofsky (1979)transcurridos conocimiento

Dos millones de Instrumental Individuos en accioacuten Episoacutedico Artefactosantildeos primarios

herramientasmateriales

1 mdash15 millones Procedimental Entre individuos mientrasde antildeos participacioacuten en la accioacuten Gestual o miacutemico Artefactos

secundariosherramientasy praacutecticasinteraccioacutenmimeacutetica

50000 antildeos Substantivo Entre miembros de un grupo (Linguumliacutestico) Artefactoscultural reflexionando sobre la secundariosaccioacuten como base para la representaciones deplanificacioacuten de acciones futuras herramientas y

praacutecticasinteraccioacutenmediante el habla

50000 antildeos Esteacutetico Entre miembros de un grupo Miacutetico Artefactoscultural dando sentido a las terciariostribulaciones humanas representaciones

artiacutesticas en modode mitosnarracionesgraacuteficos y muacutesica

2500 antildeos Teoacuterico Entre miembros de una Teoacuterico Artefactoscomunidad especializada para terciarios explicar el mundo natural y representaciones humano descontextualizadas

tales comotaxonomiacuteas teoriacuteasmodelos etceacutetera

iquest Meta Entre miembros de u grupo Artefactoscultural tambieacuten entre terciariosindividuos buscando representaciones de comprender y controlar su los procesospropia actividad mental mentales y semioacuteticos

Sin embargo accioacuten gesto habla y escritura no son simplemente modos decomunicacioacuten progresivamente maacutes poderosos Son tambieacuten mediadores de pen-samiento progresivamente maacutes potentes Esto es maacutes evidente con respecto a losmodos linguumliacutesticos de comunicacioacuten Pero incluso antes de la emergencia delhabla la accioacuten y ndashen mayor gradondash la miacutemica permitieron a los humanos pen-sar juntos y consecuentemente crear una interpretacioacuten compartida de sus acti-vidades conjuntas De hecho se ha argumentado que la emergencia del lenguajeno fue simplemente el resultado del desarrollo del cerebro y del tracto vocal sinoque maacutes bien fue parte de un esquema general de adaptacioacuten maacutes amplio queconstruido sobre los eacutexitos cognitivos del conocimiento mimeacutetico se esforzoacute porintegrar las unidades inconexas de informacioacuten en todo maacutes comprensivo y cohe-rente de estar en el mundo (Deacon 1997) Sin embargo es tambieacuten verdad quela disponibilidad del lenguaje intensificoacute sustancial y conjuntamente tanto lacomunicacioacuten como el pensamiento ya que como Halliday observoacute

La gramaacutetica de todas las lenguas naturales es (entre otras cosas) una teoriacutea de la experienciahumana es mediante nuestros actos de significado como transformamos la experiencia en elconjunto coherente de retazos ndashaunque lejos de ser constantendash que aprendemos a proyectarcomo lsquorealidadrsquo (1993 p 46)

En resumen lo que Donald y otros acadeacutemicos argumentan es que las habili-dades mentales contemporaacuteneas son el resultado del desarrollo en el tiempo deuna serie de modos de representacioacuten cada vez maacutes poderosos y flexibles ndasho enteacuterminos Vygotskyanos de mediadores semioacuteticos de las funciones mentalessuperioresndash que han hecho posible la razoacuten los modos de conocimiento teoacuterica-mente orientados que sustentan los logros de la ciencia moderna y sus aplicacio-nes tecnoloacutegicas En palabras del filoacutesofo Wartofsky

nuestra comprensioacuten perceptiva y cognitiva del mundo es en gran medida conformada ymodificada por los artefactos de representacioacuten que nosotros mismos creamos De esta manerasomos en efecto el producto de nuestra propia actividad transformamos nuestros modos per-ceptivos y cognitivos nuestra manera de ver y comprender por medio de las representacionesque hacemos (1979 p xxiii)

Hay sin embargo un aspecto maacutes importante de la tesis de Donald (1991)que es crucial para el argumento que quiero desarrollar Aunque cada sistemasemioacutetico de miacutemica habla y escritura fortalece un nuevo modo de actividadcognitiva no reemplaza a los que les preceden sino que se antildeade a sus efectos Elresultado es que los humanos contemporaacuteneos tienen una variedad de modos deconocimiento a su disposicioacuten cuando se implican en actividades conjuntasAdemaacutes la mayoriacutea de estas actividades requieren maacutes de un modo de conoci-miento y del uso complementario e interdependiente de maacutes de un modo derepresentacioacuten

La actividad conjunta como el lugar del aprendizaje y desarrolloontogeneacutetico

De la concepcioacuten histoacuterica multi-nivel del desarrollo que se acaba de subrayarderivan dos implicaciones importantes

En primer lugar en todo momento el tipo de actividad que se emprenda yla manera especiacutefica en la que se desarrolle son necesariamente dependientesde los antecedentes histoacuterico-culturales de los participantes tanto humanoscomo instrumentales que concurren en su realizacioacuten En particular la mane-ra en la que la situacioacuten es interpretada ndashqueacute objetivos de actuacioacuten se conside-ran apropiados y coacutemo pueden ser alcanzadosndash depende de los motivos valores

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187170

y habilidades de los participantes humanos y de las ventajas ofrecidas por lastecnologiacuteas disponibles

En segundo lugar cualquier instante de la actividad proporciona una ocasioacutenpara una triple transformacioacuten (1) de la situacioacuten en la que la actividad es desa-rrollada (2) de los artefactos y de las praacutecticas que median su implementacioacuten y(3) maacutes importante auacuten del conocimiento y habilidades de los participanteshumanos

Estas dos implicaciones consideradas globalmente clarifican la manera en laque la cultura y el desarrollo individual son mutuamente interdependientes yhunden sus raiacuteces en oportunidades de actividad conjunta particulares y situa-das Como Rogoff (1994) argumenta

Las personas de cada generacioacuten mientras se comprometen en esfuerzos socioculturales conotras personas hacen uso y enriquecen herramientas culturales y praacutecticas heredadas de lasgeneraciones precedentes Ya que las personas se desarrollan mediante el uso compartido depraacutecticas y herramientas culturales contribuyen simultaacuteneamente a la transformacioacuten de lasherramientas culturales praacutecticas e instituciones (p 52)

Potencialmente por lo tanto toda ocasioacuten de actividad conjunta proporcionauna oportunidad para el desarrollo de todos los participantes Eacuteste es un punto alque volvereacute Pero antes quiero considerar con maacutes cuidado el concepto de desa-rrollo mismo

Claramente el concepto de desarrollo implica cambio y tiacutepicamente uncambio en la direccioacuten de incrementar la complejidad y la efectividad En otraspalabras se suele considerar que el desarrollo implica mejora o progreso haciaalguacuten estado o capacidad final ideal Sin embargo a la luz de la discusioacuten previatal progresioacuten aunque puede ser significativa para (alguno de) los participantesde una situacioacuten particular no puede ser entendida en un sentido absoluto Maacutesbien debe considerarse con relatividad si se atiende al despliegue de la trayecto-ria histoacuterica de la especie de una cultura particular y de la comunidad inmediatandashsus valores sus actividades predominantes y las habilidades conocidas que for-man sus recursosndash Ademaacutes al igual que esto ha cambiado en el pasado conti-nuaraacute cambiando en el futuro en respuesta a las demandas de cambio de losambientes cada vez maacutes amplios Por tanto mientras el desarrollo ontogeneacuteticoimplica claramente el incremento de la complejidad y la efectividad de la parti-cipacioacuten de los individuos en los sistemas de actividad en que estaacuten inmersosdurante sus vidas diarias la trayectoria maacutes amplia del desarrollo estaacute emergien-do y su destino no puede ser especificado por adelantado aunque se haga en teacuter-minos de un ideal por alcanzar

Sin embargo esto no significa que no haya fuertes regularidades en la secuen-cia del desarrollo ontogeneacutetico particularmente en los primeros antildeos De hechocomo Nelson (1996) ha sugerido durante los antildeos preescolares los nintildeos siguenuna trayectoria muy similar a la secuencia de desarrollo filogeneacutetico propuestapor Donald (1991) (ver la Tabla I) a medida que se apropian de las herramientassemioacuteticas de representacioacuten facilitadas por la accioacuten el gesto el habla y la escri-tura Por supuesto esto no es una simple recapitulacioacuten los nintildeos crecen en uncultura contemporaacutenea alfabetizada en la que estaacuten rodeados desde el nacimientopor artefactos y praacutecticas que resultan de incorporan todos los modos de conoci-miento disponibles (Cole 1996) Apropiarse de las herramientas culturales exis-tentes es asiacute muy diferente de inventarlas ex novo como Scribner (1985) precisa

Sin embargo dada la combinacioacuten de la herencia bioloacutegica y cultural no essorprendente que en la mayoriacutea de las culturas ndashsi no en todasndash los nintildeos sigan

171El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

la misma secuencia que siguioacute la especie como un todo a lo largo del curso de lahistoria

En las primeras semanas de vida los bebeacutes actuacutean en su entorno inmediatotanto animado como inanimado y comienzan a desarrollar lo que Piaget (1970)llamoacute inteligencia sensorio-motora Aunque eacutesta es la forma maacutes baacutesica de acti-vidad y puede parecer refleja (instintiva) es tambieacuten inherentemente social yaque en primer lugar todos los nintildeos nacen en un entorno que es cultural en elsentido de haber sido compartido por incontables generaciones precedentes yen segundo lugar la accioacuten del recieacuten nacido es realzada en interacciones sociales(Newson 1978) En una segunda fase que comienza generalmente en los prime-ros meses los bebeacutes tambieacuten comienzan a implicarse en la comunicacioacuten ges-tual mediante fijaciones de la mirada expresiones faciales y gestos rudimenta-rios (Bruner 1990) Apoyaacutendose en los teacuterminos de intersubjetividad primaria ysecundaria esta fase ha sido descrita con mucho detalle por Trevarthen (Trevart-hen y Hubley 1978 Trevarthen 1979) La intersubjetividad primaria se desa-rrolla cuando el nintildeo y su progenitor se dirigen mutuamente miradas fijascomunicaacutendose asiacute que se estaacuten atendiendo y respondiendo En la intersubjetivi-dad secundaria la atencioacuten conjunta recae sobre un tercer elemento como cuan-do el progenitor mediante miradas fijas dirige la atencioacuten del bebeacute a un objetode intereacutes potencial o sigue la direccioacuten de la mirada del nintildeo y sentildeala que tam-bieacuten estaacute atendiendo al mismo objeto

Sobre esta base de accioacuten y atencioacuten conjunta hacia el final del primer antildeo elnintildeo comienza a explotar su repertorio creciente de vocalizaciones a menudoacompantildeadas de gestos para empezar a comunicarse mediante el habla Deacuerdo con la investigacioacuten disponible realizada principalmente con nintildeos desociedades ldquooccidentalesrdquo al principio las elocuciones son idiosincraacutesicas dibu-jando soacutelo parcialmente en el habla ndashno del todondash aquello que les rodea sinembargo los padres y otros miembros de la familia tienen pocas dificultadespara interpretarlas dentro de un contexto y de nuevo responden de una maneraque es contingente con su interpretacioacuten estableciendo asiacute la comunicacioacutenhablada como una actividad interactiva conjunta Al final del segundo antildeo sinembargo los nintildeos parecen abandonar su forma indiosincraacutesica ldquoprotolinguumliacutesti-cardquo de comunicacioacuten y comienzan a construir un potencial de significados lin-guumliacutesticos sistemaacuteticamente relacionado con el lenguaje que les dirigen en lasactividades habituales de la vida familiar (Bruner 1990 Halliday 1975 Wells1986) Expresivamente en una comunidad linguumliacutestica particular la secuencia enla que los nintildeos dominan los significados baacutesicos y las formas leacutexicogramaticalesen las que se realizan tiende a ser muy similar de unos nintildeos a otros (Wells1985)

La secuencia de desarrollo que acaba de describirse ndashaccioacuten gesto hablandash escomuacuten a los nintildeos en todas las culturas y en todos los casos tiene lugar con otrosfamiliares y miembros de la comunidad mediante la accioacuten e interaccioacuten conjun-ta Sin embargo aunque la secuencia es universal el modo concreto en el que sedespliega variacutea considerablemente de unas culturas a otras Estas diferenciasdependen de muchos factores determinados culturalmente tales como las expec-tativas de los adultos sobre el desarrollo de sus hijos la posicioacuten en la que el bebeacutees sostenido o llevado ndashdando la cara al cuidador o con la cara vuelta en la mismadireccioacuten que el adultondash la configuracioacuten y tamantildeo de los grupos interaccionalesen los que la comunicacioacuten suele tener lugar y si estos eventos son parte de lavida familiar y comunitaria maacutes general o son deliberadamente disentildeados yestructurados para el supuesto beneficio del nintildeo (Rogoff 2003) En las etapastardiacuteas del desarrollo del lenguaje la gama y amplitud de significados potencia-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187172

les que los nintildeos construyen comienza a variar incluso de manera maacutes ampliadependiendo de las actividades en las que intervengan de los registros linguumliacutesti-cos que se usan en esas actividades y de las posturas tiacutepicamente adoptadas porlos interlocutores hacia el uso del lenguaje en sus interacciones con los nintildeos(Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

Hasta ahora la secuencia de desarrollo ontogeneacutetico que he descrito es baacutesica-mente similar en todas las culturas y sigue la secuencia filogeneacutetica en la que loshumanos han ido acumulando de manera progresiva nuevos recursos semioacuteticosmediacionales a sus repertorios comunicativos De forma llamativa por lo tantoel modo uacuteltimo de representacioacuten en el esquema de Donald que es la escrituraes un extra opcional puesto que muchas culturas han sobrevivido y prosperadosin una modalidad escrita de representacioacuten de significados Ademaacutes incluso enculturas que poseen un sistema de escritura el grado y alcance de alfabetizacioacutenque los individuos logran variacutea considerablemente dependiendo de los sistemasde actividad en los que participan del valor otorgado por la comunidad a los tex-tos escritos de los propoacutesitos a los que sirven y de los geacuteneros que se usan paraalcanzar esos propoacutesitos Sin embargo ya que la alfabetizacioacuten y sus usos estaacutenfuertemente asociados a la escolarizacioacuten maacutes adelante abordareacute con mayor pro-fundidad la discusioacuten de esta modalidad de mediacioacuten semioacutetica

Sin embargo quiero explorar con maacutes detalle el concepto de mediacioacutensemioacutetica antes de concluir esta seccioacuten En uno de los pasajes mejor conocidosde los escritos de Vygotski donde argumenta en favor del origen social y cultu-ral de las funciones metales superiores escribe que cada funcioacuten ocurre en dosplanos primero en la actividad e interaccioacuten entre personas y despueacutes en el apren-diz individual (Vygotski 1981) Lo que sirve de puente entre estos dos planoscomo se aclara en otros escritos suyos es la mediacioacuten semioacutetica Recueacuterdesecoacutemo formula Leontiev este argumento

es imposible transmitir los significados y meacutetodos necesarios para realizar un proceso de otraforma que no sea social ndashen la forma de una accioacuten o habla externandash En otras palabras los pro-cesos psicoloacutegicos superiores exclusivamente humanos soacutelo pueden ser adquiridos mediante lainteraccioacuten con otros esto es a traveacutes de un proceso interpsicoloacutegico que soacutelo maacutes tardecomenzaraacute a ser desarrollado independientemente por el individuo (1981 pp 55-56)

En otras palabras cuando las personas realizan una actividad conjunta susacciones gestos y discurso no soacutelo median la coordinacioacuten de la participacioacutentambieacuten hacen puacuteblicas las actividades mentales implicadas quedando asiacute dis-ponibles para su apropiacioacuten por parte de los participantes novatos1 Halliday sepronuncia con mucha claridad al respecto Aunque la cita siguiente se refieresoacutelo al lenguaje el teacutermino ldquolenguajerdquo podriacutea justificadamente ser reemplazadoaquiacute por ldquomediacioacuten semioacuteticardquo

En el desarrollo del nintildeo como un ser social el lenguaje posee el papel central El lenguaje es elprincipal canal por el que los patrones de vida le son transmitidos mediante el cual aprende aactuar como un miembro de la ldquosociedadrdquo ndashen y mediante la variedad de grupos sociales lafamilia los vecinos etceacuteterandash y a adoptar su ldquoculturardquo su modo de pensar y actuar sus creen-cias y sus valoresrdquo (1978 p 9)

Sin embargo a medida que los nintildeos crecen el lenguaje se convierte en elmodo predominante de mediacioacuten semioacutetica y como el mismo autor escribioacute enun trabajo posterior ldquoEl lenguaje es la condicioacuten esencial del conocimiento elproceso por el que la experiencia se convierte en conocimientordquo (Halliday 1993 p94 cursiva en el original)

173El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Ayuda para aprender en actividades conjuntas

Hasta ahora en la discusioacuten del papel de la actividad conjunta en el desarrollohumano me he centrado en las herramientas y particularmente en los modossemioacuteticos de representacioacuten que median los logros obtenidos como resultado dela actividad En esta seccioacuten en cambio me detendreacute en el papel que jueganotras personas ya sean miembros de la familia o de la comunidad extensa

Hasta este momento me he referido a los coparticipantes en una actividad enteacuterminos generales pero claramente hay distinciones adicionales por hacer Par-ticularmente uacutetil al respecto es el modelo de sistema de actividad de Engestroumlmel cual se representa en la figura 1

Lo que este modelo muestra es que cuando observamos una actividad encurso desde el punto de vista de un participante individual (Sujeto t) ese indivi-duo estaacute atrapado en un nudo de relaciones que le unen a otros ldquoparticipantesrdquolas Herramientas y Artefactos para mediar la accioacuten sobre el Objeto pero tam-bieacuten la Comunidad a la que pertenecen las personas implicadas en la actividadjunto con la Divisioacuten de Trabajo propia de la comunidad y tambieacuten las Reglas yConvenciones que gobierna la manera en la que la actividad se desarrolla(Engestroumlm 1999) Lo que subraya esta uacuteltima categoriacutea de ldquoparticipantesrdquo es ladimensioacuten histoacuterica de un sistema de actividad ya que estas reglas y convencio-nes ndashal igual que las herramientas y artefactosndash traen al presente las praacutecticasdestiladas de las generaciones previas que han participado en la actividad y estaspraacutecticas son interpretadas y utilizadas por la comunidad actual

Para ilustrar la relevancia de este modelo en el desarrollo del nintildeo pequentildeopodemos comparar dos versiones de una actividad similar descrita por WertschMinick y Arns (1984) En este estudio un grupo de nintildeos de Brasil ordenan unpuzzle en dos situaciones distintas la primera con sus madres y la segunda conun profesor de primaria Los investigadores observaron que en general las

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187174

FIGURA 1Triaacutengulo de Actividad

Artefactosherramientas y

praacutecticas

Valores reglasy convenciones

Comunidad Divisioacuten delabor

Engestrom 1999

Objeto ResultadosSujeto

madres y los profesores participan en la actividad de manera sistemaacuteticamentediferente Mientras que las madres tendiacutean a dirigir el comportamiento de losnintildeos o incluso a realizar parte de la tarea ellas mismas para completarla de unamanera eficaz ndashtal y como habriacutean hecho si se tratara de una tarea domeacutesticandashlos profesores tendiacutean a promover la actuacioacuten autoacutenoma de los nintildeos y soacutelo pro-porcionaban consejos y sugerencias cuando lo juzgaban necesario para el avancede la comprensioacuten de los nintildeos Interpretando estos resultados los investigado-res sugeriacutean que los dos grupos de adultos perteneciacutean a dos comunidades dife-rentes (o sistemas de actividad) con diferentes reglas y convenciones sobre la par-ticipacioacuten en actividades conjuntas Y esto alternativamente conduciacutea a la dife-rente divisioacuten del trabajo que ellos observaron De manera similar Rogoff(2003) cita muchos ejemplos de diferencias sustanciales entre culturas en casitodos los aspectos del crecimiento infantil con respecto a sus modos de implicar alos nintildeos en las actividades que consideran importantes

Lo que estaacute claro es que ldquodetraacutes derdquo un adulto particular en contacto directocon el nintildeo ndasho en algunas culturas un hermano mayorndash hay una comunidadamplia formada por los miembros de la familia vecinos y otras personas interesa-das en la educacioacuten del nintildeo que comparten determinadas creencias sobre elmodo maacutes apropiado de introducir a los nintildeos en las actividades de la vida diariaPor eso ya sea en Espantildea Japoacuten o las Montantildeas Peruanas aunque las praacutecticasactuales variacutean a traveacutes de las culturas en todas los responsables del bienestar ydel desarrollo de los nintildeos actuacutean como agentes de una comunidad maacutes ampliacuyas creencias y praacutecticas estaacuten arraigadas en una larga tradicioacuten sobre coacutemodeben llevarse a cabo las actividades Pero igualmente en todas las culturas laspraacutecticas tambieacuten cambian en respuesta a los cambios en el mundo maacutes allaacute deuna comunidad particular En muchos hogares Occidentales por ejemplo losjuegos de ordenadores o los programas de televisioacuten han ocupado recientementeel lugar de los cuentos antes de dormir mientras que en muchas comunidadesindiacutegenas las artes que hasta hace poco soacutelo cubriacutean las necesidades locales sonahora explotadas comercialmente por el mercado turiacutestico cambiando los ritmosde la vida diaria las relaciones entre los miembros de la familia y las actividadesen las que los nintildeos estaacuten inmersos Sin embargo como anteriormente se sugirioacutepara comprender las actividades en las que los nintildeos participan hoy necesitamosmirar no soacutelo a la situacioacuten inmediata sino tambieacuten a la comunidad maacutes ampliay a los cambios que han tenido lugar en las escalas temporales

Microgeacutenesis y Zona de Desarrollo Proacuteximo

Lo inmediato sin embargo es siempre la situacioacuten microgeneacutetica que es ellugar del desarrollo ontogeneacutetico ndashla accioacuten e interaccioacuten entre el aprendiz yaquellos con quien estaacute implicado en la actividad en cursondash Cuando adoptamosesta perspectiva microgeneacutetica sin embargo necesitamos modificar la represen-tacioacuten del sistema de actividad reflejada en la figura 1 Esta representacioacutensubraya el hecho de que la accioacuten estaacute orientada a un propoacutesito De manera dis-tinta ahora conviene resaltar la interaccioacuten entre los participantes ndashsus tentativaspara lograr intersubjetividad con respecto a los objetivos comunes y a las habili-dades complementarias de conocimiento que aportan a la co-construccioacuten delresultado previsto (ver Figura 2)ndash Lo que la figura 2 enfatiza es el hecho de queaunque las herramientas y artefactos que estaacuten disponibles para mediar la accioacutenemprendida conjuntamente son los mismos para cada participante cada unoaporta una familiaridad algo diferente con su uso como resultado de su diferentetrayectoria vital siendo esta variabilidad en su pericia la que hace posible paracada uno de ellos proporcionar asistencia a los otros al menos en algunos aspectos

175El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

de la accioacuten conjunta Visto desde esta perspectiva estaacute claro por queacute Vygotskienfatizoacute el papel de la actividad conjunta en el desarrollo y escribioacute sobre supotencial para permitir a los participantes ldquoir maacutes allaacute de siacute mismosrdquo con laayuda de otros maacutes expertos

La metaacutefora usada por Vygotski para caracterizar el potencial para el aprendi-zaje que esta clase de actividad crea fue ldquozona de desarrollo proacuteximordquo Como eacutelescribioacute cuando otro participante en la actividad proporciona instruccioacuten que essuministrada apropiadamente maacutes allaacute de lo que el aprendiz puede llegar a hacerpor siacute mismo ldquodespierta toda una serie de funciones que estaacuten en estado demaduracioacuten latente en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximordquo (1987 p 212) Vygotskiconceptualizoacute el desarrollo como la formacioacuten de nuevos sistemas funcionales(ldquoneoformacionesrdquo) y de cambios en las relaciones entre sistemas que seguacuten eacutelconsideraba ocurriacutean como una secuencia de ldquocrisis del desarrollordquo particular-mente facilitadas por la participacioacuten en las ldquoactividades guiadasrdquo relevantes decada etapa por ejemplo jugar en la nintildeez y aprender a leer y a escribir en los pri-meros antildeos escolares Sin embargo puede ser un error dirigir la atencioacuten soacutelo alos periodos de cambios revolucionarios ya que como eacutel igualmente enfatizoacutetambieacuten tienen lugar en cualquier momento otros procesos graduales de creci-miento

Los procesos que son liacuteneas centrales de desarrollo en una edad se convierten en liacuteneas perifeacute-ricas de desarrollo en la edad siguiente y contrariamente liacuteneas perifeacutericas de desarrollo deuna edad son traiacutedas a la vanguardia y se convierten en liacuteneas centrales en el momento en elque cambia su significado y su significacioacuten relativa en la estructura total del desarrollo(1987 p 197)2

En la elaboracioacuten de su importante concepto de zona de desarrollo proacuteximoVygotski tendioacute a caracterizar la ayuda proporcionada por otros como ldquoinstruc-cioacutenrdquo asiacute como a ver su valor en ldquoel potencial del nintildeo para elevarse a siacute mismo

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187176

FIGURA 2Diaacutelogo en la Actividad Conjunta (Wells 2002b)

Resultadosmateriales yartefactossemioacuteticos

Herramientasartefactos

Sujeto

Reglasconvenciones

Comunidad Divisioacuten delabor

Sujeto

Herramientasartefactos

gracias a la colaboracioacuten hacia un nivel intelectual mayor de desarrollo despla-zaacutendose mediante la imitacioacuten desde lo que eacutel es hasta lo que eacutel no esrdquo (1987p 210) Sin embargo muchos eruditos contemporaacuteneos que han construidosobre su trabajo han adoptado una visioacuten de conjunto del significado evolutivode la colaboracioacuten en actividades conjuntas y han caracterizado la ayuda propor-cionada en esta relacioacuten con teacuterminos tales como ldquoaprendizajerdquo (Lave y Wenger1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoparticipacioacuten guiadardquo (Rogoff 1994 2003) y ldquoandamia-jerdquo (Wood Bruner y Ross 1976) Sin embargo mientras estas metaacuteforas dife-rentes iluminan caracteriacutesticas diferentes de la relacioacuten lo que tienen todas encomuacuten es la inclusioacuten del aprendizaje en una actividad que ofrezca el nivel deapoyo necesario para ayudar al aprendizaje a completar una actividad en la que eacutelo ella estaacute interesado y a hacer esto de tal manera que eacutel o ella progresen hastapoder participar maacutes plena y autoacutenomamente en el futuro (Maybin Mercer yStierer 1992)

En muchas actividades conjuntas tales como por ejemplo formas tradicio-nales de aprendizaje de oficios la ayuda es proporcionada soacutelo cuando se necesitay de este modo el ldquomaestrordquo la ofrece sin intenciones didaacutecticas deliberadas maacutesallaacute de arropar al principiante para terminar una tarea particular en curso (Lave1996) De manera similar la socializacioacuten en actividades domeacutesticas no necesitauna instruccioacuten expliacutecita ya que los principiantes pueden aprender mucho sim-plemente mirando y escuchando (cf Rogoff 2003) Esto es lo que Lave y Wen-ger (1991) quieren decir cuando insisten en que el aprendizaje no es una activi-dad independiente sino un aspecto intriacutenseco de la ldquoparticipacioacuten perifeacutericalegiacutetimardquo en las actividades de una comunidad Desde su perspectiva por lotanto la educacioacuten formal en la que el aprendizaje es el uacutenico propoacutesito de laactividad tiene algo anoacutemalo particularmente cuando la uacutenica forma de ayudaproporcionada es la instruccioacuten directa del profesor experto y la consiguienteevaluacioacuten del grado de aprendizaje de los alumnos

En muchas discusiones recientes se ha reconocido tambieacuten que no es soacutelo unldquoprofesorrdquo quien puede proporcionar ayuda en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximo Porun lado en una actividad compleja muchos participantes son maacutes expertos queotros en algunos aspectos y por lo tanto en algunas ocasiones estaacuten preparadospara ayudar a aquellos que son menos expertos (Rogoff 1994) Por otro ladoaquellos que proporcionan ayuda no tienen que estar fiacutesicamente presentes lostextos y otros artefactos pueden igualmente ayudar de manera satisfactoria a unparticipante ldquoa ir maacutes allaacute de siacute mismo o siacute mismardquo como ocurre con frecuenciaen el trabajo intelectual como la investigacioacuten y la escritura (Wells 1999) Ade-maacutes como Engestroumlm (1999) y otros ndashbasaacutendose en distintos aspectos de losescritos teoacutericos de Vygotskindash han anotado las herramientas materiales y simboacute-licas que han sido desarrolladas por participantes anteriores en la actividad pue-den tambieacuten proporcionar la misma clase de ayuda Sin embargo el punto maacutesimportante que quizaacutes debe subrayarse es que hay muchas situaciones en las quenadie es un experto incluso como cada uno aporta su propia experiencia pasadaa la solucioacuten de un problema comuacuten el grupo en su conjunto es capaz de alcan-zar maacutes de lo que cualquier miembro singular podriacutea haber hecho de maneraindependiente Evidentemente es esta colaboracioacuten la que ha hecho posible lasinvenciones que han llevado a los mayores avances de las grandes civilizaciones alo largo del curso de la historia cultural

Desarrollo en los antildeos preescolares

La responsabilidad para cuidar a los nintildeos en la nintildeez temprana variacutea conside-rablemente de una sociedad a otra como antes anoteacute Sin embargo en todas las

177El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

sociedades los nintildeos estaacuten inmersos en actividades conjuntas con otros en las quereciben ayuda para participar aunque puedan llevarlas a cabo parcialmente Ensu mayor parte como ya se mencionoacute eacutestas son actividades cotidianas repetidasregularmente en las rutinas establecidas Se espera que el nintildeo aprenderaacute a asu-mirlas y es simplemente ayudado para hacerlo Esta forma de aprendizaje deno-minada habitualmente ldquoenculturacioacutenrdquo asegura la continuidad de las formas devida culturales desde una generacioacuten a la siguiente y como Donald (1991) argu-menta probablemente tuvo lugar incluso antes de la emergencia del habla

Sin embargo en todas las actividades hay ocasiones en las que cuando surgealguacuten problema se requiere alguacuten nivel de toma de decisiones deliberado En estassituaciones la interaccioacuten verbal hace posible un grado de reflexioacuten y planificacioacutenhacia delante en la que las relaciones de causa y efecto intencioacuten accioacuten y resultadose hacen expliacutecitas y abiertas para su anaacutelisis y discusioacuten La conversacioacuten que semantiene en estas ocasiones juega asiacute un papel particularmente importante en laayuda a los nintildeos para atender y comprender el mundo que les rodea de acuerdo conlos modos culturales de ldquodarle sentidordquo Sin embargo estas ocasiones pueden tam-bieacuten abrir posibilidades para el cambio tanto en la forma de la actividad como lacomprensioacuten que de ella alcanzan los participantes Coacutemo los cuidadores tomanhabitualmente estas oportunidades es de gran relevancia aquiacute ya que juega en la for-macioacuten de las disposiciones intelectuales con las que los nintildeos entran en la escuelaun papel importante (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo y Sterponi 2002)

En esta seccioacuten incluyo algunos ejemplos representativos del modo de hablarque surge de las actividades conjuntas en el hogar Estos ejemplos se han extraiacute-do de observaciones realizadas en contextos ingleses (Wells 1986) y australianos(Hasan 2002) donde los nintildeos pequentildeos observados pasaban la mayor parte desu tiempo en el hogar en compantildeiacutea de un progenitor o algunas veces con uno omaacutes hermanos mientras que el resto del tiempo se entreteniacutean ellos solos (conuna participacioacuten esporaacutedica del adulto) o algo que haciacutean con frecuencia mira-ban y ldquoayudabanrdquo a sus progenitores con tareas domeacutesticas de diferente tipo

En el primer ejemplo James (de tres antildeos y medio de edad) ha estado jugandosolo en el jardiacuten y cuando entra de nuevo en casa su madre intenta que se quitelos zapatos embarrados Sin embargo en ese momento ve un paacutejaro fuera que leinteresa maacutes que cambiarse de zapatos

Ejemplo 1Madre Alliacute Vamoshellip Alliacutehellip Una zapatilla enJames Puedo ver un paacutejaroMadre iquestUn queacute amorJames Mira un paacutejaroMadre (Susurrando) iquestEstaacute alliacute iquestFueraJames (Sentildealando y susurrando) Siacute mira

(Ambos continuacutean hablando muy suavemente)Madre iquestEstaacute comiendo algoJames NoMadre iquestDoacutende Oh siacute estaacute consiguiendo iquestSabes queacute estaacute haciendoJames NoMadre Estaacute yendo al saco de papel para intentar escoger algunos pedazos

Oh tiene un poco de alimento alliacute Y espero que escoja algunos pedazos de hilodel saco para ir y hacer su nido bajo la azotea James Espera un minuto y [James ahora quiere salir a ver maacutes cerca pero en ese momento el paacutejaro se escapavolando]

James Se ha ido

En el segundo ejemplo Elizabeth (de cuatro antildeos de edad) que estaacute ayudandoen la limpieza de casa mira con intereacutes coacutemo su madre mete en un cubo la cenizade la lentildea de la chimenea

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187178

Ejemplo 2Elizabeth iquestPara queacute estaacutes haciendo esoMadre Estoy recogieacutendolo y ponieacutendolo fuera para que papaacute pueda ponerlo en el jardiacutenElizabeth iquestPor queacute lo tiene que poner en el jardiacuten Madre Para abonar bienElizabeth iquestEso hace que la hierba crezcaMadre SiacuteElizabeth iquestPor queacuteMadre Sabes que te digo que necesitas comer cosas diferentes como huevos y col y

pudin de arroz para convertirte en una nintildea mayor Elizabeth SiacuteMadre Bien las plantas tambieacuten necesitan comida diferente Y la ceniza es una de las

cosas buenas para ellas

El tercer ejemplo se refiere a James de nuevo ahora 18 meses mayor Por lamantildeana temprano ha estado ayudando a su madre con la elaboracioacuten de unos dul-ces en el horno Ahora vuelve a la cocina cuando su madre estaacute sacando las bande-jas fuera del horno Oye un ruidoso ldquocrackrdquo metaacutelico y solicita una explicacioacuten

Ejemplo 3James iquestQuieacuten hizo esoMadre Espero que fuera la contraccioacuten de la lata James iquestQueacute lataMadre La que estaacute con los pasteles dentro James iquestPor queacute hizo ese ruidoMadre Bien cuando estaba en el horno se calentoacute mucho y se estiroacute un pedacito Ape-

nas la he sacado del horno y se estaacute enfriando muy raacutepido mira y ese ruido ocu-rre cuando se hace maacutes pequentildea otra vez y vuelve a su forma normal

James Oh iquesttiene una forma diferente en el horno Madre Oh no muy diferente Soacutelo un poco mayor James Pequentildea lata traviesa Puede que consigas que te den un azote si lo haces otra vez

En estos tres ejemplos la madre responde con prontitud a los intereses delnintildeo y proporciona informacioacuten para explicar el significado de lo que los nintildeosestaacuten viendo u oyendo incluso cuando inicialmente esto interrumpe los planesde la madre Los tres casos muestran coacutemo la participacioacuten de los nintildeos en la acti-vidad con el adulto garantiza una atencioacuten intersubjetiva hacia los intereses delnintildeo lo que permite a la madre proporcionar informacioacuten relevante Esto es cla-ramente una forma de ldquoinstruccioacutenrdquo sin embargo es espontaacutenea y contingentecon los intereses de los nintildeos en lugar de ser presentada como parte de un curri-culum pre-planificado

El tercer ejemplo es particularmente interesante desde este punto de vista yaque el fenoacutemeno que despierta el intereacutes de James requiere una explicacioacuten algoteacutecnica En alguacuten momento del futuro sin duda la dilatacioacuten del metal cuandose calienta y su consiguiente contraccioacuten cuando es apartado del calor figuraraacuteen el curriculum de ciencias de la escuela en relacioacuten con el estudio sistemaacuteticodel calor aquiacute sin embargo es un efecto secundario de la elaboracioacuten de los pas-teles en el horno y la explicacioacuten de la madre aunque teacutecnica en cuanto al conte-nido se asienta en el lenguaje cotidiano y no en los teacuterminos abstractos de lageneralizacioacuten cientiacutefica Como Hasan (2002) ha observado

el discurso del conocimiento quasi especializado tiene lugar lsquoen medio dersquo las actividades dia-rias y necesariamente exige una buena disposicioacuten por parte de la madre para acoger los cam-bios contextuales para tener la voluntad de reclasificar el contexto del discurso en marcha Latendencia a conectar con el discurso en movimiento del nintildeo la buena disposicioacuten para reclasi-ficar el contexto es una caracteriacutestica discursiva del mismo grupo de madres que con frecuen-cia lanzan preguntas precisas para la calificacioacuten de los objetos que atienden a las preguntas desus hijos y que les proporcionan respuestas bien desarrolladas (p 123)

179El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

No todos los nintildeos experimentan esta clase de respuesta altamente informati-va para sus intereses por supuesto Sobre la base de un corpus sustancial de inte-racciones madre-hijo Hasan (2002) siguiendo a Bernstein (1982) distingueentre mediacioacuten semioacutetica ldquovisiblerdquo e ldquoinvisiblerdquo Mientras que todos los ejem-plos citados anteriormente giran sobre la actividad conjunta y las preguntas delos nintildeos merecen una exploracioacuten adicional en un modo expliacutecito ldquovisiblerdquo lostemas de las contribuciones de muchos otros nintildeos a la actividad y la interaccioacutenson tratados por los padres como ldquoobviosrdquo y por lo tanto como si no requirieranexplicacioacuten En este sentido la mediacioacuten de las creencias culturales y de laspraacutecticas permanece ldquoinvisiblerdquo esto es la forma de ser del mundo y el tema nomerece una discusioacuten adicional El Ejemplo 4 (tomado de Hasan 2002) bajoestaacutes liacuteneas proporciona una buena ilustracioacuten

Ejemplo 4 Madre Ponlo sobre la estufa y deacutejalo alliacuteKaren iquestPor queacuteMadre PorqueKaren iquestAquiacute es doacutende va Madre SiacuteUn poco despueacutesKaren iquestCoacutemo conseguiste esoiquestNo saliste Madre Camineacute encima y lo conseguiacute iquestno me viste Karen HmmMadre Debes estar ciega

Los dos breves extractos del Ejemplo 4 son tiacutepicos de un estilo muy diferentede interaccioacuten comparados con los anteriores Aquiacute el eacutenfasis de los padres enconseguir que el nintildeo se adapte a los modos de la cultura local de actuar y pensarcon eficacia suprime la curiosidad del nintildeo y el deseo de comprender lo quetambieacuten hace menos probable que el nintildeo desarrolle la capacidad para cuestionarel status quo y participar en los esfuerzos por cambiarlo y mejorarlo

Finalmente antes de dejar el tema del aprendizaje a traveacutes de la conversacioacutenen actividades conjuntas es importante considerar la actividad conjunta en elcontexto del juego Vygotski (1978) consideroacute el juego como la actividad princi-pal en los antildeos preescolares ya que anima al nintildeo a explorar las posibilidades dela mediacioacuten semioacutetica mediante el uso de objetos presentes que pueden ser uti-lizados para representar otros objetos no presentes mediante el ldquorole playrdquo en elque el lenguaje crea un mundo imaginario En el Ejemplo 5 James ahora contres antildeos y nueve meses estaacute sentaacutendose en el brazo de un sofaacute conduciendo untren imaginario con su madre como pasajera

Ejemplo 5Madre Aquiacute estamos Me sentareacute al lado Perfecto iquestestaacutes listo iquestTodo a punto

Bien Quita el frenoJames Comenzareacute a levantarloMadre Oh perdoacuten Estaacute bienJames Mamaacute no conduzcas todaviacuteaMadre Oh BienJames [Hace un ruido simulando arrancar el motor]Madre iexclOh Este motor arranca raacutepido Muy bien iquestHay suficiente carboacuten en la parte

posterior iquestHas cargado suficiente carboacuten JamesJames SiacuteMadre Bien Entonces vaacutemonos lejos Despiacutedete de tus amigos James [Suena el ruido del motor que acelera Se riacutee y hace el sonido del silbido del

motor]Madre Ahora vamos muy raacutepido iquestPuedes sentir el traqueteo de los vagones James Siacute

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187180

Madre Oh todo me da vueltas Oh mi desayuno estaacute retumbando en mi barriga iexclOhiexclOh iexclOh

James [Hace el ruido del motor]Madre Creo que deberiacuteamos disminuir la velocidad iquestNo crees James Mm (asintiendo)Madre Creo que estamos yendo un poco raacutepido

Es mejor es maacutes faacutecil ahora iquestno James Mm (asintiendo)Madre [Muje] Mira las vacas en el campo JamesJames MmMadre Y hay un granjero mira El granjero te estaacute saludando

Como contar historias compartidas que es otra actividad conjunta importan-te a esta edad el juego imaginario tambieacuten tiene una funcioacuten importante en lapreparacioacuten del nintildeo para explorar el poder del lenguaje ldquopara crear un mundomediante las palabrasrdquo Como seraacute discutido debajo este uso del lenguaje pararepresentar objetos y eventos no presentes y las relaciones entre ellos adoptagran significado en el contexto de la escolarizacioacuten puacuteblica tiacutepica donde propor-ciona los significados mediacionales principales mediante los que gran parte delcurriculum se materializa (Wells 1986)

En suma con la excepcioacuten del Ejemplo 4 todos los extractos precedentes sonejemplos claros de un adulto ldquotrabajando en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximo delnintildeordquo (Vygotski 1987) ya que se implican en la interaccioacuten en el proceso dedesarrollar la actividad en la que estaacuten conjuntamente inmersos Como Vygotski(1987) enfatizoacute en la actividad conjunta colaborativa el nintildeo puede siemprehacer maacutes de lo que le es posible hacer independientemente La actividad pro-porciona el marco organizacional en el que parte de la conversacioacuten dirige ycomenta la actividad y parte explora los resultados a los que conduce En estecontexto el adulto hace disponible para la apropiacioacuten del nintildeo no soacutelo infor-macioacuten especiacutefica como respuesta a los intereses del nintildeo sino tambieacuten una pos-tura hacia la experiencia que valora la actitud de investigacioacuten Tratando las pre-guntas del nintildeo como dignas de respuesta expliacutecita el adulto apoya el desarrollode una disposicioacuten a plantearse preguntas y a buscarles respuesta mediante lainvestigacioacuten futura (Wells 1999)

El papel de la actividad en la educacioacuten

Aunque el teacutermino ldquoeducacioacutenrdquo se emplea a menudo como sinoacutenimo deldquoescolarizacioacutenrdquo seguacuten una interpretacioacuten maacutes amplia la educacioacuten viene refi-rieacutendose a los primeros antildeos del nintildeo y de hecho como se vio arriba hay muchasocasiones en las que un coparticipante en una actividad en curso proporciona ins-truccioacuten expliacutecita Sin embargo la educacioacuten ndashen el sentido de escolarizacioacutenndashtiende a ser muy diferente de la clase de actividades ilustradas maacutes arriba Maacutesimportante en las escuelas la instruccioacuten es tanto deliberada como sistemaacutetica yes gobernada no por los intereses de los alumnos sino por un curriculum que hasido disentildeado por expertos que no estaacuten familiarizados con los alumnos que van aser instruidos Como resultado a menudo lo que se ensentildea en la escuela no estaacuterelacionado con aquello que a los alumnos maacutes les interesa aprender y es muyprobable que no se obtengan beneficios de las oportunidades que la escuelapodriacutea proporcionar

En las primeras secciones de este trabajo se ha argumentado que el aprendi-zaje no es un fin en siacute mismo sino un aspecto integrado del domino de nuevasformas de actividad que tienen significado y valor para el desarrollo de los apren-dices como miembros de una comunidad y como individuos autoacutenomos uacutenicos

181El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Como Wygotsky insistentemente precisoacute el aprendizaje conduce el desarrollo yla instruccioacuten deberiacutea estar organizada para ayudar a este proceso

La instruccioacuten es soacutelo uacutetil cuando se mueve delante del desarrollo Cuando esto ocurre impulsao despierta toda una serie de funciones que estaacuten en estado de maduracioacuten latente en la zona dedesarrollo proacuteximo (1987 p 212)

La pregunta central para la escolarizacioacuten debe por lo tanto ser coacutemo ofrecerinstruccioacuten que sea relevante para las trayectorias de desarrollo de los alumnos yque de manera adecuada ldquose situacutee dentrordquo de sus zonas de desarrollo proacuteximoJunto a esta una segunda pregunta es coacutemo proporcionar ayuda a los alumnosindividuales para que su aprendizaje les permita de hecho avanzar en su desa-rrollo

Procurando proporcionar respuesta a estas preguntas el concepto de ldquoactivi-dad guiadardquo junto con el de recapitulacioacuten de la secuencia de desarrollo de losmodos de conocimiento puede ofrecer un comienzo uacutetil Los nintildeos cuandoingresan en la escuela han dominado en gran parte los modos de conocimientoasociados con la accioacuten el gesto y el habla (Nelson 1996) Lo que ahora necesi-tan es un aprendizaje de los modos de conocimiento asociado con el lenguajeescrito y de las distintas clases de representacioacuten simboacutelica que derivan de eacutelndashmatemaacutetica cientiacutefica musical etceacuteterandash Es decir necesitan aprenderlos parausar estas formas de representacioacuten como herramienta para la deliberacioacutenmediada la comunicacioacuten reflexiva y el pensamiento y para apropiarse de losdiferentes dominios de conocimiento teoacuterico que han sido construidos acumula-tivamente por las generaciones previas con la ayuda de las ventajas que confierenesos sistemas de ldquomemoria externardquo (Donald 1991)

La recapitulacioacuten del desarrollo histoacuterico cultural orienta la trayectoria a largoplazo para la educacioacuten formal en la escuela y en otras instituciones Pero inclusomaacutes importante para procurar responder la pregunta central presentada arriba esdeterminar los procedimientos efectivos para organizar los pequentildeos pasos queconfiguran las lecciones las unidades curriculares y los programas anuales a lolargo de esta trayectoria Basaacutendonos en las ideas presentadas en la seccioacuten ante-rior dos principios parecen en siacute mismos evidentes En primer lugar los encuen-tros educativos necesitan para estar organizados ser ldquoactividades conjuntasrdquo enlas que todos los participantes contribuyen a las metas convenidas con lo mejorde sus habilidades Y en segundo lugar debe convertirse en norma dar y recibirayuda por parte de cada participante Una de las implicaciones de estos dos prin-cipios es que no puede haber formas universales mejores para participar en alguacutenaspecto del curriculum puesto que cada clase variacutea en las experiencias e interesesque sus miembros aportan y en los valores y praacutecticas aprendidos culturalmenteque motivan y dirigen su implicacioacuten con el nuevo conocimiento y con las habi-lidades que estaacuten esperando dominar

Aunque siempre es importante reconocer valorar y construir sobre las expe-riencias previas de los alumnos ha llegado a ser incluso maacutes necesario a medidaque la migracioacuten tanto inter como intra paiacuteses ha aumentado significativamen-te ya que las diferentes etnias clases y religiones en las comunidades han dadolugar a su vez a comunidades de escuela y aula cada vez maacutes diversas ndashy estadiversidad es incluso mayor donde una proporcioacuten sustancial de alumnos estaacuteaprendiendo la lengua de clase como una segunda lengua (o subsiguiente)ndash Taldiversidad en el bagaje cultural y en la experiencia previa es generalmente vistocomo un problema que necesita ser superado en paiacuteses donde los disentildeadores delcurriculum apuntan a estandarizar la instruccioacuten para alcanzar ideacutenticos resulta-dos para todos los estudiantes como es hoy el caso en Estados Unidos Sin

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187182

embargo cuando las diferencias entre personas en teacuterminos de experiencia valo-res y praacutecticas son reconocidas como normales y deseables esta diversidad puedeconvertirse en una ventaja en la clase ya que las praacutecticas y puntos de vista alter-nativos que afloran pueden enriquecer la comunidad de clase y conducir a discu-siones valiosas en las que las creencias dadas por sentadas sean modificadas y sealcance una comprensioacuten maacutes profunda de los puntos considerados (Wells1999)

En este contexto he encontrado de ayuda pensar en el aprendizaje basado enla escuela en teacuterminos de una espiral del conocimiento donde el resultado espe-rado con cada giro de la espiral es una mayor comprensioacuten (Wells 1999) (verFigura 3) En la primera fase cuando la clase se embarca en un nuevo aspecto delcurriculum es importante animar a los alumnos a compartir sus experienciasprevias ya que como las investigaciones en campos muy diferentes han mostra-do (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotski) esas experiencias proporcionan elpunto de partida para su aprendizaje sean o no reconocidas puacuteblicamente Des-cubriendo lo que los estudiantes ya saben y aquello que les interesa explorar conmaacutes detalle el profesor puede tambieacuten planificar la unidad en cooperacioacuten conlos alumnos (Donoahue 2003) La segunda fase de la espiral conlleva varios acer-camientos a la nueva informacioacuten ndashmediante la explicacioacuten del profesor a traveacutesde materiales impresos o medios audiovusiales o en la forma de feedback de laspropias acciones e investigaciones de los alumnosndash Es importante reconocer sinembargo que la recepcioacuten de la nueva informacioacuten no asegura en siacute misma unaumento de la comprensioacuten Para que esto ocurra la nueva informacioacuten debearticularse con la comprensioacuten existente y con la experiencia previa relevantepara ser despueacutes puesta a prueba mediante la accioacuten en el mundo ndashobteniendofeedback (informacioacuten adicional)ndash yo mediante el diaacutelogo con otros para laconstruccioacuten del conocimiento donde el propoacutesito es llegar a una eleccioacuten con-sensuada entre las teoriacuteas alternativas demandas o interpretaciones sobre la basede una consideracioacuten de las evidencias y argumentos apropiados Finalmentepara consolidar la nuevas comprensiones obtenidas es valioso para la clase com-pleta reflexionar juntos sobre lo que han aprendido y sobre el proceso de cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento en el que han participado sobre las implicaciones quela nueva comprensioacuten tiene para sus propias acciones ndashtanto fuera como dentrode clasendash y sobre las preguntas importantes a las que ellos deben ahora dirigir susinvestigaciones futuras En otras palabras la fase final en el ciclo implica a lacomunidad en un ldquoacercamiento lsquometarsquordquo (Olson y Bruner 1996) es decir en laadopcioacuten de una perspectiva metacognitiva sobre su propio aprendizaje que a lolargo de miles de antildeos probablemente ha jugado un importante papel en eldesarrollo de cada modo de conocimiento presentado en la siacutentesis del desarrollohistoacuterico cultural de Donald (1991)3

Esta espiral necesita varias anotaciones adicionales La primera tiene quever con la naturaleza incompleta y provisional del conocimiento eacuteste estaacutesiempre abierto a la mejora mediante ciclos futuros a traveacutes de la espiral Lasegunda anotacioacuten concierne a la naturaleza esencialmente interactiva ysocial del crecimiento individual y comunitario en la comprensioacuten eacutesta seconsigue gracias a los esfuerzos de los participantes para clarificar sus pro-pios significados a los otros y alternativamente para tener en cuenta y res-ponder a los de los demaacutes (Bajtiacuten 1986) En tercer lugar es necesario enfati-zar que el crecimien to en la comprensioacuten requeriraacute espirales futuras queactiven los diferentes modos de conocimiento ya que la mayoriacutea de los cam-bios y problemas que ocurren en las instituciones maacutes allaacute del aula deman-dan un conocimiento procedimental substantivo y esteacutetico al igual que

183El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

teoacuterico y cada modo de conocimiento tiene una contribucioacuten que hacer aleacutexito de soluciones comprensivas que realcen significativamente la com-prensioacuten Finalmente en la representacioacuten de estas relaciones en la figura 3la espiral tambieacuten resalta la interdependencia de los individuos y la comuni-dad Mientras que la experiencia y la comprensioacuten son esencialmente indivi-duales en su naturaleza crecen fuera de eacutel y adoptan su significado de la par-ticipacioacuten de los individuos en el intercambio de informacioacuten y en su com-promiso en la construccioacuten de conocimiento en la comunidad extensa de laque cada individuo es miembro

Desafortunadamente muchos educadores no comprenden estas relacionesfundamentales y por eso su instruccioacuten no es conceptualizada y planificada demanera que sea oacuteptima para el desarrollo de los estudiantes Como numerososestudios han mostrado (Langer y Applebee 1987 Nystrand y Gamoran 1991)en la mayoriacutea de las clases la que gobierna la praacutectica es la concepcioacuten bancariadel conocimiento (Freire 1970) seguacuten la cual el propoacutesito de la instruccioacuten quetiene lugar en el aula es que un alumno individual esteacute preparado para puntuarbien en los tests y no tanto ampliar su conocimiento Dada esta orientacioacuten lasactividades en las que se pide a los alumnos que participen estaacuten determinadaspor la guiacutea curricular del libro de texto maacutes que por el conocimiento de los pro-fesores sobre los intereses y habilidades de los alumnos particulares de los queson responsables A esto es a lo que Tharp y Gallimore (1988) se refieren con laexpresioacuten ldquoguioacuten recitativordquo unido a la ocupacioacuten de un lugar individual de tra-bajo que domina la rutina diaria Ademaacutes los planes sobre coacutemo proceder sonndashcomo cabiacutea esperarndash unilateralmente impuestos en lugar de ser configuradossobre la base de las decisiones tomadas por la comunidad de clase como un todoy el modus operandi es la competicioacuten en lugar de la colaboracioacuten

Sin embargo como he argumentado en otra parte (Wells 1986 19992002a) eacuteste no es el uacutenico modo en el que la escolarizacioacuten puede ser condu-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187184

FIGURA 3La espiral del conocimiento

ACCIOacuteN Construccioacuten

deconocimiento

ComprensioacutenSubstantivo

Esteacutetico

Teoacuterico

Procedimental

Instrumental

Experiencia Informacioacuten

Modos de conocimiento

cida ndasha pensar de la larga historia de la recitacioacuten que se remonta a maacutes detres mil antildeos a las tempranas instituciones que entrenaban a los escribas yadministradores para leer y escribir (Cole 1996)ndash Pero probablemente elmodo por defecto de la escolarizacioacuten es parecido a una preparacioacuten para ldquolavida adultardquo y no una etapa criacutetica del desarrollo que merece la pena y essignificativa en siacute misma Como Vygotski argumentoacute sobre el dominio de laalfabetizacioacuten ldquola ensentildeanza debe organizarse de tal manera que la lectura yla escritura sean necesarias para algo La escritura debe ser incorporada enuna tarea relevante y necesaria para la vidardquo (1978 pp117-118) Y porldquovidardquo quiere decir no la vida futura sino la totalidad de los intereses y pre-ocupaciones actuales de los aprendices

En los uacuteltimos antildeos se han divulgado proyectos de una variedad de paiacuteses enlos que educadores universitarios han procurado crear condiciones para elldquoaprendizaje auteacutenticordquo en las aulas En todos estos proyectos se ha otorgado unpapel central a las actividades colaborativas que alternando entre los formatos departicipacioacuten individual en pequentildeo grupo y de la clase completa implican alos estudiantes en la exploracioacuten de temas centrales mediante investigacionespraacutecticas y tambieacuten teoacutericas y en la discusioacuten criacutetica y constructiva de sus hallaz-gos y de las implicaciones para futuras acciones El espacio no permite aquiacute unadiscusioacuten individual de estos proyectos pero lo que puede ser dicho sobre todosellos es que en sus diferentes formas valoran tanto los intereses de los alumnoscomo sus experiencias previas y persiguen ayudarles a desarrollar la disposicioacutenpara buscar la comprensioacuten maacutes que la acumulacioacuten simple de informacioacuten ypara valorar la colaboracioacuten maacutes que la competicioacuten como el medio para alcanzaresta menta4

En este contexto es digno atraer la atencioacuten hacia varias instituciones poste-riores a la escuela tales como la Fifth Dimension donde la participacioacuten en activi-dades elegidas personalmente ndasha menudo basadas en ordenadoresndash requiere a losnintildeos dominar habilidades que son tambieacuten necesarias para la escolarizacioacuten y lesproporcionan oportunidades para interactuar con voluntarios universitarios enuna posicioacuten de igualdad (Brown y Cole 2002) De manera similar algunosprogramas basados en museos (Leinhardst Crowley y Kuntson 2002) y variasformas de educacioacuten al aire libre tambieacuten capitalizan los intereses de los estu-diantes para implicarles en actividades desafiantes que demandan para la cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento procesos de diaacutelogo y toma de decisiones comparablesa aquellos encontrados en los contextos escolares previamente descritos

Finalmente si estas praacutecticas pioneras arraigan e influyen en la educacioacutenpuacuteblica con mayor amplitud es esencial que los profesores tengan oportunidadessimilares para desarrollar las disposiciones y pericia necesarias para actuar comoagentes de cambio y liacutederes de una reforma en las instituciones en las que traba-jan Es por lo tanto estimulante ver que a pesar del eacutenfasis de los dirigentes poliacute-ticos en estandarizar los curricula y en los resultados cuantificables algunos pro-gramas de formacioacuten de profesores y desarrollo profesional anima a los profeso-res sobre la base de investigaciones sobre su propia praacutectica a tomar sus propiasdecisiones sobre queacute debe ser ensentildeado y coacutemo y a compartir los resultados desus investigaciones con los compantildeeros Este ha sido el motor de mi propio tra-bajo en los antildeos recientes ya que he participado en la investigacioacuten colaborativacon profesores para crear y mantener comunidades de investigacioacuten tanto en cla-ses como entre los mismos profesores5

185El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Notas1 La secuencia temporal implicada por esta formulacioacuten ha sido ampliamente debatida y especialmente el movimiento desde fueraa dentro que sugiere Mi propia comprensioacuten de lo que la apropiacioacuten supone se capta mejor con el ejemplo de aprender a bailarmediante la inmersioacuten en la actividad con otros (Wells 1999) En muchos casos no hay separacioacuten entre antes y despueacutes o entrefuera y dentro y no hay necesidad de demostracioacuten o ejemplificacioacuten En lugar de esto estando inmerso en la actividad conjuntael principiante es literalmente entrenado fiacutesicamente por los movimiento del coparticipante mientras que al mismo tiempoconstruye su propia organizacioacuten ndashy quizaacute incluso una representacioacuten esquemaacuteticandash de los movimientos corporales A lo largo deltiempo este esquema estaacute tan bien organizado que el principiante se convierte en un experto que estaacute preparado paralelamentepara introducir a otros en la actividad Esto es lo que Lave y Wenger (1991) y Rogoff (2003) quieren decir por desarrollo median-te la participacioacuten en actividades culturales

2 Estoy agradecido a Natalia Gajdamaschko y Steve Gabosch por sus valiosas discusiones de esta distincioacuten durante el XMCA cursoonline sobre la teoriacutea de la actividad histoacuterico cultural Abril 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Aunque estaacute incluido en la Tabla I este modo de conocimiento no ha sido discutido aquiacute ya que el reconocimiento expliacutecito deeste importante modo de conocimiento es muy reciente (Brown 1975) Sin embargo eso no significa que sea en siacute mismo unnuevo fenoacutemeno

4 Para algunos ejemplos representativos veacutease Brown y Campione 1994 Lampert Rittenhouse y Crumbaugh 1996 McMahonRaphael Goatley y Pardo 1997 Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford y Brown 1998 Scardamalia Bereiter y Lamon 1994

5 Juntos formamos un grupo de investigacioacuten colaborativo DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project)(Wells (Ed) 2001)

ReferenciasBAJTIacuteN M M (1986) Speech genres and other late essays Austin University of Texas PressBERNSTEIN B (1982) Codes modalities and the process of cultural reproduction A model En M Apple (Ed) Cultural and econo-

mic reproduction in education (pp 304-355) Londres Routledge amp Kegan PaulBROWN A L (1975) The development of memory Knowing knowing about knowing and knowing how to know En H W

Reese (Ed) Advances in child development and behavior (Vol 10 pp 103-152) Nueva York Academic Press BROWN A L amp CAMPIONE J C (1994) Guided discovery in a community of learners En K McGilly (Ed) Integrating cognitive

theory and classroom practice Classroom lessons (pp 229-270) Cambridge MA MIT PressBradford BooksBROWN K amp COLE M (2002) Cultural historical activity theory and the expansion of opportunities for learning after school En

G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 225-238)Oxford Blackwell

BRUNER J S (1990) Acts of meaning Cambridge MA Harvard University PressCARR M (2002) Emerging learning narratives A perspective from early childhood education En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds)

Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 99-111) Oxford BlackwellCOLE M (1996) Cultural psychology A once and future discipline Cambridge MA The Bellknap Press of Harvard University PressDEACON T W (1997) The symbolic species The co-evolution of language and the brain Nueva York NortonDIAMOND J (1998) Guns germs and steel The fates of human societies Nueva York NortonDONALD M (1991) Origins of the Modern Mind Three Stages in the Evolution of Culture and Cognition Cambridge MA Harvard

University PressDONOAHUE Z (2003) Science teaching and learning Teachers and children plan together Networks 6(1) httpwwwoiseuto-

rontoca~ctdnetworksjournal Vol 6 (1) 2003marchENGESTROumlM Y (1999) Activity theory and individual and social transformation Y En Engestrom R Miettinen amp R-L Puna-

maki (Eds) Perspectives on activity theory (pp 19-38) Cambridge Cambridge University PressFREIRE P (1970) Pedagogy of the oppressed Nueva York Herder and HerderHALLIDAY M A K (1975) Learning how to mean Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1978) Language as social semiotic The social interpretation of language and meaning Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1993) Towards a language-based theory of learning Linguistics and Education 5 93-116HASAN R (2002) Semiotic mediation and mental development in pluralistic societies Some implications for tomorrowrsquos schoo-

ling En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural peerspectives on the future of education (pp112-126) Oxford Blackwell

HEATH S B (1983) Ways with words Cambridge Cambridge University PressLAMPERT M RITTENHOUSE P amp CRUMBAUGH C (1996) Agreeing to disagree Developing sociable mathematical discourse En

D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook of education and human development (pp 731-764) Cambridge MA Blackwell LANGER J A amp APPLEBEE A N (1987) How writing shapes thinking A study of teaching and learning Urbana IL National Council

of Teachers of EnglishLAVE J (1996) Teaching as learning in practice Mind Culture and Activity 3 (3) 149-164LAVE J amp WENGER E (1991) Situated Learning Legitimate peripheral participation Nueva York Cambridge University PressLEINHARDT G CROWLEY K amp KNUTSON K (2002) Learning conversations Explanation and identity in museums Mahwah NJ

Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesLEONTIEV A N (1981) The problem of activity in psychology En J VWertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 37-71) Armonk NY SharpeMAYBIN J MERCER N amp STIERER B (1992) lsquoScaffoldingrsquo learning in the classroom En K Norman (Ed) Thinking voices The

work of the National Oracy Project (pp 186-195) Londres Hodder amp StoughtonMCMAHON S I RAPHAEL T E GOATLEY V J amp PARDO L S (Eds) (1997) The Book Club connection Literacy learning and class-

room talk Nueva York Teachers College PressNELSON K (1996) Language in cognitive development The emergence of the mediated mind Nueva York Cambridge University PressNEWSON J (1978) Dialogue and development En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol The emergence of language (pp 31-42)

New York Academic Press

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187186

NYSTRAND M amp GAMORAN A (1991) Student engagement When recitation becomes conversation En H C Waxman amp H JWalberg (Eds) Effective teaching Current research (pp 257-276)Berkeley CA McCutchan Publishing Corp

OLSON D R amp BRUNER J S (1996) Folk psychology and folk pedagogy En D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook ofeducation and human development (pp 9-27) Cambridge MA Blackwell

PALINCSAR A MAGNUSSON S MARANO N FORD D amp BROWN N (1998) Designing a community of practice Principlesand practices of the GIsML Community Teaching and Teacher Education 14 (1) 5-20

PIAGET J (1970) Piagetrsquos theory En P H Mussen (Ed) Carmichaelrsquos handbook of child development (pp 703-732) Nueva YorkWiley

PONTECORVO C amp STERPONI L (2002) Learning to argue and reason through discourse in educational settings En G Wells ampG Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 127-140) OxfordBlackwell

ROGOFF B (1990) Apprenticeship in thinking Cognitive development in social context Nueva York Oxford University PressROGOFF B (1994) Developing understanding of the idea of Communities of Learners Mind Culture and Activity 1 (4) 209-

229ROGOFF B (2003) The cultural nature of human development Nueva York Oxford University PressROSENBLATT L (1978) The reader the text the poem The transactional theory of the literary work Carbondale IL Southern Illinois

University PressSCARDAMALIA M C BEREITER amp LAMON M (1994) The CSILE project Trying to bring the classroom into World 3 En K

McGilley (Ed) Classroom lessons Integrating cognitive theory and classroom practice (pp 201-228) Cambridge MA MITPress

SCRIBNER S (1985) Vygotskyrsquos uses of history En J V Wertsch (Ed) Culture communication and cognition Vygotskian perspectives(pp 119-145) Cambridge Cambridge University Press

THARP R amp GALLIMORE R (1988) Rousing minds to life Nueva York Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C (1979) Communication and cooperation in early infancy a description of primary intersubjectivity En M

Bullowa (Ed) Before speech The beginning of interpersonal communication (pp 321-348) Cambridge Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C amp HUBLEY P (1978) Secondary intersubjectivity Confidence confiding and acts of meaning in the first year

En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol the emergence of language (pp 183-230) Nueva York Academic PressVYGOTSKI L S (1978)Mind in society The development of higher psychological processes Cambridge MA Harvard University PressVYGOTSKI L S (1981) The genesis of higher mental functions En J V Wertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 144-188) Armonk NY SharpeVYGOTSKI L S (1987) Thinking and speech En R W Rieber amp A S Carton (Eds) The collected works of L S Vygotsky Volumen

1 Problems of general psychology (pp 39-285) Nueva York PlenumWARTOFSKY M (1979) Models representation and scientific understanding Boston ReidelWELLS G (1985) Language development in the pre-school years Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (1986) The meaning makers Children learning language and using language to learn Portsmouth NH HeinemannWELLS G (1999) Dialogic inquiry Towards a sociocultural practice and theory of education Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (Ed) (2001) Action talk and text Learning and teaching through inquiry Nueva York Teachers College PressWELLS G (2002a) Learning and teaching for understanding The key role of collaborative knowledge building En J Brophy

(Ed) Social constructivist teaching Affordances and constraints (pp 1-41) Osford Elsevier ScienceJAIWELLS G (2002b) The role of dialogue in activity theory Mind Culture and Activity 9 (1) 43-66WERTSCH J V MINICK N amp ARNS F J (1984) The creation of context in joint problem solving En B Rogoff amp J Lave (Eds)

Everyday cognition Its development in social context (pp 151-171) Cambridge Cambridge University PressWOOD D BRUNER J S amp ROSS G (1976) The role of tutoring in problem-solving Journal of Child Psychology and Child Psy-

chiatry 17 89-100

187El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Original text

Introduction

Compared with other species the characteristic that distinguishes humans isthe ability and proclivity to engage in tool-mediated joint activity with otherhumans It is this characteristic that accounts for the development of human cul-tures over the course of history as they invented artefacts of various kinds inorder to adapt to and exploit the ecological niches in which they found themsel-ves It also accounts for the diversity of individual personsrsquo development whichdepend on the particular activities in which they participate As Vygotsky(1978 1981) was one of the first to point out the lsquohigherrsquo mental functions thatmake us human are not biologically given but are developmentally constructedthrough the appropriation of historically developed tools and practices that aremade manifest to the child and lsquoscaffoldedrsquo in the meaningful actions and utte-rances of the coparticipants in joint activity

Before continuing readers might find it interesting to reflect on their owndevelopmental trajectories to who they are today I suspect that they may findthemselves agreeing that Who we become depends on the company we keep and what wedo together

A Brief History of the Development of Joint Activity

Leontrsquoev provides a succinct account of Vygotskyrsquos insight in the followingsummary

The initial ideas that led Vygotsky to investigate the genesis of internal mental activity fromexternal activity are fundamentally different from the theoretical approaches of other modernauthors These ideas came from the analysis of the features unique to human productive laboractivity which is mediated by tools This activity is initially social in nature that is it is deve-loped under the conditions of cooperation and social interaction among people Vygotskyidentified two main interconnected features [of this activity] that are necessarily fundamentalfor psychology its tool-like (lsquoinstrumentalrsquo) structure and its inclusion in a system of interre-lations with other people It is these features that define the nature of human psychologicalprocesses The tool mediates activity and thus connects humans not only with the world ofobjects but also with other people Because of this humanrsquos activity assimilates the experience ofhumankind This means that humansrsquo mental processes (their lsquohigher psychological functionsrsquo)acquire a structure necessarily tied to the sociohistorically formed means and methods trans-mitted to them by others in the process of cooperative labor and social interaction But it isimpossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in any way otherthan a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words higher psycho-logical processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction with others thatis through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried out indepen-dently by the individual (Leontrsquoev 1981 pp 55-56 emphases in the original)

As well as emphasizing the social and cooperative nature of human activity thisquotation is important with respect to the arguments that I want to develop inthis paper as it highlights the central role of semiotic mediation in developmentKnowledge is created as well as appropriated in the discourse among peoplewho are working together in a specific situation in order to create or improve anartefact or to solve a problem of importance to the group However Leontrsquoevalso alludes to another of Vygotskyrsquos key insights namely that in order tounderstand current activity it is necessary to investigate the history of that acti-vity It is to this that I next turn

In analyzing the history of human development at least four different time-scales need to be considered The longest is the history of the cultural evolution of

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

the species (the phylogenetic level) next is the historical development of particu-lar cultures The third level (ontogenetic) traces the developmental trajectory ofindividual humans over the course of the lifespan Finally the microgenetic levelis concerned with the development of an instance of a particular activity

In practice it is the latter that has been explored in most detail for usingcontemporary technology it is relatively easy to observe and record the sequenceof actions through which an activity is enacted and the specific operations inwhich the participants engage making use of the relevant artefacts that are avai-lable in the situation (Leontrsquoev 1981) These artefacts may be either material(knives pencils automobiles) or symbolic (utterances maps theories) ndashthoughas Cole (1996) has pointed out to function as mediators of joint activity all arte-facts must have some form of material embodiment as well as a symbolic mea-ning that is to say they must be ready to hand and also have a cultural signifi-cance relevant to the situation

However the form in which a particular instance of activity is realizeddepends not only on the artefacts that are to hand in the situation but also onthe participantsrsquo past experiences with the practices in which the artefacts areused to mediate achievement of the action goals that contribute to the joint acti-vity Thus the microgenesis of a particular instance of activity is necessarilydependent upon the ontogenetic development of the participants that is to sayupon the opportunities their life trajectories have afforded them to appropriatethe relevant cultural knowledge through participation in instances of similaractions and operations

But on the time-scale of ontogenetic development each individualrsquos trajectoryof development is itself strongly influenced by the culture in which he or she isgrowing up and on the historical development of that culture As Rogoff (2003)illustrates in considerable detail cultures vary considerably both over time andacross ecological niches in what mediating artefacts and practices are available andin the relative value accorded to each Moreover within each culture at any parti-cular historical moment participants in activities both incorporate the ways ofprevious generations and adapt them to the exigencies of current conditions

Stepping up one further level the historical development of a particular cul-tures is itself shaped by development on the even larger timescale of the culturaland biological evolution of the species This is the most difficult timescale todescribe in detail for lack of the necessary evidence But certain broad distinc-tions between human communities can be made in terms of their modes of sub-sistence and of the mediating means available for joint activity (Diamond 1998Donald 1991) As recent research has shown our earliest ancestors some 5million years ago lived in small bands of hunter gatherers often on the edge oflakes and oceans Initially their tools were found in the surroundings but overseveral million years they invented ways of making more sophisticated artefactssuch as knives arrowheads baskets and clothing from flints bones skins andvegetable materials Then as some groups migrated to particularly fertile partsof the world they adopted a more settled agrarian way of life growing cropsand breeding animals The resulting ability to produce more food than imme-diately required led in turn to the emergence of trade and to a diversity of spe-cialist occupations such as potters and tailors who exchanged their products forfood and other necessities This stage also saw the development of much largerpopulation groupings with hierarchical class structures that included prieststax collectors and other religious and political functionaries

While migration had been a common feature of human existence from theearliest times the development of large settled populations and of weapons

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

made of bronze and iron led to the expansion of certain cultural groups throughterritorial conquest and colonization by sea and by land As a result during thelast few thousand years the latest phase of phylogenetic development has beencharacterized by the rise and fall of imperial cultures which have imposed theirtechnologies laws and administrative procedures as well as their religions artsknowledge and values on widely diverse subjugated populations Most recentlythe further development of the inventions that led to the first industrial revolu-tion has simply served to increase the scale and intensity of these imperialisttrends At the same time these inventions as well as those of the current indus-trial revolution have also led to a great increase in humansrsquo understanding oftheir social and material environment both through scientific and social rese-arch and through the dissemination of information about other times and placesresulting from travel and the use of print and electronic technologies

In presenting this very condensed account of phylogenetic development Ihave emphasized the material tools that have mediated the progressively morecomplex and diverse activities in which humans have engaged over the course ofthe speciesrsquo history However bearing in mind that what has been the drivingforce of human development is joint activity an equally ndashif not morendash impor-tant determinant of this history is the development of the modes of representa-tion through which humans have communicated and developed their unders-tanding of the world Table I presents the developmental sequence proposed byDonald (1991) based on archeological neuroanatomical historical and othertypes of evidence The table also includes the stages in the historical develop-ment of ways of knowing that were proposed by Wartofsky (1979)

The first stage in this sequence corresponds to the phase in which proto-humans began to diverge from other primate species In this phase as in thebehavior of contemporary higher primates practical action was the predomi-nant form of communication as ndashnot necessarily deliberatelyndash participants sig-naled their intentions in a shared situation and these intentions were interpre-ted and responded to by their co-participants in the activity In the secondmimetic phase which must have developed gradually over many millenniacommunication became somewhat differentiated from the activity to which itreferred as humans deliberately used gestures mime facial expression andvarious types of phonation to comment on as well as to coordinate action and theobjects to which it was directed Later still with the gradual modification of thevocal tract and of the primate brain there emerged the ability to communicatethrough speech and hence the ability to refer not only to particular objects andactions but also to generalized classes and to express observed and intendedrelationships between objects actions and events thus allowing participants toplan for and reflect on the outcomes of joint activity Finally the invention ofwriting which ushered in the final phase in Donaldrsquos proposed sequence occu-rred extremely recently in the long trajectory of phylogenetic development Yetas with those that preceded it enormously increased the human repertoire ofmeans for making and communicating meaning Essentially what it added wasan ldquoexternal memoryrdquo By creating a (relatively) permanent representation oflinguistic meaning it made possible the compilation and distillation of repor-ted information from many sources including the writerrsquos own verbalizedthoughts It also allowed the writer and those who read his or her written textto review critique and revise the meanings expressed and to make the resultsavailable to people in later times and other places for further constructive debateand improvement

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

However action gesture speech and writing are not simply progressivelymore powerful modes of communication They are also progressively morepowerful mediators of thinking This is most obvious with respect to the lin-guistic modes of communication But even before the emergence of speechaction and ndashto an even greater extentndash mimesis enabled humans to think toget-her and thereby to create a shared interpretation of their joint activities In fact ithas been argued that the emergence of language was not simply the result ofbrain and vocal tract development but rather was part of a more general patternof adaptation that building upon the cognitive achievements of mimetic kno-wing strove to integrate the unconnected bits of information in a more compre-hensive and coherent account of being-in-the-world (Deacon 1997) Neverthe-less it is also true that the availability of language greatly enhanced both com-munication and thinking together for as Halliday observed

the grammar of every natural language is (among other things) a theory of human experienceit is through our acts of meaning that we transform experience into the coherent -though farfrom consistent- patchwork that we learn to project as lsquorealityrsquo (1993 p 46)

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

TABLE IModes Of Knowing Phylogenetic And Cultural Development (from Wells 1999)

Time Mode of Participants Donald(1991) Wartofsky(1979)Years BP Knowing

2 million Instrumental Individual in action Episodic Primary artifactsyears material tools

1 -- 15 million Procedural Between individuals while Mimetic Secondaryyears engaged in action artifacts tools

and practicesmimeticinteraction

50000 Substantive Among members of a (Linguistic) Secondaryyears cultural group reflecting on artifacts

action and as a basis for representations ofplanning further action tools and

practices spokeninteraction

50000 Aesthetic Among members of a Mythic Tertiary artifactsyears cultural group making sense artistic represent-

of the human predicament ations in mythnarrative graphicand musical modes

2500 Theoretical Among members of a Theoretic Tertiary artifactsyears specialist community decontextualized

seeking to explain the natural representationsand human world such as

taxonomiestheories models etc

Meta Among members of a Tertiary artifacts cultural group also representations ofindividuals seeking to mental andunderstand and control their semioticown mental activity processes

In sum what Donald and other scholars argue is that contemporary mentalabilities are the outcome of the development over time of a series of progressi-vely more powerful and flexible modes of representation ndashor in Vygotskyanterms of semiotic mediators of higher mental functions- that have made possi-ble the rational theoretically oriented modes of knowing that underpin theachievements of modern science and its technological applications In the philo-sopher Wartofskyrsquos words

our own perceptual and cognitive understanding of the world is in large part shaped andchanged by the representational artifacts we ourselves create We are in effect the products ofour own activity in this way we transform our own perceptual and cognitive modes our waysof seeing and of understanding by means of the representations we make (1979 p xxiii)

There is however one further important aspect of Donaldrsquos (1991) thesis thatis crucial for the argument that I wish to develop Although the semiotic sys-tems of mimesis speech and writing each powered a new mode of cognitiveactivity they did not replace those that preceded but were additive in theireffects The result is that contemporary humans have a variety of modes of kno-wing at their disposal as they engage in joint activity Furthermore most suchactivities call for more than one mode of knowing and require the complemen-tary and interdependent use of more than one mode of representation

Joint Activity as the Site of Ontogenetic Learning and Development

Two important implications follow from the multi-level historical concep-tion of development just outlined First on any occasion the type of activitythat is undertaken and the specific manner in which it is enacted are necessarilydependent on the particular cultural-historical antecedents of the participantsboth human and artefactual that come together in its realization In particularthe manner in which the situation is interpreted ndashin terms of what action goalsare appropriate and how they can be achievedndash depends on the motives valuesand knowledgeable skills of the human participants and on the affordances ofthe technologies available in the situation And second every instance of an acti-vity provides an occasion for a triple transformation of the situation in whichthe activity is carried out of the artefacts and practices that mediate its enact-ment and most importantly of the knowledge and skills of the human partici-pants Taken together these propositions clarify the way in which cultural andindividual development are both interdependent and rooted in particular situa-ted occasions of joint activity As Rogoff (1994) argues

People of each generation as they engage in sociocultural endeavors with other people makeuse of and extend cultural tools and practices inherited from previous generations As peopledevelop through their shared use of cultural tools and practices they simultaneously contribu-te to the transformation of cultural tools practices and institutions (p 52)

Potentially therefore every occasion of joint activity provides an opportunityfor development on the part of all participants This is a point to which I shallreturn But first I want to consider more carefully the concept of developmentitself

Clearly built into the concept of development is the implication of change andtypically of change in the direction of increasing complexity and effectiveness Inother words development is typically taken to imply improvement or progresstoward some ideal end state or capability However in the light of the previousdiscussion such a progression while it may be meaningful to (some of the) partici-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

pants in any particular situation cannot be understood in any absolute sense butmust be seen as relative to the unfolding historical trajectory of the species of aparticular culture and of the immediate community ndashits values its dominantactivities and the knowledgeable skills that form its resources Furthermore just asthese have changed in the past they will continue to change in the future in res-ponse to the changing demands of the larger environment So while ontogeneticdevelopment does indeed involve increasing complexity and effectiveness of indi-vidualsrsquo participation in the activity systems in which they are involved in theirdaily lives the overall trajectory of development is emergent and its endpoint cannever be specified in advance even in terms of an ideal to be attained

Nevertheless this does not mean that there are not strong regularities in thesequence of ontogenetic development particularly in the early years Indeed asNelson (1996) has suggested during the preschool years children follow a trajec-tory very similar to the sequence of phylogenetic development proposed byDonald (1991) (see Table I above) as they appropriate the semiotic tools of repre-sentation afforded by action mimesis speech and writing Of course this is not asimple recapitulation children growing up in a contemporary literate culture forexample are surrounded from birth by artifacts and practices that result from andembody all the available modes of knowing (Cole 1996) Appropriating existingcultural tools is thus very different from inventing them ex novo as Scribner (1985)points out Nevertheless given the combination of biological and cultural inheri-tance it is not surprising that in most if not all cultures children follow the samesequence as did the species as a whole over the course of history

In the first weeks of life infants act on their immediate surroundings bothanimate and inanimate and begin to develop what Piaget (1970) called sensori-motor intelligence However although this most basic form of activity mayappear to be instinctual it is nevertheless also inherently social First all infantsare born into an environment that is cultural in the sense of having been shapedby countless preceding generations and second the infantrsquos actions are treatedas being intentional and are responded to as such So from the beginning theinfant is caught up in social interaction (Newson 1978) In the second phasewhich typically begins in the first few months the infant also begins to engagein mimetic communication through gaze facial expression and rudimentarygesture (Bruner 1990) Couched in terms of primary and secondary intersubjec-tivity this phase has been described in considerable detail by Trevarthen (19781979) Primary intersubjectivity develops as the infant and parent engage inmutual gaze thereby communicating that they are attending to and respondingto each other In secondary intersubjectivity third parties are brought into jointattention as the parent through gaze directs the infantrsquos attention to an object ofpotential interest or follows the childrsquos direction of gaze and signals that he orshe is also attending to the same object

It is on this basis of joint action and attention that towards the end of thefirst year the child begins to exploit his or her growing command of vocaliza-tion often accompanied by gesture to begin to communicate through speechFrom research predominantly involving children in ldquoWesternrdquo societies it hasbeen established that at first the childrsquos utterances are idiosyncratic drawingonly partially ndashif at allndash on the speech of those around him or her neverthelessparents and other family members have little difficulty in interpreting them incontext and once again they respond in a manner that is contingent on theirinterpretation thereby establishing spoken communication as a joint interactiveactivity By the end of the second year however children appear to abandon thisidiosyncratic ldquoprotolanguagerdquo form of communication and begin to construct a

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

linguistic meaning potential that is systematically related to the language thatis addressed to them in the oft-repeated activities of family life (Bruner 1990Halliday 1975 Wells 1986) Significantly within particular language com-munities the sequence in which children master the basic meanings and thelexicogrammatical forms in which they are realized tends to be very similar fromchild to child (Wells 1985)

The developmental sequence just described ndashaction mimesis speechndash is com-mon to children in all cultures and in all cases takes place in and through jointactivity and interaction with other family and community members Howeveralthough the sequence is universal the manner and pace at which it proceeds varyvery considerably across cultures These differences depend upon many culturally-determined factors such as adult expectations about their childrenrsquos developmentthe position in which the infant is typically held or carried facing the caregiver orturned outwards to face in the same direction as the caregiver the makeup and sizeof the interactional groups in which communication typically occurs and whetherthese events are part of family and community life more generally or are delibera-tely arranged and structured for the presumed benefit of the child (Rogoff 2003)In the later stages of language development the range and extent of the meaningpotential that children construct begins to vary even more widely depending onthe activities in which they engage the linguistic registers that are used in thoseactivities and the stances typically adopted by interlocutors toward the use of lan-guage in their interactions with children (Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

So far the ontogenetic developmental sequence I have described is funda-mentally similar across cultures and follows the phylogenetic sequence in whichhumans have progressively added new semiotic mediational means to theircommunicative repertoires In an important sense therefore the final mode ofrepresentation in Donaldrsquos scheme that of writing is an optional extra sincemany cultures have survived and prospered without a written mode of represen-ting meaning Moreover even in cultures that have a writing system the extentand scope of literacy that individuals attain varies very considerably dependingon the activity systems in which they participate the value that is placed onwritten texts by those communmities the purposes to which they are put andthe genres that are used for those purposes However since literacy and its usesare so strongly associated with schooling I shall leave further discussion of thismode of semiotic mediation to a later part of this paper

Before concluding this section however I want to explore further the con-cept of semiotic mediation In one of the better known passages in Vygotskyrsquoswritings where he argued for the social and cultural origin of higher mentalfunctions he wrote that every function occurs on two planes first in activity andinteraction between people and then within the individual learner (Vygotsky1981) What bridges between these two planes as is clear from his other wri-tings is semiotic mediation To recall Leontrsquoevrsquos formulation of this argument

hellip it is impossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in anyway other than a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words hig-her psychological processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction withothers that is through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried outindependently by the individual (1981 pp 55-56)

In other words when people engage in joint activity their actions gesturesand speech not only mediate the coordination of participation but they alsomake overt the mental activities involved and so render them available forappropriation by novice participants1 Halliday is very clear about this Alt-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

hough the following quotation refers only to language the term lsquolanguagersquocould justifiably be replaced by lsquosemiotic mediationrsquo

In the development of the child as a social being language has the central role Language is themain channel through which the patterns of living are transmitted to him through which helearns to act as a member of lsquosocietyrsquo ndashin and through the various social groups the family theneighbourhood and so onndash and to adopt its lsquoculturersquo its modes of thought and action itsbeliefs and its values (1978 p 9)

However as the child grows older language does become the predominantmode of semiotic mediation and as he wrote in a later paper ldquoLanguage is theessential condition of knowing the process by which experience becomes know-ledge (Halliday 1993 p 94 original emphasis)

Assistance for Learning in Joint Activitie

So far in the discussion of the role of joint activity in human development Ihave concentrated on the tools and particularly the semiotic modes of represen-tation that mediate the achievement of the outcome of activity In this sectionon the other hand I turn to the role of other people in this process both familymembers and the larger community

Until now I have referred to coparticipants in an activity in general termsbut clearly there are further distinctions to be made Particularly helpful in thisrespect is Engestroumlmrsquos model of an activity system which is shown in figure 1

What this model shows is that when we look at an ongoing activity from thepoint of view of an individual participant (t Subject) that individual is involvedin a nexus of other relationships that link him or her to other lsquoparticipantsrsquo theTools and artifacts to mediate action on the Object but also the Community of

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 1The Triangle of Activity

Artifactstools andpractices

Values rulesamp conventions

Community Divisioacutenof labor

Engestrom 1999

Object OutcomeSubject

others engaged in the activity together with the Division of Labor within thatcommunity and also the Rules and Conventions that govern the manner inwhich the activity is carried out (Engestroumlm 1999) What this latter category oflsquoparticipantrsquo underscores is the historical dimension of an activity system sincethese rules and conventions ndashas well as the tools and artifactsndash bring into thepresent the distilled practices of previous generations who have engaged in theactivity as these are interpreted and utilized by the current community

To illustrate the relevance of this model to the development of the youngchild we might compare two versions of a similar activity reported by WertschMinick and Arns (1984) In their study Brazilian children carried out a puzzletask on two occasions first with the mother and secondly with a primary tea-cher What the researchers found was that in general the mothers and teachersengaged in the activity in systematically different ways Whereas the motherstended to direct the childrenrsquos behavior or even carry out parts of the task them-selves in order to complete it in an efficient manner ndashjust as they would havedone if engaged in a household taskndash the teachers tended to encourage thechildrsquos autonomous performance and only provided hints and suggestions whenthey judged them to be necessary to advance the childrenrsquos understandingInterpreting these results the researchers suggested that the two groups ofadults belonged to two different communities (or activity systems) that had dif-ferent rules and conventions about engaging in this joint activity And this inturn led to the different divisions of labor that they observed Similarly Rogoff(2003) cites many examples of substantial differences between cultures inalmost all aspects of child rearing with respect to their ways of engaging chil-dren in the activities that they consider important

What is clear is that ldquobehindrdquo the particular adult ndashor older siblings in someculturesndash who are directly engaged with the child there is a wider communityof family members neighbors and others who have an interest in the upbrin-ging of children and who share beliefs about appropriate ways to involve themin the activities of daily life So whether in Spain Japan or the Peruvian High-lands although the actual practices vary across cultures in each those responsi-ble for childrenrsquos well-being and development act as agents of a wider commu-nity whose beliefs and practices are rooted in a long tradition concerning howactivities should be carried out But equally in all cultures practices also changein response to changes in the world beyond the particular community In manyWestern homes for example computer games or television programs haverecently taken the place of the bedtime story while in many indigenous com-munities crafts that until recently only supplied local needs are now exploitedcommercially for the tourist trade changing the rhythms of daily life and therelationships among family members and the activities in which children areinvolved As suggested earlier therefore in order to understand the activities inwhich children participate today we need to look not only at the immediatesituation but also at the wider community and the changes taking place on allthese time-scales

Microgenesis and the Zone of Proximal Development

It is nevertheless always the immediate microgenetic situation that isthe site of ontogenetic development ndashthe action and interaction between thelearner and those with whom he or she is engaged in the activity in pro-gress When we adopt this microgenetic perspective however we need tomodify the representation of an activity system presented in figure 1 Inthat representation the focus was on the goal-oriented nature of action

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Here we need to focus on the interaction among the participants ndashtheirattempt to attain intersubjectivity with respect to the common object andthe complementarity of the knowledgeable skills they bring to the cocons-truction of the intended outcome (see Figure 2) What figure 2 emphasizesis the fact that although the tools and artefacts that are available to mediatethe jointly undertaken action are the same for each participant each bringsa somewhat different familiarity with their use as a result of their differentlife trajectories and it is this variability in their expertise that makes it pos-sible for each to provide assistance to the others in at least some aspects ofthe joint action Viewed in this light it is clear why Vygotsky emphasizedthe role of joint activity in development and wrote of its potential to enablelearners ldquoto go beyond themselvesrdquo with the assistance of more expertothers

The metaphor Vygotsky used to characterize the potential for learning thatthis sort of activity creates was the ldquozone of proximal developmentrdquo As hewrote when another participant in the activity provides instruction that isappropriately pitched beyond what the learner can manage to do on his or herown it ldquowakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturationlying in the zone of proximal developmentrdquo (1987 p 212) Vygotsky concep-tualized development as the formation of new functional systems (ldquoneoforma-tionsrdquo) and of changes in the relationships among systems which he consideredto occur as a succession of ldquocrises of developmentrdquo that are particularly facilitatedby engagement in the relevant ldquoleading activityrdquo at each stage for example playin childhood and learning to read and write in the early school yearsHowever itwould be a mistake to focus only on the periods of revolutionary change since ashe equally emphasized at any time there are also other more gradual processes ofgrowth

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 2Dialogue in Joint Activity(from Wells2002b)

Outcomematerial ampsemioticartefacts

Toolsartefacts

Subject

Rulesconventions

Community Divisionof labor

Subject

Toolsartefacts

Processes that are central lines of development at one age become peripheral lines of develop-ment at the following age and conversely peripheral lines of development of one age arebrought to the forefront and become central lines since their meaning and relative significancein the total structure of development changes (p 197)2

In developing his important concept of the zone of proximal developmentVygotsky tended to characterize the assistance given by others as ldquoinstructionrdquoand to see its value in ldquothe childrsquos potential to raise himself to a higher intellec-tual level of development through collaboration to move from what he has towhat he does not have through imitationrdquo (1987 p 210) However manyrecent scholars who have built on his work have taken a broader view of thedevelopmental significance of collaboration in joint activities and have characte-rized the assistance that is provided within this relationship in terms such asldquoapprenticeshiprdquo (Lave amp Wenger 1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoguided participationrdquo(Rogoff 1994 2003) and ldquoscaffoldingrdquo (Wood et al 1976) Neverthelesswhile these different metaphors highlight different features of the relationshipwhat they all have in common is the inclusion of the learner in an activity inwhich there is provision of the assistance necessary to help the learner to comple-te an activity in which he or she is interested and to do so in such a way that heor she makes progress toward being able to participate more fully and autono-mously in the future (Maybin Mercer and Stierer 1992)

In many joint activities such as for example traditional forms of craftapprenticeship assistance is only provided when needed and the ldquomasterrdquo doesso with no deliberate didactic intention beyond that of involving the novice inthe completion of the particular task in hand (Lave 1996) Similarly in sociali-zation into activities around the home no explicit instruction is necessary fornovices can learn a great deal by simply watching and listening (cf Rogoff2003) This is what Lave and Wenger (1991) mean when they insist that lear-ning is not an independent activity but an intrinsic aspect of ldquolegitimate perip-heral participationrdquo in a communityrsquos activities From their perspective therefo-re formal education in which learning is the sole purpose of the activity issomething of an anomaly particularly when the only form of assistance providedis the expert teacherrsquos direct instruction and subsequent evaluation of the extentof the studentsrsquo learning

In many recent discussions it has also been recognized that it is not only aldquoteacherrdquo who can provide assistance in the zpd On the one hand in a com-plex activity many participants are more expert than others in some aspectsand therefore on some occasions are able to help those who are less expert(Rogoff 1994) and on the other hand those who provide assistance do nothave to be physically present texts and other artifacts can equally well helpa participant ldquoto go beyond himherselfrdquo as is often the case in intellectualwork such as research and writ ing (Wells 1999) Furthermore asEngestroumlm (1999) and others ndashbuilding on other aspects of Vygotskyrsquos theo-retical writingsndash have noted the material and symbolic tools that have beendeveloped by previous participants in the activity can also provide the samesort of assistance However perhaps the most important point to emphasizeis that there are many situations in which no-one is an expert yet as eachbrings his or her own past experience to the solution of a common problemthe group together is able to achieve more than any single member couldhave done alone Clearly it is such collaboration that has made possible theinventions that have led to the major advances of great civilizations over thecourse of cultural history

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Development in the Pre-School Years

As noted above the responsibility for caring for children in early childhoodvaries very considerably from one society to another Nevertheless in all socie-ties children are involved in joint activities with others in which they receiveassistance with respect to their participation however that may be locally achie-ved For the most part as already mentioned these are activities that are regu-larly repeated in the taken-for-granted routines of daily life The expectation isthat the child will learn to fit in and is simply helped to do so Often referred toas ldquoenculturationrdquo this form of apprenticeship ensures the continuity of the cul-turersquos way of life from one generation to the next and as Donald (1991) arguedit probably occurred even before the emergence of speech

However in all activities there are occasions when problems arise that callfor some level of deliberate decision-making In these situations spoken interac-tion makes possible a degree of reflection and forward planning in which therelations of cause and effect intention action and outcome are made explicitand open to question and discussion The talk that occurs on these occasionsthus plays a particularly important role in helping children to attend to andunderstand the world around them in terms of the culturersquos ways of ldquomakingsenserdquo of it However these occasions can also open up possibilities for changeboth in the form of the activity and in the participantsrsquo understanding of itHow caregivers habitually take up these opportunities is particularly importantfor it plays an important part in shaping the intellectual dispositions withwhich children enter school (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo amp Sterponi2002)

In this section I include some representative examples of kinds of talk thatarise from joint activities in the home These examples are drawn from observa-tions made in settings in England (Wells 1986) and Australia (Hasan 2002) inwhich the young children observed spent most of their time at home with oneparent sometimes with one or more siblings some of the time they entertainedthemselves with occasional adult involvement but they also frequently watchedand ldquohelpedrdquo the parent with household tasks of various kinds

In the first example James (aged 3 12 years) has been playing alone in thegarden and as he reenters the house his mother tries to get him to take off hismuddy shoes However at that moment he sees a bird outside which interestshim more than changing his shoes

Example 1Mother There we are there one slipper onJames I can see a birdMother A what loveJames See a bird Mother (whispering) Is there OutsideJames (pointing and whispering) Yes see

(both continue to speak very softly)Mother Is he eating anythingJames NoMother Where Oh yes hersquos getting- do you know what hersquos doingJames NoMother Hersquos going to the- the paper sack to try to pick out some pieces-

Oh hersquos got some food there and I expect hersquoll pick out somepieces of thread from the sack to go and make his nest under the roofJames Wait a minute and Irsquoll-[James now wants to go out to see more closely but at that moment thebird flies away]

James That birdrsquos gone

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

In the second example Elizabeth (aged 4 years) who is helping with thehouse cleaning watches with interest as her mother shovels wood ash from thefireplace into a bucket

Example 2Elizabeth What are you doing that forMother Irsquom gathering it up and putting it outside so that Daddy can put it on the gardenElizabeth Why does he have to put it on the gardenMother To make the compost rightElizabeth Does that make the grass growMother YesElizabeth Why does itMother You know how I tell you that you need to eat different things like eggs and cab-

bage and rice pudding to make you grow into a big girlElizabeth YesMother Well plants need different foods too and ash is one of the things thatrsquos

good for them

The third example involves James again now eighteen months older Earlierin the afternoon he had been helping his mother with the baking Now hecomes back into the kitchen as his mother is taking the baking trays out of theoven He hears a loud metallic ldquocrackrdquo and asks for an explanation

Example 3James Who did thatMother I expect it was the tin contractingJames Which tinMother The one with your pastry inJames Why did it make that noiseMother Well when it was in the oven it got very hot and stretched a bit Irsquove just taken

it out of the oven and itrsquos cooling down very quickly you see and that noisehappens when it gets smaller again and goes back to its normal shape

James Oh was it a different shape in the ovenMother Oh not very different just a little biggerJames Naughty little tin you might get smacked if you do it again

In all three of these examples the mother willingly responds to the childrsquosinterest and provides information to explain the significance of what the child isseeing or hearing even when in the first this interrupts the motherrsquos plan Allthree cases show how the childrsquos participation in the activity with the adult assu-res that there is intersubjectivity of attention to what interests the child and thisenables the mother to provide relevant information Clearly this is a form ofldquoinstructionrdquo however it is spontaneous and contingent on the childrsquos interestrather than presented as part of a pre-planned curriculum

The third example is particularly interesting from this point of view as thephenomenon of interest to James requires a somewhat technical explanation Atsome point in the future no doubt the expansion of metal when heated and itssubsequent contraction when removed from the heat will figure in the schoolscience curriculum in relation to the systematic study of heat here however itis an interesting side-effect of baking and the motherrsquos explanation while tech-nical in content is couched in everyday language rather than in the abstractterms of scientific generalization As Hasan (2002) has observed

the discourse of quasi specialised knowledge occurs in the lsquomiddle ofrsquo daily activities and bynecessity it calls for a readiness on the motherrsquos part to entertain contextual shifts to bewilling to reclassify the context of the on-going discourse The tendency to move with thechildrsquos moving discourse the readiness to re-classify context is a discourse characteristic of thesame group of mothers who frequently ask questions made precise by qualification and whoattend to their childrenrsquos questions and provide them with well developed answers (p 123)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 4: Actividad y Aprendizaje

sastres que intercambiaron sus productos por comida y otras necesidades Estaetapa vio tambieacuten el desarrollo de grupos poblacionales maacutes amplios con clasesjerarquizadas que incluiacutean sacerdotes recaudadores de impuestos y otros funcio-narios poliacuteticos y religiosos

Mientras la migracioacuten habiacutea sido una caracteriacutestica comuacuten de la existenciahumana en los tiempos tempranos el desarrollo de grandes poblaciones sedenta-rias y de armas de bronce y hierro condujeron a la expansioacuten de ciertos gruposculturales mediante la conquista territorial y la colonizacioacuten por tierra y marConsecuentemente durante los uacuteltimos mil antildeos la uacuteltima fase del desarrollofilogeneacutetico ha estado caracterizada por el auge y la caiacuteda de las culturas imperia-les que han impuesto sus tecnologiacuteas leyes y procedimientos administrativosasiacute como sus religiones artes conocimiento y valores a poblaciones subyugadasmuy diversas Maacutes recientemente el desarrollo adicional de las invenciones queha llevado a la primera revolucioacuten industrial ha servido simplemente para incre-mentar la escala e intensidad de estas tendencias imperialistas Al mismo tiem-po estas invenciones asiacute como las debidas a la actual revolucioacuten industrial hanconducido tambieacuten a un incremento en la comprensioacuten humana de su ambientesocial y material tanto mediante la investigacioacuten social y cientiacutefica comomediante la diseminacioacuten de informacioacuten sobre otros tiempos y lugares debido alos viajes y al uso del material impreso y las tecnologiacuteas electroacutenicas

Al presentar esta condensada siacutentesis del desarrollo filogeneacutetico he enfatizadolas herramientas materiales que han mediado las actividades progresivamentemaacutes complejas y diversas en las que los humanos se han sumergido a lo largo delcurso de la historia de las especies Sin embargo teniendo en mente que la fuerzaconductora del desarrollo humano es la actividad conjunta un determinanteigualmente importante ndashsi no maacutesndash de esta historia es el desarrollo de modos derepresentacioacuten mediante los cuales los humanos han comunicado y ampliado sucomprensioacuten del mundo La tabla I presenta la secuencia de desarrollo de estosmodos de representacioacuten propuesta por Donald (1991) basada en evidenciasarqueoloacutegicas neoroanatoacutemicas e histoacutericas entre otras La tabla ademaacutes incluyelas etapas en el desarrollo histoacuterico de los modos de conocimiento que fueronpropuestos por Wartofsky (1979)

La primera etapa en esta secuencia corresponde a la fase en la cual los proto-humanos comienzan a divergir de otras especies de primates En esta fase comoen el comportamiento de los primates contemporaacuteneos superiores la accioacutenpraacutectica era la forma predominante de comunicacioacuten mediante la que ndashno nece-sariamente de forma deliberadandash los participantes sentildealaban sus intenciones enuna situacioacuten compartida y estas intenciones eran interpretadas y respondidaspor sus co-participantes en la actividad En la segunda etapa la fase gestualndashdesarrollada gradualmente durante muchos mileniosndash la comunicacioacuten se con-virtioacute en algo diferente de la actividad a la cual se referiacutea cuando los humanosusaron deliberadamente gestos mimo expresiones faciales y varios tipos defonacioacuten para comentar y coordinar la accioacuten y los objetivos a los cuaacuteles eacutesta esta-ba dirigida Soacutelo despueacutes con la modificacioacuten gradual del tracto vocal y del cere-bro primate emergioacute la habilidad para comunicarse mediante el habla y por lotanto la habilidad para referirse no soacutelo a objetos particulares y acciones sinotambieacuten a clases generalizadas y para expresar relaciones observadas y deseadasentre objetos acciones y eventos permitiendo de este modo a los participantesplanificar y reflexionar sobre los resultados de su actividad conjunta Finalmen-te la invencioacuten de la escritura en la uacuteltima fase de la secuencia propuesta porDonald ocurrioacute en un momento extremadamente reciente en la larga trayectoriadel desarrollo filogeneacutetico A pesar de todo como con aquellos modos de repre-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187168

sentacioacuten que la precedieron incrementoacute enormemente el repertorio humano demedios para hacer y comunicar significados Esencialmente lo que antildeadioacute fueuna ldquomemoria externardquo Gracias a la creacioacuten de una representacioacuten (relativa-mente) permanente de significados linguumliacutesticos es posible la compilacioacuten y des-tilacioacuten de la informacioacuten transmitida por diferentes fuentes incluyendo los pro-pios pensamientos verbalizados del escritor Esto tambieacuten permitioacute al escritor y aaquellos que leiacutean sus textos repasar criticar y corregir los significados expresa-dos y ponerlos a disposicioacuten de otras personas en tiempos futuros y en otros luga-res permitiendo continuar la construccioacuten del debate y su mejora en el futuro

169El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

TABLA IModos de conocimiento Desarrollo Filogeneacutetico y Cultural (Wells 1999)

Tiempo en antildeos Modo de Participantes Donald (1991) Wartofsky (1979)transcurridos conocimiento

Dos millones de Instrumental Individuos en accioacuten Episoacutedico Artefactosantildeos primarios

herramientasmateriales

1 mdash15 millones Procedimental Entre individuos mientrasde antildeos participacioacuten en la accioacuten Gestual o miacutemico Artefactos

secundariosherramientasy praacutecticasinteraccioacutenmimeacutetica

50000 antildeos Substantivo Entre miembros de un grupo (Linguumliacutestico) Artefactoscultural reflexionando sobre la secundariosaccioacuten como base para la representaciones deplanificacioacuten de acciones futuras herramientas y

praacutecticasinteraccioacutenmediante el habla

50000 antildeos Esteacutetico Entre miembros de un grupo Miacutetico Artefactoscultural dando sentido a las terciariostribulaciones humanas representaciones

artiacutesticas en modode mitosnarracionesgraacuteficos y muacutesica

2500 antildeos Teoacuterico Entre miembros de una Teoacuterico Artefactoscomunidad especializada para terciarios explicar el mundo natural y representaciones humano descontextualizadas

tales comotaxonomiacuteas teoriacuteasmodelos etceacutetera

iquest Meta Entre miembros de u grupo Artefactoscultural tambieacuten entre terciariosindividuos buscando representaciones de comprender y controlar su los procesospropia actividad mental mentales y semioacuteticos

Sin embargo accioacuten gesto habla y escritura no son simplemente modos decomunicacioacuten progresivamente maacutes poderosos Son tambieacuten mediadores de pen-samiento progresivamente maacutes potentes Esto es maacutes evidente con respecto a losmodos linguumliacutesticos de comunicacioacuten Pero incluso antes de la emergencia delhabla la accioacuten y ndashen mayor gradondash la miacutemica permitieron a los humanos pen-sar juntos y consecuentemente crear una interpretacioacuten compartida de sus acti-vidades conjuntas De hecho se ha argumentado que la emergencia del lenguajeno fue simplemente el resultado del desarrollo del cerebro y del tracto vocal sinoque maacutes bien fue parte de un esquema general de adaptacioacuten maacutes amplio queconstruido sobre los eacutexitos cognitivos del conocimiento mimeacutetico se esforzoacute porintegrar las unidades inconexas de informacioacuten en todo maacutes comprensivo y cohe-rente de estar en el mundo (Deacon 1997) Sin embargo es tambieacuten verdad quela disponibilidad del lenguaje intensificoacute sustancial y conjuntamente tanto lacomunicacioacuten como el pensamiento ya que como Halliday observoacute

La gramaacutetica de todas las lenguas naturales es (entre otras cosas) una teoriacutea de la experienciahumana es mediante nuestros actos de significado como transformamos la experiencia en elconjunto coherente de retazos ndashaunque lejos de ser constantendash que aprendemos a proyectarcomo lsquorealidadrsquo (1993 p 46)

En resumen lo que Donald y otros acadeacutemicos argumentan es que las habili-dades mentales contemporaacuteneas son el resultado del desarrollo en el tiempo deuna serie de modos de representacioacuten cada vez maacutes poderosos y flexibles ndasho enteacuterminos Vygotskyanos de mediadores semioacuteticos de las funciones mentalessuperioresndash que han hecho posible la razoacuten los modos de conocimiento teoacuterica-mente orientados que sustentan los logros de la ciencia moderna y sus aplicacio-nes tecnoloacutegicas En palabras del filoacutesofo Wartofsky

nuestra comprensioacuten perceptiva y cognitiva del mundo es en gran medida conformada ymodificada por los artefactos de representacioacuten que nosotros mismos creamos De esta manerasomos en efecto el producto de nuestra propia actividad transformamos nuestros modos per-ceptivos y cognitivos nuestra manera de ver y comprender por medio de las representacionesque hacemos (1979 p xxiii)

Hay sin embargo un aspecto maacutes importante de la tesis de Donald (1991)que es crucial para el argumento que quiero desarrollar Aunque cada sistemasemioacutetico de miacutemica habla y escritura fortalece un nuevo modo de actividadcognitiva no reemplaza a los que les preceden sino que se antildeade a sus efectos Elresultado es que los humanos contemporaacuteneos tienen una variedad de modos deconocimiento a su disposicioacuten cuando se implican en actividades conjuntasAdemaacutes la mayoriacutea de estas actividades requieren maacutes de un modo de conoci-miento y del uso complementario e interdependiente de maacutes de un modo derepresentacioacuten

La actividad conjunta como el lugar del aprendizaje y desarrolloontogeneacutetico

De la concepcioacuten histoacuterica multi-nivel del desarrollo que se acaba de subrayarderivan dos implicaciones importantes

En primer lugar en todo momento el tipo de actividad que se emprenda yla manera especiacutefica en la que se desarrolle son necesariamente dependientesde los antecedentes histoacuterico-culturales de los participantes tanto humanoscomo instrumentales que concurren en su realizacioacuten En particular la mane-ra en la que la situacioacuten es interpretada ndashqueacute objetivos de actuacioacuten se conside-ran apropiados y coacutemo pueden ser alcanzadosndash depende de los motivos valores

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187170

y habilidades de los participantes humanos y de las ventajas ofrecidas por lastecnologiacuteas disponibles

En segundo lugar cualquier instante de la actividad proporciona una ocasioacutenpara una triple transformacioacuten (1) de la situacioacuten en la que la actividad es desa-rrollada (2) de los artefactos y de las praacutecticas que median su implementacioacuten y(3) maacutes importante auacuten del conocimiento y habilidades de los participanteshumanos

Estas dos implicaciones consideradas globalmente clarifican la manera en laque la cultura y el desarrollo individual son mutuamente interdependientes yhunden sus raiacuteces en oportunidades de actividad conjunta particulares y situa-das Como Rogoff (1994) argumenta

Las personas de cada generacioacuten mientras se comprometen en esfuerzos socioculturales conotras personas hacen uso y enriquecen herramientas culturales y praacutecticas heredadas de lasgeneraciones precedentes Ya que las personas se desarrollan mediante el uso compartido depraacutecticas y herramientas culturales contribuyen simultaacuteneamente a la transformacioacuten de lasherramientas culturales praacutecticas e instituciones (p 52)

Potencialmente por lo tanto toda ocasioacuten de actividad conjunta proporcionauna oportunidad para el desarrollo de todos los participantes Eacuteste es un punto alque volvereacute Pero antes quiero considerar con maacutes cuidado el concepto de desa-rrollo mismo

Claramente el concepto de desarrollo implica cambio y tiacutepicamente uncambio en la direccioacuten de incrementar la complejidad y la efectividad En otraspalabras se suele considerar que el desarrollo implica mejora o progreso haciaalguacuten estado o capacidad final ideal Sin embargo a la luz de la discusioacuten previatal progresioacuten aunque puede ser significativa para (alguno de) los participantesde una situacioacuten particular no puede ser entendida en un sentido absoluto Maacutesbien debe considerarse con relatividad si se atiende al despliegue de la trayecto-ria histoacuterica de la especie de una cultura particular y de la comunidad inmediatandashsus valores sus actividades predominantes y las habilidades conocidas que for-man sus recursosndash Ademaacutes al igual que esto ha cambiado en el pasado conti-nuaraacute cambiando en el futuro en respuesta a las demandas de cambio de losambientes cada vez maacutes amplios Por tanto mientras el desarrollo ontogeneacuteticoimplica claramente el incremento de la complejidad y la efectividad de la parti-cipacioacuten de los individuos en los sistemas de actividad en que estaacuten inmersosdurante sus vidas diarias la trayectoria maacutes amplia del desarrollo estaacute emergien-do y su destino no puede ser especificado por adelantado aunque se haga en teacuter-minos de un ideal por alcanzar

Sin embargo esto no significa que no haya fuertes regularidades en la secuen-cia del desarrollo ontogeneacutetico particularmente en los primeros antildeos De hechocomo Nelson (1996) ha sugerido durante los antildeos preescolares los nintildeos siguenuna trayectoria muy similar a la secuencia de desarrollo filogeneacutetico propuestapor Donald (1991) (ver la Tabla I) a medida que se apropian de las herramientassemioacuteticas de representacioacuten facilitadas por la accioacuten el gesto el habla y la escri-tura Por supuesto esto no es una simple recapitulacioacuten los nintildeos crecen en uncultura contemporaacutenea alfabetizada en la que estaacuten rodeados desde el nacimientopor artefactos y praacutecticas que resultan de incorporan todos los modos de conoci-miento disponibles (Cole 1996) Apropiarse de las herramientas culturales exis-tentes es asiacute muy diferente de inventarlas ex novo como Scribner (1985) precisa

Sin embargo dada la combinacioacuten de la herencia bioloacutegica y cultural no essorprendente que en la mayoriacutea de las culturas ndashsi no en todasndash los nintildeos sigan

171El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

la misma secuencia que siguioacute la especie como un todo a lo largo del curso de lahistoria

En las primeras semanas de vida los bebeacutes actuacutean en su entorno inmediatotanto animado como inanimado y comienzan a desarrollar lo que Piaget (1970)llamoacute inteligencia sensorio-motora Aunque eacutesta es la forma maacutes baacutesica de acti-vidad y puede parecer refleja (instintiva) es tambieacuten inherentemente social yaque en primer lugar todos los nintildeos nacen en un entorno que es cultural en elsentido de haber sido compartido por incontables generaciones precedentes yen segundo lugar la accioacuten del recieacuten nacido es realzada en interacciones sociales(Newson 1978) En una segunda fase que comienza generalmente en los prime-ros meses los bebeacutes tambieacuten comienzan a implicarse en la comunicacioacuten ges-tual mediante fijaciones de la mirada expresiones faciales y gestos rudimenta-rios (Bruner 1990) Apoyaacutendose en los teacuterminos de intersubjetividad primaria ysecundaria esta fase ha sido descrita con mucho detalle por Trevarthen (Trevart-hen y Hubley 1978 Trevarthen 1979) La intersubjetividad primaria se desa-rrolla cuando el nintildeo y su progenitor se dirigen mutuamente miradas fijascomunicaacutendose asiacute que se estaacuten atendiendo y respondiendo En la intersubjetivi-dad secundaria la atencioacuten conjunta recae sobre un tercer elemento como cuan-do el progenitor mediante miradas fijas dirige la atencioacuten del bebeacute a un objetode intereacutes potencial o sigue la direccioacuten de la mirada del nintildeo y sentildeala que tam-bieacuten estaacute atendiendo al mismo objeto

Sobre esta base de accioacuten y atencioacuten conjunta hacia el final del primer antildeo elnintildeo comienza a explotar su repertorio creciente de vocalizaciones a menudoacompantildeadas de gestos para empezar a comunicarse mediante el habla Deacuerdo con la investigacioacuten disponible realizada principalmente con nintildeos desociedades ldquooccidentalesrdquo al principio las elocuciones son idiosincraacutesicas dibu-jando soacutelo parcialmente en el habla ndashno del todondash aquello que les rodea sinembargo los padres y otros miembros de la familia tienen pocas dificultadespara interpretarlas dentro de un contexto y de nuevo responden de una maneraque es contingente con su interpretacioacuten estableciendo asiacute la comunicacioacutenhablada como una actividad interactiva conjunta Al final del segundo antildeo sinembargo los nintildeos parecen abandonar su forma indiosincraacutesica ldquoprotolinguumliacutesti-cardquo de comunicacioacuten y comienzan a construir un potencial de significados lin-guumliacutesticos sistemaacuteticamente relacionado con el lenguaje que les dirigen en lasactividades habituales de la vida familiar (Bruner 1990 Halliday 1975 Wells1986) Expresivamente en una comunidad linguumliacutestica particular la secuencia enla que los nintildeos dominan los significados baacutesicos y las formas leacutexicogramaticalesen las que se realizan tiende a ser muy similar de unos nintildeos a otros (Wells1985)

La secuencia de desarrollo que acaba de describirse ndashaccioacuten gesto hablandash escomuacuten a los nintildeos en todas las culturas y en todos los casos tiene lugar con otrosfamiliares y miembros de la comunidad mediante la accioacuten e interaccioacuten conjun-ta Sin embargo aunque la secuencia es universal el modo concreto en el que sedespliega variacutea considerablemente de unas culturas a otras Estas diferenciasdependen de muchos factores determinados culturalmente tales como las expec-tativas de los adultos sobre el desarrollo de sus hijos la posicioacuten en la que el bebeacutees sostenido o llevado ndashdando la cara al cuidador o con la cara vuelta en la mismadireccioacuten que el adultondash la configuracioacuten y tamantildeo de los grupos interaccionalesen los que la comunicacioacuten suele tener lugar y si estos eventos son parte de lavida familiar y comunitaria maacutes general o son deliberadamente disentildeados yestructurados para el supuesto beneficio del nintildeo (Rogoff 2003) En las etapastardiacuteas del desarrollo del lenguaje la gama y amplitud de significados potencia-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187172

les que los nintildeos construyen comienza a variar incluso de manera maacutes ampliadependiendo de las actividades en las que intervengan de los registros linguumliacutesti-cos que se usan en esas actividades y de las posturas tiacutepicamente adoptadas porlos interlocutores hacia el uso del lenguaje en sus interacciones con los nintildeos(Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

Hasta ahora la secuencia de desarrollo ontogeneacutetico que he descrito es baacutesica-mente similar en todas las culturas y sigue la secuencia filogeneacutetica en la que loshumanos han ido acumulando de manera progresiva nuevos recursos semioacuteticosmediacionales a sus repertorios comunicativos De forma llamativa por lo tantoel modo uacuteltimo de representacioacuten en el esquema de Donald que es la escrituraes un extra opcional puesto que muchas culturas han sobrevivido y prosperadosin una modalidad escrita de representacioacuten de significados Ademaacutes incluso enculturas que poseen un sistema de escritura el grado y alcance de alfabetizacioacutenque los individuos logran variacutea considerablemente dependiendo de los sistemasde actividad en los que participan del valor otorgado por la comunidad a los tex-tos escritos de los propoacutesitos a los que sirven y de los geacuteneros que se usan paraalcanzar esos propoacutesitos Sin embargo ya que la alfabetizacioacuten y sus usos estaacutenfuertemente asociados a la escolarizacioacuten maacutes adelante abordareacute con mayor pro-fundidad la discusioacuten de esta modalidad de mediacioacuten semioacutetica

Sin embargo quiero explorar con maacutes detalle el concepto de mediacioacutensemioacutetica antes de concluir esta seccioacuten En uno de los pasajes mejor conocidosde los escritos de Vygotski donde argumenta en favor del origen social y cultu-ral de las funciones metales superiores escribe que cada funcioacuten ocurre en dosplanos primero en la actividad e interaccioacuten entre personas y despueacutes en el apren-diz individual (Vygotski 1981) Lo que sirve de puente entre estos dos planoscomo se aclara en otros escritos suyos es la mediacioacuten semioacutetica Recueacuterdesecoacutemo formula Leontiev este argumento

es imposible transmitir los significados y meacutetodos necesarios para realizar un proceso de otraforma que no sea social ndashen la forma de una accioacuten o habla externandash En otras palabras los pro-cesos psicoloacutegicos superiores exclusivamente humanos soacutelo pueden ser adquiridos mediante lainteraccioacuten con otros esto es a traveacutes de un proceso interpsicoloacutegico que soacutelo maacutes tardecomenzaraacute a ser desarrollado independientemente por el individuo (1981 pp 55-56)

En otras palabras cuando las personas realizan una actividad conjunta susacciones gestos y discurso no soacutelo median la coordinacioacuten de la participacioacutentambieacuten hacen puacuteblicas las actividades mentales implicadas quedando asiacute dis-ponibles para su apropiacioacuten por parte de los participantes novatos1 Halliday sepronuncia con mucha claridad al respecto Aunque la cita siguiente se refieresoacutelo al lenguaje el teacutermino ldquolenguajerdquo podriacutea justificadamente ser reemplazadoaquiacute por ldquomediacioacuten semioacuteticardquo

En el desarrollo del nintildeo como un ser social el lenguaje posee el papel central El lenguaje es elprincipal canal por el que los patrones de vida le son transmitidos mediante el cual aprende aactuar como un miembro de la ldquosociedadrdquo ndashen y mediante la variedad de grupos sociales lafamilia los vecinos etceacuteterandash y a adoptar su ldquoculturardquo su modo de pensar y actuar sus creen-cias y sus valoresrdquo (1978 p 9)

Sin embargo a medida que los nintildeos crecen el lenguaje se convierte en elmodo predominante de mediacioacuten semioacutetica y como el mismo autor escribioacute enun trabajo posterior ldquoEl lenguaje es la condicioacuten esencial del conocimiento elproceso por el que la experiencia se convierte en conocimientordquo (Halliday 1993 p94 cursiva en el original)

173El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Ayuda para aprender en actividades conjuntas

Hasta ahora en la discusioacuten del papel de la actividad conjunta en el desarrollohumano me he centrado en las herramientas y particularmente en los modossemioacuteticos de representacioacuten que median los logros obtenidos como resultado dela actividad En esta seccioacuten en cambio me detendreacute en el papel que jueganotras personas ya sean miembros de la familia o de la comunidad extensa

Hasta este momento me he referido a los coparticipantes en una actividad enteacuterminos generales pero claramente hay distinciones adicionales por hacer Par-ticularmente uacutetil al respecto es el modelo de sistema de actividad de Engestroumlmel cual se representa en la figura 1

Lo que este modelo muestra es que cuando observamos una actividad encurso desde el punto de vista de un participante individual (Sujeto t) ese indivi-duo estaacute atrapado en un nudo de relaciones que le unen a otros ldquoparticipantesrdquolas Herramientas y Artefactos para mediar la accioacuten sobre el Objeto pero tam-bieacuten la Comunidad a la que pertenecen las personas implicadas en la actividadjunto con la Divisioacuten de Trabajo propia de la comunidad y tambieacuten las Reglas yConvenciones que gobierna la manera en la que la actividad se desarrolla(Engestroumlm 1999) Lo que subraya esta uacuteltima categoriacutea de ldquoparticipantesrdquo es ladimensioacuten histoacuterica de un sistema de actividad ya que estas reglas y convencio-nes ndashal igual que las herramientas y artefactosndash traen al presente las praacutecticasdestiladas de las generaciones previas que han participado en la actividad y estaspraacutecticas son interpretadas y utilizadas por la comunidad actual

Para ilustrar la relevancia de este modelo en el desarrollo del nintildeo pequentildeopodemos comparar dos versiones de una actividad similar descrita por WertschMinick y Arns (1984) En este estudio un grupo de nintildeos de Brasil ordenan unpuzzle en dos situaciones distintas la primera con sus madres y la segunda conun profesor de primaria Los investigadores observaron que en general las

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187174

FIGURA 1Triaacutengulo de Actividad

Artefactosherramientas y

praacutecticas

Valores reglasy convenciones

Comunidad Divisioacuten delabor

Engestrom 1999

Objeto ResultadosSujeto

madres y los profesores participan en la actividad de manera sistemaacuteticamentediferente Mientras que las madres tendiacutean a dirigir el comportamiento de losnintildeos o incluso a realizar parte de la tarea ellas mismas para completarla de unamanera eficaz ndashtal y como habriacutean hecho si se tratara de una tarea domeacutesticandashlos profesores tendiacutean a promover la actuacioacuten autoacutenoma de los nintildeos y soacutelo pro-porcionaban consejos y sugerencias cuando lo juzgaban necesario para el avancede la comprensioacuten de los nintildeos Interpretando estos resultados los investigado-res sugeriacutean que los dos grupos de adultos perteneciacutean a dos comunidades dife-rentes (o sistemas de actividad) con diferentes reglas y convenciones sobre la par-ticipacioacuten en actividades conjuntas Y esto alternativamente conduciacutea a la dife-rente divisioacuten del trabajo que ellos observaron De manera similar Rogoff(2003) cita muchos ejemplos de diferencias sustanciales entre culturas en casitodos los aspectos del crecimiento infantil con respecto a sus modos de implicar alos nintildeos en las actividades que consideran importantes

Lo que estaacute claro es que ldquodetraacutes derdquo un adulto particular en contacto directocon el nintildeo ndasho en algunas culturas un hermano mayorndash hay una comunidadamplia formada por los miembros de la familia vecinos y otras personas interesa-das en la educacioacuten del nintildeo que comparten determinadas creencias sobre elmodo maacutes apropiado de introducir a los nintildeos en las actividades de la vida diariaPor eso ya sea en Espantildea Japoacuten o las Montantildeas Peruanas aunque las praacutecticasactuales variacutean a traveacutes de las culturas en todas los responsables del bienestar ydel desarrollo de los nintildeos actuacutean como agentes de una comunidad maacutes ampliacuyas creencias y praacutecticas estaacuten arraigadas en una larga tradicioacuten sobre coacutemodeben llevarse a cabo las actividades Pero igualmente en todas las culturas laspraacutecticas tambieacuten cambian en respuesta a los cambios en el mundo maacutes allaacute deuna comunidad particular En muchos hogares Occidentales por ejemplo losjuegos de ordenadores o los programas de televisioacuten han ocupado recientementeel lugar de los cuentos antes de dormir mientras que en muchas comunidadesindiacutegenas las artes que hasta hace poco soacutelo cubriacutean las necesidades locales sonahora explotadas comercialmente por el mercado turiacutestico cambiando los ritmosde la vida diaria las relaciones entre los miembros de la familia y las actividadesen las que los nintildeos estaacuten inmersos Sin embargo como anteriormente se sugirioacutepara comprender las actividades en las que los nintildeos participan hoy necesitamosmirar no soacutelo a la situacioacuten inmediata sino tambieacuten a la comunidad maacutes ampliay a los cambios que han tenido lugar en las escalas temporales

Microgeacutenesis y Zona de Desarrollo Proacuteximo

Lo inmediato sin embargo es siempre la situacioacuten microgeneacutetica que es ellugar del desarrollo ontogeneacutetico ndashla accioacuten e interaccioacuten entre el aprendiz yaquellos con quien estaacute implicado en la actividad en cursondash Cuando adoptamosesta perspectiva microgeneacutetica sin embargo necesitamos modificar la represen-tacioacuten del sistema de actividad reflejada en la figura 1 Esta representacioacutensubraya el hecho de que la accioacuten estaacute orientada a un propoacutesito De manera dis-tinta ahora conviene resaltar la interaccioacuten entre los participantes ndashsus tentativaspara lograr intersubjetividad con respecto a los objetivos comunes y a las habili-dades complementarias de conocimiento que aportan a la co-construccioacuten delresultado previsto (ver Figura 2)ndash Lo que la figura 2 enfatiza es el hecho de queaunque las herramientas y artefactos que estaacuten disponibles para mediar la accioacutenemprendida conjuntamente son los mismos para cada participante cada unoaporta una familiaridad algo diferente con su uso como resultado de su diferentetrayectoria vital siendo esta variabilidad en su pericia la que hace posible paracada uno de ellos proporcionar asistencia a los otros al menos en algunos aspectos

175El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

de la accioacuten conjunta Visto desde esta perspectiva estaacute claro por queacute Vygotskienfatizoacute el papel de la actividad conjunta en el desarrollo y escribioacute sobre supotencial para permitir a los participantes ldquoir maacutes allaacute de siacute mismosrdquo con laayuda de otros maacutes expertos

La metaacutefora usada por Vygotski para caracterizar el potencial para el aprendi-zaje que esta clase de actividad crea fue ldquozona de desarrollo proacuteximordquo Como eacutelescribioacute cuando otro participante en la actividad proporciona instruccioacuten que essuministrada apropiadamente maacutes allaacute de lo que el aprendiz puede llegar a hacerpor siacute mismo ldquodespierta toda una serie de funciones que estaacuten en estado demaduracioacuten latente en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximordquo (1987 p 212) Vygotskiconceptualizoacute el desarrollo como la formacioacuten de nuevos sistemas funcionales(ldquoneoformacionesrdquo) y de cambios en las relaciones entre sistemas que seguacuten eacutelconsideraba ocurriacutean como una secuencia de ldquocrisis del desarrollordquo particular-mente facilitadas por la participacioacuten en las ldquoactividades guiadasrdquo relevantes decada etapa por ejemplo jugar en la nintildeez y aprender a leer y a escribir en los pri-meros antildeos escolares Sin embargo puede ser un error dirigir la atencioacuten soacutelo alos periodos de cambios revolucionarios ya que como eacutel igualmente enfatizoacutetambieacuten tienen lugar en cualquier momento otros procesos graduales de creci-miento

Los procesos que son liacuteneas centrales de desarrollo en una edad se convierten en liacuteneas perifeacute-ricas de desarrollo en la edad siguiente y contrariamente liacuteneas perifeacutericas de desarrollo deuna edad son traiacutedas a la vanguardia y se convierten en liacuteneas centrales en el momento en elque cambia su significado y su significacioacuten relativa en la estructura total del desarrollo(1987 p 197)2

En la elaboracioacuten de su importante concepto de zona de desarrollo proacuteximoVygotski tendioacute a caracterizar la ayuda proporcionada por otros como ldquoinstruc-cioacutenrdquo asiacute como a ver su valor en ldquoel potencial del nintildeo para elevarse a siacute mismo

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187176

FIGURA 2Diaacutelogo en la Actividad Conjunta (Wells 2002b)

Resultadosmateriales yartefactossemioacuteticos

Herramientasartefactos

Sujeto

Reglasconvenciones

Comunidad Divisioacuten delabor

Sujeto

Herramientasartefactos

gracias a la colaboracioacuten hacia un nivel intelectual mayor de desarrollo despla-zaacutendose mediante la imitacioacuten desde lo que eacutel es hasta lo que eacutel no esrdquo (1987p 210) Sin embargo muchos eruditos contemporaacuteneos que han construidosobre su trabajo han adoptado una visioacuten de conjunto del significado evolutivode la colaboracioacuten en actividades conjuntas y han caracterizado la ayuda propor-cionada en esta relacioacuten con teacuterminos tales como ldquoaprendizajerdquo (Lave y Wenger1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoparticipacioacuten guiadardquo (Rogoff 1994 2003) y ldquoandamia-jerdquo (Wood Bruner y Ross 1976) Sin embargo mientras estas metaacuteforas dife-rentes iluminan caracteriacutesticas diferentes de la relacioacuten lo que tienen todas encomuacuten es la inclusioacuten del aprendizaje en una actividad que ofrezca el nivel deapoyo necesario para ayudar al aprendizaje a completar una actividad en la que eacutelo ella estaacute interesado y a hacer esto de tal manera que eacutel o ella progresen hastapoder participar maacutes plena y autoacutenomamente en el futuro (Maybin Mercer yStierer 1992)

En muchas actividades conjuntas tales como por ejemplo formas tradicio-nales de aprendizaje de oficios la ayuda es proporcionada soacutelo cuando se necesitay de este modo el ldquomaestrordquo la ofrece sin intenciones didaacutecticas deliberadas maacutesallaacute de arropar al principiante para terminar una tarea particular en curso (Lave1996) De manera similar la socializacioacuten en actividades domeacutesticas no necesitauna instruccioacuten expliacutecita ya que los principiantes pueden aprender mucho sim-plemente mirando y escuchando (cf Rogoff 2003) Esto es lo que Lave y Wen-ger (1991) quieren decir cuando insisten en que el aprendizaje no es una activi-dad independiente sino un aspecto intriacutenseco de la ldquoparticipacioacuten perifeacutericalegiacutetimardquo en las actividades de una comunidad Desde su perspectiva por lotanto la educacioacuten formal en la que el aprendizaje es el uacutenico propoacutesito de laactividad tiene algo anoacutemalo particularmente cuando la uacutenica forma de ayudaproporcionada es la instruccioacuten directa del profesor experto y la consiguienteevaluacioacuten del grado de aprendizaje de los alumnos

En muchas discusiones recientes se ha reconocido tambieacuten que no es soacutelo unldquoprofesorrdquo quien puede proporcionar ayuda en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximo Porun lado en una actividad compleja muchos participantes son maacutes expertos queotros en algunos aspectos y por lo tanto en algunas ocasiones estaacuten preparadospara ayudar a aquellos que son menos expertos (Rogoff 1994) Por otro ladoaquellos que proporcionan ayuda no tienen que estar fiacutesicamente presentes lostextos y otros artefactos pueden igualmente ayudar de manera satisfactoria a unparticipante ldquoa ir maacutes allaacute de siacute mismo o siacute mismardquo como ocurre con frecuenciaen el trabajo intelectual como la investigacioacuten y la escritura (Wells 1999) Ade-maacutes como Engestroumlm (1999) y otros ndashbasaacutendose en distintos aspectos de losescritos teoacutericos de Vygotskindash han anotado las herramientas materiales y simboacute-licas que han sido desarrolladas por participantes anteriores en la actividad pue-den tambieacuten proporcionar la misma clase de ayuda Sin embargo el punto maacutesimportante que quizaacutes debe subrayarse es que hay muchas situaciones en las quenadie es un experto incluso como cada uno aporta su propia experiencia pasadaa la solucioacuten de un problema comuacuten el grupo en su conjunto es capaz de alcan-zar maacutes de lo que cualquier miembro singular podriacutea haber hecho de maneraindependiente Evidentemente es esta colaboracioacuten la que ha hecho posible lasinvenciones que han llevado a los mayores avances de las grandes civilizaciones alo largo del curso de la historia cultural

Desarrollo en los antildeos preescolares

La responsabilidad para cuidar a los nintildeos en la nintildeez temprana variacutea conside-rablemente de una sociedad a otra como antes anoteacute Sin embargo en todas las

177El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

sociedades los nintildeos estaacuten inmersos en actividades conjuntas con otros en las quereciben ayuda para participar aunque puedan llevarlas a cabo parcialmente Ensu mayor parte como ya se mencionoacute eacutestas son actividades cotidianas repetidasregularmente en las rutinas establecidas Se espera que el nintildeo aprenderaacute a asu-mirlas y es simplemente ayudado para hacerlo Esta forma de aprendizaje deno-minada habitualmente ldquoenculturacioacutenrdquo asegura la continuidad de las formas devida culturales desde una generacioacuten a la siguiente y como Donald (1991) argu-menta probablemente tuvo lugar incluso antes de la emergencia del habla

Sin embargo en todas las actividades hay ocasiones en las que cuando surgealguacuten problema se requiere alguacuten nivel de toma de decisiones deliberado En estassituaciones la interaccioacuten verbal hace posible un grado de reflexioacuten y planificacioacutenhacia delante en la que las relaciones de causa y efecto intencioacuten accioacuten y resultadose hacen expliacutecitas y abiertas para su anaacutelisis y discusioacuten La conversacioacuten que semantiene en estas ocasiones juega asiacute un papel particularmente importante en laayuda a los nintildeos para atender y comprender el mundo que les rodea de acuerdo conlos modos culturales de ldquodarle sentidordquo Sin embargo estas ocasiones pueden tam-bieacuten abrir posibilidades para el cambio tanto en la forma de la actividad como lacomprensioacuten que de ella alcanzan los participantes Coacutemo los cuidadores tomanhabitualmente estas oportunidades es de gran relevancia aquiacute ya que juega en la for-macioacuten de las disposiciones intelectuales con las que los nintildeos entran en la escuelaun papel importante (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo y Sterponi 2002)

En esta seccioacuten incluyo algunos ejemplos representativos del modo de hablarque surge de las actividades conjuntas en el hogar Estos ejemplos se han extraiacute-do de observaciones realizadas en contextos ingleses (Wells 1986) y australianos(Hasan 2002) donde los nintildeos pequentildeos observados pasaban la mayor parte desu tiempo en el hogar en compantildeiacutea de un progenitor o algunas veces con uno omaacutes hermanos mientras que el resto del tiempo se entreteniacutean ellos solos (conuna participacioacuten esporaacutedica del adulto) o algo que haciacutean con frecuencia mira-ban y ldquoayudabanrdquo a sus progenitores con tareas domeacutesticas de diferente tipo

En el primer ejemplo James (de tres antildeos y medio de edad) ha estado jugandosolo en el jardiacuten y cuando entra de nuevo en casa su madre intenta que se quitelos zapatos embarrados Sin embargo en ese momento ve un paacutejaro fuera que leinteresa maacutes que cambiarse de zapatos

Ejemplo 1Madre Alliacute Vamoshellip Alliacutehellip Una zapatilla enJames Puedo ver un paacutejaroMadre iquestUn queacute amorJames Mira un paacutejaroMadre (Susurrando) iquestEstaacute alliacute iquestFueraJames (Sentildealando y susurrando) Siacute mira

(Ambos continuacutean hablando muy suavemente)Madre iquestEstaacute comiendo algoJames NoMadre iquestDoacutende Oh siacute estaacute consiguiendo iquestSabes queacute estaacute haciendoJames NoMadre Estaacute yendo al saco de papel para intentar escoger algunos pedazos

Oh tiene un poco de alimento alliacute Y espero que escoja algunos pedazos de hilodel saco para ir y hacer su nido bajo la azotea James Espera un minuto y [James ahora quiere salir a ver maacutes cerca pero en ese momento el paacutejaro se escapavolando]

James Se ha ido

En el segundo ejemplo Elizabeth (de cuatro antildeos de edad) que estaacute ayudandoen la limpieza de casa mira con intereacutes coacutemo su madre mete en un cubo la cenizade la lentildea de la chimenea

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187178

Ejemplo 2Elizabeth iquestPara queacute estaacutes haciendo esoMadre Estoy recogieacutendolo y ponieacutendolo fuera para que papaacute pueda ponerlo en el jardiacutenElizabeth iquestPor queacute lo tiene que poner en el jardiacuten Madre Para abonar bienElizabeth iquestEso hace que la hierba crezcaMadre SiacuteElizabeth iquestPor queacuteMadre Sabes que te digo que necesitas comer cosas diferentes como huevos y col y

pudin de arroz para convertirte en una nintildea mayor Elizabeth SiacuteMadre Bien las plantas tambieacuten necesitan comida diferente Y la ceniza es una de las

cosas buenas para ellas

El tercer ejemplo se refiere a James de nuevo ahora 18 meses mayor Por lamantildeana temprano ha estado ayudando a su madre con la elaboracioacuten de unos dul-ces en el horno Ahora vuelve a la cocina cuando su madre estaacute sacando las bande-jas fuera del horno Oye un ruidoso ldquocrackrdquo metaacutelico y solicita una explicacioacuten

Ejemplo 3James iquestQuieacuten hizo esoMadre Espero que fuera la contraccioacuten de la lata James iquestQueacute lataMadre La que estaacute con los pasteles dentro James iquestPor queacute hizo ese ruidoMadre Bien cuando estaba en el horno se calentoacute mucho y se estiroacute un pedacito Ape-

nas la he sacado del horno y se estaacute enfriando muy raacutepido mira y ese ruido ocu-rre cuando se hace maacutes pequentildea otra vez y vuelve a su forma normal

James Oh iquesttiene una forma diferente en el horno Madre Oh no muy diferente Soacutelo un poco mayor James Pequentildea lata traviesa Puede que consigas que te den un azote si lo haces otra vez

En estos tres ejemplos la madre responde con prontitud a los intereses delnintildeo y proporciona informacioacuten para explicar el significado de lo que los nintildeosestaacuten viendo u oyendo incluso cuando inicialmente esto interrumpe los planesde la madre Los tres casos muestran coacutemo la participacioacuten de los nintildeos en la acti-vidad con el adulto garantiza una atencioacuten intersubjetiva hacia los intereses delnintildeo lo que permite a la madre proporcionar informacioacuten relevante Esto es cla-ramente una forma de ldquoinstruccioacutenrdquo sin embargo es espontaacutenea y contingentecon los intereses de los nintildeos en lugar de ser presentada como parte de un curri-culum pre-planificado

El tercer ejemplo es particularmente interesante desde este punto de vista yaque el fenoacutemeno que despierta el intereacutes de James requiere una explicacioacuten algoteacutecnica En alguacuten momento del futuro sin duda la dilatacioacuten del metal cuandose calienta y su consiguiente contraccioacuten cuando es apartado del calor figuraraacuteen el curriculum de ciencias de la escuela en relacioacuten con el estudio sistemaacuteticodel calor aquiacute sin embargo es un efecto secundario de la elaboracioacuten de los pas-teles en el horno y la explicacioacuten de la madre aunque teacutecnica en cuanto al conte-nido se asienta en el lenguaje cotidiano y no en los teacuterminos abstractos de lageneralizacioacuten cientiacutefica Como Hasan (2002) ha observado

el discurso del conocimiento quasi especializado tiene lugar lsquoen medio dersquo las actividades dia-rias y necesariamente exige una buena disposicioacuten por parte de la madre para acoger los cam-bios contextuales para tener la voluntad de reclasificar el contexto del discurso en marcha Latendencia a conectar con el discurso en movimiento del nintildeo la buena disposicioacuten para reclasi-ficar el contexto es una caracteriacutestica discursiva del mismo grupo de madres que con frecuen-cia lanzan preguntas precisas para la calificacioacuten de los objetos que atienden a las preguntas desus hijos y que les proporcionan respuestas bien desarrolladas (p 123)

179El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

No todos los nintildeos experimentan esta clase de respuesta altamente informati-va para sus intereses por supuesto Sobre la base de un corpus sustancial de inte-racciones madre-hijo Hasan (2002) siguiendo a Bernstein (1982) distingueentre mediacioacuten semioacutetica ldquovisiblerdquo e ldquoinvisiblerdquo Mientras que todos los ejem-plos citados anteriormente giran sobre la actividad conjunta y las preguntas delos nintildeos merecen una exploracioacuten adicional en un modo expliacutecito ldquovisiblerdquo lostemas de las contribuciones de muchos otros nintildeos a la actividad y la interaccioacutenson tratados por los padres como ldquoobviosrdquo y por lo tanto como si no requirieranexplicacioacuten En este sentido la mediacioacuten de las creencias culturales y de laspraacutecticas permanece ldquoinvisiblerdquo esto es la forma de ser del mundo y el tema nomerece una discusioacuten adicional El Ejemplo 4 (tomado de Hasan 2002) bajoestaacutes liacuteneas proporciona una buena ilustracioacuten

Ejemplo 4 Madre Ponlo sobre la estufa y deacutejalo alliacuteKaren iquestPor queacuteMadre PorqueKaren iquestAquiacute es doacutende va Madre SiacuteUn poco despueacutesKaren iquestCoacutemo conseguiste esoiquestNo saliste Madre Camineacute encima y lo conseguiacute iquestno me viste Karen HmmMadre Debes estar ciega

Los dos breves extractos del Ejemplo 4 son tiacutepicos de un estilo muy diferentede interaccioacuten comparados con los anteriores Aquiacute el eacutenfasis de los padres enconseguir que el nintildeo se adapte a los modos de la cultura local de actuar y pensarcon eficacia suprime la curiosidad del nintildeo y el deseo de comprender lo quetambieacuten hace menos probable que el nintildeo desarrolle la capacidad para cuestionarel status quo y participar en los esfuerzos por cambiarlo y mejorarlo

Finalmente antes de dejar el tema del aprendizaje a traveacutes de la conversacioacutenen actividades conjuntas es importante considerar la actividad conjunta en elcontexto del juego Vygotski (1978) consideroacute el juego como la actividad princi-pal en los antildeos preescolares ya que anima al nintildeo a explorar las posibilidades dela mediacioacuten semioacutetica mediante el uso de objetos presentes que pueden ser uti-lizados para representar otros objetos no presentes mediante el ldquorole playrdquo en elque el lenguaje crea un mundo imaginario En el Ejemplo 5 James ahora contres antildeos y nueve meses estaacute sentaacutendose en el brazo de un sofaacute conduciendo untren imaginario con su madre como pasajera

Ejemplo 5Madre Aquiacute estamos Me sentareacute al lado Perfecto iquestestaacutes listo iquestTodo a punto

Bien Quita el frenoJames Comenzareacute a levantarloMadre Oh perdoacuten Estaacute bienJames Mamaacute no conduzcas todaviacuteaMadre Oh BienJames [Hace un ruido simulando arrancar el motor]Madre iexclOh Este motor arranca raacutepido Muy bien iquestHay suficiente carboacuten en la parte

posterior iquestHas cargado suficiente carboacuten JamesJames SiacuteMadre Bien Entonces vaacutemonos lejos Despiacutedete de tus amigos James [Suena el ruido del motor que acelera Se riacutee y hace el sonido del silbido del

motor]Madre Ahora vamos muy raacutepido iquestPuedes sentir el traqueteo de los vagones James Siacute

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187180

Madre Oh todo me da vueltas Oh mi desayuno estaacute retumbando en mi barriga iexclOhiexclOh iexclOh

James [Hace el ruido del motor]Madre Creo que deberiacuteamos disminuir la velocidad iquestNo crees James Mm (asintiendo)Madre Creo que estamos yendo un poco raacutepido

Es mejor es maacutes faacutecil ahora iquestno James Mm (asintiendo)Madre [Muje] Mira las vacas en el campo JamesJames MmMadre Y hay un granjero mira El granjero te estaacute saludando

Como contar historias compartidas que es otra actividad conjunta importan-te a esta edad el juego imaginario tambieacuten tiene una funcioacuten importante en lapreparacioacuten del nintildeo para explorar el poder del lenguaje ldquopara crear un mundomediante las palabrasrdquo Como seraacute discutido debajo este uso del lenguaje pararepresentar objetos y eventos no presentes y las relaciones entre ellos adoptagran significado en el contexto de la escolarizacioacuten puacuteblica tiacutepica donde propor-ciona los significados mediacionales principales mediante los que gran parte delcurriculum se materializa (Wells 1986)

En suma con la excepcioacuten del Ejemplo 4 todos los extractos precedentes sonejemplos claros de un adulto ldquotrabajando en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximo delnintildeordquo (Vygotski 1987) ya que se implican en la interaccioacuten en el proceso dedesarrollar la actividad en la que estaacuten conjuntamente inmersos Como Vygotski(1987) enfatizoacute en la actividad conjunta colaborativa el nintildeo puede siemprehacer maacutes de lo que le es posible hacer independientemente La actividad pro-porciona el marco organizacional en el que parte de la conversacioacuten dirige ycomenta la actividad y parte explora los resultados a los que conduce En estecontexto el adulto hace disponible para la apropiacioacuten del nintildeo no soacutelo infor-macioacuten especiacutefica como respuesta a los intereses del nintildeo sino tambieacuten una pos-tura hacia la experiencia que valora la actitud de investigacioacuten Tratando las pre-guntas del nintildeo como dignas de respuesta expliacutecita el adulto apoya el desarrollode una disposicioacuten a plantearse preguntas y a buscarles respuesta mediante lainvestigacioacuten futura (Wells 1999)

El papel de la actividad en la educacioacuten

Aunque el teacutermino ldquoeducacioacutenrdquo se emplea a menudo como sinoacutenimo deldquoescolarizacioacutenrdquo seguacuten una interpretacioacuten maacutes amplia la educacioacuten viene refi-rieacutendose a los primeros antildeos del nintildeo y de hecho como se vio arriba hay muchasocasiones en las que un coparticipante en una actividad en curso proporciona ins-truccioacuten expliacutecita Sin embargo la educacioacuten ndashen el sentido de escolarizacioacutenndashtiende a ser muy diferente de la clase de actividades ilustradas maacutes arriba Maacutesimportante en las escuelas la instruccioacuten es tanto deliberada como sistemaacutetica yes gobernada no por los intereses de los alumnos sino por un curriculum que hasido disentildeado por expertos que no estaacuten familiarizados con los alumnos que van aser instruidos Como resultado a menudo lo que se ensentildea en la escuela no estaacuterelacionado con aquello que a los alumnos maacutes les interesa aprender y es muyprobable que no se obtengan beneficios de las oportunidades que la escuelapodriacutea proporcionar

En las primeras secciones de este trabajo se ha argumentado que el aprendi-zaje no es un fin en siacute mismo sino un aspecto integrado del domino de nuevasformas de actividad que tienen significado y valor para el desarrollo de los apren-dices como miembros de una comunidad y como individuos autoacutenomos uacutenicos

181El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Como Wygotsky insistentemente precisoacute el aprendizaje conduce el desarrollo yla instruccioacuten deberiacutea estar organizada para ayudar a este proceso

La instruccioacuten es soacutelo uacutetil cuando se mueve delante del desarrollo Cuando esto ocurre impulsao despierta toda una serie de funciones que estaacuten en estado de maduracioacuten latente en la zona dedesarrollo proacuteximo (1987 p 212)

La pregunta central para la escolarizacioacuten debe por lo tanto ser coacutemo ofrecerinstruccioacuten que sea relevante para las trayectorias de desarrollo de los alumnos yque de manera adecuada ldquose situacutee dentrordquo de sus zonas de desarrollo proacuteximoJunto a esta una segunda pregunta es coacutemo proporcionar ayuda a los alumnosindividuales para que su aprendizaje les permita de hecho avanzar en su desa-rrollo

Procurando proporcionar respuesta a estas preguntas el concepto de ldquoactivi-dad guiadardquo junto con el de recapitulacioacuten de la secuencia de desarrollo de losmodos de conocimiento puede ofrecer un comienzo uacutetil Los nintildeos cuandoingresan en la escuela han dominado en gran parte los modos de conocimientoasociados con la accioacuten el gesto y el habla (Nelson 1996) Lo que ahora necesi-tan es un aprendizaje de los modos de conocimiento asociado con el lenguajeescrito y de las distintas clases de representacioacuten simboacutelica que derivan de eacutelndashmatemaacutetica cientiacutefica musical etceacuteterandash Es decir necesitan aprenderlos parausar estas formas de representacioacuten como herramienta para la deliberacioacutenmediada la comunicacioacuten reflexiva y el pensamiento y para apropiarse de losdiferentes dominios de conocimiento teoacuterico que han sido construidos acumula-tivamente por las generaciones previas con la ayuda de las ventajas que confierenesos sistemas de ldquomemoria externardquo (Donald 1991)

La recapitulacioacuten del desarrollo histoacuterico cultural orienta la trayectoria a largoplazo para la educacioacuten formal en la escuela y en otras instituciones Pero inclusomaacutes importante para procurar responder la pregunta central presentada arriba esdeterminar los procedimientos efectivos para organizar los pequentildeos pasos queconfiguran las lecciones las unidades curriculares y los programas anuales a lolargo de esta trayectoria Basaacutendonos en las ideas presentadas en la seccioacuten ante-rior dos principios parecen en siacute mismos evidentes En primer lugar los encuen-tros educativos necesitan para estar organizados ser ldquoactividades conjuntasrdquo enlas que todos los participantes contribuyen a las metas convenidas con lo mejorde sus habilidades Y en segundo lugar debe convertirse en norma dar y recibirayuda por parte de cada participante Una de las implicaciones de estos dos prin-cipios es que no puede haber formas universales mejores para participar en alguacutenaspecto del curriculum puesto que cada clase variacutea en las experiencias e interesesque sus miembros aportan y en los valores y praacutecticas aprendidos culturalmenteque motivan y dirigen su implicacioacuten con el nuevo conocimiento y con las habi-lidades que estaacuten esperando dominar

Aunque siempre es importante reconocer valorar y construir sobre las expe-riencias previas de los alumnos ha llegado a ser incluso maacutes necesario a medidaque la migracioacuten tanto inter como intra paiacuteses ha aumentado significativamen-te ya que las diferentes etnias clases y religiones en las comunidades han dadolugar a su vez a comunidades de escuela y aula cada vez maacutes diversas ndashy estadiversidad es incluso mayor donde una proporcioacuten sustancial de alumnos estaacuteaprendiendo la lengua de clase como una segunda lengua (o subsiguiente)ndash Taldiversidad en el bagaje cultural y en la experiencia previa es generalmente vistocomo un problema que necesita ser superado en paiacuteses donde los disentildeadores delcurriculum apuntan a estandarizar la instruccioacuten para alcanzar ideacutenticos resulta-dos para todos los estudiantes como es hoy el caso en Estados Unidos Sin

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187182

embargo cuando las diferencias entre personas en teacuterminos de experiencia valo-res y praacutecticas son reconocidas como normales y deseables esta diversidad puedeconvertirse en una ventaja en la clase ya que las praacutecticas y puntos de vista alter-nativos que afloran pueden enriquecer la comunidad de clase y conducir a discu-siones valiosas en las que las creencias dadas por sentadas sean modificadas y sealcance una comprensioacuten maacutes profunda de los puntos considerados (Wells1999)

En este contexto he encontrado de ayuda pensar en el aprendizaje basado enla escuela en teacuterminos de una espiral del conocimiento donde el resultado espe-rado con cada giro de la espiral es una mayor comprensioacuten (Wells 1999) (verFigura 3) En la primera fase cuando la clase se embarca en un nuevo aspecto delcurriculum es importante animar a los alumnos a compartir sus experienciasprevias ya que como las investigaciones en campos muy diferentes han mostra-do (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotski) esas experiencias proporcionan elpunto de partida para su aprendizaje sean o no reconocidas puacuteblicamente Des-cubriendo lo que los estudiantes ya saben y aquello que les interesa explorar conmaacutes detalle el profesor puede tambieacuten planificar la unidad en cooperacioacuten conlos alumnos (Donoahue 2003) La segunda fase de la espiral conlleva varios acer-camientos a la nueva informacioacuten ndashmediante la explicacioacuten del profesor a traveacutesde materiales impresos o medios audiovusiales o en la forma de feedback de laspropias acciones e investigaciones de los alumnosndash Es importante reconocer sinembargo que la recepcioacuten de la nueva informacioacuten no asegura en siacute misma unaumento de la comprensioacuten Para que esto ocurra la nueva informacioacuten debearticularse con la comprensioacuten existente y con la experiencia previa relevantepara ser despueacutes puesta a prueba mediante la accioacuten en el mundo ndashobteniendofeedback (informacioacuten adicional)ndash yo mediante el diaacutelogo con otros para laconstruccioacuten del conocimiento donde el propoacutesito es llegar a una eleccioacuten con-sensuada entre las teoriacuteas alternativas demandas o interpretaciones sobre la basede una consideracioacuten de las evidencias y argumentos apropiados Finalmentepara consolidar la nuevas comprensiones obtenidas es valioso para la clase com-pleta reflexionar juntos sobre lo que han aprendido y sobre el proceso de cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento en el que han participado sobre las implicaciones quela nueva comprensioacuten tiene para sus propias acciones ndashtanto fuera como dentrode clasendash y sobre las preguntas importantes a las que ellos deben ahora dirigir susinvestigaciones futuras En otras palabras la fase final en el ciclo implica a lacomunidad en un ldquoacercamiento lsquometarsquordquo (Olson y Bruner 1996) es decir en laadopcioacuten de una perspectiva metacognitiva sobre su propio aprendizaje que a lolargo de miles de antildeos probablemente ha jugado un importante papel en eldesarrollo de cada modo de conocimiento presentado en la siacutentesis del desarrollohistoacuterico cultural de Donald (1991)3

Esta espiral necesita varias anotaciones adicionales La primera tiene quever con la naturaleza incompleta y provisional del conocimiento eacuteste estaacutesiempre abierto a la mejora mediante ciclos futuros a traveacutes de la espiral Lasegunda anotacioacuten concierne a la naturaleza esencialmente interactiva ysocial del crecimiento individual y comunitario en la comprensioacuten eacutesta seconsigue gracias a los esfuerzos de los participantes para clarificar sus pro-pios significados a los otros y alternativamente para tener en cuenta y res-ponder a los de los demaacutes (Bajtiacuten 1986) En tercer lugar es necesario enfati-zar que el crecimien to en la comprensioacuten requeriraacute espirales futuras queactiven los diferentes modos de conocimiento ya que la mayoriacutea de los cam-bios y problemas que ocurren en las instituciones maacutes allaacute del aula deman-dan un conocimiento procedimental substantivo y esteacutetico al igual que

183El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

teoacuterico y cada modo de conocimiento tiene una contribucioacuten que hacer aleacutexito de soluciones comprensivas que realcen significativamente la com-prensioacuten Finalmente en la representacioacuten de estas relaciones en la figura 3la espiral tambieacuten resalta la interdependencia de los individuos y la comuni-dad Mientras que la experiencia y la comprensioacuten son esencialmente indivi-duales en su naturaleza crecen fuera de eacutel y adoptan su significado de la par-ticipacioacuten de los individuos en el intercambio de informacioacuten y en su com-promiso en la construccioacuten de conocimiento en la comunidad extensa de laque cada individuo es miembro

Desafortunadamente muchos educadores no comprenden estas relacionesfundamentales y por eso su instruccioacuten no es conceptualizada y planificada demanera que sea oacuteptima para el desarrollo de los estudiantes Como numerososestudios han mostrado (Langer y Applebee 1987 Nystrand y Gamoran 1991)en la mayoriacutea de las clases la que gobierna la praacutectica es la concepcioacuten bancariadel conocimiento (Freire 1970) seguacuten la cual el propoacutesito de la instruccioacuten quetiene lugar en el aula es que un alumno individual esteacute preparado para puntuarbien en los tests y no tanto ampliar su conocimiento Dada esta orientacioacuten lasactividades en las que se pide a los alumnos que participen estaacuten determinadaspor la guiacutea curricular del libro de texto maacutes que por el conocimiento de los pro-fesores sobre los intereses y habilidades de los alumnos particulares de los queson responsables A esto es a lo que Tharp y Gallimore (1988) se refieren con laexpresioacuten ldquoguioacuten recitativordquo unido a la ocupacioacuten de un lugar individual de tra-bajo que domina la rutina diaria Ademaacutes los planes sobre coacutemo proceder sonndashcomo cabiacutea esperarndash unilateralmente impuestos en lugar de ser configuradossobre la base de las decisiones tomadas por la comunidad de clase como un todoy el modus operandi es la competicioacuten en lugar de la colaboracioacuten

Sin embargo como he argumentado en otra parte (Wells 1986 19992002a) eacuteste no es el uacutenico modo en el que la escolarizacioacuten puede ser condu-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187184

FIGURA 3La espiral del conocimiento

ACCIOacuteN Construccioacuten

deconocimiento

ComprensioacutenSubstantivo

Esteacutetico

Teoacuterico

Procedimental

Instrumental

Experiencia Informacioacuten

Modos de conocimiento

cida ndasha pensar de la larga historia de la recitacioacuten que se remonta a maacutes detres mil antildeos a las tempranas instituciones que entrenaban a los escribas yadministradores para leer y escribir (Cole 1996)ndash Pero probablemente elmodo por defecto de la escolarizacioacuten es parecido a una preparacioacuten para ldquolavida adultardquo y no una etapa criacutetica del desarrollo que merece la pena y essignificativa en siacute misma Como Vygotski argumentoacute sobre el dominio de laalfabetizacioacuten ldquola ensentildeanza debe organizarse de tal manera que la lectura yla escritura sean necesarias para algo La escritura debe ser incorporada enuna tarea relevante y necesaria para la vidardquo (1978 pp117-118) Y porldquovidardquo quiere decir no la vida futura sino la totalidad de los intereses y pre-ocupaciones actuales de los aprendices

En los uacuteltimos antildeos se han divulgado proyectos de una variedad de paiacuteses enlos que educadores universitarios han procurado crear condiciones para elldquoaprendizaje auteacutenticordquo en las aulas En todos estos proyectos se ha otorgado unpapel central a las actividades colaborativas que alternando entre los formatos departicipacioacuten individual en pequentildeo grupo y de la clase completa implican alos estudiantes en la exploracioacuten de temas centrales mediante investigacionespraacutecticas y tambieacuten teoacutericas y en la discusioacuten criacutetica y constructiva de sus hallaz-gos y de las implicaciones para futuras acciones El espacio no permite aquiacute unadiscusioacuten individual de estos proyectos pero lo que puede ser dicho sobre todosellos es que en sus diferentes formas valoran tanto los intereses de los alumnoscomo sus experiencias previas y persiguen ayudarles a desarrollar la disposicioacutenpara buscar la comprensioacuten maacutes que la acumulacioacuten simple de informacioacuten ypara valorar la colaboracioacuten maacutes que la competicioacuten como el medio para alcanzaresta menta4

En este contexto es digno atraer la atencioacuten hacia varias instituciones poste-riores a la escuela tales como la Fifth Dimension donde la participacioacuten en activi-dades elegidas personalmente ndasha menudo basadas en ordenadoresndash requiere a losnintildeos dominar habilidades que son tambieacuten necesarias para la escolarizacioacuten y lesproporcionan oportunidades para interactuar con voluntarios universitarios enuna posicioacuten de igualdad (Brown y Cole 2002) De manera similar algunosprogramas basados en museos (Leinhardst Crowley y Kuntson 2002) y variasformas de educacioacuten al aire libre tambieacuten capitalizan los intereses de los estu-diantes para implicarles en actividades desafiantes que demandan para la cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento procesos de diaacutelogo y toma de decisiones comparablesa aquellos encontrados en los contextos escolares previamente descritos

Finalmente si estas praacutecticas pioneras arraigan e influyen en la educacioacutenpuacuteblica con mayor amplitud es esencial que los profesores tengan oportunidadessimilares para desarrollar las disposiciones y pericia necesarias para actuar comoagentes de cambio y liacutederes de una reforma en las instituciones en las que traba-jan Es por lo tanto estimulante ver que a pesar del eacutenfasis de los dirigentes poliacute-ticos en estandarizar los curricula y en los resultados cuantificables algunos pro-gramas de formacioacuten de profesores y desarrollo profesional anima a los profeso-res sobre la base de investigaciones sobre su propia praacutectica a tomar sus propiasdecisiones sobre queacute debe ser ensentildeado y coacutemo y a compartir los resultados desus investigaciones con los compantildeeros Este ha sido el motor de mi propio tra-bajo en los antildeos recientes ya que he participado en la investigacioacuten colaborativacon profesores para crear y mantener comunidades de investigacioacuten tanto en cla-ses como entre los mismos profesores5

185El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Notas1 La secuencia temporal implicada por esta formulacioacuten ha sido ampliamente debatida y especialmente el movimiento desde fueraa dentro que sugiere Mi propia comprensioacuten de lo que la apropiacioacuten supone se capta mejor con el ejemplo de aprender a bailarmediante la inmersioacuten en la actividad con otros (Wells 1999) En muchos casos no hay separacioacuten entre antes y despueacutes o entrefuera y dentro y no hay necesidad de demostracioacuten o ejemplificacioacuten En lugar de esto estando inmerso en la actividad conjuntael principiante es literalmente entrenado fiacutesicamente por los movimiento del coparticipante mientras que al mismo tiempoconstruye su propia organizacioacuten ndashy quizaacute incluso una representacioacuten esquemaacuteticandash de los movimientos corporales A lo largo deltiempo este esquema estaacute tan bien organizado que el principiante se convierte en un experto que estaacute preparado paralelamentepara introducir a otros en la actividad Esto es lo que Lave y Wenger (1991) y Rogoff (2003) quieren decir por desarrollo median-te la participacioacuten en actividades culturales

2 Estoy agradecido a Natalia Gajdamaschko y Steve Gabosch por sus valiosas discusiones de esta distincioacuten durante el XMCA cursoonline sobre la teoriacutea de la actividad histoacuterico cultural Abril 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Aunque estaacute incluido en la Tabla I este modo de conocimiento no ha sido discutido aquiacute ya que el reconocimiento expliacutecito deeste importante modo de conocimiento es muy reciente (Brown 1975) Sin embargo eso no significa que sea en siacute mismo unnuevo fenoacutemeno

4 Para algunos ejemplos representativos veacutease Brown y Campione 1994 Lampert Rittenhouse y Crumbaugh 1996 McMahonRaphael Goatley y Pardo 1997 Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford y Brown 1998 Scardamalia Bereiter y Lamon 1994

5 Juntos formamos un grupo de investigacioacuten colaborativo DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project)(Wells (Ed) 2001)

ReferenciasBAJTIacuteN M M (1986) Speech genres and other late essays Austin University of Texas PressBERNSTEIN B (1982) Codes modalities and the process of cultural reproduction A model En M Apple (Ed) Cultural and econo-

mic reproduction in education (pp 304-355) Londres Routledge amp Kegan PaulBROWN A L (1975) The development of memory Knowing knowing about knowing and knowing how to know En H W

Reese (Ed) Advances in child development and behavior (Vol 10 pp 103-152) Nueva York Academic Press BROWN A L amp CAMPIONE J C (1994) Guided discovery in a community of learners En K McGilly (Ed) Integrating cognitive

theory and classroom practice Classroom lessons (pp 229-270) Cambridge MA MIT PressBradford BooksBROWN K amp COLE M (2002) Cultural historical activity theory and the expansion of opportunities for learning after school En

G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 225-238)Oxford Blackwell

BRUNER J S (1990) Acts of meaning Cambridge MA Harvard University PressCARR M (2002) Emerging learning narratives A perspective from early childhood education En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds)

Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 99-111) Oxford BlackwellCOLE M (1996) Cultural psychology A once and future discipline Cambridge MA The Bellknap Press of Harvard University PressDEACON T W (1997) The symbolic species The co-evolution of language and the brain Nueva York NortonDIAMOND J (1998) Guns germs and steel The fates of human societies Nueva York NortonDONALD M (1991) Origins of the Modern Mind Three Stages in the Evolution of Culture and Cognition Cambridge MA Harvard

University PressDONOAHUE Z (2003) Science teaching and learning Teachers and children plan together Networks 6(1) httpwwwoiseuto-

rontoca~ctdnetworksjournal Vol 6 (1) 2003marchENGESTROumlM Y (1999) Activity theory and individual and social transformation Y En Engestrom R Miettinen amp R-L Puna-

maki (Eds) Perspectives on activity theory (pp 19-38) Cambridge Cambridge University PressFREIRE P (1970) Pedagogy of the oppressed Nueva York Herder and HerderHALLIDAY M A K (1975) Learning how to mean Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1978) Language as social semiotic The social interpretation of language and meaning Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1993) Towards a language-based theory of learning Linguistics and Education 5 93-116HASAN R (2002) Semiotic mediation and mental development in pluralistic societies Some implications for tomorrowrsquos schoo-

ling En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural peerspectives on the future of education (pp112-126) Oxford Blackwell

HEATH S B (1983) Ways with words Cambridge Cambridge University PressLAMPERT M RITTENHOUSE P amp CRUMBAUGH C (1996) Agreeing to disagree Developing sociable mathematical discourse En

D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook of education and human development (pp 731-764) Cambridge MA Blackwell LANGER J A amp APPLEBEE A N (1987) How writing shapes thinking A study of teaching and learning Urbana IL National Council

of Teachers of EnglishLAVE J (1996) Teaching as learning in practice Mind Culture and Activity 3 (3) 149-164LAVE J amp WENGER E (1991) Situated Learning Legitimate peripheral participation Nueva York Cambridge University PressLEINHARDT G CROWLEY K amp KNUTSON K (2002) Learning conversations Explanation and identity in museums Mahwah NJ

Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesLEONTIEV A N (1981) The problem of activity in psychology En J VWertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 37-71) Armonk NY SharpeMAYBIN J MERCER N amp STIERER B (1992) lsquoScaffoldingrsquo learning in the classroom En K Norman (Ed) Thinking voices The

work of the National Oracy Project (pp 186-195) Londres Hodder amp StoughtonMCMAHON S I RAPHAEL T E GOATLEY V J amp PARDO L S (Eds) (1997) The Book Club connection Literacy learning and class-

room talk Nueva York Teachers College PressNELSON K (1996) Language in cognitive development The emergence of the mediated mind Nueva York Cambridge University PressNEWSON J (1978) Dialogue and development En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol The emergence of language (pp 31-42)

New York Academic Press

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187186

NYSTRAND M amp GAMORAN A (1991) Student engagement When recitation becomes conversation En H C Waxman amp H JWalberg (Eds) Effective teaching Current research (pp 257-276)Berkeley CA McCutchan Publishing Corp

OLSON D R amp BRUNER J S (1996) Folk psychology and folk pedagogy En D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook ofeducation and human development (pp 9-27) Cambridge MA Blackwell

PALINCSAR A MAGNUSSON S MARANO N FORD D amp BROWN N (1998) Designing a community of practice Principlesand practices of the GIsML Community Teaching and Teacher Education 14 (1) 5-20

PIAGET J (1970) Piagetrsquos theory En P H Mussen (Ed) Carmichaelrsquos handbook of child development (pp 703-732) Nueva YorkWiley

PONTECORVO C amp STERPONI L (2002) Learning to argue and reason through discourse in educational settings En G Wells ampG Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 127-140) OxfordBlackwell

ROGOFF B (1990) Apprenticeship in thinking Cognitive development in social context Nueva York Oxford University PressROGOFF B (1994) Developing understanding of the idea of Communities of Learners Mind Culture and Activity 1 (4) 209-

229ROGOFF B (2003) The cultural nature of human development Nueva York Oxford University PressROSENBLATT L (1978) The reader the text the poem The transactional theory of the literary work Carbondale IL Southern Illinois

University PressSCARDAMALIA M C BEREITER amp LAMON M (1994) The CSILE project Trying to bring the classroom into World 3 En K

McGilley (Ed) Classroom lessons Integrating cognitive theory and classroom practice (pp 201-228) Cambridge MA MITPress

SCRIBNER S (1985) Vygotskyrsquos uses of history En J V Wertsch (Ed) Culture communication and cognition Vygotskian perspectives(pp 119-145) Cambridge Cambridge University Press

THARP R amp GALLIMORE R (1988) Rousing minds to life Nueva York Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C (1979) Communication and cooperation in early infancy a description of primary intersubjectivity En M

Bullowa (Ed) Before speech The beginning of interpersonal communication (pp 321-348) Cambridge Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C amp HUBLEY P (1978) Secondary intersubjectivity Confidence confiding and acts of meaning in the first year

En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol the emergence of language (pp 183-230) Nueva York Academic PressVYGOTSKI L S (1978)Mind in society The development of higher psychological processes Cambridge MA Harvard University PressVYGOTSKI L S (1981) The genesis of higher mental functions En J V Wertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 144-188) Armonk NY SharpeVYGOTSKI L S (1987) Thinking and speech En R W Rieber amp A S Carton (Eds) The collected works of L S Vygotsky Volumen

1 Problems of general psychology (pp 39-285) Nueva York PlenumWARTOFSKY M (1979) Models representation and scientific understanding Boston ReidelWELLS G (1985) Language development in the pre-school years Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (1986) The meaning makers Children learning language and using language to learn Portsmouth NH HeinemannWELLS G (1999) Dialogic inquiry Towards a sociocultural practice and theory of education Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (Ed) (2001) Action talk and text Learning and teaching through inquiry Nueva York Teachers College PressWELLS G (2002a) Learning and teaching for understanding The key role of collaborative knowledge building En J Brophy

(Ed) Social constructivist teaching Affordances and constraints (pp 1-41) Osford Elsevier ScienceJAIWELLS G (2002b) The role of dialogue in activity theory Mind Culture and Activity 9 (1) 43-66WERTSCH J V MINICK N amp ARNS F J (1984) The creation of context in joint problem solving En B Rogoff amp J Lave (Eds)

Everyday cognition Its development in social context (pp 151-171) Cambridge Cambridge University PressWOOD D BRUNER J S amp ROSS G (1976) The role of tutoring in problem-solving Journal of Child Psychology and Child Psy-

chiatry 17 89-100

187El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Original text

Introduction

Compared with other species the characteristic that distinguishes humans isthe ability and proclivity to engage in tool-mediated joint activity with otherhumans It is this characteristic that accounts for the development of human cul-tures over the course of history as they invented artefacts of various kinds inorder to adapt to and exploit the ecological niches in which they found themsel-ves It also accounts for the diversity of individual personsrsquo development whichdepend on the particular activities in which they participate As Vygotsky(1978 1981) was one of the first to point out the lsquohigherrsquo mental functions thatmake us human are not biologically given but are developmentally constructedthrough the appropriation of historically developed tools and practices that aremade manifest to the child and lsquoscaffoldedrsquo in the meaningful actions and utte-rances of the coparticipants in joint activity

Before continuing readers might find it interesting to reflect on their owndevelopmental trajectories to who they are today I suspect that they may findthemselves agreeing that Who we become depends on the company we keep and what wedo together

A Brief History of the Development of Joint Activity

Leontrsquoev provides a succinct account of Vygotskyrsquos insight in the followingsummary

The initial ideas that led Vygotsky to investigate the genesis of internal mental activity fromexternal activity are fundamentally different from the theoretical approaches of other modernauthors These ideas came from the analysis of the features unique to human productive laboractivity which is mediated by tools This activity is initially social in nature that is it is deve-loped under the conditions of cooperation and social interaction among people Vygotskyidentified two main interconnected features [of this activity] that are necessarily fundamentalfor psychology its tool-like (lsquoinstrumentalrsquo) structure and its inclusion in a system of interre-lations with other people It is these features that define the nature of human psychologicalprocesses The tool mediates activity and thus connects humans not only with the world ofobjects but also with other people Because of this humanrsquos activity assimilates the experience ofhumankind This means that humansrsquo mental processes (their lsquohigher psychological functionsrsquo)acquire a structure necessarily tied to the sociohistorically formed means and methods trans-mitted to them by others in the process of cooperative labor and social interaction But it isimpossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in any way otherthan a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words higher psycho-logical processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction with others thatis through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried out indepen-dently by the individual (Leontrsquoev 1981 pp 55-56 emphases in the original)

As well as emphasizing the social and cooperative nature of human activity thisquotation is important with respect to the arguments that I want to develop inthis paper as it highlights the central role of semiotic mediation in developmentKnowledge is created as well as appropriated in the discourse among peoplewho are working together in a specific situation in order to create or improve anartefact or to solve a problem of importance to the group However Leontrsquoevalso alludes to another of Vygotskyrsquos key insights namely that in order tounderstand current activity it is necessary to investigate the history of that acti-vity It is to this that I next turn

In analyzing the history of human development at least four different time-scales need to be considered The longest is the history of the cultural evolution of

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

the species (the phylogenetic level) next is the historical development of particu-lar cultures The third level (ontogenetic) traces the developmental trajectory ofindividual humans over the course of the lifespan Finally the microgenetic levelis concerned with the development of an instance of a particular activity

In practice it is the latter that has been explored in most detail for usingcontemporary technology it is relatively easy to observe and record the sequenceof actions through which an activity is enacted and the specific operations inwhich the participants engage making use of the relevant artefacts that are avai-lable in the situation (Leontrsquoev 1981) These artefacts may be either material(knives pencils automobiles) or symbolic (utterances maps theories) ndashthoughas Cole (1996) has pointed out to function as mediators of joint activity all arte-facts must have some form of material embodiment as well as a symbolic mea-ning that is to say they must be ready to hand and also have a cultural signifi-cance relevant to the situation

However the form in which a particular instance of activity is realizeddepends not only on the artefacts that are to hand in the situation but also onthe participantsrsquo past experiences with the practices in which the artefacts areused to mediate achievement of the action goals that contribute to the joint acti-vity Thus the microgenesis of a particular instance of activity is necessarilydependent upon the ontogenetic development of the participants that is to sayupon the opportunities their life trajectories have afforded them to appropriatethe relevant cultural knowledge through participation in instances of similaractions and operations

But on the time-scale of ontogenetic development each individualrsquos trajectoryof development is itself strongly influenced by the culture in which he or she isgrowing up and on the historical development of that culture As Rogoff (2003)illustrates in considerable detail cultures vary considerably both over time andacross ecological niches in what mediating artefacts and practices are available andin the relative value accorded to each Moreover within each culture at any parti-cular historical moment participants in activities both incorporate the ways ofprevious generations and adapt them to the exigencies of current conditions

Stepping up one further level the historical development of a particular cul-tures is itself shaped by development on the even larger timescale of the culturaland biological evolution of the species This is the most difficult timescale todescribe in detail for lack of the necessary evidence But certain broad distinc-tions between human communities can be made in terms of their modes of sub-sistence and of the mediating means available for joint activity (Diamond 1998Donald 1991) As recent research has shown our earliest ancestors some 5million years ago lived in small bands of hunter gatherers often on the edge oflakes and oceans Initially their tools were found in the surroundings but overseveral million years they invented ways of making more sophisticated artefactssuch as knives arrowheads baskets and clothing from flints bones skins andvegetable materials Then as some groups migrated to particularly fertile partsof the world they adopted a more settled agrarian way of life growing cropsand breeding animals The resulting ability to produce more food than imme-diately required led in turn to the emergence of trade and to a diversity of spe-cialist occupations such as potters and tailors who exchanged their products forfood and other necessities This stage also saw the development of much largerpopulation groupings with hierarchical class structures that included prieststax collectors and other religious and political functionaries

While migration had been a common feature of human existence from theearliest times the development of large settled populations and of weapons

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

made of bronze and iron led to the expansion of certain cultural groups throughterritorial conquest and colonization by sea and by land As a result during thelast few thousand years the latest phase of phylogenetic development has beencharacterized by the rise and fall of imperial cultures which have imposed theirtechnologies laws and administrative procedures as well as their religions artsknowledge and values on widely diverse subjugated populations Most recentlythe further development of the inventions that led to the first industrial revolu-tion has simply served to increase the scale and intensity of these imperialisttrends At the same time these inventions as well as those of the current indus-trial revolution have also led to a great increase in humansrsquo understanding oftheir social and material environment both through scientific and social rese-arch and through the dissemination of information about other times and placesresulting from travel and the use of print and electronic technologies

In presenting this very condensed account of phylogenetic development Ihave emphasized the material tools that have mediated the progressively morecomplex and diverse activities in which humans have engaged over the course ofthe speciesrsquo history However bearing in mind that what has been the drivingforce of human development is joint activity an equally ndashif not morendash impor-tant determinant of this history is the development of the modes of representa-tion through which humans have communicated and developed their unders-tanding of the world Table I presents the developmental sequence proposed byDonald (1991) based on archeological neuroanatomical historical and othertypes of evidence The table also includes the stages in the historical develop-ment of ways of knowing that were proposed by Wartofsky (1979)

The first stage in this sequence corresponds to the phase in which proto-humans began to diverge from other primate species In this phase as in thebehavior of contemporary higher primates practical action was the predomi-nant form of communication as ndashnot necessarily deliberatelyndash participants sig-naled their intentions in a shared situation and these intentions were interpre-ted and responded to by their co-participants in the activity In the secondmimetic phase which must have developed gradually over many millenniacommunication became somewhat differentiated from the activity to which itreferred as humans deliberately used gestures mime facial expression andvarious types of phonation to comment on as well as to coordinate action and theobjects to which it was directed Later still with the gradual modification of thevocal tract and of the primate brain there emerged the ability to communicatethrough speech and hence the ability to refer not only to particular objects andactions but also to generalized classes and to express observed and intendedrelationships between objects actions and events thus allowing participants toplan for and reflect on the outcomes of joint activity Finally the invention ofwriting which ushered in the final phase in Donaldrsquos proposed sequence occu-rred extremely recently in the long trajectory of phylogenetic development Yetas with those that preceded it enormously increased the human repertoire ofmeans for making and communicating meaning Essentially what it added wasan ldquoexternal memoryrdquo By creating a (relatively) permanent representation oflinguistic meaning it made possible the compilation and distillation of repor-ted information from many sources including the writerrsquos own verbalizedthoughts It also allowed the writer and those who read his or her written textto review critique and revise the meanings expressed and to make the resultsavailable to people in later times and other places for further constructive debateand improvement

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

However action gesture speech and writing are not simply progressivelymore powerful modes of communication They are also progressively morepowerful mediators of thinking This is most obvious with respect to the lin-guistic modes of communication But even before the emergence of speechaction and ndashto an even greater extentndash mimesis enabled humans to think toget-her and thereby to create a shared interpretation of their joint activities In fact ithas been argued that the emergence of language was not simply the result ofbrain and vocal tract development but rather was part of a more general patternof adaptation that building upon the cognitive achievements of mimetic kno-wing strove to integrate the unconnected bits of information in a more compre-hensive and coherent account of being-in-the-world (Deacon 1997) Neverthe-less it is also true that the availability of language greatly enhanced both com-munication and thinking together for as Halliday observed

the grammar of every natural language is (among other things) a theory of human experienceit is through our acts of meaning that we transform experience into the coherent -though farfrom consistent- patchwork that we learn to project as lsquorealityrsquo (1993 p 46)

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

TABLE IModes Of Knowing Phylogenetic And Cultural Development (from Wells 1999)

Time Mode of Participants Donald(1991) Wartofsky(1979)Years BP Knowing

2 million Instrumental Individual in action Episodic Primary artifactsyears material tools

1 -- 15 million Procedural Between individuals while Mimetic Secondaryyears engaged in action artifacts tools

and practicesmimeticinteraction

50000 Substantive Among members of a (Linguistic) Secondaryyears cultural group reflecting on artifacts

action and as a basis for representations ofplanning further action tools and

practices spokeninteraction

50000 Aesthetic Among members of a Mythic Tertiary artifactsyears cultural group making sense artistic represent-

of the human predicament ations in mythnarrative graphicand musical modes

2500 Theoretical Among members of a Theoretic Tertiary artifactsyears specialist community decontextualized

seeking to explain the natural representationsand human world such as

taxonomiestheories models etc

Meta Among members of a Tertiary artifacts cultural group also representations ofindividuals seeking to mental andunderstand and control their semioticown mental activity processes

In sum what Donald and other scholars argue is that contemporary mentalabilities are the outcome of the development over time of a series of progressi-vely more powerful and flexible modes of representation ndashor in Vygotskyanterms of semiotic mediators of higher mental functions- that have made possi-ble the rational theoretically oriented modes of knowing that underpin theachievements of modern science and its technological applications In the philo-sopher Wartofskyrsquos words

our own perceptual and cognitive understanding of the world is in large part shaped andchanged by the representational artifacts we ourselves create We are in effect the products ofour own activity in this way we transform our own perceptual and cognitive modes our waysof seeing and of understanding by means of the representations we make (1979 p xxiii)

There is however one further important aspect of Donaldrsquos (1991) thesis thatis crucial for the argument that I wish to develop Although the semiotic sys-tems of mimesis speech and writing each powered a new mode of cognitiveactivity they did not replace those that preceded but were additive in theireffects The result is that contemporary humans have a variety of modes of kno-wing at their disposal as they engage in joint activity Furthermore most suchactivities call for more than one mode of knowing and require the complemen-tary and interdependent use of more than one mode of representation

Joint Activity as the Site of Ontogenetic Learning and Development

Two important implications follow from the multi-level historical concep-tion of development just outlined First on any occasion the type of activitythat is undertaken and the specific manner in which it is enacted are necessarilydependent on the particular cultural-historical antecedents of the participantsboth human and artefactual that come together in its realization In particularthe manner in which the situation is interpreted ndashin terms of what action goalsare appropriate and how they can be achievedndash depends on the motives valuesand knowledgeable skills of the human participants and on the affordances ofthe technologies available in the situation And second every instance of an acti-vity provides an occasion for a triple transformation of the situation in whichthe activity is carried out of the artefacts and practices that mediate its enact-ment and most importantly of the knowledge and skills of the human partici-pants Taken together these propositions clarify the way in which cultural andindividual development are both interdependent and rooted in particular situa-ted occasions of joint activity As Rogoff (1994) argues

People of each generation as they engage in sociocultural endeavors with other people makeuse of and extend cultural tools and practices inherited from previous generations As peopledevelop through their shared use of cultural tools and practices they simultaneously contribu-te to the transformation of cultural tools practices and institutions (p 52)

Potentially therefore every occasion of joint activity provides an opportunityfor development on the part of all participants This is a point to which I shallreturn But first I want to consider more carefully the concept of developmentitself

Clearly built into the concept of development is the implication of change andtypically of change in the direction of increasing complexity and effectiveness Inother words development is typically taken to imply improvement or progresstoward some ideal end state or capability However in the light of the previousdiscussion such a progression while it may be meaningful to (some of the) partici-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

pants in any particular situation cannot be understood in any absolute sense butmust be seen as relative to the unfolding historical trajectory of the species of aparticular culture and of the immediate community ndashits values its dominantactivities and the knowledgeable skills that form its resources Furthermore just asthese have changed in the past they will continue to change in the future in res-ponse to the changing demands of the larger environment So while ontogeneticdevelopment does indeed involve increasing complexity and effectiveness of indi-vidualsrsquo participation in the activity systems in which they are involved in theirdaily lives the overall trajectory of development is emergent and its endpoint cannever be specified in advance even in terms of an ideal to be attained

Nevertheless this does not mean that there are not strong regularities in thesequence of ontogenetic development particularly in the early years Indeed asNelson (1996) has suggested during the preschool years children follow a trajec-tory very similar to the sequence of phylogenetic development proposed byDonald (1991) (see Table I above) as they appropriate the semiotic tools of repre-sentation afforded by action mimesis speech and writing Of course this is not asimple recapitulation children growing up in a contemporary literate culture forexample are surrounded from birth by artifacts and practices that result from andembody all the available modes of knowing (Cole 1996) Appropriating existingcultural tools is thus very different from inventing them ex novo as Scribner (1985)points out Nevertheless given the combination of biological and cultural inheri-tance it is not surprising that in most if not all cultures children follow the samesequence as did the species as a whole over the course of history

In the first weeks of life infants act on their immediate surroundings bothanimate and inanimate and begin to develop what Piaget (1970) called sensori-motor intelligence However although this most basic form of activity mayappear to be instinctual it is nevertheless also inherently social First all infantsare born into an environment that is cultural in the sense of having been shapedby countless preceding generations and second the infantrsquos actions are treatedas being intentional and are responded to as such So from the beginning theinfant is caught up in social interaction (Newson 1978) In the second phasewhich typically begins in the first few months the infant also begins to engagein mimetic communication through gaze facial expression and rudimentarygesture (Bruner 1990) Couched in terms of primary and secondary intersubjec-tivity this phase has been described in considerable detail by Trevarthen (19781979) Primary intersubjectivity develops as the infant and parent engage inmutual gaze thereby communicating that they are attending to and respondingto each other In secondary intersubjectivity third parties are brought into jointattention as the parent through gaze directs the infantrsquos attention to an object ofpotential interest or follows the childrsquos direction of gaze and signals that he orshe is also attending to the same object

It is on this basis of joint action and attention that towards the end of thefirst year the child begins to exploit his or her growing command of vocaliza-tion often accompanied by gesture to begin to communicate through speechFrom research predominantly involving children in ldquoWesternrdquo societies it hasbeen established that at first the childrsquos utterances are idiosyncratic drawingonly partially ndashif at allndash on the speech of those around him or her neverthelessparents and other family members have little difficulty in interpreting them incontext and once again they respond in a manner that is contingent on theirinterpretation thereby establishing spoken communication as a joint interactiveactivity By the end of the second year however children appear to abandon thisidiosyncratic ldquoprotolanguagerdquo form of communication and begin to construct a

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

linguistic meaning potential that is systematically related to the language thatis addressed to them in the oft-repeated activities of family life (Bruner 1990Halliday 1975 Wells 1986) Significantly within particular language com-munities the sequence in which children master the basic meanings and thelexicogrammatical forms in which they are realized tends to be very similar fromchild to child (Wells 1985)

The developmental sequence just described ndashaction mimesis speechndash is com-mon to children in all cultures and in all cases takes place in and through jointactivity and interaction with other family and community members Howeveralthough the sequence is universal the manner and pace at which it proceeds varyvery considerably across cultures These differences depend upon many culturally-determined factors such as adult expectations about their childrenrsquos developmentthe position in which the infant is typically held or carried facing the caregiver orturned outwards to face in the same direction as the caregiver the makeup and sizeof the interactional groups in which communication typically occurs and whetherthese events are part of family and community life more generally or are delibera-tely arranged and structured for the presumed benefit of the child (Rogoff 2003)In the later stages of language development the range and extent of the meaningpotential that children construct begins to vary even more widely depending onthe activities in which they engage the linguistic registers that are used in thoseactivities and the stances typically adopted by interlocutors toward the use of lan-guage in their interactions with children (Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

So far the ontogenetic developmental sequence I have described is funda-mentally similar across cultures and follows the phylogenetic sequence in whichhumans have progressively added new semiotic mediational means to theircommunicative repertoires In an important sense therefore the final mode ofrepresentation in Donaldrsquos scheme that of writing is an optional extra sincemany cultures have survived and prospered without a written mode of represen-ting meaning Moreover even in cultures that have a writing system the extentand scope of literacy that individuals attain varies very considerably dependingon the activity systems in which they participate the value that is placed onwritten texts by those communmities the purposes to which they are put andthe genres that are used for those purposes However since literacy and its usesare so strongly associated with schooling I shall leave further discussion of thismode of semiotic mediation to a later part of this paper

Before concluding this section however I want to explore further the con-cept of semiotic mediation In one of the better known passages in Vygotskyrsquoswritings where he argued for the social and cultural origin of higher mentalfunctions he wrote that every function occurs on two planes first in activity andinteraction between people and then within the individual learner (Vygotsky1981) What bridges between these two planes as is clear from his other wri-tings is semiotic mediation To recall Leontrsquoevrsquos formulation of this argument

hellip it is impossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in anyway other than a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words hig-her psychological processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction withothers that is through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried outindependently by the individual (1981 pp 55-56)

In other words when people engage in joint activity their actions gesturesand speech not only mediate the coordination of participation but they alsomake overt the mental activities involved and so render them available forappropriation by novice participants1 Halliday is very clear about this Alt-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

hough the following quotation refers only to language the term lsquolanguagersquocould justifiably be replaced by lsquosemiotic mediationrsquo

In the development of the child as a social being language has the central role Language is themain channel through which the patterns of living are transmitted to him through which helearns to act as a member of lsquosocietyrsquo ndashin and through the various social groups the family theneighbourhood and so onndash and to adopt its lsquoculturersquo its modes of thought and action itsbeliefs and its values (1978 p 9)

However as the child grows older language does become the predominantmode of semiotic mediation and as he wrote in a later paper ldquoLanguage is theessential condition of knowing the process by which experience becomes know-ledge (Halliday 1993 p 94 original emphasis)

Assistance for Learning in Joint Activitie

So far in the discussion of the role of joint activity in human development Ihave concentrated on the tools and particularly the semiotic modes of represen-tation that mediate the achievement of the outcome of activity In this sectionon the other hand I turn to the role of other people in this process both familymembers and the larger community

Until now I have referred to coparticipants in an activity in general termsbut clearly there are further distinctions to be made Particularly helpful in thisrespect is Engestroumlmrsquos model of an activity system which is shown in figure 1

What this model shows is that when we look at an ongoing activity from thepoint of view of an individual participant (t Subject) that individual is involvedin a nexus of other relationships that link him or her to other lsquoparticipantsrsquo theTools and artifacts to mediate action on the Object but also the Community of

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 1The Triangle of Activity

Artifactstools andpractices

Values rulesamp conventions

Community Divisioacutenof labor

Engestrom 1999

Object OutcomeSubject

others engaged in the activity together with the Division of Labor within thatcommunity and also the Rules and Conventions that govern the manner inwhich the activity is carried out (Engestroumlm 1999) What this latter category oflsquoparticipantrsquo underscores is the historical dimension of an activity system sincethese rules and conventions ndashas well as the tools and artifactsndash bring into thepresent the distilled practices of previous generations who have engaged in theactivity as these are interpreted and utilized by the current community

To illustrate the relevance of this model to the development of the youngchild we might compare two versions of a similar activity reported by WertschMinick and Arns (1984) In their study Brazilian children carried out a puzzletask on two occasions first with the mother and secondly with a primary tea-cher What the researchers found was that in general the mothers and teachersengaged in the activity in systematically different ways Whereas the motherstended to direct the childrenrsquos behavior or even carry out parts of the task them-selves in order to complete it in an efficient manner ndashjust as they would havedone if engaged in a household taskndash the teachers tended to encourage thechildrsquos autonomous performance and only provided hints and suggestions whenthey judged them to be necessary to advance the childrenrsquos understandingInterpreting these results the researchers suggested that the two groups ofadults belonged to two different communities (or activity systems) that had dif-ferent rules and conventions about engaging in this joint activity And this inturn led to the different divisions of labor that they observed Similarly Rogoff(2003) cites many examples of substantial differences between cultures inalmost all aspects of child rearing with respect to their ways of engaging chil-dren in the activities that they consider important

What is clear is that ldquobehindrdquo the particular adult ndashor older siblings in someculturesndash who are directly engaged with the child there is a wider communityof family members neighbors and others who have an interest in the upbrin-ging of children and who share beliefs about appropriate ways to involve themin the activities of daily life So whether in Spain Japan or the Peruvian High-lands although the actual practices vary across cultures in each those responsi-ble for childrenrsquos well-being and development act as agents of a wider commu-nity whose beliefs and practices are rooted in a long tradition concerning howactivities should be carried out But equally in all cultures practices also changein response to changes in the world beyond the particular community In manyWestern homes for example computer games or television programs haverecently taken the place of the bedtime story while in many indigenous com-munities crafts that until recently only supplied local needs are now exploitedcommercially for the tourist trade changing the rhythms of daily life and therelationships among family members and the activities in which children areinvolved As suggested earlier therefore in order to understand the activities inwhich children participate today we need to look not only at the immediatesituation but also at the wider community and the changes taking place on allthese time-scales

Microgenesis and the Zone of Proximal Development

It is nevertheless always the immediate microgenetic situation that isthe site of ontogenetic development ndashthe action and interaction between thelearner and those with whom he or she is engaged in the activity in pro-gress When we adopt this microgenetic perspective however we need tomodify the representation of an activity system presented in figure 1 Inthat representation the focus was on the goal-oriented nature of action

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Here we need to focus on the interaction among the participants ndashtheirattempt to attain intersubjectivity with respect to the common object andthe complementarity of the knowledgeable skills they bring to the cocons-truction of the intended outcome (see Figure 2) What figure 2 emphasizesis the fact that although the tools and artefacts that are available to mediatethe jointly undertaken action are the same for each participant each bringsa somewhat different familiarity with their use as a result of their differentlife trajectories and it is this variability in their expertise that makes it pos-sible for each to provide assistance to the others in at least some aspects ofthe joint action Viewed in this light it is clear why Vygotsky emphasizedthe role of joint activity in development and wrote of its potential to enablelearners ldquoto go beyond themselvesrdquo with the assistance of more expertothers

The metaphor Vygotsky used to characterize the potential for learning thatthis sort of activity creates was the ldquozone of proximal developmentrdquo As hewrote when another participant in the activity provides instruction that isappropriately pitched beyond what the learner can manage to do on his or herown it ldquowakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturationlying in the zone of proximal developmentrdquo (1987 p 212) Vygotsky concep-tualized development as the formation of new functional systems (ldquoneoforma-tionsrdquo) and of changes in the relationships among systems which he consideredto occur as a succession of ldquocrises of developmentrdquo that are particularly facilitatedby engagement in the relevant ldquoleading activityrdquo at each stage for example playin childhood and learning to read and write in the early school yearsHowever itwould be a mistake to focus only on the periods of revolutionary change since ashe equally emphasized at any time there are also other more gradual processes ofgrowth

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 2Dialogue in Joint Activity(from Wells2002b)

Outcomematerial ampsemioticartefacts

Toolsartefacts

Subject

Rulesconventions

Community Divisionof labor

Subject

Toolsartefacts

Processes that are central lines of development at one age become peripheral lines of develop-ment at the following age and conversely peripheral lines of development of one age arebrought to the forefront and become central lines since their meaning and relative significancein the total structure of development changes (p 197)2

In developing his important concept of the zone of proximal developmentVygotsky tended to characterize the assistance given by others as ldquoinstructionrdquoand to see its value in ldquothe childrsquos potential to raise himself to a higher intellec-tual level of development through collaboration to move from what he has towhat he does not have through imitationrdquo (1987 p 210) However manyrecent scholars who have built on his work have taken a broader view of thedevelopmental significance of collaboration in joint activities and have characte-rized the assistance that is provided within this relationship in terms such asldquoapprenticeshiprdquo (Lave amp Wenger 1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoguided participationrdquo(Rogoff 1994 2003) and ldquoscaffoldingrdquo (Wood et al 1976) Neverthelesswhile these different metaphors highlight different features of the relationshipwhat they all have in common is the inclusion of the learner in an activity inwhich there is provision of the assistance necessary to help the learner to comple-te an activity in which he or she is interested and to do so in such a way that heor she makes progress toward being able to participate more fully and autono-mously in the future (Maybin Mercer and Stierer 1992)

In many joint activities such as for example traditional forms of craftapprenticeship assistance is only provided when needed and the ldquomasterrdquo doesso with no deliberate didactic intention beyond that of involving the novice inthe completion of the particular task in hand (Lave 1996) Similarly in sociali-zation into activities around the home no explicit instruction is necessary fornovices can learn a great deal by simply watching and listening (cf Rogoff2003) This is what Lave and Wenger (1991) mean when they insist that lear-ning is not an independent activity but an intrinsic aspect of ldquolegitimate perip-heral participationrdquo in a communityrsquos activities From their perspective therefo-re formal education in which learning is the sole purpose of the activity issomething of an anomaly particularly when the only form of assistance providedis the expert teacherrsquos direct instruction and subsequent evaluation of the extentof the studentsrsquo learning

In many recent discussions it has also been recognized that it is not only aldquoteacherrdquo who can provide assistance in the zpd On the one hand in a com-plex activity many participants are more expert than others in some aspectsand therefore on some occasions are able to help those who are less expert(Rogoff 1994) and on the other hand those who provide assistance do nothave to be physically present texts and other artifacts can equally well helpa participant ldquoto go beyond himherselfrdquo as is often the case in intellectualwork such as research and writ ing (Wells 1999) Furthermore asEngestroumlm (1999) and others ndashbuilding on other aspects of Vygotskyrsquos theo-retical writingsndash have noted the material and symbolic tools that have beendeveloped by previous participants in the activity can also provide the samesort of assistance However perhaps the most important point to emphasizeis that there are many situations in which no-one is an expert yet as eachbrings his or her own past experience to the solution of a common problemthe group together is able to achieve more than any single member couldhave done alone Clearly it is such collaboration that has made possible theinventions that have led to the major advances of great civilizations over thecourse of cultural history

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Development in the Pre-School Years

As noted above the responsibility for caring for children in early childhoodvaries very considerably from one society to another Nevertheless in all socie-ties children are involved in joint activities with others in which they receiveassistance with respect to their participation however that may be locally achie-ved For the most part as already mentioned these are activities that are regu-larly repeated in the taken-for-granted routines of daily life The expectation isthat the child will learn to fit in and is simply helped to do so Often referred toas ldquoenculturationrdquo this form of apprenticeship ensures the continuity of the cul-turersquos way of life from one generation to the next and as Donald (1991) arguedit probably occurred even before the emergence of speech

However in all activities there are occasions when problems arise that callfor some level of deliberate decision-making In these situations spoken interac-tion makes possible a degree of reflection and forward planning in which therelations of cause and effect intention action and outcome are made explicitand open to question and discussion The talk that occurs on these occasionsthus plays a particularly important role in helping children to attend to andunderstand the world around them in terms of the culturersquos ways of ldquomakingsenserdquo of it However these occasions can also open up possibilities for changeboth in the form of the activity and in the participantsrsquo understanding of itHow caregivers habitually take up these opportunities is particularly importantfor it plays an important part in shaping the intellectual dispositions withwhich children enter school (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo amp Sterponi2002)

In this section I include some representative examples of kinds of talk thatarise from joint activities in the home These examples are drawn from observa-tions made in settings in England (Wells 1986) and Australia (Hasan 2002) inwhich the young children observed spent most of their time at home with oneparent sometimes with one or more siblings some of the time they entertainedthemselves with occasional adult involvement but they also frequently watchedand ldquohelpedrdquo the parent with household tasks of various kinds

In the first example James (aged 3 12 years) has been playing alone in thegarden and as he reenters the house his mother tries to get him to take off hismuddy shoes However at that moment he sees a bird outside which interestshim more than changing his shoes

Example 1Mother There we are there one slipper onJames I can see a birdMother A what loveJames See a bird Mother (whispering) Is there OutsideJames (pointing and whispering) Yes see

(both continue to speak very softly)Mother Is he eating anythingJames NoMother Where Oh yes hersquos getting- do you know what hersquos doingJames NoMother Hersquos going to the- the paper sack to try to pick out some pieces-

Oh hersquos got some food there and I expect hersquoll pick out somepieces of thread from the sack to go and make his nest under the roofJames Wait a minute and Irsquoll-[James now wants to go out to see more closely but at that moment thebird flies away]

James That birdrsquos gone

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

In the second example Elizabeth (aged 4 years) who is helping with thehouse cleaning watches with interest as her mother shovels wood ash from thefireplace into a bucket

Example 2Elizabeth What are you doing that forMother Irsquom gathering it up and putting it outside so that Daddy can put it on the gardenElizabeth Why does he have to put it on the gardenMother To make the compost rightElizabeth Does that make the grass growMother YesElizabeth Why does itMother You know how I tell you that you need to eat different things like eggs and cab-

bage and rice pudding to make you grow into a big girlElizabeth YesMother Well plants need different foods too and ash is one of the things thatrsquos

good for them

The third example involves James again now eighteen months older Earlierin the afternoon he had been helping his mother with the baking Now hecomes back into the kitchen as his mother is taking the baking trays out of theoven He hears a loud metallic ldquocrackrdquo and asks for an explanation

Example 3James Who did thatMother I expect it was the tin contractingJames Which tinMother The one with your pastry inJames Why did it make that noiseMother Well when it was in the oven it got very hot and stretched a bit Irsquove just taken

it out of the oven and itrsquos cooling down very quickly you see and that noisehappens when it gets smaller again and goes back to its normal shape

James Oh was it a different shape in the ovenMother Oh not very different just a little biggerJames Naughty little tin you might get smacked if you do it again

In all three of these examples the mother willingly responds to the childrsquosinterest and provides information to explain the significance of what the child isseeing or hearing even when in the first this interrupts the motherrsquos plan Allthree cases show how the childrsquos participation in the activity with the adult assu-res that there is intersubjectivity of attention to what interests the child and thisenables the mother to provide relevant information Clearly this is a form ofldquoinstructionrdquo however it is spontaneous and contingent on the childrsquos interestrather than presented as part of a pre-planned curriculum

The third example is particularly interesting from this point of view as thephenomenon of interest to James requires a somewhat technical explanation Atsome point in the future no doubt the expansion of metal when heated and itssubsequent contraction when removed from the heat will figure in the schoolscience curriculum in relation to the systematic study of heat here however itis an interesting side-effect of baking and the motherrsquos explanation while tech-nical in content is couched in everyday language rather than in the abstractterms of scientific generalization As Hasan (2002) has observed

the discourse of quasi specialised knowledge occurs in the lsquomiddle ofrsquo daily activities and bynecessity it calls for a readiness on the motherrsquos part to entertain contextual shifts to bewilling to reclassify the context of the on-going discourse The tendency to move with thechildrsquos moving discourse the readiness to re-classify context is a discourse characteristic of thesame group of mothers who frequently ask questions made precise by qualification and whoattend to their childrenrsquos questions and provide them with well developed answers (p 123)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 5: Actividad y Aprendizaje

sentacioacuten que la precedieron incrementoacute enormemente el repertorio humano demedios para hacer y comunicar significados Esencialmente lo que antildeadioacute fueuna ldquomemoria externardquo Gracias a la creacioacuten de una representacioacuten (relativa-mente) permanente de significados linguumliacutesticos es posible la compilacioacuten y des-tilacioacuten de la informacioacuten transmitida por diferentes fuentes incluyendo los pro-pios pensamientos verbalizados del escritor Esto tambieacuten permitioacute al escritor y aaquellos que leiacutean sus textos repasar criticar y corregir los significados expresa-dos y ponerlos a disposicioacuten de otras personas en tiempos futuros y en otros luga-res permitiendo continuar la construccioacuten del debate y su mejora en el futuro

169El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

TABLA IModos de conocimiento Desarrollo Filogeneacutetico y Cultural (Wells 1999)

Tiempo en antildeos Modo de Participantes Donald (1991) Wartofsky (1979)transcurridos conocimiento

Dos millones de Instrumental Individuos en accioacuten Episoacutedico Artefactosantildeos primarios

herramientasmateriales

1 mdash15 millones Procedimental Entre individuos mientrasde antildeos participacioacuten en la accioacuten Gestual o miacutemico Artefactos

secundariosherramientasy praacutecticasinteraccioacutenmimeacutetica

50000 antildeos Substantivo Entre miembros de un grupo (Linguumliacutestico) Artefactoscultural reflexionando sobre la secundariosaccioacuten como base para la representaciones deplanificacioacuten de acciones futuras herramientas y

praacutecticasinteraccioacutenmediante el habla

50000 antildeos Esteacutetico Entre miembros de un grupo Miacutetico Artefactoscultural dando sentido a las terciariostribulaciones humanas representaciones

artiacutesticas en modode mitosnarracionesgraacuteficos y muacutesica

2500 antildeos Teoacuterico Entre miembros de una Teoacuterico Artefactoscomunidad especializada para terciarios explicar el mundo natural y representaciones humano descontextualizadas

tales comotaxonomiacuteas teoriacuteasmodelos etceacutetera

iquest Meta Entre miembros de u grupo Artefactoscultural tambieacuten entre terciariosindividuos buscando representaciones de comprender y controlar su los procesospropia actividad mental mentales y semioacuteticos

Sin embargo accioacuten gesto habla y escritura no son simplemente modos decomunicacioacuten progresivamente maacutes poderosos Son tambieacuten mediadores de pen-samiento progresivamente maacutes potentes Esto es maacutes evidente con respecto a losmodos linguumliacutesticos de comunicacioacuten Pero incluso antes de la emergencia delhabla la accioacuten y ndashen mayor gradondash la miacutemica permitieron a los humanos pen-sar juntos y consecuentemente crear una interpretacioacuten compartida de sus acti-vidades conjuntas De hecho se ha argumentado que la emergencia del lenguajeno fue simplemente el resultado del desarrollo del cerebro y del tracto vocal sinoque maacutes bien fue parte de un esquema general de adaptacioacuten maacutes amplio queconstruido sobre los eacutexitos cognitivos del conocimiento mimeacutetico se esforzoacute porintegrar las unidades inconexas de informacioacuten en todo maacutes comprensivo y cohe-rente de estar en el mundo (Deacon 1997) Sin embargo es tambieacuten verdad quela disponibilidad del lenguaje intensificoacute sustancial y conjuntamente tanto lacomunicacioacuten como el pensamiento ya que como Halliday observoacute

La gramaacutetica de todas las lenguas naturales es (entre otras cosas) una teoriacutea de la experienciahumana es mediante nuestros actos de significado como transformamos la experiencia en elconjunto coherente de retazos ndashaunque lejos de ser constantendash que aprendemos a proyectarcomo lsquorealidadrsquo (1993 p 46)

En resumen lo que Donald y otros acadeacutemicos argumentan es que las habili-dades mentales contemporaacuteneas son el resultado del desarrollo en el tiempo deuna serie de modos de representacioacuten cada vez maacutes poderosos y flexibles ndasho enteacuterminos Vygotskyanos de mediadores semioacuteticos de las funciones mentalessuperioresndash que han hecho posible la razoacuten los modos de conocimiento teoacuterica-mente orientados que sustentan los logros de la ciencia moderna y sus aplicacio-nes tecnoloacutegicas En palabras del filoacutesofo Wartofsky

nuestra comprensioacuten perceptiva y cognitiva del mundo es en gran medida conformada ymodificada por los artefactos de representacioacuten que nosotros mismos creamos De esta manerasomos en efecto el producto de nuestra propia actividad transformamos nuestros modos per-ceptivos y cognitivos nuestra manera de ver y comprender por medio de las representacionesque hacemos (1979 p xxiii)

Hay sin embargo un aspecto maacutes importante de la tesis de Donald (1991)que es crucial para el argumento que quiero desarrollar Aunque cada sistemasemioacutetico de miacutemica habla y escritura fortalece un nuevo modo de actividadcognitiva no reemplaza a los que les preceden sino que se antildeade a sus efectos Elresultado es que los humanos contemporaacuteneos tienen una variedad de modos deconocimiento a su disposicioacuten cuando se implican en actividades conjuntasAdemaacutes la mayoriacutea de estas actividades requieren maacutes de un modo de conoci-miento y del uso complementario e interdependiente de maacutes de un modo derepresentacioacuten

La actividad conjunta como el lugar del aprendizaje y desarrolloontogeneacutetico

De la concepcioacuten histoacuterica multi-nivel del desarrollo que se acaba de subrayarderivan dos implicaciones importantes

En primer lugar en todo momento el tipo de actividad que se emprenda yla manera especiacutefica en la que se desarrolle son necesariamente dependientesde los antecedentes histoacuterico-culturales de los participantes tanto humanoscomo instrumentales que concurren en su realizacioacuten En particular la mane-ra en la que la situacioacuten es interpretada ndashqueacute objetivos de actuacioacuten se conside-ran apropiados y coacutemo pueden ser alcanzadosndash depende de los motivos valores

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187170

y habilidades de los participantes humanos y de las ventajas ofrecidas por lastecnologiacuteas disponibles

En segundo lugar cualquier instante de la actividad proporciona una ocasioacutenpara una triple transformacioacuten (1) de la situacioacuten en la que la actividad es desa-rrollada (2) de los artefactos y de las praacutecticas que median su implementacioacuten y(3) maacutes importante auacuten del conocimiento y habilidades de los participanteshumanos

Estas dos implicaciones consideradas globalmente clarifican la manera en laque la cultura y el desarrollo individual son mutuamente interdependientes yhunden sus raiacuteces en oportunidades de actividad conjunta particulares y situa-das Como Rogoff (1994) argumenta

Las personas de cada generacioacuten mientras se comprometen en esfuerzos socioculturales conotras personas hacen uso y enriquecen herramientas culturales y praacutecticas heredadas de lasgeneraciones precedentes Ya que las personas se desarrollan mediante el uso compartido depraacutecticas y herramientas culturales contribuyen simultaacuteneamente a la transformacioacuten de lasherramientas culturales praacutecticas e instituciones (p 52)

Potencialmente por lo tanto toda ocasioacuten de actividad conjunta proporcionauna oportunidad para el desarrollo de todos los participantes Eacuteste es un punto alque volvereacute Pero antes quiero considerar con maacutes cuidado el concepto de desa-rrollo mismo

Claramente el concepto de desarrollo implica cambio y tiacutepicamente uncambio en la direccioacuten de incrementar la complejidad y la efectividad En otraspalabras se suele considerar que el desarrollo implica mejora o progreso haciaalguacuten estado o capacidad final ideal Sin embargo a la luz de la discusioacuten previatal progresioacuten aunque puede ser significativa para (alguno de) los participantesde una situacioacuten particular no puede ser entendida en un sentido absoluto Maacutesbien debe considerarse con relatividad si se atiende al despliegue de la trayecto-ria histoacuterica de la especie de una cultura particular y de la comunidad inmediatandashsus valores sus actividades predominantes y las habilidades conocidas que for-man sus recursosndash Ademaacutes al igual que esto ha cambiado en el pasado conti-nuaraacute cambiando en el futuro en respuesta a las demandas de cambio de losambientes cada vez maacutes amplios Por tanto mientras el desarrollo ontogeneacuteticoimplica claramente el incremento de la complejidad y la efectividad de la parti-cipacioacuten de los individuos en los sistemas de actividad en que estaacuten inmersosdurante sus vidas diarias la trayectoria maacutes amplia del desarrollo estaacute emergien-do y su destino no puede ser especificado por adelantado aunque se haga en teacuter-minos de un ideal por alcanzar

Sin embargo esto no significa que no haya fuertes regularidades en la secuen-cia del desarrollo ontogeneacutetico particularmente en los primeros antildeos De hechocomo Nelson (1996) ha sugerido durante los antildeos preescolares los nintildeos siguenuna trayectoria muy similar a la secuencia de desarrollo filogeneacutetico propuestapor Donald (1991) (ver la Tabla I) a medida que se apropian de las herramientassemioacuteticas de representacioacuten facilitadas por la accioacuten el gesto el habla y la escri-tura Por supuesto esto no es una simple recapitulacioacuten los nintildeos crecen en uncultura contemporaacutenea alfabetizada en la que estaacuten rodeados desde el nacimientopor artefactos y praacutecticas que resultan de incorporan todos los modos de conoci-miento disponibles (Cole 1996) Apropiarse de las herramientas culturales exis-tentes es asiacute muy diferente de inventarlas ex novo como Scribner (1985) precisa

Sin embargo dada la combinacioacuten de la herencia bioloacutegica y cultural no essorprendente que en la mayoriacutea de las culturas ndashsi no en todasndash los nintildeos sigan

171El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

la misma secuencia que siguioacute la especie como un todo a lo largo del curso de lahistoria

En las primeras semanas de vida los bebeacutes actuacutean en su entorno inmediatotanto animado como inanimado y comienzan a desarrollar lo que Piaget (1970)llamoacute inteligencia sensorio-motora Aunque eacutesta es la forma maacutes baacutesica de acti-vidad y puede parecer refleja (instintiva) es tambieacuten inherentemente social yaque en primer lugar todos los nintildeos nacen en un entorno que es cultural en elsentido de haber sido compartido por incontables generaciones precedentes yen segundo lugar la accioacuten del recieacuten nacido es realzada en interacciones sociales(Newson 1978) En una segunda fase que comienza generalmente en los prime-ros meses los bebeacutes tambieacuten comienzan a implicarse en la comunicacioacuten ges-tual mediante fijaciones de la mirada expresiones faciales y gestos rudimenta-rios (Bruner 1990) Apoyaacutendose en los teacuterminos de intersubjetividad primaria ysecundaria esta fase ha sido descrita con mucho detalle por Trevarthen (Trevart-hen y Hubley 1978 Trevarthen 1979) La intersubjetividad primaria se desa-rrolla cuando el nintildeo y su progenitor se dirigen mutuamente miradas fijascomunicaacutendose asiacute que se estaacuten atendiendo y respondiendo En la intersubjetivi-dad secundaria la atencioacuten conjunta recae sobre un tercer elemento como cuan-do el progenitor mediante miradas fijas dirige la atencioacuten del bebeacute a un objetode intereacutes potencial o sigue la direccioacuten de la mirada del nintildeo y sentildeala que tam-bieacuten estaacute atendiendo al mismo objeto

Sobre esta base de accioacuten y atencioacuten conjunta hacia el final del primer antildeo elnintildeo comienza a explotar su repertorio creciente de vocalizaciones a menudoacompantildeadas de gestos para empezar a comunicarse mediante el habla Deacuerdo con la investigacioacuten disponible realizada principalmente con nintildeos desociedades ldquooccidentalesrdquo al principio las elocuciones son idiosincraacutesicas dibu-jando soacutelo parcialmente en el habla ndashno del todondash aquello que les rodea sinembargo los padres y otros miembros de la familia tienen pocas dificultadespara interpretarlas dentro de un contexto y de nuevo responden de una maneraque es contingente con su interpretacioacuten estableciendo asiacute la comunicacioacutenhablada como una actividad interactiva conjunta Al final del segundo antildeo sinembargo los nintildeos parecen abandonar su forma indiosincraacutesica ldquoprotolinguumliacutesti-cardquo de comunicacioacuten y comienzan a construir un potencial de significados lin-guumliacutesticos sistemaacuteticamente relacionado con el lenguaje que les dirigen en lasactividades habituales de la vida familiar (Bruner 1990 Halliday 1975 Wells1986) Expresivamente en una comunidad linguumliacutestica particular la secuencia enla que los nintildeos dominan los significados baacutesicos y las formas leacutexicogramaticalesen las que se realizan tiende a ser muy similar de unos nintildeos a otros (Wells1985)

La secuencia de desarrollo que acaba de describirse ndashaccioacuten gesto hablandash escomuacuten a los nintildeos en todas las culturas y en todos los casos tiene lugar con otrosfamiliares y miembros de la comunidad mediante la accioacuten e interaccioacuten conjun-ta Sin embargo aunque la secuencia es universal el modo concreto en el que sedespliega variacutea considerablemente de unas culturas a otras Estas diferenciasdependen de muchos factores determinados culturalmente tales como las expec-tativas de los adultos sobre el desarrollo de sus hijos la posicioacuten en la que el bebeacutees sostenido o llevado ndashdando la cara al cuidador o con la cara vuelta en la mismadireccioacuten que el adultondash la configuracioacuten y tamantildeo de los grupos interaccionalesen los que la comunicacioacuten suele tener lugar y si estos eventos son parte de lavida familiar y comunitaria maacutes general o son deliberadamente disentildeados yestructurados para el supuesto beneficio del nintildeo (Rogoff 2003) En las etapastardiacuteas del desarrollo del lenguaje la gama y amplitud de significados potencia-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187172

les que los nintildeos construyen comienza a variar incluso de manera maacutes ampliadependiendo de las actividades en las que intervengan de los registros linguumliacutesti-cos que se usan en esas actividades y de las posturas tiacutepicamente adoptadas porlos interlocutores hacia el uso del lenguaje en sus interacciones con los nintildeos(Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

Hasta ahora la secuencia de desarrollo ontogeneacutetico que he descrito es baacutesica-mente similar en todas las culturas y sigue la secuencia filogeneacutetica en la que loshumanos han ido acumulando de manera progresiva nuevos recursos semioacuteticosmediacionales a sus repertorios comunicativos De forma llamativa por lo tantoel modo uacuteltimo de representacioacuten en el esquema de Donald que es la escrituraes un extra opcional puesto que muchas culturas han sobrevivido y prosperadosin una modalidad escrita de representacioacuten de significados Ademaacutes incluso enculturas que poseen un sistema de escritura el grado y alcance de alfabetizacioacutenque los individuos logran variacutea considerablemente dependiendo de los sistemasde actividad en los que participan del valor otorgado por la comunidad a los tex-tos escritos de los propoacutesitos a los que sirven y de los geacuteneros que se usan paraalcanzar esos propoacutesitos Sin embargo ya que la alfabetizacioacuten y sus usos estaacutenfuertemente asociados a la escolarizacioacuten maacutes adelante abordareacute con mayor pro-fundidad la discusioacuten de esta modalidad de mediacioacuten semioacutetica

Sin embargo quiero explorar con maacutes detalle el concepto de mediacioacutensemioacutetica antes de concluir esta seccioacuten En uno de los pasajes mejor conocidosde los escritos de Vygotski donde argumenta en favor del origen social y cultu-ral de las funciones metales superiores escribe que cada funcioacuten ocurre en dosplanos primero en la actividad e interaccioacuten entre personas y despueacutes en el apren-diz individual (Vygotski 1981) Lo que sirve de puente entre estos dos planoscomo se aclara en otros escritos suyos es la mediacioacuten semioacutetica Recueacuterdesecoacutemo formula Leontiev este argumento

es imposible transmitir los significados y meacutetodos necesarios para realizar un proceso de otraforma que no sea social ndashen la forma de una accioacuten o habla externandash En otras palabras los pro-cesos psicoloacutegicos superiores exclusivamente humanos soacutelo pueden ser adquiridos mediante lainteraccioacuten con otros esto es a traveacutes de un proceso interpsicoloacutegico que soacutelo maacutes tardecomenzaraacute a ser desarrollado independientemente por el individuo (1981 pp 55-56)

En otras palabras cuando las personas realizan una actividad conjunta susacciones gestos y discurso no soacutelo median la coordinacioacuten de la participacioacutentambieacuten hacen puacuteblicas las actividades mentales implicadas quedando asiacute dis-ponibles para su apropiacioacuten por parte de los participantes novatos1 Halliday sepronuncia con mucha claridad al respecto Aunque la cita siguiente se refieresoacutelo al lenguaje el teacutermino ldquolenguajerdquo podriacutea justificadamente ser reemplazadoaquiacute por ldquomediacioacuten semioacuteticardquo

En el desarrollo del nintildeo como un ser social el lenguaje posee el papel central El lenguaje es elprincipal canal por el que los patrones de vida le son transmitidos mediante el cual aprende aactuar como un miembro de la ldquosociedadrdquo ndashen y mediante la variedad de grupos sociales lafamilia los vecinos etceacuteterandash y a adoptar su ldquoculturardquo su modo de pensar y actuar sus creen-cias y sus valoresrdquo (1978 p 9)

Sin embargo a medida que los nintildeos crecen el lenguaje se convierte en elmodo predominante de mediacioacuten semioacutetica y como el mismo autor escribioacute enun trabajo posterior ldquoEl lenguaje es la condicioacuten esencial del conocimiento elproceso por el que la experiencia se convierte en conocimientordquo (Halliday 1993 p94 cursiva en el original)

173El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Ayuda para aprender en actividades conjuntas

Hasta ahora en la discusioacuten del papel de la actividad conjunta en el desarrollohumano me he centrado en las herramientas y particularmente en los modossemioacuteticos de representacioacuten que median los logros obtenidos como resultado dela actividad En esta seccioacuten en cambio me detendreacute en el papel que jueganotras personas ya sean miembros de la familia o de la comunidad extensa

Hasta este momento me he referido a los coparticipantes en una actividad enteacuterminos generales pero claramente hay distinciones adicionales por hacer Par-ticularmente uacutetil al respecto es el modelo de sistema de actividad de Engestroumlmel cual se representa en la figura 1

Lo que este modelo muestra es que cuando observamos una actividad encurso desde el punto de vista de un participante individual (Sujeto t) ese indivi-duo estaacute atrapado en un nudo de relaciones que le unen a otros ldquoparticipantesrdquolas Herramientas y Artefactos para mediar la accioacuten sobre el Objeto pero tam-bieacuten la Comunidad a la que pertenecen las personas implicadas en la actividadjunto con la Divisioacuten de Trabajo propia de la comunidad y tambieacuten las Reglas yConvenciones que gobierna la manera en la que la actividad se desarrolla(Engestroumlm 1999) Lo que subraya esta uacuteltima categoriacutea de ldquoparticipantesrdquo es ladimensioacuten histoacuterica de un sistema de actividad ya que estas reglas y convencio-nes ndashal igual que las herramientas y artefactosndash traen al presente las praacutecticasdestiladas de las generaciones previas que han participado en la actividad y estaspraacutecticas son interpretadas y utilizadas por la comunidad actual

Para ilustrar la relevancia de este modelo en el desarrollo del nintildeo pequentildeopodemos comparar dos versiones de una actividad similar descrita por WertschMinick y Arns (1984) En este estudio un grupo de nintildeos de Brasil ordenan unpuzzle en dos situaciones distintas la primera con sus madres y la segunda conun profesor de primaria Los investigadores observaron que en general las

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187174

FIGURA 1Triaacutengulo de Actividad

Artefactosherramientas y

praacutecticas

Valores reglasy convenciones

Comunidad Divisioacuten delabor

Engestrom 1999

Objeto ResultadosSujeto

madres y los profesores participan en la actividad de manera sistemaacuteticamentediferente Mientras que las madres tendiacutean a dirigir el comportamiento de losnintildeos o incluso a realizar parte de la tarea ellas mismas para completarla de unamanera eficaz ndashtal y como habriacutean hecho si se tratara de una tarea domeacutesticandashlos profesores tendiacutean a promover la actuacioacuten autoacutenoma de los nintildeos y soacutelo pro-porcionaban consejos y sugerencias cuando lo juzgaban necesario para el avancede la comprensioacuten de los nintildeos Interpretando estos resultados los investigado-res sugeriacutean que los dos grupos de adultos perteneciacutean a dos comunidades dife-rentes (o sistemas de actividad) con diferentes reglas y convenciones sobre la par-ticipacioacuten en actividades conjuntas Y esto alternativamente conduciacutea a la dife-rente divisioacuten del trabajo que ellos observaron De manera similar Rogoff(2003) cita muchos ejemplos de diferencias sustanciales entre culturas en casitodos los aspectos del crecimiento infantil con respecto a sus modos de implicar alos nintildeos en las actividades que consideran importantes

Lo que estaacute claro es que ldquodetraacutes derdquo un adulto particular en contacto directocon el nintildeo ndasho en algunas culturas un hermano mayorndash hay una comunidadamplia formada por los miembros de la familia vecinos y otras personas interesa-das en la educacioacuten del nintildeo que comparten determinadas creencias sobre elmodo maacutes apropiado de introducir a los nintildeos en las actividades de la vida diariaPor eso ya sea en Espantildea Japoacuten o las Montantildeas Peruanas aunque las praacutecticasactuales variacutean a traveacutes de las culturas en todas los responsables del bienestar ydel desarrollo de los nintildeos actuacutean como agentes de una comunidad maacutes ampliacuyas creencias y praacutecticas estaacuten arraigadas en una larga tradicioacuten sobre coacutemodeben llevarse a cabo las actividades Pero igualmente en todas las culturas laspraacutecticas tambieacuten cambian en respuesta a los cambios en el mundo maacutes allaacute deuna comunidad particular En muchos hogares Occidentales por ejemplo losjuegos de ordenadores o los programas de televisioacuten han ocupado recientementeel lugar de los cuentos antes de dormir mientras que en muchas comunidadesindiacutegenas las artes que hasta hace poco soacutelo cubriacutean las necesidades locales sonahora explotadas comercialmente por el mercado turiacutestico cambiando los ritmosde la vida diaria las relaciones entre los miembros de la familia y las actividadesen las que los nintildeos estaacuten inmersos Sin embargo como anteriormente se sugirioacutepara comprender las actividades en las que los nintildeos participan hoy necesitamosmirar no soacutelo a la situacioacuten inmediata sino tambieacuten a la comunidad maacutes ampliay a los cambios que han tenido lugar en las escalas temporales

Microgeacutenesis y Zona de Desarrollo Proacuteximo

Lo inmediato sin embargo es siempre la situacioacuten microgeneacutetica que es ellugar del desarrollo ontogeneacutetico ndashla accioacuten e interaccioacuten entre el aprendiz yaquellos con quien estaacute implicado en la actividad en cursondash Cuando adoptamosesta perspectiva microgeneacutetica sin embargo necesitamos modificar la represen-tacioacuten del sistema de actividad reflejada en la figura 1 Esta representacioacutensubraya el hecho de que la accioacuten estaacute orientada a un propoacutesito De manera dis-tinta ahora conviene resaltar la interaccioacuten entre los participantes ndashsus tentativaspara lograr intersubjetividad con respecto a los objetivos comunes y a las habili-dades complementarias de conocimiento que aportan a la co-construccioacuten delresultado previsto (ver Figura 2)ndash Lo que la figura 2 enfatiza es el hecho de queaunque las herramientas y artefactos que estaacuten disponibles para mediar la accioacutenemprendida conjuntamente son los mismos para cada participante cada unoaporta una familiaridad algo diferente con su uso como resultado de su diferentetrayectoria vital siendo esta variabilidad en su pericia la que hace posible paracada uno de ellos proporcionar asistencia a los otros al menos en algunos aspectos

175El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

de la accioacuten conjunta Visto desde esta perspectiva estaacute claro por queacute Vygotskienfatizoacute el papel de la actividad conjunta en el desarrollo y escribioacute sobre supotencial para permitir a los participantes ldquoir maacutes allaacute de siacute mismosrdquo con laayuda de otros maacutes expertos

La metaacutefora usada por Vygotski para caracterizar el potencial para el aprendi-zaje que esta clase de actividad crea fue ldquozona de desarrollo proacuteximordquo Como eacutelescribioacute cuando otro participante en la actividad proporciona instruccioacuten que essuministrada apropiadamente maacutes allaacute de lo que el aprendiz puede llegar a hacerpor siacute mismo ldquodespierta toda una serie de funciones que estaacuten en estado demaduracioacuten latente en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximordquo (1987 p 212) Vygotskiconceptualizoacute el desarrollo como la formacioacuten de nuevos sistemas funcionales(ldquoneoformacionesrdquo) y de cambios en las relaciones entre sistemas que seguacuten eacutelconsideraba ocurriacutean como una secuencia de ldquocrisis del desarrollordquo particular-mente facilitadas por la participacioacuten en las ldquoactividades guiadasrdquo relevantes decada etapa por ejemplo jugar en la nintildeez y aprender a leer y a escribir en los pri-meros antildeos escolares Sin embargo puede ser un error dirigir la atencioacuten soacutelo alos periodos de cambios revolucionarios ya que como eacutel igualmente enfatizoacutetambieacuten tienen lugar en cualquier momento otros procesos graduales de creci-miento

Los procesos que son liacuteneas centrales de desarrollo en una edad se convierten en liacuteneas perifeacute-ricas de desarrollo en la edad siguiente y contrariamente liacuteneas perifeacutericas de desarrollo deuna edad son traiacutedas a la vanguardia y se convierten en liacuteneas centrales en el momento en elque cambia su significado y su significacioacuten relativa en la estructura total del desarrollo(1987 p 197)2

En la elaboracioacuten de su importante concepto de zona de desarrollo proacuteximoVygotski tendioacute a caracterizar la ayuda proporcionada por otros como ldquoinstruc-cioacutenrdquo asiacute como a ver su valor en ldquoel potencial del nintildeo para elevarse a siacute mismo

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187176

FIGURA 2Diaacutelogo en la Actividad Conjunta (Wells 2002b)

Resultadosmateriales yartefactossemioacuteticos

Herramientasartefactos

Sujeto

Reglasconvenciones

Comunidad Divisioacuten delabor

Sujeto

Herramientasartefactos

gracias a la colaboracioacuten hacia un nivel intelectual mayor de desarrollo despla-zaacutendose mediante la imitacioacuten desde lo que eacutel es hasta lo que eacutel no esrdquo (1987p 210) Sin embargo muchos eruditos contemporaacuteneos que han construidosobre su trabajo han adoptado una visioacuten de conjunto del significado evolutivode la colaboracioacuten en actividades conjuntas y han caracterizado la ayuda propor-cionada en esta relacioacuten con teacuterminos tales como ldquoaprendizajerdquo (Lave y Wenger1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoparticipacioacuten guiadardquo (Rogoff 1994 2003) y ldquoandamia-jerdquo (Wood Bruner y Ross 1976) Sin embargo mientras estas metaacuteforas dife-rentes iluminan caracteriacutesticas diferentes de la relacioacuten lo que tienen todas encomuacuten es la inclusioacuten del aprendizaje en una actividad que ofrezca el nivel deapoyo necesario para ayudar al aprendizaje a completar una actividad en la que eacutelo ella estaacute interesado y a hacer esto de tal manera que eacutel o ella progresen hastapoder participar maacutes plena y autoacutenomamente en el futuro (Maybin Mercer yStierer 1992)

En muchas actividades conjuntas tales como por ejemplo formas tradicio-nales de aprendizaje de oficios la ayuda es proporcionada soacutelo cuando se necesitay de este modo el ldquomaestrordquo la ofrece sin intenciones didaacutecticas deliberadas maacutesallaacute de arropar al principiante para terminar una tarea particular en curso (Lave1996) De manera similar la socializacioacuten en actividades domeacutesticas no necesitauna instruccioacuten expliacutecita ya que los principiantes pueden aprender mucho sim-plemente mirando y escuchando (cf Rogoff 2003) Esto es lo que Lave y Wen-ger (1991) quieren decir cuando insisten en que el aprendizaje no es una activi-dad independiente sino un aspecto intriacutenseco de la ldquoparticipacioacuten perifeacutericalegiacutetimardquo en las actividades de una comunidad Desde su perspectiva por lotanto la educacioacuten formal en la que el aprendizaje es el uacutenico propoacutesito de laactividad tiene algo anoacutemalo particularmente cuando la uacutenica forma de ayudaproporcionada es la instruccioacuten directa del profesor experto y la consiguienteevaluacioacuten del grado de aprendizaje de los alumnos

En muchas discusiones recientes se ha reconocido tambieacuten que no es soacutelo unldquoprofesorrdquo quien puede proporcionar ayuda en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximo Porun lado en una actividad compleja muchos participantes son maacutes expertos queotros en algunos aspectos y por lo tanto en algunas ocasiones estaacuten preparadospara ayudar a aquellos que son menos expertos (Rogoff 1994) Por otro ladoaquellos que proporcionan ayuda no tienen que estar fiacutesicamente presentes lostextos y otros artefactos pueden igualmente ayudar de manera satisfactoria a unparticipante ldquoa ir maacutes allaacute de siacute mismo o siacute mismardquo como ocurre con frecuenciaen el trabajo intelectual como la investigacioacuten y la escritura (Wells 1999) Ade-maacutes como Engestroumlm (1999) y otros ndashbasaacutendose en distintos aspectos de losescritos teoacutericos de Vygotskindash han anotado las herramientas materiales y simboacute-licas que han sido desarrolladas por participantes anteriores en la actividad pue-den tambieacuten proporcionar la misma clase de ayuda Sin embargo el punto maacutesimportante que quizaacutes debe subrayarse es que hay muchas situaciones en las quenadie es un experto incluso como cada uno aporta su propia experiencia pasadaa la solucioacuten de un problema comuacuten el grupo en su conjunto es capaz de alcan-zar maacutes de lo que cualquier miembro singular podriacutea haber hecho de maneraindependiente Evidentemente es esta colaboracioacuten la que ha hecho posible lasinvenciones que han llevado a los mayores avances de las grandes civilizaciones alo largo del curso de la historia cultural

Desarrollo en los antildeos preescolares

La responsabilidad para cuidar a los nintildeos en la nintildeez temprana variacutea conside-rablemente de una sociedad a otra como antes anoteacute Sin embargo en todas las

177El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

sociedades los nintildeos estaacuten inmersos en actividades conjuntas con otros en las quereciben ayuda para participar aunque puedan llevarlas a cabo parcialmente Ensu mayor parte como ya se mencionoacute eacutestas son actividades cotidianas repetidasregularmente en las rutinas establecidas Se espera que el nintildeo aprenderaacute a asu-mirlas y es simplemente ayudado para hacerlo Esta forma de aprendizaje deno-minada habitualmente ldquoenculturacioacutenrdquo asegura la continuidad de las formas devida culturales desde una generacioacuten a la siguiente y como Donald (1991) argu-menta probablemente tuvo lugar incluso antes de la emergencia del habla

Sin embargo en todas las actividades hay ocasiones en las que cuando surgealguacuten problema se requiere alguacuten nivel de toma de decisiones deliberado En estassituaciones la interaccioacuten verbal hace posible un grado de reflexioacuten y planificacioacutenhacia delante en la que las relaciones de causa y efecto intencioacuten accioacuten y resultadose hacen expliacutecitas y abiertas para su anaacutelisis y discusioacuten La conversacioacuten que semantiene en estas ocasiones juega asiacute un papel particularmente importante en laayuda a los nintildeos para atender y comprender el mundo que les rodea de acuerdo conlos modos culturales de ldquodarle sentidordquo Sin embargo estas ocasiones pueden tam-bieacuten abrir posibilidades para el cambio tanto en la forma de la actividad como lacomprensioacuten que de ella alcanzan los participantes Coacutemo los cuidadores tomanhabitualmente estas oportunidades es de gran relevancia aquiacute ya que juega en la for-macioacuten de las disposiciones intelectuales con las que los nintildeos entran en la escuelaun papel importante (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo y Sterponi 2002)

En esta seccioacuten incluyo algunos ejemplos representativos del modo de hablarque surge de las actividades conjuntas en el hogar Estos ejemplos se han extraiacute-do de observaciones realizadas en contextos ingleses (Wells 1986) y australianos(Hasan 2002) donde los nintildeos pequentildeos observados pasaban la mayor parte desu tiempo en el hogar en compantildeiacutea de un progenitor o algunas veces con uno omaacutes hermanos mientras que el resto del tiempo se entreteniacutean ellos solos (conuna participacioacuten esporaacutedica del adulto) o algo que haciacutean con frecuencia mira-ban y ldquoayudabanrdquo a sus progenitores con tareas domeacutesticas de diferente tipo

En el primer ejemplo James (de tres antildeos y medio de edad) ha estado jugandosolo en el jardiacuten y cuando entra de nuevo en casa su madre intenta que se quitelos zapatos embarrados Sin embargo en ese momento ve un paacutejaro fuera que leinteresa maacutes que cambiarse de zapatos

Ejemplo 1Madre Alliacute Vamoshellip Alliacutehellip Una zapatilla enJames Puedo ver un paacutejaroMadre iquestUn queacute amorJames Mira un paacutejaroMadre (Susurrando) iquestEstaacute alliacute iquestFueraJames (Sentildealando y susurrando) Siacute mira

(Ambos continuacutean hablando muy suavemente)Madre iquestEstaacute comiendo algoJames NoMadre iquestDoacutende Oh siacute estaacute consiguiendo iquestSabes queacute estaacute haciendoJames NoMadre Estaacute yendo al saco de papel para intentar escoger algunos pedazos

Oh tiene un poco de alimento alliacute Y espero que escoja algunos pedazos de hilodel saco para ir y hacer su nido bajo la azotea James Espera un minuto y [James ahora quiere salir a ver maacutes cerca pero en ese momento el paacutejaro se escapavolando]

James Se ha ido

En el segundo ejemplo Elizabeth (de cuatro antildeos de edad) que estaacute ayudandoen la limpieza de casa mira con intereacutes coacutemo su madre mete en un cubo la cenizade la lentildea de la chimenea

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187178

Ejemplo 2Elizabeth iquestPara queacute estaacutes haciendo esoMadre Estoy recogieacutendolo y ponieacutendolo fuera para que papaacute pueda ponerlo en el jardiacutenElizabeth iquestPor queacute lo tiene que poner en el jardiacuten Madre Para abonar bienElizabeth iquestEso hace que la hierba crezcaMadre SiacuteElizabeth iquestPor queacuteMadre Sabes que te digo que necesitas comer cosas diferentes como huevos y col y

pudin de arroz para convertirte en una nintildea mayor Elizabeth SiacuteMadre Bien las plantas tambieacuten necesitan comida diferente Y la ceniza es una de las

cosas buenas para ellas

El tercer ejemplo se refiere a James de nuevo ahora 18 meses mayor Por lamantildeana temprano ha estado ayudando a su madre con la elaboracioacuten de unos dul-ces en el horno Ahora vuelve a la cocina cuando su madre estaacute sacando las bande-jas fuera del horno Oye un ruidoso ldquocrackrdquo metaacutelico y solicita una explicacioacuten

Ejemplo 3James iquestQuieacuten hizo esoMadre Espero que fuera la contraccioacuten de la lata James iquestQueacute lataMadre La que estaacute con los pasteles dentro James iquestPor queacute hizo ese ruidoMadre Bien cuando estaba en el horno se calentoacute mucho y se estiroacute un pedacito Ape-

nas la he sacado del horno y se estaacute enfriando muy raacutepido mira y ese ruido ocu-rre cuando se hace maacutes pequentildea otra vez y vuelve a su forma normal

James Oh iquesttiene una forma diferente en el horno Madre Oh no muy diferente Soacutelo un poco mayor James Pequentildea lata traviesa Puede que consigas que te den un azote si lo haces otra vez

En estos tres ejemplos la madre responde con prontitud a los intereses delnintildeo y proporciona informacioacuten para explicar el significado de lo que los nintildeosestaacuten viendo u oyendo incluso cuando inicialmente esto interrumpe los planesde la madre Los tres casos muestran coacutemo la participacioacuten de los nintildeos en la acti-vidad con el adulto garantiza una atencioacuten intersubjetiva hacia los intereses delnintildeo lo que permite a la madre proporcionar informacioacuten relevante Esto es cla-ramente una forma de ldquoinstruccioacutenrdquo sin embargo es espontaacutenea y contingentecon los intereses de los nintildeos en lugar de ser presentada como parte de un curri-culum pre-planificado

El tercer ejemplo es particularmente interesante desde este punto de vista yaque el fenoacutemeno que despierta el intereacutes de James requiere una explicacioacuten algoteacutecnica En alguacuten momento del futuro sin duda la dilatacioacuten del metal cuandose calienta y su consiguiente contraccioacuten cuando es apartado del calor figuraraacuteen el curriculum de ciencias de la escuela en relacioacuten con el estudio sistemaacuteticodel calor aquiacute sin embargo es un efecto secundario de la elaboracioacuten de los pas-teles en el horno y la explicacioacuten de la madre aunque teacutecnica en cuanto al conte-nido se asienta en el lenguaje cotidiano y no en los teacuterminos abstractos de lageneralizacioacuten cientiacutefica Como Hasan (2002) ha observado

el discurso del conocimiento quasi especializado tiene lugar lsquoen medio dersquo las actividades dia-rias y necesariamente exige una buena disposicioacuten por parte de la madre para acoger los cam-bios contextuales para tener la voluntad de reclasificar el contexto del discurso en marcha Latendencia a conectar con el discurso en movimiento del nintildeo la buena disposicioacuten para reclasi-ficar el contexto es una caracteriacutestica discursiva del mismo grupo de madres que con frecuen-cia lanzan preguntas precisas para la calificacioacuten de los objetos que atienden a las preguntas desus hijos y que les proporcionan respuestas bien desarrolladas (p 123)

179El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

No todos los nintildeos experimentan esta clase de respuesta altamente informati-va para sus intereses por supuesto Sobre la base de un corpus sustancial de inte-racciones madre-hijo Hasan (2002) siguiendo a Bernstein (1982) distingueentre mediacioacuten semioacutetica ldquovisiblerdquo e ldquoinvisiblerdquo Mientras que todos los ejem-plos citados anteriormente giran sobre la actividad conjunta y las preguntas delos nintildeos merecen una exploracioacuten adicional en un modo expliacutecito ldquovisiblerdquo lostemas de las contribuciones de muchos otros nintildeos a la actividad y la interaccioacutenson tratados por los padres como ldquoobviosrdquo y por lo tanto como si no requirieranexplicacioacuten En este sentido la mediacioacuten de las creencias culturales y de laspraacutecticas permanece ldquoinvisiblerdquo esto es la forma de ser del mundo y el tema nomerece una discusioacuten adicional El Ejemplo 4 (tomado de Hasan 2002) bajoestaacutes liacuteneas proporciona una buena ilustracioacuten

Ejemplo 4 Madre Ponlo sobre la estufa y deacutejalo alliacuteKaren iquestPor queacuteMadre PorqueKaren iquestAquiacute es doacutende va Madre SiacuteUn poco despueacutesKaren iquestCoacutemo conseguiste esoiquestNo saliste Madre Camineacute encima y lo conseguiacute iquestno me viste Karen HmmMadre Debes estar ciega

Los dos breves extractos del Ejemplo 4 son tiacutepicos de un estilo muy diferentede interaccioacuten comparados con los anteriores Aquiacute el eacutenfasis de los padres enconseguir que el nintildeo se adapte a los modos de la cultura local de actuar y pensarcon eficacia suprime la curiosidad del nintildeo y el deseo de comprender lo quetambieacuten hace menos probable que el nintildeo desarrolle la capacidad para cuestionarel status quo y participar en los esfuerzos por cambiarlo y mejorarlo

Finalmente antes de dejar el tema del aprendizaje a traveacutes de la conversacioacutenen actividades conjuntas es importante considerar la actividad conjunta en elcontexto del juego Vygotski (1978) consideroacute el juego como la actividad princi-pal en los antildeos preescolares ya que anima al nintildeo a explorar las posibilidades dela mediacioacuten semioacutetica mediante el uso de objetos presentes que pueden ser uti-lizados para representar otros objetos no presentes mediante el ldquorole playrdquo en elque el lenguaje crea un mundo imaginario En el Ejemplo 5 James ahora contres antildeos y nueve meses estaacute sentaacutendose en el brazo de un sofaacute conduciendo untren imaginario con su madre como pasajera

Ejemplo 5Madre Aquiacute estamos Me sentareacute al lado Perfecto iquestestaacutes listo iquestTodo a punto

Bien Quita el frenoJames Comenzareacute a levantarloMadre Oh perdoacuten Estaacute bienJames Mamaacute no conduzcas todaviacuteaMadre Oh BienJames [Hace un ruido simulando arrancar el motor]Madre iexclOh Este motor arranca raacutepido Muy bien iquestHay suficiente carboacuten en la parte

posterior iquestHas cargado suficiente carboacuten JamesJames SiacuteMadre Bien Entonces vaacutemonos lejos Despiacutedete de tus amigos James [Suena el ruido del motor que acelera Se riacutee y hace el sonido del silbido del

motor]Madre Ahora vamos muy raacutepido iquestPuedes sentir el traqueteo de los vagones James Siacute

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187180

Madre Oh todo me da vueltas Oh mi desayuno estaacute retumbando en mi barriga iexclOhiexclOh iexclOh

James [Hace el ruido del motor]Madre Creo que deberiacuteamos disminuir la velocidad iquestNo crees James Mm (asintiendo)Madre Creo que estamos yendo un poco raacutepido

Es mejor es maacutes faacutecil ahora iquestno James Mm (asintiendo)Madre [Muje] Mira las vacas en el campo JamesJames MmMadre Y hay un granjero mira El granjero te estaacute saludando

Como contar historias compartidas que es otra actividad conjunta importan-te a esta edad el juego imaginario tambieacuten tiene una funcioacuten importante en lapreparacioacuten del nintildeo para explorar el poder del lenguaje ldquopara crear un mundomediante las palabrasrdquo Como seraacute discutido debajo este uso del lenguaje pararepresentar objetos y eventos no presentes y las relaciones entre ellos adoptagran significado en el contexto de la escolarizacioacuten puacuteblica tiacutepica donde propor-ciona los significados mediacionales principales mediante los que gran parte delcurriculum se materializa (Wells 1986)

En suma con la excepcioacuten del Ejemplo 4 todos los extractos precedentes sonejemplos claros de un adulto ldquotrabajando en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximo delnintildeordquo (Vygotski 1987) ya que se implican en la interaccioacuten en el proceso dedesarrollar la actividad en la que estaacuten conjuntamente inmersos Como Vygotski(1987) enfatizoacute en la actividad conjunta colaborativa el nintildeo puede siemprehacer maacutes de lo que le es posible hacer independientemente La actividad pro-porciona el marco organizacional en el que parte de la conversacioacuten dirige ycomenta la actividad y parte explora los resultados a los que conduce En estecontexto el adulto hace disponible para la apropiacioacuten del nintildeo no soacutelo infor-macioacuten especiacutefica como respuesta a los intereses del nintildeo sino tambieacuten una pos-tura hacia la experiencia que valora la actitud de investigacioacuten Tratando las pre-guntas del nintildeo como dignas de respuesta expliacutecita el adulto apoya el desarrollode una disposicioacuten a plantearse preguntas y a buscarles respuesta mediante lainvestigacioacuten futura (Wells 1999)

El papel de la actividad en la educacioacuten

Aunque el teacutermino ldquoeducacioacutenrdquo se emplea a menudo como sinoacutenimo deldquoescolarizacioacutenrdquo seguacuten una interpretacioacuten maacutes amplia la educacioacuten viene refi-rieacutendose a los primeros antildeos del nintildeo y de hecho como se vio arriba hay muchasocasiones en las que un coparticipante en una actividad en curso proporciona ins-truccioacuten expliacutecita Sin embargo la educacioacuten ndashen el sentido de escolarizacioacutenndashtiende a ser muy diferente de la clase de actividades ilustradas maacutes arriba Maacutesimportante en las escuelas la instruccioacuten es tanto deliberada como sistemaacutetica yes gobernada no por los intereses de los alumnos sino por un curriculum que hasido disentildeado por expertos que no estaacuten familiarizados con los alumnos que van aser instruidos Como resultado a menudo lo que se ensentildea en la escuela no estaacuterelacionado con aquello que a los alumnos maacutes les interesa aprender y es muyprobable que no se obtengan beneficios de las oportunidades que la escuelapodriacutea proporcionar

En las primeras secciones de este trabajo se ha argumentado que el aprendi-zaje no es un fin en siacute mismo sino un aspecto integrado del domino de nuevasformas de actividad que tienen significado y valor para el desarrollo de los apren-dices como miembros de una comunidad y como individuos autoacutenomos uacutenicos

181El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Como Wygotsky insistentemente precisoacute el aprendizaje conduce el desarrollo yla instruccioacuten deberiacutea estar organizada para ayudar a este proceso

La instruccioacuten es soacutelo uacutetil cuando se mueve delante del desarrollo Cuando esto ocurre impulsao despierta toda una serie de funciones que estaacuten en estado de maduracioacuten latente en la zona dedesarrollo proacuteximo (1987 p 212)

La pregunta central para la escolarizacioacuten debe por lo tanto ser coacutemo ofrecerinstruccioacuten que sea relevante para las trayectorias de desarrollo de los alumnos yque de manera adecuada ldquose situacutee dentrordquo de sus zonas de desarrollo proacuteximoJunto a esta una segunda pregunta es coacutemo proporcionar ayuda a los alumnosindividuales para que su aprendizaje les permita de hecho avanzar en su desa-rrollo

Procurando proporcionar respuesta a estas preguntas el concepto de ldquoactivi-dad guiadardquo junto con el de recapitulacioacuten de la secuencia de desarrollo de losmodos de conocimiento puede ofrecer un comienzo uacutetil Los nintildeos cuandoingresan en la escuela han dominado en gran parte los modos de conocimientoasociados con la accioacuten el gesto y el habla (Nelson 1996) Lo que ahora necesi-tan es un aprendizaje de los modos de conocimiento asociado con el lenguajeescrito y de las distintas clases de representacioacuten simboacutelica que derivan de eacutelndashmatemaacutetica cientiacutefica musical etceacuteterandash Es decir necesitan aprenderlos parausar estas formas de representacioacuten como herramienta para la deliberacioacutenmediada la comunicacioacuten reflexiva y el pensamiento y para apropiarse de losdiferentes dominios de conocimiento teoacuterico que han sido construidos acumula-tivamente por las generaciones previas con la ayuda de las ventajas que confierenesos sistemas de ldquomemoria externardquo (Donald 1991)

La recapitulacioacuten del desarrollo histoacuterico cultural orienta la trayectoria a largoplazo para la educacioacuten formal en la escuela y en otras instituciones Pero inclusomaacutes importante para procurar responder la pregunta central presentada arriba esdeterminar los procedimientos efectivos para organizar los pequentildeos pasos queconfiguran las lecciones las unidades curriculares y los programas anuales a lolargo de esta trayectoria Basaacutendonos en las ideas presentadas en la seccioacuten ante-rior dos principios parecen en siacute mismos evidentes En primer lugar los encuen-tros educativos necesitan para estar organizados ser ldquoactividades conjuntasrdquo enlas que todos los participantes contribuyen a las metas convenidas con lo mejorde sus habilidades Y en segundo lugar debe convertirse en norma dar y recibirayuda por parte de cada participante Una de las implicaciones de estos dos prin-cipios es que no puede haber formas universales mejores para participar en alguacutenaspecto del curriculum puesto que cada clase variacutea en las experiencias e interesesque sus miembros aportan y en los valores y praacutecticas aprendidos culturalmenteque motivan y dirigen su implicacioacuten con el nuevo conocimiento y con las habi-lidades que estaacuten esperando dominar

Aunque siempre es importante reconocer valorar y construir sobre las expe-riencias previas de los alumnos ha llegado a ser incluso maacutes necesario a medidaque la migracioacuten tanto inter como intra paiacuteses ha aumentado significativamen-te ya que las diferentes etnias clases y religiones en las comunidades han dadolugar a su vez a comunidades de escuela y aula cada vez maacutes diversas ndashy estadiversidad es incluso mayor donde una proporcioacuten sustancial de alumnos estaacuteaprendiendo la lengua de clase como una segunda lengua (o subsiguiente)ndash Taldiversidad en el bagaje cultural y en la experiencia previa es generalmente vistocomo un problema que necesita ser superado en paiacuteses donde los disentildeadores delcurriculum apuntan a estandarizar la instruccioacuten para alcanzar ideacutenticos resulta-dos para todos los estudiantes como es hoy el caso en Estados Unidos Sin

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187182

embargo cuando las diferencias entre personas en teacuterminos de experiencia valo-res y praacutecticas son reconocidas como normales y deseables esta diversidad puedeconvertirse en una ventaja en la clase ya que las praacutecticas y puntos de vista alter-nativos que afloran pueden enriquecer la comunidad de clase y conducir a discu-siones valiosas en las que las creencias dadas por sentadas sean modificadas y sealcance una comprensioacuten maacutes profunda de los puntos considerados (Wells1999)

En este contexto he encontrado de ayuda pensar en el aprendizaje basado enla escuela en teacuterminos de una espiral del conocimiento donde el resultado espe-rado con cada giro de la espiral es una mayor comprensioacuten (Wells 1999) (verFigura 3) En la primera fase cuando la clase se embarca en un nuevo aspecto delcurriculum es importante animar a los alumnos a compartir sus experienciasprevias ya que como las investigaciones en campos muy diferentes han mostra-do (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotski) esas experiencias proporcionan elpunto de partida para su aprendizaje sean o no reconocidas puacuteblicamente Des-cubriendo lo que los estudiantes ya saben y aquello que les interesa explorar conmaacutes detalle el profesor puede tambieacuten planificar la unidad en cooperacioacuten conlos alumnos (Donoahue 2003) La segunda fase de la espiral conlleva varios acer-camientos a la nueva informacioacuten ndashmediante la explicacioacuten del profesor a traveacutesde materiales impresos o medios audiovusiales o en la forma de feedback de laspropias acciones e investigaciones de los alumnosndash Es importante reconocer sinembargo que la recepcioacuten de la nueva informacioacuten no asegura en siacute misma unaumento de la comprensioacuten Para que esto ocurra la nueva informacioacuten debearticularse con la comprensioacuten existente y con la experiencia previa relevantepara ser despueacutes puesta a prueba mediante la accioacuten en el mundo ndashobteniendofeedback (informacioacuten adicional)ndash yo mediante el diaacutelogo con otros para laconstruccioacuten del conocimiento donde el propoacutesito es llegar a una eleccioacuten con-sensuada entre las teoriacuteas alternativas demandas o interpretaciones sobre la basede una consideracioacuten de las evidencias y argumentos apropiados Finalmentepara consolidar la nuevas comprensiones obtenidas es valioso para la clase com-pleta reflexionar juntos sobre lo que han aprendido y sobre el proceso de cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento en el que han participado sobre las implicaciones quela nueva comprensioacuten tiene para sus propias acciones ndashtanto fuera como dentrode clasendash y sobre las preguntas importantes a las que ellos deben ahora dirigir susinvestigaciones futuras En otras palabras la fase final en el ciclo implica a lacomunidad en un ldquoacercamiento lsquometarsquordquo (Olson y Bruner 1996) es decir en laadopcioacuten de una perspectiva metacognitiva sobre su propio aprendizaje que a lolargo de miles de antildeos probablemente ha jugado un importante papel en eldesarrollo de cada modo de conocimiento presentado en la siacutentesis del desarrollohistoacuterico cultural de Donald (1991)3

Esta espiral necesita varias anotaciones adicionales La primera tiene quever con la naturaleza incompleta y provisional del conocimiento eacuteste estaacutesiempre abierto a la mejora mediante ciclos futuros a traveacutes de la espiral Lasegunda anotacioacuten concierne a la naturaleza esencialmente interactiva ysocial del crecimiento individual y comunitario en la comprensioacuten eacutesta seconsigue gracias a los esfuerzos de los participantes para clarificar sus pro-pios significados a los otros y alternativamente para tener en cuenta y res-ponder a los de los demaacutes (Bajtiacuten 1986) En tercer lugar es necesario enfati-zar que el crecimien to en la comprensioacuten requeriraacute espirales futuras queactiven los diferentes modos de conocimiento ya que la mayoriacutea de los cam-bios y problemas que ocurren en las instituciones maacutes allaacute del aula deman-dan un conocimiento procedimental substantivo y esteacutetico al igual que

183El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

teoacuterico y cada modo de conocimiento tiene una contribucioacuten que hacer aleacutexito de soluciones comprensivas que realcen significativamente la com-prensioacuten Finalmente en la representacioacuten de estas relaciones en la figura 3la espiral tambieacuten resalta la interdependencia de los individuos y la comuni-dad Mientras que la experiencia y la comprensioacuten son esencialmente indivi-duales en su naturaleza crecen fuera de eacutel y adoptan su significado de la par-ticipacioacuten de los individuos en el intercambio de informacioacuten y en su com-promiso en la construccioacuten de conocimiento en la comunidad extensa de laque cada individuo es miembro

Desafortunadamente muchos educadores no comprenden estas relacionesfundamentales y por eso su instruccioacuten no es conceptualizada y planificada demanera que sea oacuteptima para el desarrollo de los estudiantes Como numerososestudios han mostrado (Langer y Applebee 1987 Nystrand y Gamoran 1991)en la mayoriacutea de las clases la que gobierna la praacutectica es la concepcioacuten bancariadel conocimiento (Freire 1970) seguacuten la cual el propoacutesito de la instruccioacuten quetiene lugar en el aula es que un alumno individual esteacute preparado para puntuarbien en los tests y no tanto ampliar su conocimiento Dada esta orientacioacuten lasactividades en las que se pide a los alumnos que participen estaacuten determinadaspor la guiacutea curricular del libro de texto maacutes que por el conocimiento de los pro-fesores sobre los intereses y habilidades de los alumnos particulares de los queson responsables A esto es a lo que Tharp y Gallimore (1988) se refieren con laexpresioacuten ldquoguioacuten recitativordquo unido a la ocupacioacuten de un lugar individual de tra-bajo que domina la rutina diaria Ademaacutes los planes sobre coacutemo proceder sonndashcomo cabiacutea esperarndash unilateralmente impuestos en lugar de ser configuradossobre la base de las decisiones tomadas por la comunidad de clase como un todoy el modus operandi es la competicioacuten en lugar de la colaboracioacuten

Sin embargo como he argumentado en otra parte (Wells 1986 19992002a) eacuteste no es el uacutenico modo en el que la escolarizacioacuten puede ser condu-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187184

FIGURA 3La espiral del conocimiento

ACCIOacuteN Construccioacuten

deconocimiento

ComprensioacutenSubstantivo

Esteacutetico

Teoacuterico

Procedimental

Instrumental

Experiencia Informacioacuten

Modos de conocimiento

cida ndasha pensar de la larga historia de la recitacioacuten que se remonta a maacutes detres mil antildeos a las tempranas instituciones que entrenaban a los escribas yadministradores para leer y escribir (Cole 1996)ndash Pero probablemente elmodo por defecto de la escolarizacioacuten es parecido a una preparacioacuten para ldquolavida adultardquo y no una etapa criacutetica del desarrollo que merece la pena y essignificativa en siacute misma Como Vygotski argumentoacute sobre el dominio de laalfabetizacioacuten ldquola ensentildeanza debe organizarse de tal manera que la lectura yla escritura sean necesarias para algo La escritura debe ser incorporada enuna tarea relevante y necesaria para la vidardquo (1978 pp117-118) Y porldquovidardquo quiere decir no la vida futura sino la totalidad de los intereses y pre-ocupaciones actuales de los aprendices

En los uacuteltimos antildeos se han divulgado proyectos de una variedad de paiacuteses enlos que educadores universitarios han procurado crear condiciones para elldquoaprendizaje auteacutenticordquo en las aulas En todos estos proyectos se ha otorgado unpapel central a las actividades colaborativas que alternando entre los formatos departicipacioacuten individual en pequentildeo grupo y de la clase completa implican alos estudiantes en la exploracioacuten de temas centrales mediante investigacionespraacutecticas y tambieacuten teoacutericas y en la discusioacuten criacutetica y constructiva de sus hallaz-gos y de las implicaciones para futuras acciones El espacio no permite aquiacute unadiscusioacuten individual de estos proyectos pero lo que puede ser dicho sobre todosellos es que en sus diferentes formas valoran tanto los intereses de los alumnoscomo sus experiencias previas y persiguen ayudarles a desarrollar la disposicioacutenpara buscar la comprensioacuten maacutes que la acumulacioacuten simple de informacioacuten ypara valorar la colaboracioacuten maacutes que la competicioacuten como el medio para alcanzaresta menta4

En este contexto es digno atraer la atencioacuten hacia varias instituciones poste-riores a la escuela tales como la Fifth Dimension donde la participacioacuten en activi-dades elegidas personalmente ndasha menudo basadas en ordenadoresndash requiere a losnintildeos dominar habilidades que son tambieacuten necesarias para la escolarizacioacuten y lesproporcionan oportunidades para interactuar con voluntarios universitarios enuna posicioacuten de igualdad (Brown y Cole 2002) De manera similar algunosprogramas basados en museos (Leinhardst Crowley y Kuntson 2002) y variasformas de educacioacuten al aire libre tambieacuten capitalizan los intereses de los estu-diantes para implicarles en actividades desafiantes que demandan para la cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento procesos de diaacutelogo y toma de decisiones comparablesa aquellos encontrados en los contextos escolares previamente descritos

Finalmente si estas praacutecticas pioneras arraigan e influyen en la educacioacutenpuacuteblica con mayor amplitud es esencial que los profesores tengan oportunidadessimilares para desarrollar las disposiciones y pericia necesarias para actuar comoagentes de cambio y liacutederes de una reforma en las instituciones en las que traba-jan Es por lo tanto estimulante ver que a pesar del eacutenfasis de los dirigentes poliacute-ticos en estandarizar los curricula y en los resultados cuantificables algunos pro-gramas de formacioacuten de profesores y desarrollo profesional anima a los profeso-res sobre la base de investigaciones sobre su propia praacutectica a tomar sus propiasdecisiones sobre queacute debe ser ensentildeado y coacutemo y a compartir los resultados desus investigaciones con los compantildeeros Este ha sido el motor de mi propio tra-bajo en los antildeos recientes ya que he participado en la investigacioacuten colaborativacon profesores para crear y mantener comunidades de investigacioacuten tanto en cla-ses como entre los mismos profesores5

185El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Notas1 La secuencia temporal implicada por esta formulacioacuten ha sido ampliamente debatida y especialmente el movimiento desde fueraa dentro que sugiere Mi propia comprensioacuten de lo que la apropiacioacuten supone se capta mejor con el ejemplo de aprender a bailarmediante la inmersioacuten en la actividad con otros (Wells 1999) En muchos casos no hay separacioacuten entre antes y despueacutes o entrefuera y dentro y no hay necesidad de demostracioacuten o ejemplificacioacuten En lugar de esto estando inmerso en la actividad conjuntael principiante es literalmente entrenado fiacutesicamente por los movimiento del coparticipante mientras que al mismo tiempoconstruye su propia organizacioacuten ndashy quizaacute incluso una representacioacuten esquemaacuteticandash de los movimientos corporales A lo largo deltiempo este esquema estaacute tan bien organizado que el principiante se convierte en un experto que estaacute preparado paralelamentepara introducir a otros en la actividad Esto es lo que Lave y Wenger (1991) y Rogoff (2003) quieren decir por desarrollo median-te la participacioacuten en actividades culturales

2 Estoy agradecido a Natalia Gajdamaschko y Steve Gabosch por sus valiosas discusiones de esta distincioacuten durante el XMCA cursoonline sobre la teoriacutea de la actividad histoacuterico cultural Abril 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Aunque estaacute incluido en la Tabla I este modo de conocimiento no ha sido discutido aquiacute ya que el reconocimiento expliacutecito deeste importante modo de conocimiento es muy reciente (Brown 1975) Sin embargo eso no significa que sea en siacute mismo unnuevo fenoacutemeno

4 Para algunos ejemplos representativos veacutease Brown y Campione 1994 Lampert Rittenhouse y Crumbaugh 1996 McMahonRaphael Goatley y Pardo 1997 Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford y Brown 1998 Scardamalia Bereiter y Lamon 1994

5 Juntos formamos un grupo de investigacioacuten colaborativo DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project)(Wells (Ed) 2001)

ReferenciasBAJTIacuteN M M (1986) Speech genres and other late essays Austin University of Texas PressBERNSTEIN B (1982) Codes modalities and the process of cultural reproduction A model En M Apple (Ed) Cultural and econo-

mic reproduction in education (pp 304-355) Londres Routledge amp Kegan PaulBROWN A L (1975) The development of memory Knowing knowing about knowing and knowing how to know En H W

Reese (Ed) Advances in child development and behavior (Vol 10 pp 103-152) Nueva York Academic Press BROWN A L amp CAMPIONE J C (1994) Guided discovery in a community of learners En K McGilly (Ed) Integrating cognitive

theory and classroom practice Classroom lessons (pp 229-270) Cambridge MA MIT PressBradford BooksBROWN K amp COLE M (2002) Cultural historical activity theory and the expansion of opportunities for learning after school En

G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 225-238)Oxford Blackwell

BRUNER J S (1990) Acts of meaning Cambridge MA Harvard University PressCARR M (2002) Emerging learning narratives A perspective from early childhood education En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds)

Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 99-111) Oxford BlackwellCOLE M (1996) Cultural psychology A once and future discipline Cambridge MA The Bellknap Press of Harvard University PressDEACON T W (1997) The symbolic species The co-evolution of language and the brain Nueva York NortonDIAMOND J (1998) Guns germs and steel The fates of human societies Nueva York NortonDONALD M (1991) Origins of the Modern Mind Three Stages in the Evolution of Culture and Cognition Cambridge MA Harvard

University PressDONOAHUE Z (2003) Science teaching and learning Teachers and children plan together Networks 6(1) httpwwwoiseuto-

rontoca~ctdnetworksjournal Vol 6 (1) 2003marchENGESTROumlM Y (1999) Activity theory and individual and social transformation Y En Engestrom R Miettinen amp R-L Puna-

maki (Eds) Perspectives on activity theory (pp 19-38) Cambridge Cambridge University PressFREIRE P (1970) Pedagogy of the oppressed Nueva York Herder and HerderHALLIDAY M A K (1975) Learning how to mean Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1978) Language as social semiotic The social interpretation of language and meaning Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1993) Towards a language-based theory of learning Linguistics and Education 5 93-116HASAN R (2002) Semiotic mediation and mental development in pluralistic societies Some implications for tomorrowrsquos schoo-

ling En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural peerspectives on the future of education (pp112-126) Oxford Blackwell

HEATH S B (1983) Ways with words Cambridge Cambridge University PressLAMPERT M RITTENHOUSE P amp CRUMBAUGH C (1996) Agreeing to disagree Developing sociable mathematical discourse En

D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook of education and human development (pp 731-764) Cambridge MA Blackwell LANGER J A amp APPLEBEE A N (1987) How writing shapes thinking A study of teaching and learning Urbana IL National Council

of Teachers of EnglishLAVE J (1996) Teaching as learning in practice Mind Culture and Activity 3 (3) 149-164LAVE J amp WENGER E (1991) Situated Learning Legitimate peripheral participation Nueva York Cambridge University PressLEINHARDT G CROWLEY K amp KNUTSON K (2002) Learning conversations Explanation and identity in museums Mahwah NJ

Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesLEONTIEV A N (1981) The problem of activity in psychology En J VWertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 37-71) Armonk NY SharpeMAYBIN J MERCER N amp STIERER B (1992) lsquoScaffoldingrsquo learning in the classroom En K Norman (Ed) Thinking voices The

work of the National Oracy Project (pp 186-195) Londres Hodder amp StoughtonMCMAHON S I RAPHAEL T E GOATLEY V J amp PARDO L S (Eds) (1997) The Book Club connection Literacy learning and class-

room talk Nueva York Teachers College PressNELSON K (1996) Language in cognitive development The emergence of the mediated mind Nueva York Cambridge University PressNEWSON J (1978) Dialogue and development En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol The emergence of language (pp 31-42)

New York Academic Press

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187186

NYSTRAND M amp GAMORAN A (1991) Student engagement When recitation becomes conversation En H C Waxman amp H JWalberg (Eds) Effective teaching Current research (pp 257-276)Berkeley CA McCutchan Publishing Corp

OLSON D R amp BRUNER J S (1996) Folk psychology and folk pedagogy En D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook ofeducation and human development (pp 9-27) Cambridge MA Blackwell

PALINCSAR A MAGNUSSON S MARANO N FORD D amp BROWN N (1998) Designing a community of practice Principlesand practices of the GIsML Community Teaching and Teacher Education 14 (1) 5-20

PIAGET J (1970) Piagetrsquos theory En P H Mussen (Ed) Carmichaelrsquos handbook of child development (pp 703-732) Nueva YorkWiley

PONTECORVO C amp STERPONI L (2002) Learning to argue and reason through discourse in educational settings En G Wells ampG Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 127-140) OxfordBlackwell

ROGOFF B (1990) Apprenticeship in thinking Cognitive development in social context Nueva York Oxford University PressROGOFF B (1994) Developing understanding of the idea of Communities of Learners Mind Culture and Activity 1 (4) 209-

229ROGOFF B (2003) The cultural nature of human development Nueva York Oxford University PressROSENBLATT L (1978) The reader the text the poem The transactional theory of the literary work Carbondale IL Southern Illinois

University PressSCARDAMALIA M C BEREITER amp LAMON M (1994) The CSILE project Trying to bring the classroom into World 3 En K

McGilley (Ed) Classroom lessons Integrating cognitive theory and classroom practice (pp 201-228) Cambridge MA MITPress

SCRIBNER S (1985) Vygotskyrsquos uses of history En J V Wertsch (Ed) Culture communication and cognition Vygotskian perspectives(pp 119-145) Cambridge Cambridge University Press

THARP R amp GALLIMORE R (1988) Rousing minds to life Nueva York Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C (1979) Communication and cooperation in early infancy a description of primary intersubjectivity En M

Bullowa (Ed) Before speech The beginning of interpersonal communication (pp 321-348) Cambridge Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C amp HUBLEY P (1978) Secondary intersubjectivity Confidence confiding and acts of meaning in the first year

En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol the emergence of language (pp 183-230) Nueva York Academic PressVYGOTSKI L S (1978)Mind in society The development of higher psychological processes Cambridge MA Harvard University PressVYGOTSKI L S (1981) The genesis of higher mental functions En J V Wertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 144-188) Armonk NY SharpeVYGOTSKI L S (1987) Thinking and speech En R W Rieber amp A S Carton (Eds) The collected works of L S Vygotsky Volumen

1 Problems of general psychology (pp 39-285) Nueva York PlenumWARTOFSKY M (1979) Models representation and scientific understanding Boston ReidelWELLS G (1985) Language development in the pre-school years Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (1986) The meaning makers Children learning language and using language to learn Portsmouth NH HeinemannWELLS G (1999) Dialogic inquiry Towards a sociocultural practice and theory of education Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (Ed) (2001) Action talk and text Learning and teaching through inquiry Nueva York Teachers College PressWELLS G (2002a) Learning and teaching for understanding The key role of collaborative knowledge building En J Brophy

(Ed) Social constructivist teaching Affordances and constraints (pp 1-41) Osford Elsevier ScienceJAIWELLS G (2002b) The role of dialogue in activity theory Mind Culture and Activity 9 (1) 43-66WERTSCH J V MINICK N amp ARNS F J (1984) The creation of context in joint problem solving En B Rogoff amp J Lave (Eds)

Everyday cognition Its development in social context (pp 151-171) Cambridge Cambridge University PressWOOD D BRUNER J S amp ROSS G (1976) The role of tutoring in problem-solving Journal of Child Psychology and Child Psy-

chiatry 17 89-100

187El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Original text

Introduction

Compared with other species the characteristic that distinguishes humans isthe ability and proclivity to engage in tool-mediated joint activity with otherhumans It is this characteristic that accounts for the development of human cul-tures over the course of history as they invented artefacts of various kinds inorder to adapt to and exploit the ecological niches in which they found themsel-ves It also accounts for the diversity of individual personsrsquo development whichdepend on the particular activities in which they participate As Vygotsky(1978 1981) was one of the first to point out the lsquohigherrsquo mental functions thatmake us human are not biologically given but are developmentally constructedthrough the appropriation of historically developed tools and practices that aremade manifest to the child and lsquoscaffoldedrsquo in the meaningful actions and utte-rances of the coparticipants in joint activity

Before continuing readers might find it interesting to reflect on their owndevelopmental trajectories to who they are today I suspect that they may findthemselves agreeing that Who we become depends on the company we keep and what wedo together

A Brief History of the Development of Joint Activity

Leontrsquoev provides a succinct account of Vygotskyrsquos insight in the followingsummary

The initial ideas that led Vygotsky to investigate the genesis of internal mental activity fromexternal activity are fundamentally different from the theoretical approaches of other modernauthors These ideas came from the analysis of the features unique to human productive laboractivity which is mediated by tools This activity is initially social in nature that is it is deve-loped under the conditions of cooperation and social interaction among people Vygotskyidentified two main interconnected features [of this activity] that are necessarily fundamentalfor psychology its tool-like (lsquoinstrumentalrsquo) structure and its inclusion in a system of interre-lations with other people It is these features that define the nature of human psychologicalprocesses The tool mediates activity and thus connects humans not only with the world ofobjects but also with other people Because of this humanrsquos activity assimilates the experience ofhumankind This means that humansrsquo mental processes (their lsquohigher psychological functionsrsquo)acquire a structure necessarily tied to the sociohistorically formed means and methods trans-mitted to them by others in the process of cooperative labor and social interaction But it isimpossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in any way otherthan a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words higher psycho-logical processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction with others thatis through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried out indepen-dently by the individual (Leontrsquoev 1981 pp 55-56 emphases in the original)

As well as emphasizing the social and cooperative nature of human activity thisquotation is important with respect to the arguments that I want to develop inthis paper as it highlights the central role of semiotic mediation in developmentKnowledge is created as well as appropriated in the discourse among peoplewho are working together in a specific situation in order to create or improve anartefact or to solve a problem of importance to the group However Leontrsquoevalso alludes to another of Vygotskyrsquos key insights namely that in order tounderstand current activity it is necessary to investigate the history of that acti-vity It is to this that I next turn

In analyzing the history of human development at least four different time-scales need to be considered The longest is the history of the cultural evolution of

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

the species (the phylogenetic level) next is the historical development of particu-lar cultures The third level (ontogenetic) traces the developmental trajectory ofindividual humans over the course of the lifespan Finally the microgenetic levelis concerned with the development of an instance of a particular activity

In practice it is the latter that has been explored in most detail for usingcontemporary technology it is relatively easy to observe and record the sequenceof actions through which an activity is enacted and the specific operations inwhich the participants engage making use of the relevant artefacts that are avai-lable in the situation (Leontrsquoev 1981) These artefacts may be either material(knives pencils automobiles) or symbolic (utterances maps theories) ndashthoughas Cole (1996) has pointed out to function as mediators of joint activity all arte-facts must have some form of material embodiment as well as a symbolic mea-ning that is to say they must be ready to hand and also have a cultural signifi-cance relevant to the situation

However the form in which a particular instance of activity is realizeddepends not only on the artefacts that are to hand in the situation but also onthe participantsrsquo past experiences with the practices in which the artefacts areused to mediate achievement of the action goals that contribute to the joint acti-vity Thus the microgenesis of a particular instance of activity is necessarilydependent upon the ontogenetic development of the participants that is to sayupon the opportunities their life trajectories have afforded them to appropriatethe relevant cultural knowledge through participation in instances of similaractions and operations

But on the time-scale of ontogenetic development each individualrsquos trajectoryof development is itself strongly influenced by the culture in which he or she isgrowing up and on the historical development of that culture As Rogoff (2003)illustrates in considerable detail cultures vary considerably both over time andacross ecological niches in what mediating artefacts and practices are available andin the relative value accorded to each Moreover within each culture at any parti-cular historical moment participants in activities both incorporate the ways ofprevious generations and adapt them to the exigencies of current conditions

Stepping up one further level the historical development of a particular cul-tures is itself shaped by development on the even larger timescale of the culturaland biological evolution of the species This is the most difficult timescale todescribe in detail for lack of the necessary evidence But certain broad distinc-tions between human communities can be made in terms of their modes of sub-sistence and of the mediating means available for joint activity (Diamond 1998Donald 1991) As recent research has shown our earliest ancestors some 5million years ago lived in small bands of hunter gatherers often on the edge oflakes and oceans Initially their tools were found in the surroundings but overseveral million years they invented ways of making more sophisticated artefactssuch as knives arrowheads baskets and clothing from flints bones skins andvegetable materials Then as some groups migrated to particularly fertile partsof the world they adopted a more settled agrarian way of life growing cropsand breeding animals The resulting ability to produce more food than imme-diately required led in turn to the emergence of trade and to a diversity of spe-cialist occupations such as potters and tailors who exchanged their products forfood and other necessities This stage also saw the development of much largerpopulation groupings with hierarchical class structures that included prieststax collectors and other religious and political functionaries

While migration had been a common feature of human existence from theearliest times the development of large settled populations and of weapons

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

made of bronze and iron led to the expansion of certain cultural groups throughterritorial conquest and colonization by sea and by land As a result during thelast few thousand years the latest phase of phylogenetic development has beencharacterized by the rise and fall of imperial cultures which have imposed theirtechnologies laws and administrative procedures as well as their religions artsknowledge and values on widely diverse subjugated populations Most recentlythe further development of the inventions that led to the first industrial revolu-tion has simply served to increase the scale and intensity of these imperialisttrends At the same time these inventions as well as those of the current indus-trial revolution have also led to a great increase in humansrsquo understanding oftheir social and material environment both through scientific and social rese-arch and through the dissemination of information about other times and placesresulting from travel and the use of print and electronic technologies

In presenting this very condensed account of phylogenetic development Ihave emphasized the material tools that have mediated the progressively morecomplex and diverse activities in which humans have engaged over the course ofthe speciesrsquo history However bearing in mind that what has been the drivingforce of human development is joint activity an equally ndashif not morendash impor-tant determinant of this history is the development of the modes of representa-tion through which humans have communicated and developed their unders-tanding of the world Table I presents the developmental sequence proposed byDonald (1991) based on archeological neuroanatomical historical and othertypes of evidence The table also includes the stages in the historical develop-ment of ways of knowing that were proposed by Wartofsky (1979)

The first stage in this sequence corresponds to the phase in which proto-humans began to diverge from other primate species In this phase as in thebehavior of contemporary higher primates practical action was the predomi-nant form of communication as ndashnot necessarily deliberatelyndash participants sig-naled their intentions in a shared situation and these intentions were interpre-ted and responded to by their co-participants in the activity In the secondmimetic phase which must have developed gradually over many millenniacommunication became somewhat differentiated from the activity to which itreferred as humans deliberately used gestures mime facial expression andvarious types of phonation to comment on as well as to coordinate action and theobjects to which it was directed Later still with the gradual modification of thevocal tract and of the primate brain there emerged the ability to communicatethrough speech and hence the ability to refer not only to particular objects andactions but also to generalized classes and to express observed and intendedrelationships between objects actions and events thus allowing participants toplan for and reflect on the outcomes of joint activity Finally the invention ofwriting which ushered in the final phase in Donaldrsquos proposed sequence occu-rred extremely recently in the long trajectory of phylogenetic development Yetas with those that preceded it enormously increased the human repertoire ofmeans for making and communicating meaning Essentially what it added wasan ldquoexternal memoryrdquo By creating a (relatively) permanent representation oflinguistic meaning it made possible the compilation and distillation of repor-ted information from many sources including the writerrsquos own verbalizedthoughts It also allowed the writer and those who read his or her written textto review critique and revise the meanings expressed and to make the resultsavailable to people in later times and other places for further constructive debateand improvement

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

However action gesture speech and writing are not simply progressivelymore powerful modes of communication They are also progressively morepowerful mediators of thinking This is most obvious with respect to the lin-guistic modes of communication But even before the emergence of speechaction and ndashto an even greater extentndash mimesis enabled humans to think toget-her and thereby to create a shared interpretation of their joint activities In fact ithas been argued that the emergence of language was not simply the result ofbrain and vocal tract development but rather was part of a more general patternof adaptation that building upon the cognitive achievements of mimetic kno-wing strove to integrate the unconnected bits of information in a more compre-hensive and coherent account of being-in-the-world (Deacon 1997) Neverthe-less it is also true that the availability of language greatly enhanced both com-munication and thinking together for as Halliday observed

the grammar of every natural language is (among other things) a theory of human experienceit is through our acts of meaning that we transform experience into the coherent -though farfrom consistent- patchwork that we learn to project as lsquorealityrsquo (1993 p 46)

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

TABLE IModes Of Knowing Phylogenetic And Cultural Development (from Wells 1999)

Time Mode of Participants Donald(1991) Wartofsky(1979)Years BP Knowing

2 million Instrumental Individual in action Episodic Primary artifactsyears material tools

1 -- 15 million Procedural Between individuals while Mimetic Secondaryyears engaged in action artifacts tools

and practicesmimeticinteraction

50000 Substantive Among members of a (Linguistic) Secondaryyears cultural group reflecting on artifacts

action and as a basis for representations ofplanning further action tools and

practices spokeninteraction

50000 Aesthetic Among members of a Mythic Tertiary artifactsyears cultural group making sense artistic represent-

of the human predicament ations in mythnarrative graphicand musical modes

2500 Theoretical Among members of a Theoretic Tertiary artifactsyears specialist community decontextualized

seeking to explain the natural representationsand human world such as

taxonomiestheories models etc

Meta Among members of a Tertiary artifacts cultural group also representations ofindividuals seeking to mental andunderstand and control their semioticown mental activity processes

In sum what Donald and other scholars argue is that contemporary mentalabilities are the outcome of the development over time of a series of progressi-vely more powerful and flexible modes of representation ndashor in Vygotskyanterms of semiotic mediators of higher mental functions- that have made possi-ble the rational theoretically oriented modes of knowing that underpin theachievements of modern science and its technological applications In the philo-sopher Wartofskyrsquos words

our own perceptual and cognitive understanding of the world is in large part shaped andchanged by the representational artifacts we ourselves create We are in effect the products ofour own activity in this way we transform our own perceptual and cognitive modes our waysof seeing and of understanding by means of the representations we make (1979 p xxiii)

There is however one further important aspect of Donaldrsquos (1991) thesis thatis crucial for the argument that I wish to develop Although the semiotic sys-tems of mimesis speech and writing each powered a new mode of cognitiveactivity they did not replace those that preceded but were additive in theireffects The result is that contemporary humans have a variety of modes of kno-wing at their disposal as they engage in joint activity Furthermore most suchactivities call for more than one mode of knowing and require the complemen-tary and interdependent use of more than one mode of representation

Joint Activity as the Site of Ontogenetic Learning and Development

Two important implications follow from the multi-level historical concep-tion of development just outlined First on any occasion the type of activitythat is undertaken and the specific manner in which it is enacted are necessarilydependent on the particular cultural-historical antecedents of the participantsboth human and artefactual that come together in its realization In particularthe manner in which the situation is interpreted ndashin terms of what action goalsare appropriate and how they can be achievedndash depends on the motives valuesand knowledgeable skills of the human participants and on the affordances ofthe technologies available in the situation And second every instance of an acti-vity provides an occasion for a triple transformation of the situation in whichthe activity is carried out of the artefacts and practices that mediate its enact-ment and most importantly of the knowledge and skills of the human partici-pants Taken together these propositions clarify the way in which cultural andindividual development are both interdependent and rooted in particular situa-ted occasions of joint activity As Rogoff (1994) argues

People of each generation as they engage in sociocultural endeavors with other people makeuse of and extend cultural tools and practices inherited from previous generations As peopledevelop through their shared use of cultural tools and practices they simultaneously contribu-te to the transformation of cultural tools practices and institutions (p 52)

Potentially therefore every occasion of joint activity provides an opportunityfor development on the part of all participants This is a point to which I shallreturn But first I want to consider more carefully the concept of developmentitself

Clearly built into the concept of development is the implication of change andtypically of change in the direction of increasing complexity and effectiveness Inother words development is typically taken to imply improvement or progresstoward some ideal end state or capability However in the light of the previousdiscussion such a progression while it may be meaningful to (some of the) partici-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

pants in any particular situation cannot be understood in any absolute sense butmust be seen as relative to the unfolding historical trajectory of the species of aparticular culture and of the immediate community ndashits values its dominantactivities and the knowledgeable skills that form its resources Furthermore just asthese have changed in the past they will continue to change in the future in res-ponse to the changing demands of the larger environment So while ontogeneticdevelopment does indeed involve increasing complexity and effectiveness of indi-vidualsrsquo participation in the activity systems in which they are involved in theirdaily lives the overall trajectory of development is emergent and its endpoint cannever be specified in advance even in terms of an ideal to be attained

Nevertheless this does not mean that there are not strong regularities in thesequence of ontogenetic development particularly in the early years Indeed asNelson (1996) has suggested during the preschool years children follow a trajec-tory very similar to the sequence of phylogenetic development proposed byDonald (1991) (see Table I above) as they appropriate the semiotic tools of repre-sentation afforded by action mimesis speech and writing Of course this is not asimple recapitulation children growing up in a contemporary literate culture forexample are surrounded from birth by artifacts and practices that result from andembody all the available modes of knowing (Cole 1996) Appropriating existingcultural tools is thus very different from inventing them ex novo as Scribner (1985)points out Nevertheless given the combination of biological and cultural inheri-tance it is not surprising that in most if not all cultures children follow the samesequence as did the species as a whole over the course of history

In the first weeks of life infants act on their immediate surroundings bothanimate and inanimate and begin to develop what Piaget (1970) called sensori-motor intelligence However although this most basic form of activity mayappear to be instinctual it is nevertheless also inherently social First all infantsare born into an environment that is cultural in the sense of having been shapedby countless preceding generations and second the infantrsquos actions are treatedas being intentional and are responded to as such So from the beginning theinfant is caught up in social interaction (Newson 1978) In the second phasewhich typically begins in the first few months the infant also begins to engagein mimetic communication through gaze facial expression and rudimentarygesture (Bruner 1990) Couched in terms of primary and secondary intersubjec-tivity this phase has been described in considerable detail by Trevarthen (19781979) Primary intersubjectivity develops as the infant and parent engage inmutual gaze thereby communicating that they are attending to and respondingto each other In secondary intersubjectivity third parties are brought into jointattention as the parent through gaze directs the infantrsquos attention to an object ofpotential interest or follows the childrsquos direction of gaze and signals that he orshe is also attending to the same object

It is on this basis of joint action and attention that towards the end of thefirst year the child begins to exploit his or her growing command of vocaliza-tion often accompanied by gesture to begin to communicate through speechFrom research predominantly involving children in ldquoWesternrdquo societies it hasbeen established that at first the childrsquos utterances are idiosyncratic drawingonly partially ndashif at allndash on the speech of those around him or her neverthelessparents and other family members have little difficulty in interpreting them incontext and once again they respond in a manner that is contingent on theirinterpretation thereby establishing spoken communication as a joint interactiveactivity By the end of the second year however children appear to abandon thisidiosyncratic ldquoprotolanguagerdquo form of communication and begin to construct a

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

linguistic meaning potential that is systematically related to the language thatis addressed to them in the oft-repeated activities of family life (Bruner 1990Halliday 1975 Wells 1986) Significantly within particular language com-munities the sequence in which children master the basic meanings and thelexicogrammatical forms in which they are realized tends to be very similar fromchild to child (Wells 1985)

The developmental sequence just described ndashaction mimesis speechndash is com-mon to children in all cultures and in all cases takes place in and through jointactivity and interaction with other family and community members Howeveralthough the sequence is universal the manner and pace at which it proceeds varyvery considerably across cultures These differences depend upon many culturally-determined factors such as adult expectations about their childrenrsquos developmentthe position in which the infant is typically held or carried facing the caregiver orturned outwards to face in the same direction as the caregiver the makeup and sizeof the interactional groups in which communication typically occurs and whetherthese events are part of family and community life more generally or are delibera-tely arranged and structured for the presumed benefit of the child (Rogoff 2003)In the later stages of language development the range and extent of the meaningpotential that children construct begins to vary even more widely depending onthe activities in which they engage the linguistic registers that are used in thoseactivities and the stances typically adopted by interlocutors toward the use of lan-guage in their interactions with children (Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

So far the ontogenetic developmental sequence I have described is funda-mentally similar across cultures and follows the phylogenetic sequence in whichhumans have progressively added new semiotic mediational means to theircommunicative repertoires In an important sense therefore the final mode ofrepresentation in Donaldrsquos scheme that of writing is an optional extra sincemany cultures have survived and prospered without a written mode of represen-ting meaning Moreover even in cultures that have a writing system the extentand scope of literacy that individuals attain varies very considerably dependingon the activity systems in which they participate the value that is placed onwritten texts by those communmities the purposes to which they are put andthe genres that are used for those purposes However since literacy and its usesare so strongly associated with schooling I shall leave further discussion of thismode of semiotic mediation to a later part of this paper

Before concluding this section however I want to explore further the con-cept of semiotic mediation In one of the better known passages in Vygotskyrsquoswritings where he argued for the social and cultural origin of higher mentalfunctions he wrote that every function occurs on two planes first in activity andinteraction between people and then within the individual learner (Vygotsky1981) What bridges between these two planes as is clear from his other wri-tings is semiotic mediation To recall Leontrsquoevrsquos formulation of this argument

hellip it is impossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in anyway other than a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words hig-her psychological processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction withothers that is through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried outindependently by the individual (1981 pp 55-56)

In other words when people engage in joint activity their actions gesturesand speech not only mediate the coordination of participation but they alsomake overt the mental activities involved and so render them available forappropriation by novice participants1 Halliday is very clear about this Alt-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

hough the following quotation refers only to language the term lsquolanguagersquocould justifiably be replaced by lsquosemiotic mediationrsquo

In the development of the child as a social being language has the central role Language is themain channel through which the patterns of living are transmitted to him through which helearns to act as a member of lsquosocietyrsquo ndashin and through the various social groups the family theneighbourhood and so onndash and to adopt its lsquoculturersquo its modes of thought and action itsbeliefs and its values (1978 p 9)

However as the child grows older language does become the predominantmode of semiotic mediation and as he wrote in a later paper ldquoLanguage is theessential condition of knowing the process by which experience becomes know-ledge (Halliday 1993 p 94 original emphasis)

Assistance for Learning in Joint Activitie

So far in the discussion of the role of joint activity in human development Ihave concentrated on the tools and particularly the semiotic modes of represen-tation that mediate the achievement of the outcome of activity In this sectionon the other hand I turn to the role of other people in this process both familymembers and the larger community

Until now I have referred to coparticipants in an activity in general termsbut clearly there are further distinctions to be made Particularly helpful in thisrespect is Engestroumlmrsquos model of an activity system which is shown in figure 1

What this model shows is that when we look at an ongoing activity from thepoint of view of an individual participant (t Subject) that individual is involvedin a nexus of other relationships that link him or her to other lsquoparticipantsrsquo theTools and artifacts to mediate action on the Object but also the Community of

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 1The Triangle of Activity

Artifactstools andpractices

Values rulesamp conventions

Community Divisioacutenof labor

Engestrom 1999

Object OutcomeSubject

others engaged in the activity together with the Division of Labor within thatcommunity and also the Rules and Conventions that govern the manner inwhich the activity is carried out (Engestroumlm 1999) What this latter category oflsquoparticipantrsquo underscores is the historical dimension of an activity system sincethese rules and conventions ndashas well as the tools and artifactsndash bring into thepresent the distilled practices of previous generations who have engaged in theactivity as these are interpreted and utilized by the current community

To illustrate the relevance of this model to the development of the youngchild we might compare two versions of a similar activity reported by WertschMinick and Arns (1984) In their study Brazilian children carried out a puzzletask on two occasions first with the mother and secondly with a primary tea-cher What the researchers found was that in general the mothers and teachersengaged in the activity in systematically different ways Whereas the motherstended to direct the childrenrsquos behavior or even carry out parts of the task them-selves in order to complete it in an efficient manner ndashjust as they would havedone if engaged in a household taskndash the teachers tended to encourage thechildrsquos autonomous performance and only provided hints and suggestions whenthey judged them to be necessary to advance the childrenrsquos understandingInterpreting these results the researchers suggested that the two groups ofadults belonged to two different communities (or activity systems) that had dif-ferent rules and conventions about engaging in this joint activity And this inturn led to the different divisions of labor that they observed Similarly Rogoff(2003) cites many examples of substantial differences between cultures inalmost all aspects of child rearing with respect to their ways of engaging chil-dren in the activities that they consider important

What is clear is that ldquobehindrdquo the particular adult ndashor older siblings in someculturesndash who are directly engaged with the child there is a wider communityof family members neighbors and others who have an interest in the upbrin-ging of children and who share beliefs about appropriate ways to involve themin the activities of daily life So whether in Spain Japan or the Peruvian High-lands although the actual practices vary across cultures in each those responsi-ble for childrenrsquos well-being and development act as agents of a wider commu-nity whose beliefs and practices are rooted in a long tradition concerning howactivities should be carried out But equally in all cultures practices also changein response to changes in the world beyond the particular community In manyWestern homes for example computer games or television programs haverecently taken the place of the bedtime story while in many indigenous com-munities crafts that until recently only supplied local needs are now exploitedcommercially for the tourist trade changing the rhythms of daily life and therelationships among family members and the activities in which children areinvolved As suggested earlier therefore in order to understand the activities inwhich children participate today we need to look not only at the immediatesituation but also at the wider community and the changes taking place on allthese time-scales

Microgenesis and the Zone of Proximal Development

It is nevertheless always the immediate microgenetic situation that isthe site of ontogenetic development ndashthe action and interaction between thelearner and those with whom he or she is engaged in the activity in pro-gress When we adopt this microgenetic perspective however we need tomodify the representation of an activity system presented in figure 1 Inthat representation the focus was on the goal-oriented nature of action

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Here we need to focus on the interaction among the participants ndashtheirattempt to attain intersubjectivity with respect to the common object andthe complementarity of the knowledgeable skills they bring to the cocons-truction of the intended outcome (see Figure 2) What figure 2 emphasizesis the fact that although the tools and artefacts that are available to mediatethe jointly undertaken action are the same for each participant each bringsa somewhat different familiarity with their use as a result of their differentlife trajectories and it is this variability in their expertise that makes it pos-sible for each to provide assistance to the others in at least some aspects ofthe joint action Viewed in this light it is clear why Vygotsky emphasizedthe role of joint activity in development and wrote of its potential to enablelearners ldquoto go beyond themselvesrdquo with the assistance of more expertothers

The metaphor Vygotsky used to characterize the potential for learning thatthis sort of activity creates was the ldquozone of proximal developmentrdquo As hewrote when another participant in the activity provides instruction that isappropriately pitched beyond what the learner can manage to do on his or herown it ldquowakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturationlying in the zone of proximal developmentrdquo (1987 p 212) Vygotsky concep-tualized development as the formation of new functional systems (ldquoneoforma-tionsrdquo) and of changes in the relationships among systems which he consideredto occur as a succession of ldquocrises of developmentrdquo that are particularly facilitatedby engagement in the relevant ldquoleading activityrdquo at each stage for example playin childhood and learning to read and write in the early school yearsHowever itwould be a mistake to focus only on the periods of revolutionary change since ashe equally emphasized at any time there are also other more gradual processes ofgrowth

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 2Dialogue in Joint Activity(from Wells2002b)

Outcomematerial ampsemioticartefacts

Toolsartefacts

Subject

Rulesconventions

Community Divisionof labor

Subject

Toolsartefacts

Processes that are central lines of development at one age become peripheral lines of develop-ment at the following age and conversely peripheral lines of development of one age arebrought to the forefront and become central lines since their meaning and relative significancein the total structure of development changes (p 197)2

In developing his important concept of the zone of proximal developmentVygotsky tended to characterize the assistance given by others as ldquoinstructionrdquoand to see its value in ldquothe childrsquos potential to raise himself to a higher intellec-tual level of development through collaboration to move from what he has towhat he does not have through imitationrdquo (1987 p 210) However manyrecent scholars who have built on his work have taken a broader view of thedevelopmental significance of collaboration in joint activities and have characte-rized the assistance that is provided within this relationship in terms such asldquoapprenticeshiprdquo (Lave amp Wenger 1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoguided participationrdquo(Rogoff 1994 2003) and ldquoscaffoldingrdquo (Wood et al 1976) Neverthelesswhile these different metaphors highlight different features of the relationshipwhat they all have in common is the inclusion of the learner in an activity inwhich there is provision of the assistance necessary to help the learner to comple-te an activity in which he or she is interested and to do so in such a way that heor she makes progress toward being able to participate more fully and autono-mously in the future (Maybin Mercer and Stierer 1992)

In many joint activities such as for example traditional forms of craftapprenticeship assistance is only provided when needed and the ldquomasterrdquo doesso with no deliberate didactic intention beyond that of involving the novice inthe completion of the particular task in hand (Lave 1996) Similarly in sociali-zation into activities around the home no explicit instruction is necessary fornovices can learn a great deal by simply watching and listening (cf Rogoff2003) This is what Lave and Wenger (1991) mean when they insist that lear-ning is not an independent activity but an intrinsic aspect of ldquolegitimate perip-heral participationrdquo in a communityrsquos activities From their perspective therefo-re formal education in which learning is the sole purpose of the activity issomething of an anomaly particularly when the only form of assistance providedis the expert teacherrsquos direct instruction and subsequent evaluation of the extentof the studentsrsquo learning

In many recent discussions it has also been recognized that it is not only aldquoteacherrdquo who can provide assistance in the zpd On the one hand in a com-plex activity many participants are more expert than others in some aspectsand therefore on some occasions are able to help those who are less expert(Rogoff 1994) and on the other hand those who provide assistance do nothave to be physically present texts and other artifacts can equally well helpa participant ldquoto go beyond himherselfrdquo as is often the case in intellectualwork such as research and writ ing (Wells 1999) Furthermore asEngestroumlm (1999) and others ndashbuilding on other aspects of Vygotskyrsquos theo-retical writingsndash have noted the material and symbolic tools that have beendeveloped by previous participants in the activity can also provide the samesort of assistance However perhaps the most important point to emphasizeis that there are many situations in which no-one is an expert yet as eachbrings his or her own past experience to the solution of a common problemthe group together is able to achieve more than any single member couldhave done alone Clearly it is such collaboration that has made possible theinventions that have led to the major advances of great civilizations over thecourse of cultural history

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Development in the Pre-School Years

As noted above the responsibility for caring for children in early childhoodvaries very considerably from one society to another Nevertheless in all socie-ties children are involved in joint activities with others in which they receiveassistance with respect to their participation however that may be locally achie-ved For the most part as already mentioned these are activities that are regu-larly repeated in the taken-for-granted routines of daily life The expectation isthat the child will learn to fit in and is simply helped to do so Often referred toas ldquoenculturationrdquo this form of apprenticeship ensures the continuity of the cul-turersquos way of life from one generation to the next and as Donald (1991) arguedit probably occurred even before the emergence of speech

However in all activities there are occasions when problems arise that callfor some level of deliberate decision-making In these situations spoken interac-tion makes possible a degree of reflection and forward planning in which therelations of cause and effect intention action and outcome are made explicitand open to question and discussion The talk that occurs on these occasionsthus plays a particularly important role in helping children to attend to andunderstand the world around them in terms of the culturersquos ways of ldquomakingsenserdquo of it However these occasions can also open up possibilities for changeboth in the form of the activity and in the participantsrsquo understanding of itHow caregivers habitually take up these opportunities is particularly importantfor it plays an important part in shaping the intellectual dispositions withwhich children enter school (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo amp Sterponi2002)

In this section I include some representative examples of kinds of talk thatarise from joint activities in the home These examples are drawn from observa-tions made in settings in England (Wells 1986) and Australia (Hasan 2002) inwhich the young children observed spent most of their time at home with oneparent sometimes with one or more siblings some of the time they entertainedthemselves with occasional adult involvement but they also frequently watchedand ldquohelpedrdquo the parent with household tasks of various kinds

In the first example James (aged 3 12 years) has been playing alone in thegarden and as he reenters the house his mother tries to get him to take off hismuddy shoes However at that moment he sees a bird outside which interestshim more than changing his shoes

Example 1Mother There we are there one slipper onJames I can see a birdMother A what loveJames See a bird Mother (whispering) Is there OutsideJames (pointing and whispering) Yes see

(both continue to speak very softly)Mother Is he eating anythingJames NoMother Where Oh yes hersquos getting- do you know what hersquos doingJames NoMother Hersquos going to the- the paper sack to try to pick out some pieces-

Oh hersquos got some food there and I expect hersquoll pick out somepieces of thread from the sack to go and make his nest under the roofJames Wait a minute and Irsquoll-[James now wants to go out to see more closely but at that moment thebird flies away]

James That birdrsquos gone

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

In the second example Elizabeth (aged 4 years) who is helping with thehouse cleaning watches with interest as her mother shovels wood ash from thefireplace into a bucket

Example 2Elizabeth What are you doing that forMother Irsquom gathering it up and putting it outside so that Daddy can put it on the gardenElizabeth Why does he have to put it on the gardenMother To make the compost rightElizabeth Does that make the grass growMother YesElizabeth Why does itMother You know how I tell you that you need to eat different things like eggs and cab-

bage and rice pudding to make you grow into a big girlElizabeth YesMother Well plants need different foods too and ash is one of the things thatrsquos

good for them

The third example involves James again now eighteen months older Earlierin the afternoon he had been helping his mother with the baking Now hecomes back into the kitchen as his mother is taking the baking trays out of theoven He hears a loud metallic ldquocrackrdquo and asks for an explanation

Example 3James Who did thatMother I expect it was the tin contractingJames Which tinMother The one with your pastry inJames Why did it make that noiseMother Well when it was in the oven it got very hot and stretched a bit Irsquove just taken

it out of the oven and itrsquos cooling down very quickly you see and that noisehappens when it gets smaller again and goes back to its normal shape

James Oh was it a different shape in the ovenMother Oh not very different just a little biggerJames Naughty little tin you might get smacked if you do it again

In all three of these examples the mother willingly responds to the childrsquosinterest and provides information to explain the significance of what the child isseeing or hearing even when in the first this interrupts the motherrsquos plan Allthree cases show how the childrsquos participation in the activity with the adult assu-res that there is intersubjectivity of attention to what interests the child and thisenables the mother to provide relevant information Clearly this is a form ofldquoinstructionrdquo however it is spontaneous and contingent on the childrsquos interestrather than presented as part of a pre-planned curriculum

The third example is particularly interesting from this point of view as thephenomenon of interest to James requires a somewhat technical explanation Atsome point in the future no doubt the expansion of metal when heated and itssubsequent contraction when removed from the heat will figure in the schoolscience curriculum in relation to the systematic study of heat here however itis an interesting side-effect of baking and the motherrsquos explanation while tech-nical in content is couched in everyday language rather than in the abstractterms of scientific generalization As Hasan (2002) has observed

the discourse of quasi specialised knowledge occurs in the lsquomiddle ofrsquo daily activities and bynecessity it calls for a readiness on the motherrsquos part to entertain contextual shifts to bewilling to reclassify the context of the on-going discourse The tendency to move with thechildrsquos moving discourse the readiness to re-classify context is a discourse characteristic of thesame group of mothers who frequently ask questions made precise by qualification and whoattend to their childrenrsquos questions and provide them with well developed answers (p 123)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 6: Actividad y Aprendizaje

Sin embargo accioacuten gesto habla y escritura no son simplemente modos decomunicacioacuten progresivamente maacutes poderosos Son tambieacuten mediadores de pen-samiento progresivamente maacutes potentes Esto es maacutes evidente con respecto a losmodos linguumliacutesticos de comunicacioacuten Pero incluso antes de la emergencia delhabla la accioacuten y ndashen mayor gradondash la miacutemica permitieron a los humanos pen-sar juntos y consecuentemente crear una interpretacioacuten compartida de sus acti-vidades conjuntas De hecho se ha argumentado que la emergencia del lenguajeno fue simplemente el resultado del desarrollo del cerebro y del tracto vocal sinoque maacutes bien fue parte de un esquema general de adaptacioacuten maacutes amplio queconstruido sobre los eacutexitos cognitivos del conocimiento mimeacutetico se esforzoacute porintegrar las unidades inconexas de informacioacuten en todo maacutes comprensivo y cohe-rente de estar en el mundo (Deacon 1997) Sin embargo es tambieacuten verdad quela disponibilidad del lenguaje intensificoacute sustancial y conjuntamente tanto lacomunicacioacuten como el pensamiento ya que como Halliday observoacute

La gramaacutetica de todas las lenguas naturales es (entre otras cosas) una teoriacutea de la experienciahumana es mediante nuestros actos de significado como transformamos la experiencia en elconjunto coherente de retazos ndashaunque lejos de ser constantendash que aprendemos a proyectarcomo lsquorealidadrsquo (1993 p 46)

En resumen lo que Donald y otros acadeacutemicos argumentan es que las habili-dades mentales contemporaacuteneas son el resultado del desarrollo en el tiempo deuna serie de modos de representacioacuten cada vez maacutes poderosos y flexibles ndasho enteacuterminos Vygotskyanos de mediadores semioacuteticos de las funciones mentalessuperioresndash que han hecho posible la razoacuten los modos de conocimiento teoacuterica-mente orientados que sustentan los logros de la ciencia moderna y sus aplicacio-nes tecnoloacutegicas En palabras del filoacutesofo Wartofsky

nuestra comprensioacuten perceptiva y cognitiva del mundo es en gran medida conformada ymodificada por los artefactos de representacioacuten que nosotros mismos creamos De esta manerasomos en efecto el producto de nuestra propia actividad transformamos nuestros modos per-ceptivos y cognitivos nuestra manera de ver y comprender por medio de las representacionesque hacemos (1979 p xxiii)

Hay sin embargo un aspecto maacutes importante de la tesis de Donald (1991)que es crucial para el argumento que quiero desarrollar Aunque cada sistemasemioacutetico de miacutemica habla y escritura fortalece un nuevo modo de actividadcognitiva no reemplaza a los que les preceden sino que se antildeade a sus efectos Elresultado es que los humanos contemporaacuteneos tienen una variedad de modos deconocimiento a su disposicioacuten cuando se implican en actividades conjuntasAdemaacutes la mayoriacutea de estas actividades requieren maacutes de un modo de conoci-miento y del uso complementario e interdependiente de maacutes de un modo derepresentacioacuten

La actividad conjunta como el lugar del aprendizaje y desarrolloontogeneacutetico

De la concepcioacuten histoacuterica multi-nivel del desarrollo que se acaba de subrayarderivan dos implicaciones importantes

En primer lugar en todo momento el tipo de actividad que se emprenda yla manera especiacutefica en la que se desarrolle son necesariamente dependientesde los antecedentes histoacuterico-culturales de los participantes tanto humanoscomo instrumentales que concurren en su realizacioacuten En particular la mane-ra en la que la situacioacuten es interpretada ndashqueacute objetivos de actuacioacuten se conside-ran apropiados y coacutemo pueden ser alcanzadosndash depende de los motivos valores

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187170

y habilidades de los participantes humanos y de las ventajas ofrecidas por lastecnologiacuteas disponibles

En segundo lugar cualquier instante de la actividad proporciona una ocasioacutenpara una triple transformacioacuten (1) de la situacioacuten en la que la actividad es desa-rrollada (2) de los artefactos y de las praacutecticas que median su implementacioacuten y(3) maacutes importante auacuten del conocimiento y habilidades de los participanteshumanos

Estas dos implicaciones consideradas globalmente clarifican la manera en laque la cultura y el desarrollo individual son mutuamente interdependientes yhunden sus raiacuteces en oportunidades de actividad conjunta particulares y situa-das Como Rogoff (1994) argumenta

Las personas de cada generacioacuten mientras se comprometen en esfuerzos socioculturales conotras personas hacen uso y enriquecen herramientas culturales y praacutecticas heredadas de lasgeneraciones precedentes Ya que las personas se desarrollan mediante el uso compartido depraacutecticas y herramientas culturales contribuyen simultaacuteneamente a la transformacioacuten de lasherramientas culturales praacutecticas e instituciones (p 52)

Potencialmente por lo tanto toda ocasioacuten de actividad conjunta proporcionauna oportunidad para el desarrollo de todos los participantes Eacuteste es un punto alque volvereacute Pero antes quiero considerar con maacutes cuidado el concepto de desa-rrollo mismo

Claramente el concepto de desarrollo implica cambio y tiacutepicamente uncambio en la direccioacuten de incrementar la complejidad y la efectividad En otraspalabras se suele considerar que el desarrollo implica mejora o progreso haciaalguacuten estado o capacidad final ideal Sin embargo a la luz de la discusioacuten previatal progresioacuten aunque puede ser significativa para (alguno de) los participantesde una situacioacuten particular no puede ser entendida en un sentido absoluto Maacutesbien debe considerarse con relatividad si se atiende al despliegue de la trayecto-ria histoacuterica de la especie de una cultura particular y de la comunidad inmediatandashsus valores sus actividades predominantes y las habilidades conocidas que for-man sus recursosndash Ademaacutes al igual que esto ha cambiado en el pasado conti-nuaraacute cambiando en el futuro en respuesta a las demandas de cambio de losambientes cada vez maacutes amplios Por tanto mientras el desarrollo ontogeneacuteticoimplica claramente el incremento de la complejidad y la efectividad de la parti-cipacioacuten de los individuos en los sistemas de actividad en que estaacuten inmersosdurante sus vidas diarias la trayectoria maacutes amplia del desarrollo estaacute emergien-do y su destino no puede ser especificado por adelantado aunque se haga en teacuter-minos de un ideal por alcanzar

Sin embargo esto no significa que no haya fuertes regularidades en la secuen-cia del desarrollo ontogeneacutetico particularmente en los primeros antildeos De hechocomo Nelson (1996) ha sugerido durante los antildeos preescolares los nintildeos siguenuna trayectoria muy similar a la secuencia de desarrollo filogeneacutetico propuestapor Donald (1991) (ver la Tabla I) a medida que se apropian de las herramientassemioacuteticas de representacioacuten facilitadas por la accioacuten el gesto el habla y la escri-tura Por supuesto esto no es una simple recapitulacioacuten los nintildeos crecen en uncultura contemporaacutenea alfabetizada en la que estaacuten rodeados desde el nacimientopor artefactos y praacutecticas que resultan de incorporan todos los modos de conoci-miento disponibles (Cole 1996) Apropiarse de las herramientas culturales exis-tentes es asiacute muy diferente de inventarlas ex novo como Scribner (1985) precisa

Sin embargo dada la combinacioacuten de la herencia bioloacutegica y cultural no essorprendente que en la mayoriacutea de las culturas ndashsi no en todasndash los nintildeos sigan

171El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

la misma secuencia que siguioacute la especie como un todo a lo largo del curso de lahistoria

En las primeras semanas de vida los bebeacutes actuacutean en su entorno inmediatotanto animado como inanimado y comienzan a desarrollar lo que Piaget (1970)llamoacute inteligencia sensorio-motora Aunque eacutesta es la forma maacutes baacutesica de acti-vidad y puede parecer refleja (instintiva) es tambieacuten inherentemente social yaque en primer lugar todos los nintildeos nacen en un entorno que es cultural en elsentido de haber sido compartido por incontables generaciones precedentes yen segundo lugar la accioacuten del recieacuten nacido es realzada en interacciones sociales(Newson 1978) En una segunda fase que comienza generalmente en los prime-ros meses los bebeacutes tambieacuten comienzan a implicarse en la comunicacioacuten ges-tual mediante fijaciones de la mirada expresiones faciales y gestos rudimenta-rios (Bruner 1990) Apoyaacutendose en los teacuterminos de intersubjetividad primaria ysecundaria esta fase ha sido descrita con mucho detalle por Trevarthen (Trevart-hen y Hubley 1978 Trevarthen 1979) La intersubjetividad primaria se desa-rrolla cuando el nintildeo y su progenitor se dirigen mutuamente miradas fijascomunicaacutendose asiacute que se estaacuten atendiendo y respondiendo En la intersubjetivi-dad secundaria la atencioacuten conjunta recae sobre un tercer elemento como cuan-do el progenitor mediante miradas fijas dirige la atencioacuten del bebeacute a un objetode intereacutes potencial o sigue la direccioacuten de la mirada del nintildeo y sentildeala que tam-bieacuten estaacute atendiendo al mismo objeto

Sobre esta base de accioacuten y atencioacuten conjunta hacia el final del primer antildeo elnintildeo comienza a explotar su repertorio creciente de vocalizaciones a menudoacompantildeadas de gestos para empezar a comunicarse mediante el habla Deacuerdo con la investigacioacuten disponible realizada principalmente con nintildeos desociedades ldquooccidentalesrdquo al principio las elocuciones son idiosincraacutesicas dibu-jando soacutelo parcialmente en el habla ndashno del todondash aquello que les rodea sinembargo los padres y otros miembros de la familia tienen pocas dificultadespara interpretarlas dentro de un contexto y de nuevo responden de una maneraque es contingente con su interpretacioacuten estableciendo asiacute la comunicacioacutenhablada como una actividad interactiva conjunta Al final del segundo antildeo sinembargo los nintildeos parecen abandonar su forma indiosincraacutesica ldquoprotolinguumliacutesti-cardquo de comunicacioacuten y comienzan a construir un potencial de significados lin-guumliacutesticos sistemaacuteticamente relacionado con el lenguaje que les dirigen en lasactividades habituales de la vida familiar (Bruner 1990 Halliday 1975 Wells1986) Expresivamente en una comunidad linguumliacutestica particular la secuencia enla que los nintildeos dominan los significados baacutesicos y las formas leacutexicogramaticalesen las que se realizan tiende a ser muy similar de unos nintildeos a otros (Wells1985)

La secuencia de desarrollo que acaba de describirse ndashaccioacuten gesto hablandash escomuacuten a los nintildeos en todas las culturas y en todos los casos tiene lugar con otrosfamiliares y miembros de la comunidad mediante la accioacuten e interaccioacuten conjun-ta Sin embargo aunque la secuencia es universal el modo concreto en el que sedespliega variacutea considerablemente de unas culturas a otras Estas diferenciasdependen de muchos factores determinados culturalmente tales como las expec-tativas de los adultos sobre el desarrollo de sus hijos la posicioacuten en la que el bebeacutees sostenido o llevado ndashdando la cara al cuidador o con la cara vuelta en la mismadireccioacuten que el adultondash la configuracioacuten y tamantildeo de los grupos interaccionalesen los que la comunicacioacuten suele tener lugar y si estos eventos son parte de lavida familiar y comunitaria maacutes general o son deliberadamente disentildeados yestructurados para el supuesto beneficio del nintildeo (Rogoff 2003) En las etapastardiacuteas del desarrollo del lenguaje la gama y amplitud de significados potencia-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187172

les que los nintildeos construyen comienza a variar incluso de manera maacutes ampliadependiendo de las actividades en las que intervengan de los registros linguumliacutesti-cos que se usan en esas actividades y de las posturas tiacutepicamente adoptadas porlos interlocutores hacia el uso del lenguaje en sus interacciones con los nintildeos(Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

Hasta ahora la secuencia de desarrollo ontogeneacutetico que he descrito es baacutesica-mente similar en todas las culturas y sigue la secuencia filogeneacutetica en la que loshumanos han ido acumulando de manera progresiva nuevos recursos semioacuteticosmediacionales a sus repertorios comunicativos De forma llamativa por lo tantoel modo uacuteltimo de representacioacuten en el esquema de Donald que es la escrituraes un extra opcional puesto que muchas culturas han sobrevivido y prosperadosin una modalidad escrita de representacioacuten de significados Ademaacutes incluso enculturas que poseen un sistema de escritura el grado y alcance de alfabetizacioacutenque los individuos logran variacutea considerablemente dependiendo de los sistemasde actividad en los que participan del valor otorgado por la comunidad a los tex-tos escritos de los propoacutesitos a los que sirven y de los geacuteneros que se usan paraalcanzar esos propoacutesitos Sin embargo ya que la alfabetizacioacuten y sus usos estaacutenfuertemente asociados a la escolarizacioacuten maacutes adelante abordareacute con mayor pro-fundidad la discusioacuten de esta modalidad de mediacioacuten semioacutetica

Sin embargo quiero explorar con maacutes detalle el concepto de mediacioacutensemioacutetica antes de concluir esta seccioacuten En uno de los pasajes mejor conocidosde los escritos de Vygotski donde argumenta en favor del origen social y cultu-ral de las funciones metales superiores escribe que cada funcioacuten ocurre en dosplanos primero en la actividad e interaccioacuten entre personas y despueacutes en el apren-diz individual (Vygotski 1981) Lo que sirve de puente entre estos dos planoscomo se aclara en otros escritos suyos es la mediacioacuten semioacutetica Recueacuterdesecoacutemo formula Leontiev este argumento

es imposible transmitir los significados y meacutetodos necesarios para realizar un proceso de otraforma que no sea social ndashen la forma de una accioacuten o habla externandash En otras palabras los pro-cesos psicoloacutegicos superiores exclusivamente humanos soacutelo pueden ser adquiridos mediante lainteraccioacuten con otros esto es a traveacutes de un proceso interpsicoloacutegico que soacutelo maacutes tardecomenzaraacute a ser desarrollado independientemente por el individuo (1981 pp 55-56)

En otras palabras cuando las personas realizan una actividad conjunta susacciones gestos y discurso no soacutelo median la coordinacioacuten de la participacioacutentambieacuten hacen puacuteblicas las actividades mentales implicadas quedando asiacute dis-ponibles para su apropiacioacuten por parte de los participantes novatos1 Halliday sepronuncia con mucha claridad al respecto Aunque la cita siguiente se refieresoacutelo al lenguaje el teacutermino ldquolenguajerdquo podriacutea justificadamente ser reemplazadoaquiacute por ldquomediacioacuten semioacuteticardquo

En el desarrollo del nintildeo como un ser social el lenguaje posee el papel central El lenguaje es elprincipal canal por el que los patrones de vida le son transmitidos mediante el cual aprende aactuar como un miembro de la ldquosociedadrdquo ndashen y mediante la variedad de grupos sociales lafamilia los vecinos etceacuteterandash y a adoptar su ldquoculturardquo su modo de pensar y actuar sus creen-cias y sus valoresrdquo (1978 p 9)

Sin embargo a medida que los nintildeos crecen el lenguaje se convierte en elmodo predominante de mediacioacuten semioacutetica y como el mismo autor escribioacute enun trabajo posterior ldquoEl lenguaje es la condicioacuten esencial del conocimiento elproceso por el que la experiencia se convierte en conocimientordquo (Halliday 1993 p94 cursiva en el original)

173El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Ayuda para aprender en actividades conjuntas

Hasta ahora en la discusioacuten del papel de la actividad conjunta en el desarrollohumano me he centrado en las herramientas y particularmente en los modossemioacuteticos de representacioacuten que median los logros obtenidos como resultado dela actividad En esta seccioacuten en cambio me detendreacute en el papel que jueganotras personas ya sean miembros de la familia o de la comunidad extensa

Hasta este momento me he referido a los coparticipantes en una actividad enteacuterminos generales pero claramente hay distinciones adicionales por hacer Par-ticularmente uacutetil al respecto es el modelo de sistema de actividad de Engestroumlmel cual se representa en la figura 1

Lo que este modelo muestra es que cuando observamos una actividad encurso desde el punto de vista de un participante individual (Sujeto t) ese indivi-duo estaacute atrapado en un nudo de relaciones que le unen a otros ldquoparticipantesrdquolas Herramientas y Artefactos para mediar la accioacuten sobre el Objeto pero tam-bieacuten la Comunidad a la que pertenecen las personas implicadas en la actividadjunto con la Divisioacuten de Trabajo propia de la comunidad y tambieacuten las Reglas yConvenciones que gobierna la manera en la que la actividad se desarrolla(Engestroumlm 1999) Lo que subraya esta uacuteltima categoriacutea de ldquoparticipantesrdquo es ladimensioacuten histoacuterica de un sistema de actividad ya que estas reglas y convencio-nes ndashal igual que las herramientas y artefactosndash traen al presente las praacutecticasdestiladas de las generaciones previas que han participado en la actividad y estaspraacutecticas son interpretadas y utilizadas por la comunidad actual

Para ilustrar la relevancia de este modelo en el desarrollo del nintildeo pequentildeopodemos comparar dos versiones de una actividad similar descrita por WertschMinick y Arns (1984) En este estudio un grupo de nintildeos de Brasil ordenan unpuzzle en dos situaciones distintas la primera con sus madres y la segunda conun profesor de primaria Los investigadores observaron que en general las

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187174

FIGURA 1Triaacutengulo de Actividad

Artefactosherramientas y

praacutecticas

Valores reglasy convenciones

Comunidad Divisioacuten delabor

Engestrom 1999

Objeto ResultadosSujeto

madres y los profesores participan en la actividad de manera sistemaacuteticamentediferente Mientras que las madres tendiacutean a dirigir el comportamiento de losnintildeos o incluso a realizar parte de la tarea ellas mismas para completarla de unamanera eficaz ndashtal y como habriacutean hecho si se tratara de una tarea domeacutesticandashlos profesores tendiacutean a promover la actuacioacuten autoacutenoma de los nintildeos y soacutelo pro-porcionaban consejos y sugerencias cuando lo juzgaban necesario para el avancede la comprensioacuten de los nintildeos Interpretando estos resultados los investigado-res sugeriacutean que los dos grupos de adultos perteneciacutean a dos comunidades dife-rentes (o sistemas de actividad) con diferentes reglas y convenciones sobre la par-ticipacioacuten en actividades conjuntas Y esto alternativamente conduciacutea a la dife-rente divisioacuten del trabajo que ellos observaron De manera similar Rogoff(2003) cita muchos ejemplos de diferencias sustanciales entre culturas en casitodos los aspectos del crecimiento infantil con respecto a sus modos de implicar alos nintildeos en las actividades que consideran importantes

Lo que estaacute claro es que ldquodetraacutes derdquo un adulto particular en contacto directocon el nintildeo ndasho en algunas culturas un hermano mayorndash hay una comunidadamplia formada por los miembros de la familia vecinos y otras personas interesa-das en la educacioacuten del nintildeo que comparten determinadas creencias sobre elmodo maacutes apropiado de introducir a los nintildeos en las actividades de la vida diariaPor eso ya sea en Espantildea Japoacuten o las Montantildeas Peruanas aunque las praacutecticasactuales variacutean a traveacutes de las culturas en todas los responsables del bienestar ydel desarrollo de los nintildeos actuacutean como agentes de una comunidad maacutes ampliacuyas creencias y praacutecticas estaacuten arraigadas en una larga tradicioacuten sobre coacutemodeben llevarse a cabo las actividades Pero igualmente en todas las culturas laspraacutecticas tambieacuten cambian en respuesta a los cambios en el mundo maacutes allaacute deuna comunidad particular En muchos hogares Occidentales por ejemplo losjuegos de ordenadores o los programas de televisioacuten han ocupado recientementeel lugar de los cuentos antes de dormir mientras que en muchas comunidadesindiacutegenas las artes que hasta hace poco soacutelo cubriacutean las necesidades locales sonahora explotadas comercialmente por el mercado turiacutestico cambiando los ritmosde la vida diaria las relaciones entre los miembros de la familia y las actividadesen las que los nintildeos estaacuten inmersos Sin embargo como anteriormente se sugirioacutepara comprender las actividades en las que los nintildeos participan hoy necesitamosmirar no soacutelo a la situacioacuten inmediata sino tambieacuten a la comunidad maacutes ampliay a los cambios que han tenido lugar en las escalas temporales

Microgeacutenesis y Zona de Desarrollo Proacuteximo

Lo inmediato sin embargo es siempre la situacioacuten microgeneacutetica que es ellugar del desarrollo ontogeneacutetico ndashla accioacuten e interaccioacuten entre el aprendiz yaquellos con quien estaacute implicado en la actividad en cursondash Cuando adoptamosesta perspectiva microgeneacutetica sin embargo necesitamos modificar la represen-tacioacuten del sistema de actividad reflejada en la figura 1 Esta representacioacutensubraya el hecho de que la accioacuten estaacute orientada a un propoacutesito De manera dis-tinta ahora conviene resaltar la interaccioacuten entre los participantes ndashsus tentativaspara lograr intersubjetividad con respecto a los objetivos comunes y a las habili-dades complementarias de conocimiento que aportan a la co-construccioacuten delresultado previsto (ver Figura 2)ndash Lo que la figura 2 enfatiza es el hecho de queaunque las herramientas y artefactos que estaacuten disponibles para mediar la accioacutenemprendida conjuntamente son los mismos para cada participante cada unoaporta una familiaridad algo diferente con su uso como resultado de su diferentetrayectoria vital siendo esta variabilidad en su pericia la que hace posible paracada uno de ellos proporcionar asistencia a los otros al menos en algunos aspectos

175El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

de la accioacuten conjunta Visto desde esta perspectiva estaacute claro por queacute Vygotskienfatizoacute el papel de la actividad conjunta en el desarrollo y escribioacute sobre supotencial para permitir a los participantes ldquoir maacutes allaacute de siacute mismosrdquo con laayuda de otros maacutes expertos

La metaacutefora usada por Vygotski para caracterizar el potencial para el aprendi-zaje que esta clase de actividad crea fue ldquozona de desarrollo proacuteximordquo Como eacutelescribioacute cuando otro participante en la actividad proporciona instruccioacuten que essuministrada apropiadamente maacutes allaacute de lo que el aprendiz puede llegar a hacerpor siacute mismo ldquodespierta toda una serie de funciones que estaacuten en estado demaduracioacuten latente en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximordquo (1987 p 212) Vygotskiconceptualizoacute el desarrollo como la formacioacuten de nuevos sistemas funcionales(ldquoneoformacionesrdquo) y de cambios en las relaciones entre sistemas que seguacuten eacutelconsideraba ocurriacutean como una secuencia de ldquocrisis del desarrollordquo particular-mente facilitadas por la participacioacuten en las ldquoactividades guiadasrdquo relevantes decada etapa por ejemplo jugar en la nintildeez y aprender a leer y a escribir en los pri-meros antildeos escolares Sin embargo puede ser un error dirigir la atencioacuten soacutelo alos periodos de cambios revolucionarios ya que como eacutel igualmente enfatizoacutetambieacuten tienen lugar en cualquier momento otros procesos graduales de creci-miento

Los procesos que son liacuteneas centrales de desarrollo en una edad se convierten en liacuteneas perifeacute-ricas de desarrollo en la edad siguiente y contrariamente liacuteneas perifeacutericas de desarrollo deuna edad son traiacutedas a la vanguardia y se convierten en liacuteneas centrales en el momento en elque cambia su significado y su significacioacuten relativa en la estructura total del desarrollo(1987 p 197)2

En la elaboracioacuten de su importante concepto de zona de desarrollo proacuteximoVygotski tendioacute a caracterizar la ayuda proporcionada por otros como ldquoinstruc-cioacutenrdquo asiacute como a ver su valor en ldquoel potencial del nintildeo para elevarse a siacute mismo

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187176

FIGURA 2Diaacutelogo en la Actividad Conjunta (Wells 2002b)

Resultadosmateriales yartefactossemioacuteticos

Herramientasartefactos

Sujeto

Reglasconvenciones

Comunidad Divisioacuten delabor

Sujeto

Herramientasartefactos

gracias a la colaboracioacuten hacia un nivel intelectual mayor de desarrollo despla-zaacutendose mediante la imitacioacuten desde lo que eacutel es hasta lo que eacutel no esrdquo (1987p 210) Sin embargo muchos eruditos contemporaacuteneos que han construidosobre su trabajo han adoptado una visioacuten de conjunto del significado evolutivode la colaboracioacuten en actividades conjuntas y han caracterizado la ayuda propor-cionada en esta relacioacuten con teacuterminos tales como ldquoaprendizajerdquo (Lave y Wenger1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoparticipacioacuten guiadardquo (Rogoff 1994 2003) y ldquoandamia-jerdquo (Wood Bruner y Ross 1976) Sin embargo mientras estas metaacuteforas dife-rentes iluminan caracteriacutesticas diferentes de la relacioacuten lo que tienen todas encomuacuten es la inclusioacuten del aprendizaje en una actividad que ofrezca el nivel deapoyo necesario para ayudar al aprendizaje a completar una actividad en la que eacutelo ella estaacute interesado y a hacer esto de tal manera que eacutel o ella progresen hastapoder participar maacutes plena y autoacutenomamente en el futuro (Maybin Mercer yStierer 1992)

En muchas actividades conjuntas tales como por ejemplo formas tradicio-nales de aprendizaje de oficios la ayuda es proporcionada soacutelo cuando se necesitay de este modo el ldquomaestrordquo la ofrece sin intenciones didaacutecticas deliberadas maacutesallaacute de arropar al principiante para terminar una tarea particular en curso (Lave1996) De manera similar la socializacioacuten en actividades domeacutesticas no necesitauna instruccioacuten expliacutecita ya que los principiantes pueden aprender mucho sim-plemente mirando y escuchando (cf Rogoff 2003) Esto es lo que Lave y Wen-ger (1991) quieren decir cuando insisten en que el aprendizaje no es una activi-dad independiente sino un aspecto intriacutenseco de la ldquoparticipacioacuten perifeacutericalegiacutetimardquo en las actividades de una comunidad Desde su perspectiva por lotanto la educacioacuten formal en la que el aprendizaje es el uacutenico propoacutesito de laactividad tiene algo anoacutemalo particularmente cuando la uacutenica forma de ayudaproporcionada es la instruccioacuten directa del profesor experto y la consiguienteevaluacioacuten del grado de aprendizaje de los alumnos

En muchas discusiones recientes se ha reconocido tambieacuten que no es soacutelo unldquoprofesorrdquo quien puede proporcionar ayuda en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximo Porun lado en una actividad compleja muchos participantes son maacutes expertos queotros en algunos aspectos y por lo tanto en algunas ocasiones estaacuten preparadospara ayudar a aquellos que son menos expertos (Rogoff 1994) Por otro ladoaquellos que proporcionan ayuda no tienen que estar fiacutesicamente presentes lostextos y otros artefactos pueden igualmente ayudar de manera satisfactoria a unparticipante ldquoa ir maacutes allaacute de siacute mismo o siacute mismardquo como ocurre con frecuenciaen el trabajo intelectual como la investigacioacuten y la escritura (Wells 1999) Ade-maacutes como Engestroumlm (1999) y otros ndashbasaacutendose en distintos aspectos de losescritos teoacutericos de Vygotskindash han anotado las herramientas materiales y simboacute-licas que han sido desarrolladas por participantes anteriores en la actividad pue-den tambieacuten proporcionar la misma clase de ayuda Sin embargo el punto maacutesimportante que quizaacutes debe subrayarse es que hay muchas situaciones en las quenadie es un experto incluso como cada uno aporta su propia experiencia pasadaa la solucioacuten de un problema comuacuten el grupo en su conjunto es capaz de alcan-zar maacutes de lo que cualquier miembro singular podriacutea haber hecho de maneraindependiente Evidentemente es esta colaboracioacuten la que ha hecho posible lasinvenciones que han llevado a los mayores avances de las grandes civilizaciones alo largo del curso de la historia cultural

Desarrollo en los antildeos preescolares

La responsabilidad para cuidar a los nintildeos en la nintildeez temprana variacutea conside-rablemente de una sociedad a otra como antes anoteacute Sin embargo en todas las

177El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

sociedades los nintildeos estaacuten inmersos en actividades conjuntas con otros en las quereciben ayuda para participar aunque puedan llevarlas a cabo parcialmente Ensu mayor parte como ya se mencionoacute eacutestas son actividades cotidianas repetidasregularmente en las rutinas establecidas Se espera que el nintildeo aprenderaacute a asu-mirlas y es simplemente ayudado para hacerlo Esta forma de aprendizaje deno-minada habitualmente ldquoenculturacioacutenrdquo asegura la continuidad de las formas devida culturales desde una generacioacuten a la siguiente y como Donald (1991) argu-menta probablemente tuvo lugar incluso antes de la emergencia del habla

Sin embargo en todas las actividades hay ocasiones en las que cuando surgealguacuten problema se requiere alguacuten nivel de toma de decisiones deliberado En estassituaciones la interaccioacuten verbal hace posible un grado de reflexioacuten y planificacioacutenhacia delante en la que las relaciones de causa y efecto intencioacuten accioacuten y resultadose hacen expliacutecitas y abiertas para su anaacutelisis y discusioacuten La conversacioacuten que semantiene en estas ocasiones juega asiacute un papel particularmente importante en laayuda a los nintildeos para atender y comprender el mundo que les rodea de acuerdo conlos modos culturales de ldquodarle sentidordquo Sin embargo estas ocasiones pueden tam-bieacuten abrir posibilidades para el cambio tanto en la forma de la actividad como lacomprensioacuten que de ella alcanzan los participantes Coacutemo los cuidadores tomanhabitualmente estas oportunidades es de gran relevancia aquiacute ya que juega en la for-macioacuten de las disposiciones intelectuales con las que los nintildeos entran en la escuelaun papel importante (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo y Sterponi 2002)

En esta seccioacuten incluyo algunos ejemplos representativos del modo de hablarque surge de las actividades conjuntas en el hogar Estos ejemplos se han extraiacute-do de observaciones realizadas en contextos ingleses (Wells 1986) y australianos(Hasan 2002) donde los nintildeos pequentildeos observados pasaban la mayor parte desu tiempo en el hogar en compantildeiacutea de un progenitor o algunas veces con uno omaacutes hermanos mientras que el resto del tiempo se entreteniacutean ellos solos (conuna participacioacuten esporaacutedica del adulto) o algo que haciacutean con frecuencia mira-ban y ldquoayudabanrdquo a sus progenitores con tareas domeacutesticas de diferente tipo

En el primer ejemplo James (de tres antildeos y medio de edad) ha estado jugandosolo en el jardiacuten y cuando entra de nuevo en casa su madre intenta que se quitelos zapatos embarrados Sin embargo en ese momento ve un paacutejaro fuera que leinteresa maacutes que cambiarse de zapatos

Ejemplo 1Madre Alliacute Vamoshellip Alliacutehellip Una zapatilla enJames Puedo ver un paacutejaroMadre iquestUn queacute amorJames Mira un paacutejaroMadre (Susurrando) iquestEstaacute alliacute iquestFueraJames (Sentildealando y susurrando) Siacute mira

(Ambos continuacutean hablando muy suavemente)Madre iquestEstaacute comiendo algoJames NoMadre iquestDoacutende Oh siacute estaacute consiguiendo iquestSabes queacute estaacute haciendoJames NoMadre Estaacute yendo al saco de papel para intentar escoger algunos pedazos

Oh tiene un poco de alimento alliacute Y espero que escoja algunos pedazos de hilodel saco para ir y hacer su nido bajo la azotea James Espera un minuto y [James ahora quiere salir a ver maacutes cerca pero en ese momento el paacutejaro se escapavolando]

James Se ha ido

En el segundo ejemplo Elizabeth (de cuatro antildeos de edad) que estaacute ayudandoen la limpieza de casa mira con intereacutes coacutemo su madre mete en un cubo la cenizade la lentildea de la chimenea

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187178

Ejemplo 2Elizabeth iquestPara queacute estaacutes haciendo esoMadre Estoy recogieacutendolo y ponieacutendolo fuera para que papaacute pueda ponerlo en el jardiacutenElizabeth iquestPor queacute lo tiene que poner en el jardiacuten Madre Para abonar bienElizabeth iquestEso hace que la hierba crezcaMadre SiacuteElizabeth iquestPor queacuteMadre Sabes que te digo que necesitas comer cosas diferentes como huevos y col y

pudin de arroz para convertirte en una nintildea mayor Elizabeth SiacuteMadre Bien las plantas tambieacuten necesitan comida diferente Y la ceniza es una de las

cosas buenas para ellas

El tercer ejemplo se refiere a James de nuevo ahora 18 meses mayor Por lamantildeana temprano ha estado ayudando a su madre con la elaboracioacuten de unos dul-ces en el horno Ahora vuelve a la cocina cuando su madre estaacute sacando las bande-jas fuera del horno Oye un ruidoso ldquocrackrdquo metaacutelico y solicita una explicacioacuten

Ejemplo 3James iquestQuieacuten hizo esoMadre Espero que fuera la contraccioacuten de la lata James iquestQueacute lataMadre La que estaacute con los pasteles dentro James iquestPor queacute hizo ese ruidoMadre Bien cuando estaba en el horno se calentoacute mucho y se estiroacute un pedacito Ape-

nas la he sacado del horno y se estaacute enfriando muy raacutepido mira y ese ruido ocu-rre cuando se hace maacutes pequentildea otra vez y vuelve a su forma normal

James Oh iquesttiene una forma diferente en el horno Madre Oh no muy diferente Soacutelo un poco mayor James Pequentildea lata traviesa Puede que consigas que te den un azote si lo haces otra vez

En estos tres ejemplos la madre responde con prontitud a los intereses delnintildeo y proporciona informacioacuten para explicar el significado de lo que los nintildeosestaacuten viendo u oyendo incluso cuando inicialmente esto interrumpe los planesde la madre Los tres casos muestran coacutemo la participacioacuten de los nintildeos en la acti-vidad con el adulto garantiza una atencioacuten intersubjetiva hacia los intereses delnintildeo lo que permite a la madre proporcionar informacioacuten relevante Esto es cla-ramente una forma de ldquoinstruccioacutenrdquo sin embargo es espontaacutenea y contingentecon los intereses de los nintildeos en lugar de ser presentada como parte de un curri-culum pre-planificado

El tercer ejemplo es particularmente interesante desde este punto de vista yaque el fenoacutemeno que despierta el intereacutes de James requiere una explicacioacuten algoteacutecnica En alguacuten momento del futuro sin duda la dilatacioacuten del metal cuandose calienta y su consiguiente contraccioacuten cuando es apartado del calor figuraraacuteen el curriculum de ciencias de la escuela en relacioacuten con el estudio sistemaacuteticodel calor aquiacute sin embargo es un efecto secundario de la elaboracioacuten de los pas-teles en el horno y la explicacioacuten de la madre aunque teacutecnica en cuanto al conte-nido se asienta en el lenguaje cotidiano y no en los teacuterminos abstractos de lageneralizacioacuten cientiacutefica Como Hasan (2002) ha observado

el discurso del conocimiento quasi especializado tiene lugar lsquoen medio dersquo las actividades dia-rias y necesariamente exige una buena disposicioacuten por parte de la madre para acoger los cam-bios contextuales para tener la voluntad de reclasificar el contexto del discurso en marcha Latendencia a conectar con el discurso en movimiento del nintildeo la buena disposicioacuten para reclasi-ficar el contexto es una caracteriacutestica discursiva del mismo grupo de madres que con frecuen-cia lanzan preguntas precisas para la calificacioacuten de los objetos que atienden a las preguntas desus hijos y que les proporcionan respuestas bien desarrolladas (p 123)

179El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

No todos los nintildeos experimentan esta clase de respuesta altamente informati-va para sus intereses por supuesto Sobre la base de un corpus sustancial de inte-racciones madre-hijo Hasan (2002) siguiendo a Bernstein (1982) distingueentre mediacioacuten semioacutetica ldquovisiblerdquo e ldquoinvisiblerdquo Mientras que todos los ejem-plos citados anteriormente giran sobre la actividad conjunta y las preguntas delos nintildeos merecen una exploracioacuten adicional en un modo expliacutecito ldquovisiblerdquo lostemas de las contribuciones de muchos otros nintildeos a la actividad y la interaccioacutenson tratados por los padres como ldquoobviosrdquo y por lo tanto como si no requirieranexplicacioacuten En este sentido la mediacioacuten de las creencias culturales y de laspraacutecticas permanece ldquoinvisiblerdquo esto es la forma de ser del mundo y el tema nomerece una discusioacuten adicional El Ejemplo 4 (tomado de Hasan 2002) bajoestaacutes liacuteneas proporciona una buena ilustracioacuten

Ejemplo 4 Madre Ponlo sobre la estufa y deacutejalo alliacuteKaren iquestPor queacuteMadre PorqueKaren iquestAquiacute es doacutende va Madre SiacuteUn poco despueacutesKaren iquestCoacutemo conseguiste esoiquestNo saliste Madre Camineacute encima y lo conseguiacute iquestno me viste Karen HmmMadre Debes estar ciega

Los dos breves extractos del Ejemplo 4 son tiacutepicos de un estilo muy diferentede interaccioacuten comparados con los anteriores Aquiacute el eacutenfasis de los padres enconseguir que el nintildeo se adapte a los modos de la cultura local de actuar y pensarcon eficacia suprime la curiosidad del nintildeo y el deseo de comprender lo quetambieacuten hace menos probable que el nintildeo desarrolle la capacidad para cuestionarel status quo y participar en los esfuerzos por cambiarlo y mejorarlo

Finalmente antes de dejar el tema del aprendizaje a traveacutes de la conversacioacutenen actividades conjuntas es importante considerar la actividad conjunta en elcontexto del juego Vygotski (1978) consideroacute el juego como la actividad princi-pal en los antildeos preescolares ya que anima al nintildeo a explorar las posibilidades dela mediacioacuten semioacutetica mediante el uso de objetos presentes que pueden ser uti-lizados para representar otros objetos no presentes mediante el ldquorole playrdquo en elque el lenguaje crea un mundo imaginario En el Ejemplo 5 James ahora contres antildeos y nueve meses estaacute sentaacutendose en el brazo de un sofaacute conduciendo untren imaginario con su madre como pasajera

Ejemplo 5Madre Aquiacute estamos Me sentareacute al lado Perfecto iquestestaacutes listo iquestTodo a punto

Bien Quita el frenoJames Comenzareacute a levantarloMadre Oh perdoacuten Estaacute bienJames Mamaacute no conduzcas todaviacuteaMadre Oh BienJames [Hace un ruido simulando arrancar el motor]Madre iexclOh Este motor arranca raacutepido Muy bien iquestHay suficiente carboacuten en la parte

posterior iquestHas cargado suficiente carboacuten JamesJames SiacuteMadre Bien Entonces vaacutemonos lejos Despiacutedete de tus amigos James [Suena el ruido del motor que acelera Se riacutee y hace el sonido del silbido del

motor]Madre Ahora vamos muy raacutepido iquestPuedes sentir el traqueteo de los vagones James Siacute

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187180

Madre Oh todo me da vueltas Oh mi desayuno estaacute retumbando en mi barriga iexclOhiexclOh iexclOh

James [Hace el ruido del motor]Madre Creo que deberiacuteamos disminuir la velocidad iquestNo crees James Mm (asintiendo)Madre Creo que estamos yendo un poco raacutepido

Es mejor es maacutes faacutecil ahora iquestno James Mm (asintiendo)Madre [Muje] Mira las vacas en el campo JamesJames MmMadre Y hay un granjero mira El granjero te estaacute saludando

Como contar historias compartidas que es otra actividad conjunta importan-te a esta edad el juego imaginario tambieacuten tiene una funcioacuten importante en lapreparacioacuten del nintildeo para explorar el poder del lenguaje ldquopara crear un mundomediante las palabrasrdquo Como seraacute discutido debajo este uso del lenguaje pararepresentar objetos y eventos no presentes y las relaciones entre ellos adoptagran significado en el contexto de la escolarizacioacuten puacuteblica tiacutepica donde propor-ciona los significados mediacionales principales mediante los que gran parte delcurriculum se materializa (Wells 1986)

En suma con la excepcioacuten del Ejemplo 4 todos los extractos precedentes sonejemplos claros de un adulto ldquotrabajando en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximo delnintildeordquo (Vygotski 1987) ya que se implican en la interaccioacuten en el proceso dedesarrollar la actividad en la que estaacuten conjuntamente inmersos Como Vygotski(1987) enfatizoacute en la actividad conjunta colaborativa el nintildeo puede siemprehacer maacutes de lo que le es posible hacer independientemente La actividad pro-porciona el marco organizacional en el que parte de la conversacioacuten dirige ycomenta la actividad y parte explora los resultados a los que conduce En estecontexto el adulto hace disponible para la apropiacioacuten del nintildeo no soacutelo infor-macioacuten especiacutefica como respuesta a los intereses del nintildeo sino tambieacuten una pos-tura hacia la experiencia que valora la actitud de investigacioacuten Tratando las pre-guntas del nintildeo como dignas de respuesta expliacutecita el adulto apoya el desarrollode una disposicioacuten a plantearse preguntas y a buscarles respuesta mediante lainvestigacioacuten futura (Wells 1999)

El papel de la actividad en la educacioacuten

Aunque el teacutermino ldquoeducacioacutenrdquo se emplea a menudo como sinoacutenimo deldquoescolarizacioacutenrdquo seguacuten una interpretacioacuten maacutes amplia la educacioacuten viene refi-rieacutendose a los primeros antildeos del nintildeo y de hecho como se vio arriba hay muchasocasiones en las que un coparticipante en una actividad en curso proporciona ins-truccioacuten expliacutecita Sin embargo la educacioacuten ndashen el sentido de escolarizacioacutenndashtiende a ser muy diferente de la clase de actividades ilustradas maacutes arriba Maacutesimportante en las escuelas la instruccioacuten es tanto deliberada como sistemaacutetica yes gobernada no por los intereses de los alumnos sino por un curriculum que hasido disentildeado por expertos que no estaacuten familiarizados con los alumnos que van aser instruidos Como resultado a menudo lo que se ensentildea en la escuela no estaacuterelacionado con aquello que a los alumnos maacutes les interesa aprender y es muyprobable que no se obtengan beneficios de las oportunidades que la escuelapodriacutea proporcionar

En las primeras secciones de este trabajo se ha argumentado que el aprendi-zaje no es un fin en siacute mismo sino un aspecto integrado del domino de nuevasformas de actividad que tienen significado y valor para el desarrollo de los apren-dices como miembros de una comunidad y como individuos autoacutenomos uacutenicos

181El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Como Wygotsky insistentemente precisoacute el aprendizaje conduce el desarrollo yla instruccioacuten deberiacutea estar organizada para ayudar a este proceso

La instruccioacuten es soacutelo uacutetil cuando se mueve delante del desarrollo Cuando esto ocurre impulsao despierta toda una serie de funciones que estaacuten en estado de maduracioacuten latente en la zona dedesarrollo proacuteximo (1987 p 212)

La pregunta central para la escolarizacioacuten debe por lo tanto ser coacutemo ofrecerinstruccioacuten que sea relevante para las trayectorias de desarrollo de los alumnos yque de manera adecuada ldquose situacutee dentrordquo de sus zonas de desarrollo proacuteximoJunto a esta una segunda pregunta es coacutemo proporcionar ayuda a los alumnosindividuales para que su aprendizaje les permita de hecho avanzar en su desa-rrollo

Procurando proporcionar respuesta a estas preguntas el concepto de ldquoactivi-dad guiadardquo junto con el de recapitulacioacuten de la secuencia de desarrollo de losmodos de conocimiento puede ofrecer un comienzo uacutetil Los nintildeos cuandoingresan en la escuela han dominado en gran parte los modos de conocimientoasociados con la accioacuten el gesto y el habla (Nelson 1996) Lo que ahora necesi-tan es un aprendizaje de los modos de conocimiento asociado con el lenguajeescrito y de las distintas clases de representacioacuten simboacutelica que derivan de eacutelndashmatemaacutetica cientiacutefica musical etceacuteterandash Es decir necesitan aprenderlos parausar estas formas de representacioacuten como herramienta para la deliberacioacutenmediada la comunicacioacuten reflexiva y el pensamiento y para apropiarse de losdiferentes dominios de conocimiento teoacuterico que han sido construidos acumula-tivamente por las generaciones previas con la ayuda de las ventajas que confierenesos sistemas de ldquomemoria externardquo (Donald 1991)

La recapitulacioacuten del desarrollo histoacuterico cultural orienta la trayectoria a largoplazo para la educacioacuten formal en la escuela y en otras instituciones Pero inclusomaacutes importante para procurar responder la pregunta central presentada arriba esdeterminar los procedimientos efectivos para organizar los pequentildeos pasos queconfiguran las lecciones las unidades curriculares y los programas anuales a lolargo de esta trayectoria Basaacutendonos en las ideas presentadas en la seccioacuten ante-rior dos principios parecen en siacute mismos evidentes En primer lugar los encuen-tros educativos necesitan para estar organizados ser ldquoactividades conjuntasrdquo enlas que todos los participantes contribuyen a las metas convenidas con lo mejorde sus habilidades Y en segundo lugar debe convertirse en norma dar y recibirayuda por parte de cada participante Una de las implicaciones de estos dos prin-cipios es que no puede haber formas universales mejores para participar en alguacutenaspecto del curriculum puesto que cada clase variacutea en las experiencias e interesesque sus miembros aportan y en los valores y praacutecticas aprendidos culturalmenteque motivan y dirigen su implicacioacuten con el nuevo conocimiento y con las habi-lidades que estaacuten esperando dominar

Aunque siempre es importante reconocer valorar y construir sobre las expe-riencias previas de los alumnos ha llegado a ser incluso maacutes necesario a medidaque la migracioacuten tanto inter como intra paiacuteses ha aumentado significativamen-te ya que las diferentes etnias clases y religiones en las comunidades han dadolugar a su vez a comunidades de escuela y aula cada vez maacutes diversas ndashy estadiversidad es incluso mayor donde una proporcioacuten sustancial de alumnos estaacuteaprendiendo la lengua de clase como una segunda lengua (o subsiguiente)ndash Taldiversidad en el bagaje cultural y en la experiencia previa es generalmente vistocomo un problema que necesita ser superado en paiacuteses donde los disentildeadores delcurriculum apuntan a estandarizar la instruccioacuten para alcanzar ideacutenticos resulta-dos para todos los estudiantes como es hoy el caso en Estados Unidos Sin

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187182

embargo cuando las diferencias entre personas en teacuterminos de experiencia valo-res y praacutecticas son reconocidas como normales y deseables esta diversidad puedeconvertirse en una ventaja en la clase ya que las praacutecticas y puntos de vista alter-nativos que afloran pueden enriquecer la comunidad de clase y conducir a discu-siones valiosas en las que las creencias dadas por sentadas sean modificadas y sealcance una comprensioacuten maacutes profunda de los puntos considerados (Wells1999)

En este contexto he encontrado de ayuda pensar en el aprendizaje basado enla escuela en teacuterminos de una espiral del conocimiento donde el resultado espe-rado con cada giro de la espiral es una mayor comprensioacuten (Wells 1999) (verFigura 3) En la primera fase cuando la clase se embarca en un nuevo aspecto delcurriculum es importante animar a los alumnos a compartir sus experienciasprevias ya que como las investigaciones en campos muy diferentes han mostra-do (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotski) esas experiencias proporcionan elpunto de partida para su aprendizaje sean o no reconocidas puacuteblicamente Des-cubriendo lo que los estudiantes ya saben y aquello que les interesa explorar conmaacutes detalle el profesor puede tambieacuten planificar la unidad en cooperacioacuten conlos alumnos (Donoahue 2003) La segunda fase de la espiral conlleva varios acer-camientos a la nueva informacioacuten ndashmediante la explicacioacuten del profesor a traveacutesde materiales impresos o medios audiovusiales o en la forma de feedback de laspropias acciones e investigaciones de los alumnosndash Es importante reconocer sinembargo que la recepcioacuten de la nueva informacioacuten no asegura en siacute misma unaumento de la comprensioacuten Para que esto ocurra la nueva informacioacuten debearticularse con la comprensioacuten existente y con la experiencia previa relevantepara ser despueacutes puesta a prueba mediante la accioacuten en el mundo ndashobteniendofeedback (informacioacuten adicional)ndash yo mediante el diaacutelogo con otros para laconstruccioacuten del conocimiento donde el propoacutesito es llegar a una eleccioacuten con-sensuada entre las teoriacuteas alternativas demandas o interpretaciones sobre la basede una consideracioacuten de las evidencias y argumentos apropiados Finalmentepara consolidar la nuevas comprensiones obtenidas es valioso para la clase com-pleta reflexionar juntos sobre lo que han aprendido y sobre el proceso de cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento en el que han participado sobre las implicaciones quela nueva comprensioacuten tiene para sus propias acciones ndashtanto fuera como dentrode clasendash y sobre las preguntas importantes a las que ellos deben ahora dirigir susinvestigaciones futuras En otras palabras la fase final en el ciclo implica a lacomunidad en un ldquoacercamiento lsquometarsquordquo (Olson y Bruner 1996) es decir en laadopcioacuten de una perspectiva metacognitiva sobre su propio aprendizaje que a lolargo de miles de antildeos probablemente ha jugado un importante papel en eldesarrollo de cada modo de conocimiento presentado en la siacutentesis del desarrollohistoacuterico cultural de Donald (1991)3

Esta espiral necesita varias anotaciones adicionales La primera tiene quever con la naturaleza incompleta y provisional del conocimiento eacuteste estaacutesiempre abierto a la mejora mediante ciclos futuros a traveacutes de la espiral Lasegunda anotacioacuten concierne a la naturaleza esencialmente interactiva ysocial del crecimiento individual y comunitario en la comprensioacuten eacutesta seconsigue gracias a los esfuerzos de los participantes para clarificar sus pro-pios significados a los otros y alternativamente para tener en cuenta y res-ponder a los de los demaacutes (Bajtiacuten 1986) En tercer lugar es necesario enfati-zar que el crecimien to en la comprensioacuten requeriraacute espirales futuras queactiven los diferentes modos de conocimiento ya que la mayoriacutea de los cam-bios y problemas que ocurren en las instituciones maacutes allaacute del aula deman-dan un conocimiento procedimental substantivo y esteacutetico al igual que

183El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

teoacuterico y cada modo de conocimiento tiene una contribucioacuten que hacer aleacutexito de soluciones comprensivas que realcen significativamente la com-prensioacuten Finalmente en la representacioacuten de estas relaciones en la figura 3la espiral tambieacuten resalta la interdependencia de los individuos y la comuni-dad Mientras que la experiencia y la comprensioacuten son esencialmente indivi-duales en su naturaleza crecen fuera de eacutel y adoptan su significado de la par-ticipacioacuten de los individuos en el intercambio de informacioacuten y en su com-promiso en la construccioacuten de conocimiento en la comunidad extensa de laque cada individuo es miembro

Desafortunadamente muchos educadores no comprenden estas relacionesfundamentales y por eso su instruccioacuten no es conceptualizada y planificada demanera que sea oacuteptima para el desarrollo de los estudiantes Como numerososestudios han mostrado (Langer y Applebee 1987 Nystrand y Gamoran 1991)en la mayoriacutea de las clases la que gobierna la praacutectica es la concepcioacuten bancariadel conocimiento (Freire 1970) seguacuten la cual el propoacutesito de la instruccioacuten quetiene lugar en el aula es que un alumno individual esteacute preparado para puntuarbien en los tests y no tanto ampliar su conocimiento Dada esta orientacioacuten lasactividades en las que se pide a los alumnos que participen estaacuten determinadaspor la guiacutea curricular del libro de texto maacutes que por el conocimiento de los pro-fesores sobre los intereses y habilidades de los alumnos particulares de los queson responsables A esto es a lo que Tharp y Gallimore (1988) se refieren con laexpresioacuten ldquoguioacuten recitativordquo unido a la ocupacioacuten de un lugar individual de tra-bajo que domina la rutina diaria Ademaacutes los planes sobre coacutemo proceder sonndashcomo cabiacutea esperarndash unilateralmente impuestos en lugar de ser configuradossobre la base de las decisiones tomadas por la comunidad de clase como un todoy el modus operandi es la competicioacuten en lugar de la colaboracioacuten

Sin embargo como he argumentado en otra parte (Wells 1986 19992002a) eacuteste no es el uacutenico modo en el que la escolarizacioacuten puede ser condu-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187184

FIGURA 3La espiral del conocimiento

ACCIOacuteN Construccioacuten

deconocimiento

ComprensioacutenSubstantivo

Esteacutetico

Teoacuterico

Procedimental

Instrumental

Experiencia Informacioacuten

Modos de conocimiento

cida ndasha pensar de la larga historia de la recitacioacuten que se remonta a maacutes detres mil antildeos a las tempranas instituciones que entrenaban a los escribas yadministradores para leer y escribir (Cole 1996)ndash Pero probablemente elmodo por defecto de la escolarizacioacuten es parecido a una preparacioacuten para ldquolavida adultardquo y no una etapa criacutetica del desarrollo que merece la pena y essignificativa en siacute misma Como Vygotski argumentoacute sobre el dominio de laalfabetizacioacuten ldquola ensentildeanza debe organizarse de tal manera que la lectura yla escritura sean necesarias para algo La escritura debe ser incorporada enuna tarea relevante y necesaria para la vidardquo (1978 pp117-118) Y porldquovidardquo quiere decir no la vida futura sino la totalidad de los intereses y pre-ocupaciones actuales de los aprendices

En los uacuteltimos antildeos se han divulgado proyectos de una variedad de paiacuteses enlos que educadores universitarios han procurado crear condiciones para elldquoaprendizaje auteacutenticordquo en las aulas En todos estos proyectos se ha otorgado unpapel central a las actividades colaborativas que alternando entre los formatos departicipacioacuten individual en pequentildeo grupo y de la clase completa implican alos estudiantes en la exploracioacuten de temas centrales mediante investigacionespraacutecticas y tambieacuten teoacutericas y en la discusioacuten criacutetica y constructiva de sus hallaz-gos y de las implicaciones para futuras acciones El espacio no permite aquiacute unadiscusioacuten individual de estos proyectos pero lo que puede ser dicho sobre todosellos es que en sus diferentes formas valoran tanto los intereses de los alumnoscomo sus experiencias previas y persiguen ayudarles a desarrollar la disposicioacutenpara buscar la comprensioacuten maacutes que la acumulacioacuten simple de informacioacuten ypara valorar la colaboracioacuten maacutes que la competicioacuten como el medio para alcanzaresta menta4

En este contexto es digno atraer la atencioacuten hacia varias instituciones poste-riores a la escuela tales como la Fifth Dimension donde la participacioacuten en activi-dades elegidas personalmente ndasha menudo basadas en ordenadoresndash requiere a losnintildeos dominar habilidades que son tambieacuten necesarias para la escolarizacioacuten y lesproporcionan oportunidades para interactuar con voluntarios universitarios enuna posicioacuten de igualdad (Brown y Cole 2002) De manera similar algunosprogramas basados en museos (Leinhardst Crowley y Kuntson 2002) y variasformas de educacioacuten al aire libre tambieacuten capitalizan los intereses de los estu-diantes para implicarles en actividades desafiantes que demandan para la cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento procesos de diaacutelogo y toma de decisiones comparablesa aquellos encontrados en los contextos escolares previamente descritos

Finalmente si estas praacutecticas pioneras arraigan e influyen en la educacioacutenpuacuteblica con mayor amplitud es esencial que los profesores tengan oportunidadessimilares para desarrollar las disposiciones y pericia necesarias para actuar comoagentes de cambio y liacutederes de una reforma en las instituciones en las que traba-jan Es por lo tanto estimulante ver que a pesar del eacutenfasis de los dirigentes poliacute-ticos en estandarizar los curricula y en los resultados cuantificables algunos pro-gramas de formacioacuten de profesores y desarrollo profesional anima a los profeso-res sobre la base de investigaciones sobre su propia praacutectica a tomar sus propiasdecisiones sobre queacute debe ser ensentildeado y coacutemo y a compartir los resultados desus investigaciones con los compantildeeros Este ha sido el motor de mi propio tra-bajo en los antildeos recientes ya que he participado en la investigacioacuten colaborativacon profesores para crear y mantener comunidades de investigacioacuten tanto en cla-ses como entre los mismos profesores5

185El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Notas1 La secuencia temporal implicada por esta formulacioacuten ha sido ampliamente debatida y especialmente el movimiento desde fueraa dentro que sugiere Mi propia comprensioacuten de lo que la apropiacioacuten supone se capta mejor con el ejemplo de aprender a bailarmediante la inmersioacuten en la actividad con otros (Wells 1999) En muchos casos no hay separacioacuten entre antes y despueacutes o entrefuera y dentro y no hay necesidad de demostracioacuten o ejemplificacioacuten En lugar de esto estando inmerso en la actividad conjuntael principiante es literalmente entrenado fiacutesicamente por los movimiento del coparticipante mientras que al mismo tiempoconstruye su propia organizacioacuten ndashy quizaacute incluso una representacioacuten esquemaacuteticandash de los movimientos corporales A lo largo deltiempo este esquema estaacute tan bien organizado que el principiante se convierte en un experto que estaacute preparado paralelamentepara introducir a otros en la actividad Esto es lo que Lave y Wenger (1991) y Rogoff (2003) quieren decir por desarrollo median-te la participacioacuten en actividades culturales

2 Estoy agradecido a Natalia Gajdamaschko y Steve Gabosch por sus valiosas discusiones de esta distincioacuten durante el XMCA cursoonline sobre la teoriacutea de la actividad histoacuterico cultural Abril 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Aunque estaacute incluido en la Tabla I este modo de conocimiento no ha sido discutido aquiacute ya que el reconocimiento expliacutecito deeste importante modo de conocimiento es muy reciente (Brown 1975) Sin embargo eso no significa que sea en siacute mismo unnuevo fenoacutemeno

4 Para algunos ejemplos representativos veacutease Brown y Campione 1994 Lampert Rittenhouse y Crumbaugh 1996 McMahonRaphael Goatley y Pardo 1997 Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford y Brown 1998 Scardamalia Bereiter y Lamon 1994

5 Juntos formamos un grupo de investigacioacuten colaborativo DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project)(Wells (Ed) 2001)

ReferenciasBAJTIacuteN M M (1986) Speech genres and other late essays Austin University of Texas PressBERNSTEIN B (1982) Codes modalities and the process of cultural reproduction A model En M Apple (Ed) Cultural and econo-

mic reproduction in education (pp 304-355) Londres Routledge amp Kegan PaulBROWN A L (1975) The development of memory Knowing knowing about knowing and knowing how to know En H W

Reese (Ed) Advances in child development and behavior (Vol 10 pp 103-152) Nueva York Academic Press BROWN A L amp CAMPIONE J C (1994) Guided discovery in a community of learners En K McGilly (Ed) Integrating cognitive

theory and classroom practice Classroom lessons (pp 229-270) Cambridge MA MIT PressBradford BooksBROWN K amp COLE M (2002) Cultural historical activity theory and the expansion of opportunities for learning after school En

G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 225-238)Oxford Blackwell

BRUNER J S (1990) Acts of meaning Cambridge MA Harvard University PressCARR M (2002) Emerging learning narratives A perspective from early childhood education En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds)

Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 99-111) Oxford BlackwellCOLE M (1996) Cultural psychology A once and future discipline Cambridge MA The Bellknap Press of Harvard University PressDEACON T W (1997) The symbolic species The co-evolution of language and the brain Nueva York NortonDIAMOND J (1998) Guns germs and steel The fates of human societies Nueva York NortonDONALD M (1991) Origins of the Modern Mind Three Stages in the Evolution of Culture and Cognition Cambridge MA Harvard

University PressDONOAHUE Z (2003) Science teaching and learning Teachers and children plan together Networks 6(1) httpwwwoiseuto-

rontoca~ctdnetworksjournal Vol 6 (1) 2003marchENGESTROumlM Y (1999) Activity theory and individual and social transformation Y En Engestrom R Miettinen amp R-L Puna-

maki (Eds) Perspectives on activity theory (pp 19-38) Cambridge Cambridge University PressFREIRE P (1970) Pedagogy of the oppressed Nueva York Herder and HerderHALLIDAY M A K (1975) Learning how to mean Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1978) Language as social semiotic The social interpretation of language and meaning Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1993) Towards a language-based theory of learning Linguistics and Education 5 93-116HASAN R (2002) Semiotic mediation and mental development in pluralistic societies Some implications for tomorrowrsquos schoo-

ling En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural peerspectives on the future of education (pp112-126) Oxford Blackwell

HEATH S B (1983) Ways with words Cambridge Cambridge University PressLAMPERT M RITTENHOUSE P amp CRUMBAUGH C (1996) Agreeing to disagree Developing sociable mathematical discourse En

D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook of education and human development (pp 731-764) Cambridge MA Blackwell LANGER J A amp APPLEBEE A N (1987) How writing shapes thinking A study of teaching and learning Urbana IL National Council

of Teachers of EnglishLAVE J (1996) Teaching as learning in practice Mind Culture and Activity 3 (3) 149-164LAVE J amp WENGER E (1991) Situated Learning Legitimate peripheral participation Nueva York Cambridge University PressLEINHARDT G CROWLEY K amp KNUTSON K (2002) Learning conversations Explanation and identity in museums Mahwah NJ

Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesLEONTIEV A N (1981) The problem of activity in psychology En J VWertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 37-71) Armonk NY SharpeMAYBIN J MERCER N amp STIERER B (1992) lsquoScaffoldingrsquo learning in the classroom En K Norman (Ed) Thinking voices The

work of the National Oracy Project (pp 186-195) Londres Hodder amp StoughtonMCMAHON S I RAPHAEL T E GOATLEY V J amp PARDO L S (Eds) (1997) The Book Club connection Literacy learning and class-

room talk Nueva York Teachers College PressNELSON K (1996) Language in cognitive development The emergence of the mediated mind Nueva York Cambridge University PressNEWSON J (1978) Dialogue and development En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol The emergence of language (pp 31-42)

New York Academic Press

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187186

NYSTRAND M amp GAMORAN A (1991) Student engagement When recitation becomes conversation En H C Waxman amp H JWalberg (Eds) Effective teaching Current research (pp 257-276)Berkeley CA McCutchan Publishing Corp

OLSON D R amp BRUNER J S (1996) Folk psychology and folk pedagogy En D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook ofeducation and human development (pp 9-27) Cambridge MA Blackwell

PALINCSAR A MAGNUSSON S MARANO N FORD D amp BROWN N (1998) Designing a community of practice Principlesand practices of the GIsML Community Teaching and Teacher Education 14 (1) 5-20

PIAGET J (1970) Piagetrsquos theory En P H Mussen (Ed) Carmichaelrsquos handbook of child development (pp 703-732) Nueva YorkWiley

PONTECORVO C amp STERPONI L (2002) Learning to argue and reason through discourse in educational settings En G Wells ampG Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 127-140) OxfordBlackwell

ROGOFF B (1990) Apprenticeship in thinking Cognitive development in social context Nueva York Oxford University PressROGOFF B (1994) Developing understanding of the idea of Communities of Learners Mind Culture and Activity 1 (4) 209-

229ROGOFF B (2003) The cultural nature of human development Nueva York Oxford University PressROSENBLATT L (1978) The reader the text the poem The transactional theory of the literary work Carbondale IL Southern Illinois

University PressSCARDAMALIA M C BEREITER amp LAMON M (1994) The CSILE project Trying to bring the classroom into World 3 En K

McGilley (Ed) Classroom lessons Integrating cognitive theory and classroom practice (pp 201-228) Cambridge MA MITPress

SCRIBNER S (1985) Vygotskyrsquos uses of history En J V Wertsch (Ed) Culture communication and cognition Vygotskian perspectives(pp 119-145) Cambridge Cambridge University Press

THARP R amp GALLIMORE R (1988) Rousing minds to life Nueva York Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C (1979) Communication and cooperation in early infancy a description of primary intersubjectivity En M

Bullowa (Ed) Before speech The beginning of interpersonal communication (pp 321-348) Cambridge Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C amp HUBLEY P (1978) Secondary intersubjectivity Confidence confiding and acts of meaning in the first year

En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol the emergence of language (pp 183-230) Nueva York Academic PressVYGOTSKI L S (1978)Mind in society The development of higher psychological processes Cambridge MA Harvard University PressVYGOTSKI L S (1981) The genesis of higher mental functions En J V Wertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 144-188) Armonk NY SharpeVYGOTSKI L S (1987) Thinking and speech En R W Rieber amp A S Carton (Eds) The collected works of L S Vygotsky Volumen

1 Problems of general psychology (pp 39-285) Nueva York PlenumWARTOFSKY M (1979) Models representation and scientific understanding Boston ReidelWELLS G (1985) Language development in the pre-school years Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (1986) The meaning makers Children learning language and using language to learn Portsmouth NH HeinemannWELLS G (1999) Dialogic inquiry Towards a sociocultural practice and theory of education Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (Ed) (2001) Action talk and text Learning and teaching through inquiry Nueva York Teachers College PressWELLS G (2002a) Learning and teaching for understanding The key role of collaborative knowledge building En J Brophy

(Ed) Social constructivist teaching Affordances and constraints (pp 1-41) Osford Elsevier ScienceJAIWELLS G (2002b) The role of dialogue in activity theory Mind Culture and Activity 9 (1) 43-66WERTSCH J V MINICK N amp ARNS F J (1984) The creation of context in joint problem solving En B Rogoff amp J Lave (Eds)

Everyday cognition Its development in social context (pp 151-171) Cambridge Cambridge University PressWOOD D BRUNER J S amp ROSS G (1976) The role of tutoring in problem-solving Journal of Child Psychology and Child Psy-

chiatry 17 89-100

187El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Original text

Introduction

Compared with other species the characteristic that distinguishes humans isthe ability and proclivity to engage in tool-mediated joint activity with otherhumans It is this characteristic that accounts for the development of human cul-tures over the course of history as they invented artefacts of various kinds inorder to adapt to and exploit the ecological niches in which they found themsel-ves It also accounts for the diversity of individual personsrsquo development whichdepend on the particular activities in which they participate As Vygotsky(1978 1981) was one of the first to point out the lsquohigherrsquo mental functions thatmake us human are not biologically given but are developmentally constructedthrough the appropriation of historically developed tools and practices that aremade manifest to the child and lsquoscaffoldedrsquo in the meaningful actions and utte-rances of the coparticipants in joint activity

Before continuing readers might find it interesting to reflect on their owndevelopmental trajectories to who they are today I suspect that they may findthemselves agreeing that Who we become depends on the company we keep and what wedo together

A Brief History of the Development of Joint Activity

Leontrsquoev provides a succinct account of Vygotskyrsquos insight in the followingsummary

The initial ideas that led Vygotsky to investigate the genesis of internal mental activity fromexternal activity are fundamentally different from the theoretical approaches of other modernauthors These ideas came from the analysis of the features unique to human productive laboractivity which is mediated by tools This activity is initially social in nature that is it is deve-loped under the conditions of cooperation and social interaction among people Vygotskyidentified two main interconnected features [of this activity] that are necessarily fundamentalfor psychology its tool-like (lsquoinstrumentalrsquo) structure and its inclusion in a system of interre-lations with other people It is these features that define the nature of human psychologicalprocesses The tool mediates activity and thus connects humans not only with the world ofobjects but also with other people Because of this humanrsquos activity assimilates the experience ofhumankind This means that humansrsquo mental processes (their lsquohigher psychological functionsrsquo)acquire a structure necessarily tied to the sociohistorically formed means and methods trans-mitted to them by others in the process of cooperative labor and social interaction But it isimpossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in any way otherthan a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words higher psycho-logical processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction with others thatis through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried out indepen-dently by the individual (Leontrsquoev 1981 pp 55-56 emphases in the original)

As well as emphasizing the social and cooperative nature of human activity thisquotation is important with respect to the arguments that I want to develop inthis paper as it highlights the central role of semiotic mediation in developmentKnowledge is created as well as appropriated in the discourse among peoplewho are working together in a specific situation in order to create or improve anartefact or to solve a problem of importance to the group However Leontrsquoevalso alludes to another of Vygotskyrsquos key insights namely that in order tounderstand current activity it is necessary to investigate the history of that acti-vity It is to this that I next turn

In analyzing the history of human development at least four different time-scales need to be considered The longest is the history of the cultural evolution of

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

the species (the phylogenetic level) next is the historical development of particu-lar cultures The third level (ontogenetic) traces the developmental trajectory ofindividual humans over the course of the lifespan Finally the microgenetic levelis concerned with the development of an instance of a particular activity

In practice it is the latter that has been explored in most detail for usingcontemporary technology it is relatively easy to observe and record the sequenceof actions through which an activity is enacted and the specific operations inwhich the participants engage making use of the relevant artefacts that are avai-lable in the situation (Leontrsquoev 1981) These artefacts may be either material(knives pencils automobiles) or symbolic (utterances maps theories) ndashthoughas Cole (1996) has pointed out to function as mediators of joint activity all arte-facts must have some form of material embodiment as well as a symbolic mea-ning that is to say they must be ready to hand and also have a cultural signifi-cance relevant to the situation

However the form in which a particular instance of activity is realizeddepends not only on the artefacts that are to hand in the situation but also onthe participantsrsquo past experiences with the practices in which the artefacts areused to mediate achievement of the action goals that contribute to the joint acti-vity Thus the microgenesis of a particular instance of activity is necessarilydependent upon the ontogenetic development of the participants that is to sayupon the opportunities their life trajectories have afforded them to appropriatethe relevant cultural knowledge through participation in instances of similaractions and operations

But on the time-scale of ontogenetic development each individualrsquos trajectoryof development is itself strongly influenced by the culture in which he or she isgrowing up and on the historical development of that culture As Rogoff (2003)illustrates in considerable detail cultures vary considerably both over time andacross ecological niches in what mediating artefacts and practices are available andin the relative value accorded to each Moreover within each culture at any parti-cular historical moment participants in activities both incorporate the ways ofprevious generations and adapt them to the exigencies of current conditions

Stepping up one further level the historical development of a particular cul-tures is itself shaped by development on the even larger timescale of the culturaland biological evolution of the species This is the most difficult timescale todescribe in detail for lack of the necessary evidence But certain broad distinc-tions between human communities can be made in terms of their modes of sub-sistence and of the mediating means available for joint activity (Diamond 1998Donald 1991) As recent research has shown our earliest ancestors some 5million years ago lived in small bands of hunter gatherers often on the edge oflakes and oceans Initially their tools were found in the surroundings but overseveral million years they invented ways of making more sophisticated artefactssuch as knives arrowheads baskets and clothing from flints bones skins andvegetable materials Then as some groups migrated to particularly fertile partsof the world they adopted a more settled agrarian way of life growing cropsand breeding animals The resulting ability to produce more food than imme-diately required led in turn to the emergence of trade and to a diversity of spe-cialist occupations such as potters and tailors who exchanged their products forfood and other necessities This stage also saw the development of much largerpopulation groupings with hierarchical class structures that included prieststax collectors and other religious and political functionaries

While migration had been a common feature of human existence from theearliest times the development of large settled populations and of weapons

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

made of bronze and iron led to the expansion of certain cultural groups throughterritorial conquest and colonization by sea and by land As a result during thelast few thousand years the latest phase of phylogenetic development has beencharacterized by the rise and fall of imperial cultures which have imposed theirtechnologies laws and administrative procedures as well as their religions artsknowledge and values on widely diverse subjugated populations Most recentlythe further development of the inventions that led to the first industrial revolu-tion has simply served to increase the scale and intensity of these imperialisttrends At the same time these inventions as well as those of the current indus-trial revolution have also led to a great increase in humansrsquo understanding oftheir social and material environment both through scientific and social rese-arch and through the dissemination of information about other times and placesresulting from travel and the use of print and electronic technologies

In presenting this very condensed account of phylogenetic development Ihave emphasized the material tools that have mediated the progressively morecomplex and diverse activities in which humans have engaged over the course ofthe speciesrsquo history However bearing in mind that what has been the drivingforce of human development is joint activity an equally ndashif not morendash impor-tant determinant of this history is the development of the modes of representa-tion through which humans have communicated and developed their unders-tanding of the world Table I presents the developmental sequence proposed byDonald (1991) based on archeological neuroanatomical historical and othertypes of evidence The table also includes the stages in the historical develop-ment of ways of knowing that were proposed by Wartofsky (1979)

The first stage in this sequence corresponds to the phase in which proto-humans began to diverge from other primate species In this phase as in thebehavior of contemporary higher primates practical action was the predomi-nant form of communication as ndashnot necessarily deliberatelyndash participants sig-naled their intentions in a shared situation and these intentions were interpre-ted and responded to by their co-participants in the activity In the secondmimetic phase which must have developed gradually over many millenniacommunication became somewhat differentiated from the activity to which itreferred as humans deliberately used gestures mime facial expression andvarious types of phonation to comment on as well as to coordinate action and theobjects to which it was directed Later still with the gradual modification of thevocal tract and of the primate brain there emerged the ability to communicatethrough speech and hence the ability to refer not only to particular objects andactions but also to generalized classes and to express observed and intendedrelationships between objects actions and events thus allowing participants toplan for and reflect on the outcomes of joint activity Finally the invention ofwriting which ushered in the final phase in Donaldrsquos proposed sequence occu-rred extremely recently in the long trajectory of phylogenetic development Yetas with those that preceded it enormously increased the human repertoire ofmeans for making and communicating meaning Essentially what it added wasan ldquoexternal memoryrdquo By creating a (relatively) permanent representation oflinguistic meaning it made possible the compilation and distillation of repor-ted information from many sources including the writerrsquos own verbalizedthoughts It also allowed the writer and those who read his or her written textto review critique and revise the meanings expressed and to make the resultsavailable to people in later times and other places for further constructive debateand improvement

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

However action gesture speech and writing are not simply progressivelymore powerful modes of communication They are also progressively morepowerful mediators of thinking This is most obvious with respect to the lin-guistic modes of communication But even before the emergence of speechaction and ndashto an even greater extentndash mimesis enabled humans to think toget-her and thereby to create a shared interpretation of their joint activities In fact ithas been argued that the emergence of language was not simply the result ofbrain and vocal tract development but rather was part of a more general patternof adaptation that building upon the cognitive achievements of mimetic kno-wing strove to integrate the unconnected bits of information in a more compre-hensive and coherent account of being-in-the-world (Deacon 1997) Neverthe-less it is also true that the availability of language greatly enhanced both com-munication and thinking together for as Halliday observed

the grammar of every natural language is (among other things) a theory of human experienceit is through our acts of meaning that we transform experience into the coherent -though farfrom consistent- patchwork that we learn to project as lsquorealityrsquo (1993 p 46)

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

TABLE IModes Of Knowing Phylogenetic And Cultural Development (from Wells 1999)

Time Mode of Participants Donald(1991) Wartofsky(1979)Years BP Knowing

2 million Instrumental Individual in action Episodic Primary artifactsyears material tools

1 -- 15 million Procedural Between individuals while Mimetic Secondaryyears engaged in action artifacts tools

and practicesmimeticinteraction

50000 Substantive Among members of a (Linguistic) Secondaryyears cultural group reflecting on artifacts

action and as a basis for representations ofplanning further action tools and

practices spokeninteraction

50000 Aesthetic Among members of a Mythic Tertiary artifactsyears cultural group making sense artistic represent-

of the human predicament ations in mythnarrative graphicand musical modes

2500 Theoretical Among members of a Theoretic Tertiary artifactsyears specialist community decontextualized

seeking to explain the natural representationsand human world such as

taxonomiestheories models etc

Meta Among members of a Tertiary artifacts cultural group also representations ofindividuals seeking to mental andunderstand and control their semioticown mental activity processes

In sum what Donald and other scholars argue is that contemporary mentalabilities are the outcome of the development over time of a series of progressi-vely more powerful and flexible modes of representation ndashor in Vygotskyanterms of semiotic mediators of higher mental functions- that have made possi-ble the rational theoretically oriented modes of knowing that underpin theachievements of modern science and its technological applications In the philo-sopher Wartofskyrsquos words

our own perceptual and cognitive understanding of the world is in large part shaped andchanged by the representational artifacts we ourselves create We are in effect the products ofour own activity in this way we transform our own perceptual and cognitive modes our waysof seeing and of understanding by means of the representations we make (1979 p xxiii)

There is however one further important aspect of Donaldrsquos (1991) thesis thatis crucial for the argument that I wish to develop Although the semiotic sys-tems of mimesis speech and writing each powered a new mode of cognitiveactivity they did not replace those that preceded but were additive in theireffects The result is that contemporary humans have a variety of modes of kno-wing at their disposal as they engage in joint activity Furthermore most suchactivities call for more than one mode of knowing and require the complemen-tary and interdependent use of more than one mode of representation

Joint Activity as the Site of Ontogenetic Learning and Development

Two important implications follow from the multi-level historical concep-tion of development just outlined First on any occasion the type of activitythat is undertaken and the specific manner in which it is enacted are necessarilydependent on the particular cultural-historical antecedents of the participantsboth human and artefactual that come together in its realization In particularthe manner in which the situation is interpreted ndashin terms of what action goalsare appropriate and how they can be achievedndash depends on the motives valuesand knowledgeable skills of the human participants and on the affordances ofthe technologies available in the situation And second every instance of an acti-vity provides an occasion for a triple transformation of the situation in whichthe activity is carried out of the artefacts and practices that mediate its enact-ment and most importantly of the knowledge and skills of the human partici-pants Taken together these propositions clarify the way in which cultural andindividual development are both interdependent and rooted in particular situa-ted occasions of joint activity As Rogoff (1994) argues

People of each generation as they engage in sociocultural endeavors with other people makeuse of and extend cultural tools and practices inherited from previous generations As peopledevelop through their shared use of cultural tools and practices they simultaneously contribu-te to the transformation of cultural tools practices and institutions (p 52)

Potentially therefore every occasion of joint activity provides an opportunityfor development on the part of all participants This is a point to which I shallreturn But first I want to consider more carefully the concept of developmentitself

Clearly built into the concept of development is the implication of change andtypically of change in the direction of increasing complexity and effectiveness Inother words development is typically taken to imply improvement or progresstoward some ideal end state or capability However in the light of the previousdiscussion such a progression while it may be meaningful to (some of the) partici-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

pants in any particular situation cannot be understood in any absolute sense butmust be seen as relative to the unfolding historical trajectory of the species of aparticular culture and of the immediate community ndashits values its dominantactivities and the knowledgeable skills that form its resources Furthermore just asthese have changed in the past they will continue to change in the future in res-ponse to the changing demands of the larger environment So while ontogeneticdevelopment does indeed involve increasing complexity and effectiveness of indi-vidualsrsquo participation in the activity systems in which they are involved in theirdaily lives the overall trajectory of development is emergent and its endpoint cannever be specified in advance even in terms of an ideal to be attained

Nevertheless this does not mean that there are not strong regularities in thesequence of ontogenetic development particularly in the early years Indeed asNelson (1996) has suggested during the preschool years children follow a trajec-tory very similar to the sequence of phylogenetic development proposed byDonald (1991) (see Table I above) as they appropriate the semiotic tools of repre-sentation afforded by action mimesis speech and writing Of course this is not asimple recapitulation children growing up in a contemporary literate culture forexample are surrounded from birth by artifacts and practices that result from andembody all the available modes of knowing (Cole 1996) Appropriating existingcultural tools is thus very different from inventing them ex novo as Scribner (1985)points out Nevertheless given the combination of biological and cultural inheri-tance it is not surprising that in most if not all cultures children follow the samesequence as did the species as a whole over the course of history

In the first weeks of life infants act on their immediate surroundings bothanimate and inanimate and begin to develop what Piaget (1970) called sensori-motor intelligence However although this most basic form of activity mayappear to be instinctual it is nevertheless also inherently social First all infantsare born into an environment that is cultural in the sense of having been shapedby countless preceding generations and second the infantrsquos actions are treatedas being intentional and are responded to as such So from the beginning theinfant is caught up in social interaction (Newson 1978) In the second phasewhich typically begins in the first few months the infant also begins to engagein mimetic communication through gaze facial expression and rudimentarygesture (Bruner 1990) Couched in terms of primary and secondary intersubjec-tivity this phase has been described in considerable detail by Trevarthen (19781979) Primary intersubjectivity develops as the infant and parent engage inmutual gaze thereby communicating that they are attending to and respondingto each other In secondary intersubjectivity third parties are brought into jointattention as the parent through gaze directs the infantrsquos attention to an object ofpotential interest or follows the childrsquos direction of gaze and signals that he orshe is also attending to the same object

It is on this basis of joint action and attention that towards the end of thefirst year the child begins to exploit his or her growing command of vocaliza-tion often accompanied by gesture to begin to communicate through speechFrom research predominantly involving children in ldquoWesternrdquo societies it hasbeen established that at first the childrsquos utterances are idiosyncratic drawingonly partially ndashif at allndash on the speech of those around him or her neverthelessparents and other family members have little difficulty in interpreting them incontext and once again they respond in a manner that is contingent on theirinterpretation thereby establishing spoken communication as a joint interactiveactivity By the end of the second year however children appear to abandon thisidiosyncratic ldquoprotolanguagerdquo form of communication and begin to construct a

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

linguistic meaning potential that is systematically related to the language thatis addressed to them in the oft-repeated activities of family life (Bruner 1990Halliday 1975 Wells 1986) Significantly within particular language com-munities the sequence in which children master the basic meanings and thelexicogrammatical forms in which they are realized tends to be very similar fromchild to child (Wells 1985)

The developmental sequence just described ndashaction mimesis speechndash is com-mon to children in all cultures and in all cases takes place in and through jointactivity and interaction with other family and community members Howeveralthough the sequence is universal the manner and pace at which it proceeds varyvery considerably across cultures These differences depend upon many culturally-determined factors such as adult expectations about their childrenrsquos developmentthe position in which the infant is typically held or carried facing the caregiver orturned outwards to face in the same direction as the caregiver the makeup and sizeof the interactional groups in which communication typically occurs and whetherthese events are part of family and community life more generally or are delibera-tely arranged and structured for the presumed benefit of the child (Rogoff 2003)In the later stages of language development the range and extent of the meaningpotential that children construct begins to vary even more widely depending onthe activities in which they engage the linguistic registers that are used in thoseactivities and the stances typically adopted by interlocutors toward the use of lan-guage in their interactions with children (Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

So far the ontogenetic developmental sequence I have described is funda-mentally similar across cultures and follows the phylogenetic sequence in whichhumans have progressively added new semiotic mediational means to theircommunicative repertoires In an important sense therefore the final mode ofrepresentation in Donaldrsquos scheme that of writing is an optional extra sincemany cultures have survived and prospered without a written mode of represen-ting meaning Moreover even in cultures that have a writing system the extentand scope of literacy that individuals attain varies very considerably dependingon the activity systems in which they participate the value that is placed onwritten texts by those communmities the purposes to which they are put andthe genres that are used for those purposes However since literacy and its usesare so strongly associated with schooling I shall leave further discussion of thismode of semiotic mediation to a later part of this paper

Before concluding this section however I want to explore further the con-cept of semiotic mediation In one of the better known passages in Vygotskyrsquoswritings where he argued for the social and cultural origin of higher mentalfunctions he wrote that every function occurs on two planes first in activity andinteraction between people and then within the individual learner (Vygotsky1981) What bridges between these two planes as is clear from his other wri-tings is semiotic mediation To recall Leontrsquoevrsquos formulation of this argument

hellip it is impossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in anyway other than a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words hig-her psychological processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction withothers that is through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried outindependently by the individual (1981 pp 55-56)

In other words when people engage in joint activity their actions gesturesand speech not only mediate the coordination of participation but they alsomake overt the mental activities involved and so render them available forappropriation by novice participants1 Halliday is very clear about this Alt-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

hough the following quotation refers only to language the term lsquolanguagersquocould justifiably be replaced by lsquosemiotic mediationrsquo

In the development of the child as a social being language has the central role Language is themain channel through which the patterns of living are transmitted to him through which helearns to act as a member of lsquosocietyrsquo ndashin and through the various social groups the family theneighbourhood and so onndash and to adopt its lsquoculturersquo its modes of thought and action itsbeliefs and its values (1978 p 9)

However as the child grows older language does become the predominantmode of semiotic mediation and as he wrote in a later paper ldquoLanguage is theessential condition of knowing the process by which experience becomes know-ledge (Halliday 1993 p 94 original emphasis)

Assistance for Learning in Joint Activitie

So far in the discussion of the role of joint activity in human development Ihave concentrated on the tools and particularly the semiotic modes of represen-tation that mediate the achievement of the outcome of activity In this sectionon the other hand I turn to the role of other people in this process both familymembers and the larger community

Until now I have referred to coparticipants in an activity in general termsbut clearly there are further distinctions to be made Particularly helpful in thisrespect is Engestroumlmrsquos model of an activity system which is shown in figure 1

What this model shows is that when we look at an ongoing activity from thepoint of view of an individual participant (t Subject) that individual is involvedin a nexus of other relationships that link him or her to other lsquoparticipantsrsquo theTools and artifacts to mediate action on the Object but also the Community of

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 1The Triangle of Activity

Artifactstools andpractices

Values rulesamp conventions

Community Divisioacutenof labor

Engestrom 1999

Object OutcomeSubject

others engaged in the activity together with the Division of Labor within thatcommunity and also the Rules and Conventions that govern the manner inwhich the activity is carried out (Engestroumlm 1999) What this latter category oflsquoparticipantrsquo underscores is the historical dimension of an activity system sincethese rules and conventions ndashas well as the tools and artifactsndash bring into thepresent the distilled practices of previous generations who have engaged in theactivity as these are interpreted and utilized by the current community

To illustrate the relevance of this model to the development of the youngchild we might compare two versions of a similar activity reported by WertschMinick and Arns (1984) In their study Brazilian children carried out a puzzletask on two occasions first with the mother and secondly with a primary tea-cher What the researchers found was that in general the mothers and teachersengaged in the activity in systematically different ways Whereas the motherstended to direct the childrenrsquos behavior or even carry out parts of the task them-selves in order to complete it in an efficient manner ndashjust as they would havedone if engaged in a household taskndash the teachers tended to encourage thechildrsquos autonomous performance and only provided hints and suggestions whenthey judged them to be necessary to advance the childrenrsquos understandingInterpreting these results the researchers suggested that the two groups ofadults belonged to two different communities (or activity systems) that had dif-ferent rules and conventions about engaging in this joint activity And this inturn led to the different divisions of labor that they observed Similarly Rogoff(2003) cites many examples of substantial differences between cultures inalmost all aspects of child rearing with respect to their ways of engaging chil-dren in the activities that they consider important

What is clear is that ldquobehindrdquo the particular adult ndashor older siblings in someculturesndash who are directly engaged with the child there is a wider communityof family members neighbors and others who have an interest in the upbrin-ging of children and who share beliefs about appropriate ways to involve themin the activities of daily life So whether in Spain Japan or the Peruvian High-lands although the actual practices vary across cultures in each those responsi-ble for childrenrsquos well-being and development act as agents of a wider commu-nity whose beliefs and practices are rooted in a long tradition concerning howactivities should be carried out But equally in all cultures practices also changein response to changes in the world beyond the particular community In manyWestern homes for example computer games or television programs haverecently taken the place of the bedtime story while in many indigenous com-munities crafts that until recently only supplied local needs are now exploitedcommercially for the tourist trade changing the rhythms of daily life and therelationships among family members and the activities in which children areinvolved As suggested earlier therefore in order to understand the activities inwhich children participate today we need to look not only at the immediatesituation but also at the wider community and the changes taking place on allthese time-scales

Microgenesis and the Zone of Proximal Development

It is nevertheless always the immediate microgenetic situation that isthe site of ontogenetic development ndashthe action and interaction between thelearner and those with whom he or she is engaged in the activity in pro-gress When we adopt this microgenetic perspective however we need tomodify the representation of an activity system presented in figure 1 Inthat representation the focus was on the goal-oriented nature of action

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Here we need to focus on the interaction among the participants ndashtheirattempt to attain intersubjectivity with respect to the common object andthe complementarity of the knowledgeable skills they bring to the cocons-truction of the intended outcome (see Figure 2) What figure 2 emphasizesis the fact that although the tools and artefacts that are available to mediatethe jointly undertaken action are the same for each participant each bringsa somewhat different familiarity with their use as a result of their differentlife trajectories and it is this variability in their expertise that makes it pos-sible for each to provide assistance to the others in at least some aspects ofthe joint action Viewed in this light it is clear why Vygotsky emphasizedthe role of joint activity in development and wrote of its potential to enablelearners ldquoto go beyond themselvesrdquo with the assistance of more expertothers

The metaphor Vygotsky used to characterize the potential for learning thatthis sort of activity creates was the ldquozone of proximal developmentrdquo As hewrote when another participant in the activity provides instruction that isappropriately pitched beyond what the learner can manage to do on his or herown it ldquowakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturationlying in the zone of proximal developmentrdquo (1987 p 212) Vygotsky concep-tualized development as the formation of new functional systems (ldquoneoforma-tionsrdquo) and of changes in the relationships among systems which he consideredto occur as a succession of ldquocrises of developmentrdquo that are particularly facilitatedby engagement in the relevant ldquoleading activityrdquo at each stage for example playin childhood and learning to read and write in the early school yearsHowever itwould be a mistake to focus only on the periods of revolutionary change since ashe equally emphasized at any time there are also other more gradual processes ofgrowth

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 2Dialogue in Joint Activity(from Wells2002b)

Outcomematerial ampsemioticartefacts

Toolsartefacts

Subject

Rulesconventions

Community Divisionof labor

Subject

Toolsartefacts

Processes that are central lines of development at one age become peripheral lines of develop-ment at the following age and conversely peripheral lines of development of one age arebrought to the forefront and become central lines since their meaning and relative significancein the total structure of development changes (p 197)2

In developing his important concept of the zone of proximal developmentVygotsky tended to characterize the assistance given by others as ldquoinstructionrdquoand to see its value in ldquothe childrsquos potential to raise himself to a higher intellec-tual level of development through collaboration to move from what he has towhat he does not have through imitationrdquo (1987 p 210) However manyrecent scholars who have built on his work have taken a broader view of thedevelopmental significance of collaboration in joint activities and have characte-rized the assistance that is provided within this relationship in terms such asldquoapprenticeshiprdquo (Lave amp Wenger 1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoguided participationrdquo(Rogoff 1994 2003) and ldquoscaffoldingrdquo (Wood et al 1976) Neverthelesswhile these different metaphors highlight different features of the relationshipwhat they all have in common is the inclusion of the learner in an activity inwhich there is provision of the assistance necessary to help the learner to comple-te an activity in which he or she is interested and to do so in such a way that heor she makes progress toward being able to participate more fully and autono-mously in the future (Maybin Mercer and Stierer 1992)

In many joint activities such as for example traditional forms of craftapprenticeship assistance is only provided when needed and the ldquomasterrdquo doesso with no deliberate didactic intention beyond that of involving the novice inthe completion of the particular task in hand (Lave 1996) Similarly in sociali-zation into activities around the home no explicit instruction is necessary fornovices can learn a great deal by simply watching and listening (cf Rogoff2003) This is what Lave and Wenger (1991) mean when they insist that lear-ning is not an independent activity but an intrinsic aspect of ldquolegitimate perip-heral participationrdquo in a communityrsquos activities From their perspective therefo-re formal education in which learning is the sole purpose of the activity issomething of an anomaly particularly when the only form of assistance providedis the expert teacherrsquos direct instruction and subsequent evaluation of the extentof the studentsrsquo learning

In many recent discussions it has also been recognized that it is not only aldquoteacherrdquo who can provide assistance in the zpd On the one hand in a com-plex activity many participants are more expert than others in some aspectsand therefore on some occasions are able to help those who are less expert(Rogoff 1994) and on the other hand those who provide assistance do nothave to be physically present texts and other artifacts can equally well helpa participant ldquoto go beyond himherselfrdquo as is often the case in intellectualwork such as research and writ ing (Wells 1999) Furthermore asEngestroumlm (1999) and others ndashbuilding on other aspects of Vygotskyrsquos theo-retical writingsndash have noted the material and symbolic tools that have beendeveloped by previous participants in the activity can also provide the samesort of assistance However perhaps the most important point to emphasizeis that there are many situations in which no-one is an expert yet as eachbrings his or her own past experience to the solution of a common problemthe group together is able to achieve more than any single member couldhave done alone Clearly it is such collaboration that has made possible theinventions that have led to the major advances of great civilizations over thecourse of cultural history

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Development in the Pre-School Years

As noted above the responsibility for caring for children in early childhoodvaries very considerably from one society to another Nevertheless in all socie-ties children are involved in joint activities with others in which they receiveassistance with respect to their participation however that may be locally achie-ved For the most part as already mentioned these are activities that are regu-larly repeated in the taken-for-granted routines of daily life The expectation isthat the child will learn to fit in and is simply helped to do so Often referred toas ldquoenculturationrdquo this form of apprenticeship ensures the continuity of the cul-turersquos way of life from one generation to the next and as Donald (1991) arguedit probably occurred even before the emergence of speech

However in all activities there are occasions when problems arise that callfor some level of deliberate decision-making In these situations spoken interac-tion makes possible a degree of reflection and forward planning in which therelations of cause and effect intention action and outcome are made explicitand open to question and discussion The talk that occurs on these occasionsthus plays a particularly important role in helping children to attend to andunderstand the world around them in terms of the culturersquos ways of ldquomakingsenserdquo of it However these occasions can also open up possibilities for changeboth in the form of the activity and in the participantsrsquo understanding of itHow caregivers habitually take up these opportunities is particularly importantfor it plays an important part in shaping the intellectual dispositions withwhich children enter school (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo amp Sterponi2002)

In this section I include some representative examples of kinds of talk thatarise from joint activities in the home These examples are drawn from observa-tions made in settings in England (Wells 1986) and Australia (Hasan 2002) inwhich the young children observed spent most of their time at home with oneparent sometimes with one or more siblings some of the time they entertainedthemselves with occasional adult involvement but they also frequently watchedand ldquohelpedrdquo the parent with household tasks of various kinds

In the first example James (aged 3 12 years) has been playing alone in thegarden and as he reenters the house his mother tries to get him to take off hismuddy shoes However at that moment he sees a bird outside which interestshim more than changing his shoes

Example 1Mother There we are there one slipper onJames I can see a birdMother A what loveJames See a bird Mother (whispering) Is there OutsideJames (pointing and whispering) Yes see

(both continue to speak very softly)Mother Is he eating anythingJames NoMother Where Oh yes hersquos getting- do you know what hersquos doingJames NoMother Hersquos going to the- the paper sack to try to pick out some pieces-

Oh hersquos got some food there and I expect hersquoll pick out somepieces of thread from the sack to go and make his nest under the roofJames Wait a minute and Irsquoll-[James now wants to go out to see more closely but at that moment thebird flies away]

James That birdrsquos gone

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

In the second example Elizabeth (aged 4 years) who is helping with thehouse cleaning watches with interest as her mother shovels wood ash from thefireplace into a bucket

Example 2Elizabeth What are you doing that forMother Irsquom gathering it up and putting it outside so that Daddy can put it on the gardenElizabeth Why does he have to put it on the gardenMother To make the compost rightElizabeth Does that make the grass growMother YesElizabeth Why does itMother You know how I tell you that you need to eat different things like eggs and cab-

bage and rice pudding to make you grow into a big girlElizabeth YesMother Well plants need different foods too and ash is one of the things thatrsquos

good for them

The third example involves James again now eighteen months older Earlierin the afternoon he had been helping his mother with the baking Now hecomes back into the kitchen as his mother is taking the baking trays out of theoven He hears a loud metallic ldquocrackrdquo and asks for an explanation

Example 3James Who did thatMother I expect it was the tin contractingJames Which tinMother The one with your pastry inJames Why did it make that noiseMother Well when it was in the oven it got very hot and stretched a bit Irsquove just taken

it out of the oven and itrsquos cooling down very quickly you see and that noisehappens when it gets smaller again and goes back to its normal shape

James Oh was it a different shape in the ovenMother Oh not very different just a little biggerJames Naughty little tin you might get smacked if you do it again

In all three of these examples the mother willingly responds to the childrsquosinterest and provides information to explain the significance of what the child isseeing or hearing even when in the first this interrupts the motherrsquos plan Allthree cases show how the childrsquos participation in the activity with the adult assu-res that there is intersubjectivity of attention to what interests the child and thisenables the mother to provide relevant information Clearly this is a form ofldquoinstructionrdquo however it is spontaneous and contingent on the childrsquos interestrather than presented as part of a pre-planned curriculum

The third example is particularly interesting from this point of view as thephenomenon of interest to James requires a somewhat technical explanation Atsome point in the future no doubt the expansion of metal when heated and itssubsequent contraction when removed from the heat will figure in the schoolscience curriculum in relation to the systematic study of heat here however itis an interesting side-effect of baking and the motherrsquos explanation while tech-nical in content is couched in everyday language rather than in the abstractterms of scientific generalization As Hasan (2002) has observed

the discourse of quasi specialised knowledge occurs in the lsquomiddle ofrsquo daily activities and bynecessity it calls for a readiness on the motherrsquos part to entertain contextual shifts to bewilling to reclassify the context of the on-going discourse The tendency to move with thechildrsquos moving discourse the readiness to re-classify context is a discourse characteristic of thesame group of mothers who frequently ask questions made precise by qualification and whoattend to their childrenrsquos questions and provide them with well developed answers (p 123)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 7: Actividad y Aprendizaje

y habilidades de los participantes humanos y de las ventajas ofrecidas por lastecnologiacuteas disponibles

En segundo lugar cualquier instante de la actividad proporciona una ocasioacutenpara una triple transformacioacuten (1) de la situacioacuten en la que la actividad es desa-rrollada (2) de los artefactos y de las praacutecticas que median su implementacioacuten y(3) maacutes importante auacuten del conocimiento y habilidades de los participanteshumanos

Estas dos implicaciones consideradas globalmente clarifican la manera en laque la cultura y el desarrollo individual son mutuamente interdependientes yhunden sus raiacuteces en oportunidades de actividad conjunta particulares y situa-das Como Rogoff (1994) argumenta

Las personas de cada generacioacuten mientras se comprometen en esfuerzos socioculturales conotras personas hacen uso y enriquecen herramientas culturales y praacutecticas heredadas de lasgeneraciones precedentes Ya que las personas se desarrollan mediante el uso compartido depraacutecticas y herramientas culturales contribuyen simultaacuteneamente a la transformacioacuten de lasherramientas culturales praacutecticas e instituciones (p 52)

Potencialmente por lo tanto toda ocasioacuten de actividad conjunta proporcionauna oportunidad para el desarrollo de todos los participantes Eacuteste es un punto alque volvereacute Pero antes quiero considerar con maacutes cuidado el concepto de desa-rrollo mismo

Claramente el concepto de desarrollo implica cambio y tiacutepicamente uncambio en la direccioacuten de incrementar la complejidad y la efectividad En otraspalabras se suele considerar que el desarrollo implica mejora o progreso haciaalguacuten estado o capacidad final ideal Sin embargo a la luz de la discusioacuten previatal progresioacuten aunque puede ser significativa para (alguno de) los participantesde una situacioacuten particular no puede ser entendida en un sentido absoluto Maacutesbien debe considerarse con relatividad si se atiende al despliegue de la trayecto-ria histoacuterica de la especie de una cultura particular y de la comunidad inmediatandashsus valores sus actividades predominantes y las habilidades conocidas que for-man sus recursosndash Ademaacutes al igual que esto ha cambiado en el pasado conti-nuaraacute cambiando en el futuro en respuesta a las demandas de cambio de losambientes cada vez maacutes amplios Por tanto mientras el desarrollo ontogeneacuteticoimplica claramente el incremento de la complejidad y la efectividad de la parti-cipacioacuten de los individuos en los sistemas de actividad en que estaacuten inmersosdurante sus vidas diarias la trayectoria maacutes amplia del desarrollo estaacute emergien-do y su destino no puede ser especificado por adelantado aunque se haga en teacuter-minos de un ideal por alcanzar

Sin embargo esto no significa que no haya fuertes regularidades en la secuen-cia del desarrollo ontogeneacutetico particularmente en los primeros antildeos De hechocomo Nelson (1996) ha sugerido durante los antildeos preescolares los nintildeos siguenuna trayectoria muy similar a la secuencia de desarrollo filogeneacutetico propuestapor Donald (1991) (ver la Tabla I) a medida que se apropian de las herramientassemioacuteticas de representacioacuten facilitadas por la accioacuten el gesto el habla y la escri-tura Por supuesto esto no es una simple recapitulacioacuten los nintildeos crecen en uncultura contemporaacutenea alfabetizada en la que estaacuten rodeados desde el nacimientopor artefactos y praacutecticas que resultan de incorporan todos los modos de conoci-miento disponibles (Cole 1996) Apropiarse de las herramientas culturales exis-tentes es asiacute muy diferente de inventarlas ex novo como Scribner (1985) precisa

Sin embargo dada la combinacioacuten de la herencia bioloacutegica y cultural no essorprendente que en la mayoriacutea de las culturas ndashsi no en todasndash los nintildeos sigan

171El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

la misma secuencia que siguioacute la especie como un todo a lo largo del curso de lahistoria

En las primeras semanas de vida los bebeacutes actuacutean en su entorno inmediatotanto animado como inanimado y comienzan a desarrollar lo que Piaget (1970)llamoacute inteligencia sensorio-motora Aunque eacutesta es la forma maacutes baacutesica de acti-vidad y puede parecer refleja (instintiva) es tambieacuten inherentemente social yaque en primer lugar todos los nintildeos nacen en un entorno que es cultural en elsentido de haber sido compartido por incontables generaciones precedentes yen segundo lugar la accioacuten del recieacuten nacido es realzada en interacciones sociales(Newson 1978) En una segunda fase que comienza generalmente en los prime-ros meses los bebeacutes tambieacuten comienzan a implicarse en la comunicacioacuten ges-tual mediante fijaciones de la mirada expresiones faciales y gestos rudimenta-rios (Bruner 1990) Apoyaacutendose en los teacuterminos de intersubjetividad primaria ysecundaria esta fase ha sido descrita con mucho detalle por Trevarthen (Trevart-hen y Hubley 1978 Trevarthen 1979) La intersubjetividad primaria se desa-rrolla cuando el nintildeo y su progenitor se dirigen mutuamente miradas fijascomunicaacutendose asiacute que se estaacuten atendiendo y respondiendo En la intersubjetivi-dad secundaria la atencioacuten conjunta recae sobre un tercer elemento como cuan-do el progenitor mediante miradas fijas dirige la atencioacuten del bebeacute a un objetode intereacutes potencial o sigue la direccioacuten de la mirada del nintildeo y sentildeala que tam-bieacuten estaacute atendiendo al mismo objeto

Sobre esta base de accioacuten y atencioacuten conjunta hacia el final del primer antildeo elnintildeo comienza a explotar su repertorio creciente de vocalizaciones a menudoacompantildeadas de gestos para empezar a comunicarse mediante el habla Deacuerdo con la investigacioacuten disponible realizada principalmente con nintildeos desociedades ldquooccidentalesrdquo al principio las elocuciones son idiosincraacutesicas dibu-jando soacutelo parcialmente en el habla ndashno del todondash aquello que les rodea sinembargo los padres y otros miembros de la familia tienen pocas dificultadespara interpretarlas dentro de un contexto y de nuevo responden de una maneraque es contingente con su interpretacioacuten estableciendo asiacute la comunicacioacutenhablada como una actividad interactiva conjunta Al final del segundo antildeo sinembargo los nintildeos parecen abandonar su forma indiosincraacutesica ldquoprotolinguumliacutesti-cardquo de comunicacioacuten y comienzan a construir un potencial de significados lin-guumliacutesticos sistemaacuteticamente relacionado con el lenguaje que les dirigen en lasactividades habituales de la vida familiar (Bruner 1990 Halliday 1975 Wells1986) Expresivamente en una comunidad linguumliacutestica particular la secuencia enla que los nintildeos dominan los significados baacutesicos y las formas leacutexicogramaticalesen las que se realizan tiende a ser muy similar de unos nintildeos a otros (Wells1985)

La secuencia de desarrollo que acaba de describirse ndashaccioacuten gesto hablandash escomuacuten a los nintildeos en todas las culturas y en todos los casos tiene lugar con otrosfamiliares y miembros de la comunidad mediante la accioacuten e interaccioacuten conjun-ta Sin embargo aunque la secuencia es universal el modo concreto en el que sedespliega variacutea considerablemente de unas culturas a otras Estas diferenciasdependen de muchos factores determinados culturalmente tales como las expec-tativas de los adultos sobre el desarrollo de sus hijos la posicioacuten en la que el bebeacutees sostenido o llevado ndashdando la cara al cuidador o con la cara vuelta en la mismadireccioacuten que el adultondash la configuracioacuten y tamantildeo de los grupos interaccionalesen los que la comunicacioacuten suele tener lugar y si estos eventos son parte de lavida familiar y comunitaria maacutes general o son deliberadamente disentildeados yestructurados para el supuesto beneficio del nintildeo (Rogoff 2003) En las etapastardiacuteas del desarrollo del lenguaje la gama y amplitud de significados potencia-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187172

les que los nintildeos construyen comienza a variar incluso de manera maacutes ampliadependiendo de las actividades en las que intervengan de los registros linguumliacutesti-cos que se usan en esas actividades y de las posturas tiacutepicamente adoptadas porlos interlocutores hacia el uso del lenguaje en sus interacciones con los nintildeos(Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

Hasta ahora la secuencia de desarrollo ontogeneacutetico que he descrito es baacutesica-mente similar en todas las culturas y sigue la secuencia filogeneacutetica en la que loshumanos han ido acumulando de manera progresiva nuevos recursos semioacuteticosmediacionales a sus repertorios comunicativos De forma llamativa por lo tantoel modo uacuteltimo de representacioacuten en el esquema de Donald que es la escrituraes un extra opcional puesto que muchas culturas han sobrevivido y prosperadosin una modalidad escrita de representacioacuten de significados Ademaacutes incluso enculturas que poseen un sistema de escritura el grado y alcance de alfabetizacioacutenque los individuos logran variacutea considerablemente dependiendo de los sistemasde actividad en los que participan del valor otorgado por la comunidad a los tex-tos escritos de los propoacutesitos a los que sirven y de los geacuteneros que se usan paraalcanzar esos propoacutesitos Sin embargo ya que la alfabetizacioacuten y sus usos estaacutenfuertemente asociados a la escolarizacioacuten maacutes adelante abordareacute con mayor pro-fundidad la discusioacuten de esta modalidad de mediacioacuten semioacutetica

Sin embargo quiero explorar con maacutes detalle el concepto de mediacioacutensemioacutetica antes de concluir esta seccioacuten En uno de los pasajes mejor conocidosde los escritos de Vygotski donde argumenta en favor del origen social y cultu-ral de las funciones metales superiores escribe que cada funcioacuten ocurre en dosplanos primero en la actividad e interaccioacuten entre personas y despueacutes en el apren-diz individual (Vygotski 1981) Lo que sirve de puente entre estos dos planoscomo se aclara en otros escritos suyos es la mediacioacuten semioacutetica Recueacuterdesecoacutemo formula Leontiev este argumento

es imposible transmitir los significados y meacutetodos necesarios para realizar un proceso de otraforma que no sea social ndashen la forma de una accioacuten o habla externandash En otras palabras los pro-cesos psicoloacutegicos superiores exclusivamente humanos soacutelo pueden ser adquiridos mediante lainteraccioacuten con otros esto es a traveacutes de un proceso interpsicoloacutegico que soacutelo maacutes tardecomenzaraacute a ser desarrollado independientemente por el individuo (1981 pp 55-56)

En otras palabras cuando las personas realizan una actividad conjunta susacciones gestos y discurso no soacutelo median la coordinacioacuten de la participacioacutentambieacuten hacen puacuteblicas las actividades mentales implicadas quedando asiacute dis-ponibles para su apropiacioacuten por parte de los participantes novatos1 Halliday sepronuncia con mucha claridad al respecto Aunque la cita siguiente se refieresoacutelo al lenguaje el teacutermino ldquolenguajerdquo podriacutea justificadamente ser reemplazadoaquiacute por ldquomediacioacuten semioacuteticardquo

En el desarrollo del nintildeo como un ser social el lenguaje posee el papel central El lenguaje es elprincipal canal por el que los patrones de vida le son transmitidos mediante el cual aprende aactuar como un miembro de la ldquosociedadrdquo ndashen y mediante la variedad de grupos sociales lafamilia los vecinos etceacuteterandash y a adoptar su ldquoculturardquo su modo de pensar y actuar sus creen-cias y sus valoresrdquo (1978 p 9)

Sin embargo a medida que los nintildeos crecen el lenguaje se convierte en elmodo predominante de mediacioacuten semioacutetica y como el mismo autor escribioacute enun trabajo posterior ldquoEl lenguaje es la condicioacuten esencial del conocimiento elproceso por el que la experiencia se convierte en conocimientordquo (Halliday 1993 p94 cursiva en el original)

173El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Ayuda para aprender en actividades conjuntas

Hasta ahora en la discusioacuten del papel de la actividad conjunta en el desarrollohumano me he centrado en las herramientas y particularmente en los modossemioacuteticos de representacioacuten que median los logros obtenidos como resultado dela actividad En esta seccioacuten en cambio me detendreacute en el papel que jueganotras personas ya sean miembros de la familia o de la comunidad extensa

Hasta este momento me he referido a los coparticipantes en una actividad enteacuterminos generales pero claramente hay distinciones adicionales por hacer Par-ticularmente uacutetil al respecto es el modelo de sistema de actividad de Engestroumlmel cual se representa en la figura 1

Lo que este modelo muestra es que cuando observamos una actividad encurso desde el punto de vista de un participante individual (Sujeto t) ese indivi-duo estaacute atrapado en un nudo de relaciones que le unen a otros ldquoparticipantesrdquolas Herramientas y Artefactos para mediar la accioacuten sobre el Objeto pero tam-bieacuten la Comunidad a la que pertenecen las personas implicadas en la actividadjunto con la Divisioacuten de Trabajo propia de la comunidad y tambieacuten las Reglas yConvenciones que gobierna la manera en la que la actividad se desarrolla(Engestroumlm 1999) Lo que subraya esta uacuteltima categoriacutea de ldquoparticipantesrdquo es ladimensioacuten histoacuterica de un sistema de actividad ya que estas reglas y convencio-nes ndashal igual que las herramientas y artefactosndash traen al presente las praacutecticasdestiladas de las generaciones previas que han participado en la actividad y estaspraacutecticas son interpretadas y utilizadas por la comunidad actual

Para ilustrar la relevancia de este modelo en el desarrollo del nintildeo pequentildeopodemos comparar dos versiones de una actividad similar descrita por WertschMinick y Arns (1984) En este estudio un grupo de nintildeos de Brasil ordenan unpuzzle en dos situaciones distintas la primera con sus madres y la segunda conun profesor de primaria Los investigadores observaron que en general las

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187174

FIGURA 1Triaacutengulo de Actividad

Artefactosherramientas y

praacutecticas

Valores reglasy convenciones

Comunidad Divisioacuten delabor

Engestrom 1999

Objeto ResultadosSujeto

madres y los profesores participan en la actividad de manera sistemaacuteticamentediferente Mientras que las madres tendiacutean a dirigir el comportamiento de losnintildeos o incluso a realizar parte de la tarea ellas mismas para completarla de unamanera eficaz ndashtal y como habriacutean hecho si se tratara de una tarea domeacutesticandashlos profesores tendiacutean a promover la actuacioacuten autoacutenoma de los nintildeos y soacutelo pro-porcionaban consejos y sugerencias cuando lo juzgaban necesario para el avancede la comprensioacuten de los nintildeos Interpretando estos resultados los investigado-res sugeriacutean que los dos grupos de adultos perteneciacutean a dos comunidades dife-rentes (o sistemas de actividad) con diferentes reglas y convenciones sobre la par-ticipacioacuten en actividades conjuntas Y esto alternativamente conduciacutea a la dife-rente divisioacuten del trabajo que ellos observaron De manera similar Rogoff(2003) cita muchos ejemplos de diferencias sustanciales entre culturas en casitodos los aspectos del crecimiento infantil con respecto a sus modos de implicar alos nintildeos en las actividades que consideran importantes

Lo que estaacute claro es que ldquodetraacutes derdquo un adulto particular en contacto directocon el nintildeo ndasho en algunas culturas un hermano mayorndash hay una comunidadamplia formada por los miembros de la familia vecinos y otras personas interesa-das en la educacioacuten del nintildeo que comparten determinadas creencias sobre elmodo maacutes apropiado de introducir a los nintildeos en las actividades de la vida diariaPor eso ya sea en Espantildea Japoacuten o las Montantildeas Peruanas aunque las praacutecticasactuales variacutean a traveacutes de las culturas en todas los responsables del bienestar ydel desarrollo de los nintildeos actuacutean como agentes de una comunidad maacutes ampliacuyas creencias y praacutecticas estaacuten arraigadas en una larga tradicioacuten sobre coacutemodeben llevarse a cabo las actividades Pero igualmente en todas las culturas laspraacutecticas tambieacuten cambian en respuesta a los cambios en el mundo maacutes allaacute deuna comunidad particular En muchos hogares Occidentales por ejemplo losjuegos de ordenadores o los programas de televisioacuten han ocupado recientementeel lugar de los cuentos antes de dormir mientras que en muchas comunidadesindiacutegenas las artes que hasta hace poco soacutelo cubriacutean las necesidades locales sonahora explotadas comercialmente por el mercado turiacutestico cambiando los ritmosde la vida diaria las relaciones entre los miembros de la familia y las actividadesen las que los nintildeos estaacuten inmersos Sin embargo como anteriormente se sugirioacutepara comprender las actividades en las que los nintildeos participan hoy necesitamosmirar no soacutelo a la situacioacuten inmediata sino tambieacuten a la comunidad maacutes ampliay a los cambios que han tenido lugar en las escalas temporales

Microgeacutenesis y Zona de Desarrollo Proacuteximo

Lo inmediato sin embargo es siempre la situacioacuten microgeneacutetica que es ellugar del desarrollo ontogeneacutetico ndashla accioacuten e interaccioacuten entre el aprendiz yaquellos con quien estaacute implicado en la actividad en cursondash Cuando adoptamosesta perspectiva microgeneacutetica sin embargo necesitamos modificar la represen-tacioacuten del sistema de actividad reflejada en la figura 1 Esta representacioacutensubraya el hecho de que la accioacuten estaacute orientada a un propoacutesito De manera dis-tinta ahora conviene resaltar la interaccioacuten entre los participantes ndashsus tentativaspara lograr intersubjetividad con respecto a los objetivos comunes y a las habili-dades complementarias de conocimiento que aportan a la co-construccioacuten delresultado previsto (ver Figura 2)ndash Lo que la figura 2 enfatiza es el hecho de queaunque las herramientas y artefactos que estaacuten disponibles para mediar la accioacutenemprendida conjuntamente son los mismos para cada participante cada unoaporta una familiaridad algo diferente con su uso como resultado de su diferentetrayectoria vital siendo esta variabilidad en su pericia la que hace posible paracada uno de ellos proporcionar asistencia a los otros al menos en algunos aspectos

175El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

de la accioacuten conjunta Visto desde esta perspectiva estaacute claro por queacute Vygotskienfatizoacute el papel de la actividad conjunta en el desarrollo y escribioacute sobre supotencial para permitir a los participantes ldquoir maacutes allaacute de siacute mismosrdquo con laayuda de otros maacutes expertos

La metaacutefora usada por Vygotski para caracterizar el potencial para el aprendi-zaje que esta clase de actividad crea fue ldquozona de desarrollo proacuteximordquo Como eacutelescribioacute cuando otro participante en la actividad proporciona instruccioacuten que essuministrada apropiadamente maacutes allaacute de lo que el aprendiz puede llegar a hacerpor siacute mismo ldquodespierta toda una serie de funciones que estaacuten en estado demaduracioacuten latente en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximordquo (1987 p 212) Vygotskiconceptualizoacute el desarrollo como la formacioacuten de nuevos sistemas funcionales(ldquoneoformacionesrdquo) y de cambios en las relaciones entre sistemas que seguacuten eacutelconsideraba ocurriacutean como una secuencia de ldquocrisis del desarrollordquo particular-mente facilitadas por la participacioacuten en las ldquoactividades guiadasrdquo relevantes decada etapa por ejemplo jugar en la nintildeez y aprender a leer y a escribir en los pri-meros antildeos escolares Sin embargo puede ser un error dirigir la atencioacuten soacutelo alos periodos de cambios revolucionarios ya que como eacutel igualmente enfatizoacutetambieacuten tienen lugar en cualquier momento otros procesos graduales de creci-miento

Los procesos que son liacuteneas centrales de desarrollo en una edad se convierten en liacuteneas perifeacute-ricas de desarrollo en la edad siguiente y contrariamente liacuteneas perifeacutericas de desarrollo deuna edad son traiacutedas a la vanguardia y se convierten en liacuteneas centrales en el momento en elque cambia su significado y su significacioacuten relativa en la estructura total del desarrollo(1987 p 197)2

En la elaboracioacuten de su importante concepto de zona de desarrollo proacuteximoVygotski tendioacute a caracterizar la ayuda proporcionada por otros como ldquoinstruc-cioacutenrdquo asiacute como a ver su valor en ldquoel potencial del nintildeo para elevarse a siacute mismo

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187176

FIGURA 2Diaacutelogo en la Actividad Conjunta (Wells 2002b)

Resultadosmateriales yartefactossemioacuteticos

Herramientasartefactos

Sujeto

Reglasconvenciones

Comunidad Divisioacuten delabor

Sujeto

Herramientasartefactos

gracias a la colaboracioacuten hacia un nivel intelectual mayor de desarrollo despla-zaacutendose mediante la imitacioacuten desde lo que eacutel es hasta lo que eacutel no esrdquo (1987p 210) Sin embargo muchos eruditos contemporaacuteneos que han construidosobre su trabajo han adoptado una visioacuten de conjunto del significado evolutivode la colaboracioacuten en actividades conjuntas y han caracterizado la ayuda propor-cionada en esta relacioacuten con teacuterminos tales como ldquoaprendizajerdquo (Lave y Wenger1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoparticipacioacuten guiadardquo (Rogoff 1994 2003) y ldquoandamia-jerdquo (Wood Bruner y Ross 1976) Sin embargo mientras estas metaacuteforas dife-rentes iluminan caracteriacutesticas diferentes de la relacioacuten lo que tienen todas encomuacuten es la inclusioacuten del aprendizaje en una actividad que ofrezca el nivel deapoyo necesario para ayudar al aprendizaje a completar una actividad en la que eacutelo ella estaacute interesado y a hacer esto de tal manera que eacutel o ella progresen hastapoder participar maacutes plena y autoacutenomamente en el futuro (Maybin Mercer yStierer 1992)

En muchas actividades conjuntas tales como por ejemplo formas tradicio-nales de aprendizaje de oficios la ayuda es proporcionada soacutelo cuando se necesitay de este modo el ldquomaestrordquo la ofrece sin intenciones didaacutecticas deliberadas maacutesallaacute de arropar al principiante para terminar una tarea particular en curso (Lave1996) De manera similar la socializacioacuten en actividades domeacutesticas no necesitauna instruccioacuten expliacutecita ya que los principiantes pueden aprender mucho sim-plemente mirando y escuchando (cf Rogoff 2003) Esto es lo que Lave y Wen-ger (1991) quieren decir cuando insisten en que el aprendizaje no es una activi-dad independiente sino un aspecto intriacutenseco de la ldquoparticipacioacuten perifeacutericalegiacutetimardquo en las actividades de una comunidad Desde su perspectiva por lotanto la educacioacuten formal en la que el aprendizaje es el uacutenico propoacutesito de laactividad tiene algo anoacutemalo particularmente cuando la uacutenica forma de ayudaproporcionada es la instruccioacuten directa del profesor experto y la consiguienteevaluacioacuten del grado de aprendizaje de los alumnos

En muchas discusiones recientes se ha reconocido tambieacuten que no es soacutelo unldquoprofesorrdquo quien puede proporcionar ayuda en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximo Porun lado en una actividad compleja muchos participantes son maacutes expertos queotros en algunos aspectos y por lo tanto en algunas ocasiones estaacuten preparadospara ayudar a aquellos que son menos expertos (Rogoff 1994) Por otro ladoaquellos que proporcionan ayuda no tienen que estar fiacutesicamente presentes lostextos y otros artefactos pueden igualmente ayudar de manera satisfactoria a unparticipante ldquoa ir maacutes allaacute de siacute mismo o siacute mismardquo como ocurre con frecuenciaen el trabajo intelectual como la investigacioacuten y la escritura (Wells 1999) Ade-maacutes como Engestroumlm (1999) y otros ndashbasaacutendose en distintos aspectos de losescritos teoacutericos de Vygotskindash han anotado las herramientas materiales y simboacute-licas que han sido desarrolladas por participantes anteriores en la actividad pue-den tambieacuten proporcionar la misma clase de ayuda Sin embargo el punto maacutesimportante que quizaacutes debe subrayarse es que hay muchas situaciones en las quenadie es un experto incluso como cada uno aporta su propia experiencia pasadaa la solucioacuten de un problema comuacuten el grupo en su conjunto es capaz de alcan-zar maacutes de lo que cualquier miembro singular podriacutea haber hecho de maneraindependiente Evidentemente es esta colaboracioacuten la que ha hecho posible lasinvenciones que han llevado a los mayores avances de las grandes civilizaciones alo largo del curso de la historia cultural

Desarrollo en los antildeos preescolares

La responsabilidad para cuidar a los nintildeos en la nintildeez temprana variacutea conside-rablemente de una sociedad a otra como antes anoteacute Sin embargo en todas las

177El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

sociedades los nintildeos estaacuten inmersos en actividades conjuntas con otros en las quereciben ayuda para participar aunque puedan llevarlas a cabo parcialmente Ensu mayor parte como ya se mencionoacute eacutestas son actividades cotidianas repetidasregularmente en las rutinas establecidas Se espera que el nintildeo aprenderaacute a asu-mirlas y es simplemente ayudado para hacerlo Esta forma de aprendizaje deno-minada habitualmente ldquoenculturacioacutenrdquo asegura la continuidad de las formas devida culturales desde una generacioacuten a la siguiente y como Donald (1991) argu-menta probablemente tuvo lugar incluso antes de la emergencia del habla

Sin embargo en todas las actividades hay ocasiones en las que cuando surgealguacuten problema se requiere alguacuten nivel de toma de decisiones deliberado En estassituaciones la interaccioacuten verbal hace posible un grado de reflexioacuten y planificacioacutenhacia delante en la que las relaciones de causa y efecto intencioacuten accioacuten y resultadose hacen expliacutecitas y abiertas para su anaacutelisis y discusioacuten La conversacioacuten que semantiene en estas ocasiones juega asiacute un papel particularmente importante en laayuda a los nintildeos para atender y comprender el mundo que les rodea de acuerdo conlos modos culturales de ldquodarle sentidordquo Sin embargo estas ocasiones pueden tam-bieacuten abrir posibilidades para el cambio tanto en la forma de la actividad como lacomprensioacuten que de ella alcanzan los participantes Coacutemo los cuidadores tomanhabitualmente estas oportunidades es de gran relevancia aquiacute ya que juega en la for-macioacuten de las disposiciones intelectuales con las que los nintildeos entran en la escuelaun papel importante (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo y Sterponi 2002)

En esta seccioacuten incluyo algunos ejemplos representativos del modo de hablarque surge de las actividades conjuntas en el hogar Estos ejemplos se han extraiacute-do de observaciones realizadas en contextos ingleses (Wells 1986) y australianos(Hasan 2002) donde los nintildeos pequentildeos observados pasaban la mayor parte desu tiempo en el hogar en compantildeiacutea de un progenitor o algunas veces con uno omaacutes hermanos mientras que el resto del tiempo se entreteniacutean ellos solos (conuna participacioacuten esporaacutedica del adulto) o algo que haciacutean con frecuencia mira-ban y ldquoayudabanrdquo a sus progenitores con tareas domeacutesticas de diferente tipo

En el primer ejemplo James (de tres antildeos y medio de edad) ha estado jugandosolo en el jardiacuten y cuando entra de nuevo en casa su madre intenta que se quitelos zapatos embarrados Sin embargo en ese momento ve un paacutejaro fuera que leinteresa maacutes que cambiarse de zapatos

Ejemplo 1Madre Alliacute Vamoshellip Alliacutehellip Una zapatilla enJames Puedo ver un paacutejaroMadre iquestUn queacute amorJames Mira un paacutejaroMadre (Susurrando) iquestEstaacute alliacute iquestFueraJames (Sentildealando y susurrando) Siacute mira

(Ambos continuacutean hablando muy suavemente)Madre iquestEstaacute comiendo algoJames NoMadre iquestDoacutende Oh siacute estaacute consiguiendo iquestSabes queacute estaacute haciendoJames NoMadre Estaacute yendo al saco de papel para intentar escoger algunos pedazos

Oh tiene un poco de alimento alliacute Y espero que escoja algunos pedazos de hilodel saco para ir y hacer su nido bajo la azotea James Espera un minuto y [James ahora quiere salir a ver maacutes cerca pero en ese momento el paacutejaro se escapavolando]

James Se ha ido

En el segundo ejemplo Elizabeth (de cuatro antildeos de edad) que estaacute ayudandoen la limpieza de casa mira con intereacutes coacutemo su madre mete en un cubo la cenizade la lentildea de la chimenea

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187178

Ejemplo 2Elizabeth iquestPara queacute estaacutes haciendo esoMadre Estoy recogieacutendolo y ponieacutendolo fuera para que papaacute pueda ponerlo en el jardiacutenElizabeth iquestPor queacute lo tiene que poner en el jardiacuten Madre Para abonar bienElizabeth iquestEso hace que la hierba crezcaMadre SiacuteElizabeth iquestPor queacuteMadre Sabes que te digo que necesitas comer cosas diferentes como huevos y col y

pudin de arroz para convertirte en una nintildea mayor Elizabeth SiacuteMadre Bien las plantas tambieacuten necesitan comida diferente Y la ceniza es una de las

cosas buenas para ellas

El tercer ejemplo se refiere a James de nuevo ahora 18 meses mayor Por lamantildeana temprano ha estado ayudando a su madre con la elaboracioacuten de unos dul-ces en el horno Ahora vuelve a la cocina cuando su madre estaacute sacando las bande-jas fuera del horno Oye un ruidoso ldquocrackrdquo metaacutelico y solicita una explicacioacuten

Ejemplo 3James iquestQuieacuten hizo esoMadre Espero que fuera la contraccioacuten de la lata James iquestQueacute lataMadre La que estaacute con los pasteles dentro James iquestPor queacute hizo ese ruidoMadre Bien cuando estaba en el horno se calentoacute mucho y se estiroacute un pedacito Ape-

nas la he sacado del horno y se estaacute enfriando muy raacutepido mira y ese ruido ocu-rre cuando se hace maacutes pequentildea otra vez y vuelve a su forma normal

James Oh iquesttiene una forma diferente en el horno Madre Oh no muy diferente Soacutelo un poco mayor James Pequentildea lata traviesa Puede que consigas que te den un azote si lo haces otra vez

En estos tres ejemplos la madre responde con prontitud a los intereses delnintildeo y proporciona informacioacuten para explicar el significado de lo que los nintildeosestaacuten viendo u oyendo incluso cuando inicialmente esto interrumpe los planesde la madre Los tres casos muestran coacutemo la participacioacuten de los nintildeos en la acti-vidad con el adulto garantiza una atencioacuten intersubjetiva hacia los intereses delnintildeo lo que permite a la madre proporcionar informacioacuten relevante Esto es cla-ramente una forma de ldquoinstruccioacutenrdquo sin embargo es espontaacutenea y contingentecon los intereses de los nintildeos en lugar de ser presentada como parte de un curri-culum pre-planificado

El tercer ejemplo es particularmente interesante desde este punto de vista yaque el fenoacutemeno que despierta el intereacutes de James requiere una explicacioacuten algoteacutecnica En alguacuten momento del futuro sin duda la dilatacioacuten del metal cuandose calienta y su consiguiente contraccioacuten cuando es apartado del calor figuraraacuteen el curriculum de ciencias de la escuela en relacioacuten con el estudio sistemaacuteticodel calor aquiacute sin embargo es un efecto secundario de la elaboracioacuten de los pas-teles en el horno y la explicacioacuten de la madre aunque teacutecnica en cuanto al conte-nido se asienta en el lenguaje cotidiano y no en los teacuterminos abstractos de lageneralizacioacuten cientiacutefica Como Hasan (2002) ha observado

el discurso del conocimiento quasi especializado tiene lugar lsquoen medio dersquo las actividades dia-rias y necesariamente exige una buena disposicioacuten por parte de la madre para acoger los cam-bios contextuales para tener la voluntad de reclasificar el contexto del discurso en marcha Latendencia a conectar con el discurso en movimiento del nintildeo la buena disposicioacuten para reclasi-ficar el contexto es una caracteriacutestica discursiva del mismo grupo de madres que con frecuen-cia lanzan preguntas precisas para la calificacioacuten de los objetos que atienden a las preguntas desus hijos y que les proporcionan respuestas bien desarrolladas (p 123)

179El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

No todos los nintildeos experimentan esta clase de respuesta altamente informati-va para sus intereses por supuesto Sobre la base de un corpus sustancial de inte-racciones madre-hijo Hasan (2002) siguiendo a Bernstein (1982) distingueentre mediacioacuten semioacutetica ldquovisiblerdquo e ldquoinvisiblerdquo Mientras que todos los ejem-plos citados anteriormente giran sobre la actividad conjunta y las preguntas delos nintildeos merecen una exploracioacuten adicional en un modo expliacutecito ldquovisiblerdquo lostemas de las contribuciones de muchos otros nintildeos a la actividad y la interaccioacutenson tratados por los padres como ldquoobviosrdquo y por lo tanto como si no requirieranexplicacioacuten En este sentido la mediacioacuten de las creencias culturales y de laspraacutecticas permanece ldquoinvisiblerdquo esto es la forma de ser del mundo y el tema nomerece una discusioacuten adicional El Ejemplo 4 (tomado de Hasan 2002) bajoestaacutes liacuteneas proporciona una buena ilustracioacuten

Ejemplo 4 Madre Ponlo sobre la estufa y deacutejalo alliacuteKaren iquestPor queacuteMadre PorqueKaren iquestAquiacute es doacutende va Madre SiacuteUn poco despueacutesKaren iquestCoacutemo conseguiste esoiquestNo saliste Madre Camineacute encima y lo conseguiacute iquestno me viste Karen HmmMadre Debes estar ciega

Los dos breves extractos del Ejemplo 4 son tiacutepicos de un estilo muy diferentede interaccioacuten comparados con los anteriores Aquiacute el eacutenfasis de los padres enconseguir que el nintildeo se adapte a los modos de la cultura local de actuar y pensarcon eficacia suprime la curiosidad del nintildeo y el deseo de comprender lo quetambieacuten hace menos probable que el nintildeo desarrolle la capacidad para cuestionarel status quo y participar en los esfuerzos por cambiarlo y mejorarlo

Finalmente antes de dejar el tema del aprendizaje a traveacutes de la conversacioacutenen actividades conjuntas es importante considerar la actividad conjunta en elcontexto del juego Vygotski (1978) consideroacute el juego como la actividad princi-pal en los antildeos preescolares ya que anima al nintildeo a explorar las posibilidades dela mediacioacuten semioacutetica mediante el uso de objetos presentes que pueden ser uti-lizados para representar otros objetos no presentes mediante el ldquorole playrdquo en elque el lenguaje crea un mundo imaginario En el Ejemplo 5 James ahora contres antildeos y nueve meses estaacute sentaacutendose en el brazo de un sofaacute conduciendo untren imaginario con su madre como pasajera

Ejemplo 5Madre Aquiacute estamos Me sentareacute al lado Perfecto iquestestaacutes listo iquestTodo a punto

Bien Quita el frenoJames Comenzareacute a levantarloMadre Oh perdoacuten Estaacute bienJames Mamaacute no conduzcas todaviacuteaMadre Oh BienJames [Hace un ruido simulando arrancar el motor]Madre iexclOh Este motor arranca raacutepido Muy bien iquestHay suficiente carboacuten en la parte

posterior iquestHas cargado suficiente carboacuten JamesJames SiacuteMadre Bien Entonces vaacutemonos lejos Despiacutedete de tus amigos James [Suena el ruido del motor que acelera Se riacutee y hace el sonido del silbido del

motor]Madre Ahora vamos muy raacutepido iquestPuedes sentir el traqueteo de los vagones James Siacute

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187180

Madre Oh todo me da vueltas Oh mi desayuno estaacute retumbando en mi barriga iexclOhiexclOh iexclOh

James [Hace el ruido del motor]Madre Creo que deberiacuteamos disminuir la velocidad iquestNo crees James Mm (asintiendo)Madre Creo que estamos yendo un poco raacutepido

Es mejor es maacutes faacutecil ahora iquestno James Mm (asintiendo)Madre [Muje] Mira las vacas en el campo JamesJames MmMadre Y hay un granjero mira El granjero te estaacute saludando

Como contar historias compartidas que es otra actividad conjunta importan-te a esta edad el juego imaginario tambieacuten tiene una funcioacuten importante en lapreparacioacuten del nintildeo para explorar el poder del lenguaje ldquopara crear un mundomediante las palabrasrdquo Como seraacute discutido debajo este uso del lenguaje pararepresentar objetos y eventos no presentes y las relaciones entre ellos adoptagran significado en el contexto de la escolarizacioacuten puacuteblica tiacutepica donde propor-ciona los significados mediacionales principales mediante los que gran parte delcurriculum se materializa (Wells 1986)

En suma con la excepcioacuten del Ejemplo 4 todos los extractos precedentes sonejemplos claros de un adulto ldquotrabajando en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximo delnintildeordquo (Vygotski 1987) ya que se implican en la interaccioacuten en el proceso dedesarrollar la actividad en la que estaacuten conjuntamente inmersos Como Vygotski(1987) enfatizoacute en la actividad conjunta colaborativa el nintildeo puede siemprehacer maacutes de lo que le es posible hacer independientemente La actividad pro-porciona el marco organizacional en el que parte de la conversacioacuten dirige ycomenta la actividad y parte explora los resultados a los que conduce En estecontexto el adulto hace disponible para la apropiacioacuten del nintildeo no soacutelo infor-macioacuten especiacutefica como respuesta a los intereses del nintildeo sino tambieacuten una pos-tura hacia la experiencia que valora la actitud de investigacioacuten Tratando las pre-guntas del nintildeo como dignas de respuesta expliacutecita el adulto apoya el desarrollode una disposicioacuten a plantearse preguntas y a buscarles respuesta mediante lainvestigacioacuten futura (Wells 1999)

El papel de la actividad en la educacioacuten

Aunque el teacutermino ldquoeducacioacutenrdquo se emplea a menudo como sinoacutenimo deldquoescolarizacioacutenrdquo seguacuten una interpretacioacuten maacutes amplia la educacioacuten viene refi-rieacutendose a los primeros antildeos del nintildeo y de hecho como se vio arriba hay muchasocasiones en las que un coparticipante en una actividad en curso proporciona ins-truccioacuten expliacutecita Sin embargo la educacioacuten ndashen el sentido de escolarizacioacutenndashtiende a ser muy diferente de la clase de actividades ilustradas maacutes arriba Maacutesimportante en las escuelas la instruccioacuten es tanto deliberada como sistemaacutetica yes gobernada no por los intereses de los alumnos sino por un curriculum que hasido disentildeado por expertos que no estaacuten familiarizados con los alumnos que van aser instruidos Como resultado a menudo lo que se ensentildea en la escuela no estaacuterelacionado con aquello que a los alumnos maacutes les interesa aprender y es muyprobable que no se obtengan beneficios de las oportunidades que la escuelapodriacutea proporcionar

En las primeras secciones de este trabajo se ha argumentado que el aprendi-zaje no es un fin en siacute mismo sino un aspecto integrado del domino de nuevasformas de actividad que tienen significado y valor para el desarrollo de los apren-dices como miembros de una comunidad y como individuos autoacutenomos uacutenicos

181El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Como Wygotsky insistentemente precisoacute el aprendizaje conduce el desarrollo yla instruccioacuten deberiacutea estar organizada para ayudar a este proceso

La instruccioacuten es soacutelo uacutetil cuando se mueve delante del desarrollo Cuando esto ocurre impulsao despierta toda una serie de funciones que estaacuten en estado de maduracioacuten latente en la zona dedesarrollo proacuteximo (1987 p 212)

La pregunta central para la escolarizacioacuten debe por lo tanto ser coacutemo ofrecerinstruccioacuten que sea relevante para las trayectorias de desarrollo de los alumnos yque de manera adecuada ldquose situacutee dentrordquo de sus zonas de desarrollo proacuteximoJunto a esta una segunda pregunta es coacutemo proporcionar ayuda a los alumnosindividuales para que su aprendizaje les permita de hecho avanzar en su desa-rrollo

Procurando proporcionar respuesta a estas preguntas el concepto de ldquoactivi-dad guiadardquo junto con el de recapitulacioacuten de la secuencia de desarrollo de losmodos de conocimiento puede ofrecer un comienzo uacutetil Los nintildeos cuandoingresan en la escuela han dominado en gran parte los modos de conocimientoasociados con la accioacuten el gesto y el habla (Nelson 1996) Lo que ahora necesi-tan es un aprendizaje de los modos de conocimiento asociado con el lenguajeescrito y de las distintas clases de representacioacuten simboacutelica que derivan de eacutelndashmatemaacutetica cientiacutefica musical etceacuteterandash Es decir necesitan aprenderlos parausar estas formas de representacioacuten como herramienta para la deliberacioacutenmediada la comunicacioacuten reflexiva y el pensamiento y para apropiarse de losdiferentes dominios de conocimiento teoacuterico que han sido construidos acumula-tivamente por las generaciones previas con la ayuda de las ventajas que confierenesos sistemas de ldquomemoria externardquo (Donald 1991)

La recapitulacioacuten del desarrollo histoacuterico cultural orienta la trayectoria a largoplazo para la educacioacuten formal en la escuela y en otras instituciones Pero inclusomaacutes importante para procurar responder la pregunta central presentada arriba esdeterminar los procedimientos efectivos para organizar los pequentildeos pasos queconfiguran las lecciones las unidades curriculares y los programas anuales a lolargo de esta trayectoria Basaacutendonos en las ideas presentadas en la seccioacuten ante-rior dos principios parecen en siacute mismos evidentes En primer lugar los encuen-tros educativos necesitan para estar organizados ser ldquoactividades conjuntasrdquo enlas que todos los participantes contribuyen a las metas convenidas con lo mejorde sus habilidades Y en segundo lugar debe convertirse en norma dar y recibirayuda por parte de cada participante Una de las implicaciones de estos dos prin-cipios es que no puede haber formas universales mejores para participar en alguacutenaspecto del curriculum puesto que cada clase variacutea en las experiencias e interesesque sus miembros aportan y en los valores y praacutecticas aprendidos culturalmenteque motivan y dirigen su implicacioacuten con el nuevo conocimiento y con las habi-lidades que estaacuten esperando dominar

Aunque siempre es importante reconocer valorar y construir sobre las expe-riencias previas de los alumnos ha llegado a ser incluso maacutes necesario a medidaque la migracioacuten tanto inter como intra paiacuteses ha aumentado significativamen-te ya que las diferentes etnias clases y religiones en las comunidades han dadolugar a su vez a comunidades de escuela y aula cada vez maacutes diversas ndashy estadiversidad es incluso mayor donde una proporcioacuten sustancial de alumnos estaacuteaprendiendo la lengua de clase como una segunda lengua (o subsiguiente)ndash Taldiversidad en el bagaje cultural y en la experiencia previa es generalmente vistocomo un problema que necesita ser superado en paiacuteses donde los disentildeadores delcurriculum apuntan a estandarizar la instruccioacuten para alcanzar ideacutenticos resulta-dos para todos los estudiantes como es hoy el caso en Estados Unidos Sin

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187182

embargo cuando las diferencias entre personas en teacuterminos de experiencia valo-res y praacutecticas son reconocidas como normales y deseables esta diversidad puedeconvertirse en una ventaja en la clase ya que las praacutecticas y puntos de vista alter-nativos que afloran pueden enriquecer la comunidad de clase y conducir a discu-siones valiosas en las que las creencias dadas por sentadas sean modificadas y sealcance una comprensioacuten maacutes profunda de los puntos considerados (Wells1999)

En este contexto he encontrado de ayuda pensar en el aprendizaje basado enla escuela en teacuterminos de una espiral del conocimiento donde el resultado espe-rado con cada giro de la espiral es una mayor comprensioacuten (Wells 1999) (verFigura 3) En la primera fase cuando la clase se embarca en un nuevo aspecto delcurriculum es importante animar a los alumnos a compartir sus experienciasprevias ya que como las investigaciones en campos muy diferentes han mostra-do (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotski) esas experiencias proporcionan elpunto de partida para su aprendizaje sean o no reconocidas puacuteblicamente Des-cubriendo lo que los estudiantes ya saben y aquello que les interesa explorar conmaacutes detalle el profesor puede tambieacuten planificar la unidad en cooperacioacuten conlos alumnos (Donoahue 2003) La segunda fase de la espiral conlleva varios acer-camientos a la nueva informacioacuten ndashmediante la explicacioacuten del profesor a traveacutesde materiales impresos o medios audiovusiales o en la forma de feedback de laspropias acciones e investigaciones de los alumnosndash Es importante reconocer sinembargo que la recepcioacuten de la nueva informacioacuten no asegura en siacute misma unaumento de la comprensioacuten Para que esto ocurra la nueva informacioacuten debearticularse con la comprensioacuten existente y con la experiencia previa relevantepara ser despueacutes puesta a prueba mediante la accioacuten en el mundo ndashobteniendofeedback (informacioacuten adicional)ndash yo mediante el diaacutelogo con otros para laconstruccioacuten del conocimiento donde el propoacutesito es llegar a una eleccioacuten con-sensuada entre las teoriacuteas alternativas demandas o interpretaciones sobre la basede una consideracioacuten de las evidencias y argumentos apropiados Finalmentepara consolidar la nuevas comprensiones obtenidas es valioso para la clase com-pleta reflexionar juntos sobre lo que han aprendido y sobre el proceso de cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento en el que han participado sobre las implicaciones quela nueva comprensioacuten tiene para sus propias acciones ndashtanto fuera como dentrode clasendash y sobre las preguntas importantes a las que ellos deben ahora dirigir susinvestigaciones futuras En otras palabras la fase final en el ciclo implica a lacomunidad en un ldquoacercamiento lsquometarsquordquo (Olson y Bruner 1996) es decir en laadopcioacuten de una perspectiva metacognitiva sobre su propio aprendizaje que a lolargo de miles de antildeos probablemente ha jugado un importante papel en eldesarrollo de cada modo de conocimiento presentado en la siacutentesis del desarrollohistoacuterico cultural de Donald (1991)3

Esta espiral necesita varias anotaciones adicionales La primera tiene quever con la naturaleza incompleta y provisional del conocimiento eacuteste estaacutesiempre abierto a la mejora mediante ciclos futuros a traveacutes de la espiral Lasegunda anotacioacuten concierne a la naturaleza esencialmente interactiva ysocial del crecimiento individual y comunitario en la comprensioacuten eacutesta seconsigue gracias a los esfuerzos de los participantes para clarificar sus pro-pios significados a los otros y alternativamente para tener en cuenta y res-ponder a los de los demaacutes (Bajtiacuten 1986) En tercer lugar es necesario enfati-zar que el crecimien to en la comprensioacuten requeriraacute espirales futuras queactiven los diferentes modos de conocimiento ya que la mayoriacutea de los cam-bios y problemas que ocurren en las instituciones maacutes allaacute del aula deman-dan un conocimiento procedimental substantivo y esteacutetico al igual que

183El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

teoacuterico y cada modo de conocimiento tiene una contribucioacuten que hacer aleacutexito de soluciones comprensivas que realcen significativamente la com-prensioacuten Finalmente en la representacioacuten de estas relaciones en la figura 3la espiral tambieacuten resalta la interdependencia de los individuos y la comuni-dad Mientras que la experiencia y la comprensioacuten son esencialmente indivi-duales en su naturaleza crecen fuera de eacutel y adoptan su significado de la par-ticipacioacuten de los individuos en el intercambio de informacioacuten y en su com-promiso en la construccioacuten de conocimiento en la comunidad extensa de laque cada individuo es miembro

Desafortunadamente muchos educadores no comprenden estas relacionesfundamentales y por eso su instruccioacuten no es conceptualizada y planificada demanera que sea oacuteptima para el desarrollo de los estudiantes Como numerososestudios han mostrado (Langer y Applebee 1987 Nystrand y Gamoran 1991)en la mayoriacutea de las clases la que gobierna la praacutectica es la concepcioacuten bancariadel conocimiento (Freire 1970) seguacuten la cual el propoacutesito de la instruccioacuten quetiene lugar en el aula es que un alumno individual esteacute preparado para puntuarbien en los tests y no tanto ampliar su conocimiento Dada esta orientacioacuten lasactividades en las que se pide a los alumnos que participen estaacuten determinadaspor la guiacutea curricular del libro de texto maacutes que por el conocimiento de los pro-fesores sobre los intereses y habilidades de los alumnos particulares de los queson responsables A esto es a lo que Tharp y Gallimore (1988) se refieren con laexpresioacuten ldquoguioacuten recitativordquo unido a la ocupacioacuten de un lugar individual de tra-bajo que domina la rutina diaria Ademaacutes los planes sobre coacutemo proceder sonndashcomo cabiacutea esperarndash unilateralmente impuestos en lugar de ser configuradossobre la base de las decisiones tomadas por la comunidad de clase como un todoy el modus operandi es la competicioacuten en lugar de la colaboracioacuten

Sin embargo como he argumentado en otra parte (Wells 1986 19992002a) eacuteste no es el uacutenico modo en el que la escolarizacioacuten puede ser condu-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187184

FIGURA 3La espiral del conocimiento

ACCIOacuteN Construccioacuten

deconocimiento

ComprensioacutenSubstantivo

Esteacutetico

Teoacuterico

Procedimental

Instrumental

Experiencia Informacioacuten

Modos de conocimiento

cida ndasha pensar de la larga historia de la recitacioacuten que se remonta a maacutes detres mil antildeos a las tempranas instituciones que entrenaban a los escribas yadministradores para leer y escribir (Cole 1996)ndash Pero probablemente elmodo por defecto de la escolarizacioacuten es parecido a una preparacioacuten para ldquolavida adultardquo y no una etapa criacutetica del desarrollo que merece la pena y essignificativa en siacute misma Como Vygotski argumentoacute sobre el dominio de laalfabetizacioacuten ldquola ensentildeanza debe organizarse de tal manera que la lectura yla escritura sean necesarias para algo La escritura debe ser incorporada enuna tarea relevante y necesaria para la vidardquo (1978 pp117-118) Y porldquovidardquo quiere decir no la vida futura sino la totalidad de los intereses y pre-ocupaciones actuales de los aprendices

En los uacuteltimos antildeos se han divulgado proyectos de una variedad de paiacuteses enlos que educadores universitarios han procurado crear condiciones para elldquoaprendizaje auteacutenticordquo en las aulas En todos estos proyectos se ha otorgado unpapel central a las actividades colaborativas que alternando entre los formatos departicipacioacuten individual en pequentildeo grupo y de la clase completa implican alos estudiantes en la exploracioacuten de temas centrales mediante investigacionespraacutecticas y tambieacuten teoacutericas y en la discusioacuten criacutetica y constructiva de sus hallaz-gos y de las implicaciones para futuras acciones El espacio no permite aquiacute unadiscusioacuten individual de estos proyectos pero lo que puede ser dicho sobre todosellos es que en sus diferentes formas valoran tanto los intereses de los alumnoscomo sus experiencias previas y persiguen ayudarles a desarrollar la disposicioacutenpara buscar la comprensioacuten maacutes que la acumulacioacuten simple de informacioacuten ypara valorar la colaboracioacuten maacutes que la competicioacuten como el medio para alcanzaresta menta4

En este contexto es digno atraer la atencioacuten hacia varias instituciones poste-riores a la escuela tales como la Fifth Dimension donde la participacioacuten en activi-dades elegidas personalmente ndasha menudo basadas en ordenadoresndash requiere a losnintildeos dominar habilidades que son tambieacuten necesarias para la escolarizacioacuten y lesproporcionan oportunidades para interactuar con voluntarios universitarios enuna posicioacuten de igualdad (Brown y Cole 2002) De manera similar algunosprogramas basados en museos (Leinhardst Crowley y Kuntson 2002) y variasformas de educacioacuten al aire libre tambieacuten capitalizan los intereses de los estu-diantes para implicarles en actividades desafiantes que demandan para la cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento procesos de diaacutelogo y toma de decisiones comparablesa aquellos encontrados en los contextos escolares previamente descritos

Finalmente si estas praacutecticas pioneras arraigan e influyen en la educacioacutenpuacuteblica con mayor amplitud es esencial que los profesores tengan oportunidadessimilares para desarrollar las disposiciones y pericia necesarias para actuar comoagentes de cambio y liacutederes de una reforma en las instituciones en las que traba-jan Es por lo tanto estimulante ver que a pesar del eacutenfasis de los dirigentes poliacute-ticos en estandarizar los curricula y en los resultados cuantificables algunos pro-gramas de formacioacuten de profesores y desarrollo profesional anima a los profeso-res sobre la base de investigaciones sobre su propia praacutectica a tomar sus propiasdecisiones sobre queacute debe ser ensentildeado y coacutemo y a compartir los resultados desus investigaciones con los compantildeeros Este ha sido el motor de mi propio tra-bajo en los antildeos recientes ya que he participado en la investigacioacuten colaborativacon profesores para crear y mantener comunidades de investigacioacuten tanto en cla-ses como entre los mismos profesores5

185El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Notas1 La secuencia temporal implicada por esta formulacioacuten ha sido ampliamente debatida y especialmente el movimiento desde fueraa dentro que sugiere Mi propia comprensioacuten de lo que la apropiacioacuten supone se capta mejor con el ejemplo de aprender a bailarmediante la inmersioacuten en la actividad con otros (Wells 1999) En muchos casos no hay separacioacuten entre antes y despueacutes o entrefuera y dentro y no hay necesidad de demostracioacuten o ejemplificacioacuten En lugar de esto estando inmerso en la actividad conjuntael principiante es literalmente entrenado fiacutesicamente por los movimiento del coparticipante mientras que al mismo tiempoconstruye su propia organizacioacuten ndashy quizaacute incluso una representacioacuten esquemaacuteticandash de los movimientos corporales A lo largo deltiempo este esquema estaacute tan bien organizado que el principiante se convierte en un experto que estaacute preparado paralelamentepara introducir a otros en la actividad Esto es lo que Lave y Wenger (1991) y Rogoff (2003) quieren decir por desarrollo median-te la participacioacuten en actividades culturales

2 Estoy agradecido a Natalia Gajdamaschko y Steve Gabosch por sus valiosas discusiones de esta distincioacuten durante el XMCA cursoonline sobre la teoriacutea de la actividad histoacuterico cultural Abril 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Aunque estaacute incluido en la Tabla I este modo de conocimiento no ha sido discutido aquiacute ya que el reconocimiento expliacutecito deeste importante modo de conocimiento es muy reciente (Brown 1975) Sin embargo eso no significa que sea en siacute mismo unnuevo fenoacutemeno

4 Para algunos ejemplos representativos veacutease Brown y Campione 1994 Lampert Rittenhouse y Crumbaugh 1996 McMahonRaphael Goatley y Pardo 1997 Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford y Brown 1998 Scardamalia Bereiter y Lamon 1994

5 Juntos formamos un grupo de investigacioacuten colaborativo DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project)(Wells (Ed) 2001)

ReferenciasBAJTIacuteN M M (1986) Speech genres and other late essays Austin University of Texas PressBERNSTEIN B (1982) Codes modalities and the process of cultural reproduction A model En M Apple (Ed) Cultural and econo-

mic reproduction in education (pp 304-355) Londres Routledge amp Kegan PaulBROWN A L (1975) The development of memory Knowing knowing about knowing and knowing how to know En H W

Reese (Ed) Advances in child development and behavior (Vol 10 pp 103-152) Nueva York Academic Press BROWN A L amp CAMPIONE J C (1994) Guided discovery in a community of learners En K McGilly (Ed) Integrating cognitive

theory and classroom practice Classroom lessons (pp 229-270) Cambridge MA MIT PressBradford BooksBROWN K amp COLE M (2002) Cultural historical activity theory and the expansion of opportunities for learning after school En

G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 225-238)Oxford Blackwell

BRUNER J S (1990) Acts of meaning Cambridge MA Harvard University PressCARR M (2002) Emerging learning narratives A perspective from early childhood education En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds)

Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 99-111) Oxford BlackwellCOLE M (1996) Cultural psychology A once and future discipline Cambridge MA The Bellknap Press of Harvard University PressDEACON T W (1997) The symbolic species The co-evolution of language and the brain Nueva York NortonDIAMOND J (1998) Guns germs and steel The fates of human societies Nueva York NortonDONALD M (1991) Origins of the Modern Mind Three Stages in the Evolution of Culture and Cognition Cambridge MA Harvard

University PressDONOAHUE Z (2003) Science teaching and learning Teachers and children plan together Networks 6(1) httpwwwoiseuto-

rontoca~ctdnetworksjournal Vol 6 (1) 2003marchENGESTROumlM Y (1999) Activity theory and individual and social transformation Y En Engestrom R Miettinen amp R-L Puna-

maki (Eds) Perspectives on activity theory (pp 19-38) Cambridge Cambridge University PressFREIRE P (1970) Pedagogy of the oppressed Nueva York Herder and HerderHALLIDAY M A K (1975) Learning how to mean Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1978) Language as social semiotic The social interpretation of language and meaning Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1993) Towards a language-based theory of learning Linguistics and Education 5 93-116HASAN R (2002) Semiotic mediation and mental development in pluralistic societies Some implications for tomorrowrsquos schoo-

ling En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural peerspectives on the future of education (pp112-126) Oxford Blackwell

HEATH S B (1983) Ways with words Cambridge Cambridge University PressLAMPERT M RITTENHOUSE P amp CRUMBAUGH C (1996) Agreeing to disagree Developing sociable mathematical discourse En

D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook of education and human development (pp 731-764) Cambridge MA Blackwell LANGER J A amp APPLEBEE A N (1987) How writing shapes thinking A study of teaching and learning Urbana IL National Council

of Teachers of EnglishLAVE J (1996) Teaching as learning in practice Mind Culture and Activity 3 (3) 149-164LAVE J amp WENGER E (1991) Situated Learning Legitimate peripheral participation Nueva York Cambridge University PressLEINHARDT G CROWLEY K amp KNUTSON K (2002) Learning conversations Explanation and identity in museums Mahwah NJ

Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesLEONTIEV A N (1981) The problem of activity in psychology En J VWertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 37-71) Armonk NY SharpeMAYBIN J MERCER N amp STIERER B (1992) lsquoScaffoldingrsquo learning in the classroom En K Norman (Ed) Thinking voices The

work of the National Oracy Project (pp 186-195) Londres Hodder amp StoughtonMCMAHON S I RAPHAEL T E GOATLEY V J amp PARDO L S (Eds) (1997) The Book Club connection Literacy learning and class-

room talk Nueva York Teachers College PressNELSON K (1996) Language in cognitive development The emergence of the mediated mind Nueva York Cambridge University PressNEWSON J (1978) Dialogue and development En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol The emergence of language (pp 31-42)

New York Academic Press

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187186

NYSTRAND M amp GAMORAN A (1991) Student engagement When recitation becomes conversation En H C Waxman amp H JWalberg (Eds) Effective teaching Current research (pp 257-276)Berkeley CA McCutchan Publishing Corp

OLSON D R amp BRUNER J S (1996) Folk psychology and folk pedagogy En D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook ofeducation and human development (pp 9-27) Cambridge MA Blackwell

PALINCSAR A MAGNUSSON S MARANO N FORD D amp BROWN N (1998) Designing a community of practice Principlesand practices of the GIsML Community Teaching and Teacher Education 14 (1) 5-20

PIAGET J (1970) Piagetrsquos theory En P H Mussen (Ed) Carmichaelrsquos handbook of child development (pp 703-732) Nueva YorkWiley

PONTECORVO C amp STERPONI L (2002) Learning to argue and reason through discourse in educational settings En G Wells ampG Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 127-140) OxfordBlackwell

ROGOFF B (1990) Apprenticeship in thinking Cognitive development in social context Nueva York Oxford University PressROGOFF B (1994) Developing understanding of the idea of Communities of Learners Mind Culture and Activity 1 (4) 209-

229ROGOFF B (2003) The cultural nature of human development Nueva York Oxford University PressROSENBLATT L (1978) The reader the text the poem The transactional theory of the literary work Carbondale IL Southern Illinois

University PressSCARDAMALIA M C BEREITER amp LAMON M (1994) The CSILE project Trying to bring the classroom into World 3 En K

McGilley (Ed) Classroom lessons Integrating cognitive theory and classroom practice (pp 201-228) Cambridge MA MITPress

SCRIBNER S (1985) Vygotskyrsquos uses of history En J V Wertsch (Ed) Culture communication and cognition Vygotskian perspectives(pp 119-145) Cambridge Cambridge University Press

THARP R amp GALLIMORE R (1988) Rousing minds to life Nueva York Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C (1979) Communication and cooperation in early infancy a description of primary intersubjectivity En M

Bullowa (Ed) Before speech The beginning of interpersonal communication (pp 321-348) Cambridge Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C amp HUBLEY P (1978) Secondary intersubjectivity Confidence confiding and acts of meaning in the first year

En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol the emergence of language (pp 183-230) Nueva York Academic PressVYGOTSKI L S (1978)Mind in society The development of higher psychological processes Cambridge MA Harvard University PressVYGOTSKI L S (1981) The genesis of higher mental functions En J V Wertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 144-188) Armonk NY SharpeVYGOTSKI L S (1987) Thinking and speech En R W Rieber amp A S Carton (Eds) The collected works of L S Vygotsky Volumen

1 Problems of general psychology (pp 39-285) Nueva York PlenumWARTOFSKY M (1979) Models representation and scientific understanding Boston ReidelWELLS G (1985) Language development in the pre-school years Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (1986) The meaning makers Children learning language and using language to learn Portsmouth NH HeinemannWELLS G (1999) Dialogic inquiry Towards a sociocultural practice and theory of education Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (Ed) (2001) Action talk and text Learning and teaching through inquiry Nueva York Teachers College PressWELLS G (2002a) Learning and teaching for understanding The key role of collaborative knowledge building En J Brophy

(Ed) Social constructivist teaching Affordances and constraints (pp 1-41) Osford Elsevier ScienceJAIWELLS G (2002b) The role of dialogue in activity theory Mind Culture and Activity 9 (1) 43-66WERTSCH J V MINICK N amp ARNS F J (1984) The creation of context in joint problem solving En B Rogoff amp J Lave (Eds)

Everyday cognition Its development in social context (pp 151-171) Cambridge Cambridge University PressWOOD D BRUNER J S amp ROSS G (1976) The role of tutoring in problem-solving Journal of Child Psychology and Child Psy-

chiatry 17 89-100

187El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Original text

Introduction

Compared with other species the characteristic that distinguishes humans isthe ability and proclivity to engage in tool-mediated joint activity with otherhumans It is this characteristic that accounts for the development of human cul-tures over the course of history as they invented artefacts of various kinds inorder to adapt to and exploit the ecological niches in which they found themsel-ves It also accounts for the diversity of individual personsrsquo development whichdepend on the particular activities in which they participate As Vygotsky(1978 1981) was one of the first to point out the lsquohigherrsquo mental functions thatmake us human are not biologically given but are developmentally constructedthrough the appropriation of historically developed tools and practices that aremade manifest to the child and lsquoscaffoldedrsquo in the meaningful actions and utte-rances of the coparticipants in joint activity

Before continuing readers might find it interesting to reflect on their owndevelopmental trajectories to who they are today I suspect that they may findthemselves agreeing that Who we become depends on the company we keep and what wedo together

A Brief History of the Development of Joint Activity

Leontrsquoev provides a succinct account of Vygotskyrsquos insight in the followingsummary

The initial ideas that led Vygotsky to investigate the genesis of internal mental activity fromexternal activity are fundamentally different from the theoretical approaches of other modernauthors These ideas came from the analysis of the features unique to human productive laboractivity which is mediated by tools This activity is initially social in nature that is it is deve-loped under the conditions of cooperation and social interaction among people Vygotskyidentified two main interconnected features [of this activity] that are necessarily fundamentalfor psychology its tool-like (lsquoinstrumentalrsquo) structure and its inclusion in a system of interre-lations with other people It is these features that define the nature of human psychologicalprocesses The tool mediates activity and thus connects humans not only with the world ofobjects but also with other people Because of this humanrsquos activity assimilates the experience ofhumankind This means that humansrsquo mental processes (their lsquohigher psychological functionsrsquo)acquire a structure necessarily tied to the sociohistorically formed means and methods trans-mitted to them by others in the process of cooperative labor and social interaction But it isimpossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in any way otherthan a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words higher psycho-logical processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction with others thatis through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried out indepen-dently by the individual (Leontrsquoev 1981 pp 55-56 emphases in the original)

As well as emphasizing the social and cooperative nature of human activity thisquotation is important with respect to the arguments that I want to develop inthis paper as it highlights the central role of semiotic mediation in developmentKnowledge is created as well as appropriated in the discourse among peoplewho are working together in a specific situation in order to create or improve anartefact or to solve a problem of importance to the group However Leontrsquoevalso alludes to another of Vygotskyrsquos key insights namely that in order tounderstand current activity it is necessary to investigate the history of that acti-vity It is to this that I next turn

In analyzing the history of human development at least four different time-scales need to be considered The longest is the history of the cultural evolution of

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

the species (the phylogenetic level) next is the historical development of particu-lar cultures The third level (ontogenetic) traces the developmental trajectory ofindividual humans over the course of the lifespan Finally the microgenetic levelis concerned with the development of an instance of a particular activity

In practice it is the latter that has been explored in most detail for usingcontemporary technology it is relatively easy to observe and record the sequenceof actions through which an activity is enacted and the specific operations inwhich the participants engage making use of the relevant artefacts that are avai-lable in the situation (Leontrsquoev 1981) These artefacts may be either material(knives pencils automobiles) or symbolic (utterances maps theories) ndashthoughas Cole (1996) has pointed out to function as mediators of joint activity all arte-facts must have some form of material embodiment as well as a symbolic mea-ning that is to say they must be ready to hand and also have a cultural signifi-cance relevant to the situation

However the form in which a particular instance of activity is realizeddepends not only on the artefacts that are to hand in the situation but also onthe participantsrsquo past experiences with the practices in which the artefacts areused to mediate achievement of the action goals that contribute to the joint acti-vity Thus the microgenesis of a particular instance of activity is necessarilydependent upon the ontogenetic development of the participants that is to sayupon the opportunities their life trajectories have afforded them to appropriatethe relevant cultural knowledge through participation in instances of similaractions and operations

But on the time-scale of ontogenetic development each individualrsquos trajectoryof development is itself strongly influenced by the culture in which he or she isgrowing up and on the historical development of that culture As Rogoff (2003)illustrates in considerable detail cultures vary considerably both over time andacross ecological niches in what mediating artefacts and practices are available andin the relative value accorded to each Moreover within each culture at any parti-cular historical moment participants in activities both incorporate the ways ofprevious generations and adapt them to the exigencies of current conditions

Stepping up one further level the historical development of a particular cul-tures is itself shaped by development on the even larger timescale of the culturaland biological evolution of the species This is the most difficult timescale todescribe in detail for lack of the necessary evidence But certain broad distinc-tions between human communities can be made in terms of their modes of sub-sistence and of the mediating means available for joint activity (Diamond 1998Donald 1991) As recent research has shown our earliest ancestors some 5million years ago lived in small bands of hunter gatherers often on the edge oflakes and oceans Initially their tools were found in the surroundings but overseveral million years they invented ways of making more sophisticated artefactssuch as knives arrowheads baskets and clothing from flints bones skins andvegetable materials Then as some groups migrated to particularly fertile partsof the world they adopted a more settled agrarian way of life growing cropsand breeding animals The resulting ability to produce more food than imme-diately required led in turn to the emergence of trade and to a diversity of spe-cialist occupations such as potters and tailors who exchanged their products forfood and other necessities This stage also saw the development of much largerpopulation groupings with hierarchical class structures that included prieststax collectors and other religious and political functionaries

While migration had been a common feature of human existence from theearliest times the development of large settled populations and of weapons

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

made of bronze and iron led to the expansion of certain cultural groups throughterritorial conquest and colonization by sea and by land As a result during thelast few thousand years the latest phase of phylogenetic development has beencharacterized by the rise and fall of imperial cultures which have imposed theirtechnologies laws and administrative procedures as well as their religions artsknowledge and values on widely diverse subjugated populations Most recentlythe further development of the inventions that led to the first industrial revolu-tion has simply served to increase the scale and intensity of these imperialisttrends At the same time these inventions as well as those of the current indus-trial revolution have also led to a great increase in humansrsquo understanding oftheir social and material environment both through scientific and social rese-arch and through the dissemination of information about other times and placesresulting from travel and the use of print and electronic technologies

In presenting this very condensed account of phylogenetic development Ihave emphasized the material tools that have mediated the progressively morecomplex and diverse activities in which humans have engaged over the course ofthe speciesrsquo history However bearing in mind that what has been the drivingforce of human development is joint activity an equally ndashif not morendash impor-tant determinant of this history is the development of the modes of representa-tion through which humans have communicated and developed their unders-tanding of the world Table I presents the developmental sequence proposed byDonald (1991) based on archeological neuroanatomical historical and othertypes of evidence The table also includes the stages in the historical develop-ment of ways of knowing that were proposed by Wartofsky (1979)

The first stage in this sequence corresponds to the phase in which proto-humans began to diverge from other primate species In this phase as in thebehavior of contemporary higher primates practical action was the predomi-nant form of communication as ndashnot necessarily deliberatelyndash participants sig-naled their intentions in a shared situation and these intentions were interpre-ted and responded to by their co-participants in the activity In the secondmimetic phase which must have developed gradually over many millenniacommunication became somewhat differentiated from the activity to which itreferred as humans deliberately used gestures mime facial expression andvarious types of phonation to comment on as well as to coordinate action and theobjects to which it was directed Later still with the gradual modification of thevocal tract and of the primate brain there emerged the ability to communicatethrough speech and hence the ability to refer not only to particular objects andactions but also to generalized classes and to express observed and intendedrelationships between objects actions and events thus allowing participants toplan for and reflect on the outcomes of joint activity Finally the invention ofwriting which ushered in the final phase in Donaldrsquos proposed sequence occu-rred extremely recently in the long trajectory of phylogenetic development Yetas with those that preceded it enormously increased the human repertoire ofmeans for making and communicating meaning Essentially what it added wasan ldquoexternal memoryrdquo By creating a (relatively) permanent representation oflinguistic meaning it made possible the compilation and distillation of repor-ted information from many sources including the writerrsquos own verbalizedthoughts It also allowed the writer and those who read his or her written textto review critique and revise the meanings expressed and to make the resultsavailable to people in later times and other places for further constructive debateand improvement

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

However action gesture speech and writing are not simply progressivelymore powerful modes of communication They are also progressively morepowerful mediators of thinking This is most obvious with respect to the lin-guistic modes of communication But even before the emergence of speechaction and ndashto an even greater extentndash mimesis enabled humans to think toget-her and thereby to create a shared interpretation of their joint activities In fact ithas been argued that the emergence of language was not simply the result ofbrain and vocal tract development but rather was part of a more general patternof adaptation that building upon the cognitive achievements of mimetic kno-wing strove to integrate the unconnected bits of information in a more compre-hensive and coherent account of being-in-the-world (Deacon 1997) Neverthe-less it is also true that the availability of language greatly enhanced both com-munication and thinking together for as Halliday observed

the grammar of every natural language is (among other things) a theory of human experienceit is through our acts of meaning that we transform experience into the coherent -though farfrom consistent- patchwork that we learn to project as lsquorealityrsquo (1993 p 46)

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

TABLE IModes Of Knowing Phylogenetic And Cultural Development (from Wells 1999)

Time Mode of Participants Donald(1991) Wartofsky(1979)Years BP Knowing

2 million Instrumental Individual in action Episodic Primary artifactsyears material tools

1 -- 15 million Procedural Between individuals while Mimetic Secondaryyears engaged in action artifacts tools

and practicesmimeticinteraction

50000 Substantive Among members of a (Linguistic) Secondaryyears cultural group reflecting on artifacts

action and as a basis for representations ofplanning further action tools and

practices spokeninteraction

50000 Aesthetic Among members of a Mythic Tertiary artifactsyears cultural group making sense artistic represent-

of the human predicament ations in mythnarrative graphicand musical modes

2500 Theoretical Among members of a Theoretic Tertiary artifactsyears specialist community decontextualized

seeking to explain the natural representationsand human world such as

taxonomiestheories models etc

Meta Among members of a Tertiary artifacts cultural group also representations ofindividuals seeking to mental andunderstand and control their semioticown mental activity processes

In sum what Donald and other scholars argue is that contemporary mentalabilities are the outcome of the development over time of a series of progressi-vely more powerful and flexible modes of representation ndashor in Vygotskyanterms of semiotic mediators of higher mental functions- that have made possi-ble the rational theoretically oriented modes of knowing that underpin theachievements of modern science and its technological applications In the philo-sopher Wartofskyrsquos words

our own perceptual and cognitive understanding of the world is in large part shaped andchanged by the representational artifacts we ourselves create We are in effect the products ofour own activity in this way we transform our own perceptual and cognitive modes our waysof seeing and of understanding by means of the representations we make (1979 p xxiii)

There is however one further important aspect of Donaldrsquos (1991) thesis thatis crucial for the argument that I wish to develop Although the semiotic sys-tems of mimesis speech and writing each powered a new mode of cognitiveactivity they did not replace those that preceded but were additive in theireffects The result is that contemporary humans have a variety of modes of kno-wing at their disposal as they engage in joint activity Furthermore most suchactivities call for more than one mode of knowing and require the complemen-tary and interdependent use of more than one mode of representation

Joint Activity as the Site of Ontogenetic Learning and Development

Two important implications follow from the multi-level historical concep-tion of development just outlined First on any occasion the type of activitythat is undertaken and the specific manner in which it is enacted are necessarilydependent on the particular cultural-historical antecedents of the participantsboth human and artefactual that come together in its realization In particularthe manner in which the situation is interpreted ndashin terms of what action goalsare appropriate and how they can be achievedndash depends on the motives valuesand knowledgeable skills of the human participants and on the affordances ofthe technologies available in the situation And second every instance of an acti-vity provides an occasion for a triple transformation of the situation in whichthe activity is carried out of the artefacts and practices that mediate its enact-ment and most importantly of the knowledge and skills of the human partici-pants Taken together these propositions clarify the way in which cultural andindividual development are both interdependent and rooted in particular situa-ted occasions of joint activity As Rogoff (1994) argues

People of each generation as they engage in sociocultural endeavors with other people makeuse of and extend cultural tools and practices inherited from previous generations As peopledevelop through their shared use of cultural tools and practices they simultaneously contribu-te to the transformation of cultural tools practices and institutions (p 52)

Potentially therefore every occasion of joint activity provides an opportunityfor development on the part of all participants This is a point to which I shallreturn But first I want to consider more carefully the concept of developmentitself

Clearly built into the concept of development is the implication of change andtypically of change in the direction of increasing complexity and effectiveness Inother words development is typically taken to imply improvement or progresstoward some ideal end state or capability However in the light of the previousdiscussion such a progression while it may be meaningful to (some of the) partici-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

pants in any particular situation cannot be understood in any absolute sense butmust be seen as relative to the unfolding historical trajectory of the species of aparticular culture and of the immediate community ndashits values its dominantactivities and the knowledgeable skills that form its resources Furthermore just asthese have changed in the past they will continue to change in the future in res-ponse to the changing demands of the larger environment So while ontogeneticdevelopment does indeed involve increasing complexity and effectiveness of indi-vidualsrsquo participation in the activity systems in which they are involved in theirdaily lives the overall trajectory of development is emergent and its endpoint cannever be specified in advance even in terms of an ideal to be attained

Nevertheless this does not mean that there are not strong regularities in thesequence of ontogenetic development particularly in the early years Indeed asNelson (1996) has suggested during the preschool years children follow a trajec-tory very similar to the sequence of phylogenetic development proposed byDonald (1991) (see Table I above) as they appropriate the semiotic tools of repre-sentation afforded by action mimesis speech and writing Of course this is not asimple recapitulation children growing up in a contemporary literate culture forexample are surrounded from birth by artifacts and practices that result from andembody all the available modes of knowing (Cole 1996) Appropriating existingcultural tools is thus very different from inventing them ex novo as Scribner (1985)points out Nevertheless given the combination of biological and cultural inheri-tance it is not surprising that in most if not all cultures children follow the samesequence as did the species as a whole over the course of history

In the first weeks of life infants act on their immediate surroundings bothanimate and inanimate and begin to develop what Piaget (1970) called sensori-motor intelligence However although this most basic form of activity mayappear to be instinctual it is nevertheless also inherently social First all infantsare born into an environment that is cultural in the sense of having been shapedby countless preceding generations and second the infantrsquos actions are treatedas being intentional and are responded to as such So from the beginning theinfant is caught up in social interaction (Newson 1978) In the second phasewhich typically begins in the first few months the infant also begins to engagein mimetic communication through gaze facial expression and rudimentarygesture (Bruner 1990) Couched in terms of primary and secondary intersubjec-tivity this phase has been described in considerable detail by Trevarthen (19781979) Primary intersubjectivity develops as the infant and parent engage inmutual gaze thereby communicating that they are attending to and respondingto each other In secondary intersubjectivity third parties are brought into jointattention as the parent through gaze directs the infantrsquos attention to an object ofpotential interest or follows the childrsquos direction of gaze and signals that he orshe is also attending to the same object

It is on this basis of joint action and attention that towards the end of thefirst year the child begins to exploit his or her growing command of vocaliza-tion often accompanied by gesture to begin to communicate through speechFrom research predominantly involving children in ldquoWesternrdquo societies it hasbeen established that at first the childrsquos utterances are idiosyncratic drawingonly partially ndashif at allndash on the speech of those around him or her neverthelessparents and other family members have little difficulty in interpreting them incontext and once again they respond in a manner that is contingent on theirinterpretation thereby establishing spoken communication as a joint interactiveactivity By the end of the second year however children appear to abandon thisidiosyncratic ldquoprotolanguagerdquo form of communication and begin to construct a

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

linguistic meaning potential that is systematically related to the language thatis addressed to them in the oft-repeated activities of family life (Bruner 1990Halliday 1975 Wells 1986) Significantly within particular language com-munities the sequence in which children master the basic meanings and thelexicogrammatical forms in which they are realized tends to be very similar fromchild to child (Wells 1985)

The developmental sequence just described ndashaction mimesis speechndash is com-mon to children in all cultures and in all cases takes place in and through jointactivity and interaction with other family and community members Howeveralthough the sequence is universal the manner and pace at which it proceeds varyvery considerably across cultures These differences depend upon many culturally-determined factors such as adult expectations about their childrenrsquos developmentthe position in which the infant is typically held or carried facing the caregiver orturned outwards to face in the same direction as the caregiver the makeup and sizeof the interactional groups in which communication typically occurs and whetherthese events are part of family and community life more generally or are delibera-tely arranged and structured for the presumed benefit of the child (Rogoff 2003)In the later stages of language development the range and extent of the meaningpotential that children construct begins to vary even more widely depending onthe activities in which they engage the linguistic registers that are used in thoseactivities and the stances typically adopted by interlocutors toward the use of lan-guage in their interactions with children (Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

So far the ontogenetic developmental sequence I have described is funda-mentally similar across cultures and follows the phylogenetic sequence in whichhumans have progressively added new semiotic mediational means to theircommunicative repertoires In an important sense therefore the final mode ofrepresentation in Donaldrsquos scheme that of writing is an optional extra sincemany cultures have survived and prospered without a written mode of represen-ting meaning Moreover even in cultures that have a writing system the extentand scope of literacy that individuals attain varies very considerably dependingon the activity systems in which they participate the value that is placed onwritten texts by those communmities the purposes to which they are put andthe genres that are used for those purposes However since literacy and its usesare so strongly associated with schooling I shall leave further discussion of thismode of semiotic mediation to a later part of this paper

Before concluding this section however I want to explore further the con-cept of semiotic mediation In one of the better known passages in Vygotskyrsquoswritings where he argued for the social and cultural origin of higher mentalfunctions he wrote that every function occurs on two planes first in activity andinteraction between people and then within the individual learner (Vygotsky1981) What bridges between these two planes as is clear from his other wri-tings is semiotic mediation To recall Leontrsquoevrsquos formulation of this argument

hellip it is impossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in anyway other than a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words hig-her psychological processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction withothers that is through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried outindependently by the individual (1981 pp 55-56)

In other words when people engage in joint activity their actions gesturesand speech not only mediate the coordination of participation but they alsomake overt the mental activities involved and so render them available forappropriation by novice participants1 Halliday is very clear about this Alt-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

hough the following quotation refers only to language the term lsquolanguagersquocould justifiably be replaced by lsquosemiotic mediationrsquo

In the development of the child as a social being language has the central role Language is themain channel through which the patterns of living are transmitted to him through which helearns to act as a member of lsquosocietyrsquo ndashin and through the various social groups the family theneighbourhood and so onndash and to adopt its lsquoculturersquo its modes of thought and action itsbeliefs and its values (1978 p 9)

However as the child grows older language does become the predominantmode of semiotic mediation and as he wrote in a later paper ldquoLanguage is theessential condition of knowing the process by which experience becomes know-ledge (Halliday 1993 p 94 original emphasis)

Assistance for Learning in Joint Activitie

So far in the discussion of the role of joint activity in human development Ihave concentrated on the tools and particularly the semiotic modes of represen-tation that mediate the achievement of the outcome of activity In this sectionon the other hand I turn to the role of other people in this process both familymembers and the larger community

Until now I have referred to coparticipants in an activity in general termsbut clearly there are further distinctions to be made Particularly helpful in thisrespect is Engestroumlmrsquos model of an activity system which is shown in figure 1

What this model shows is that when we look at an ongoing activity from thepoint of view of an individual participant (t Subject) that individual is involvedin a nexus of other relationships that link him or her to other lsquoparticipantsrsquo theTools and artifacts to mediate action on the Object but also the Community of

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 1The Triangle of Activity

Artifactstools andpractices

Values rulesamp conventions

Community Divisioacutenof labor

Engestrom 1999

Object OutcomeSubject

others engaged in the activity together with the Division of Labor within thatcommunity and also the Rules and Conventions that govern the manner inwhich the activity is carried out (Engestroumlm 1999) What this latter category oflsquoparticipantrsquo underscores is the historical dimension of an activity system sincethese rules and conventions ndashas well as the tools and artifactsndash bring into thepresent the distilled practices of previous generations who have engaged in theactivity as these are interpreted and utilized by the current community

To illustrate the relevance of this model to the development of the youngchild we might compare two versions of a similar activity reported by WertschMinick and Arns (1984) In their study Brazilian children carried out a puzzletask on two occasions first with the mother and secondly with a primary tea-cher What the researchers found was that in general the mothers and teachersengaged in the activity in systematically different ways Whereas the motherstended to direct the childrenrsquos behavior or even carry out parts of the task them-selves in order to complete it in an efficient manner ndashjust as they would havedone if engaged in a household taskndash the teachers tended to encourage thechildrsquos autonomous performance and only provided hints and suggestions whenthey judged them to be necessary to advance the childrenrsquos understandingInterpreting these results the researchers suggested that the two groups ofadults belonged to two different communities (or activity systems) that had dif-ferent rules and conventions about engaging in this joint activity And this inturn led to the different divisions of labor that they observed Similarly Rogoff(2003) cites many examples of substantial differences between cultures inalmost all aspects of child rearing with respect to their ways of engaging chil-dren in the activities that they consider important

What is clear is that ldquobehindrdquo the particular adult ndashor older siblings in someculturesndash who are directly engaged with the child there is a wider communityof family members neighbors and others who have an interest in the upbrin-ging of children and who share beliefs about appropriate ways to involve themin the activities of daily life So whether in Spain Japan or the Peruvian High-lands although the actual practices vary across cultures in each those responsi-ble for childrenrsquos well-being and development act as agents of a wider commu-nity whose beliefs and practices are rooted in a long tradition concerning howactivities should be carried out But equally in all cultures practices also changein response to changes in the world beyond the particular community In manyWestern homes for example computer games or television programs haverecently taken the place of the bedtime story while in many indigenous com-munities crafts that until recently only supplied local needs are now exploitedcommercially for the tourist trade changing the rhythms of daily life and therelationships among family members and the activities in which children areinvolved As suggested earlier therefore in order to understand the activities inwhich children participate today we need to look not only at the immediatesituation but also at the wider community and the changes taking place on allthese time-scales

Microgenesis and the Zone of Proximal Development

It is nevertheless always the immediate microgenetic situation that isthe site of ontogenetic development ndashthe action and interaction between thelearner and those with whom he or she is engaged in the activity in pro-gress When we adopt this microgenetic perspective however we need tomodify the representation of an activity system presented in figure 1 Inthat representation the focus was on the goal-oriented nature of action

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Here we need to focus on the interaction among the participants ndashtheirattempt to attain intersubjectivity with respect to the common object andthe complementarity of the knowledgeable skills they bring to the cocons-truction of the intended outcome (see Figure 2) What figure 2 emphasizesis the fact that although the tools and artefacts that are available to mediatethe jointly undertaken action are the same for each participant each bringsa somewhat different familiarity with their use as a result of their differentlife trajectories and it is this variability in their expertise that makes it pos-sible for each to provide assistance to the others in at least some aspects ofthe joint action Viewed in this light it is clear why Vygotsky emphasizedthe role of joint activity in development and wrote of its potential to enablelearners ldquoto go beyond themselvesrdquo with the assistance of more expertothers

The metaphor Vygotsky used to characterize the potential for learning thatthis sort of activity creates was the ldquozone of proximal developmentrdquo As hewrote when another participant in the activity provides instruction that isappropriately pitched beyond what the learner can manage to do on his or herown it ldquowakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturationlying in the zone of proximal developmentrdquo (1987 p 212) Vygotsky concep-tualized development as the formation of new functional systems (ldquoneoforma-tionsrdquo) and of changes in the relationships among systems which he consideredto occur as a succession of ldquocrises of developmentrdquo that are particularly facilitatedby engagement in the relevant ldquoleading activityrdquo at each stage for example playin childhood and learning to read and write in the early school yearsHowever itwould be a mistake to focus only on the periods of revolutionary change since ashe equally emphasized at any time there are also other more gradual processes ofgrowth

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 2Dialogue in Joint Activity(from Wells2002b)

Outcomematerial ampsemioticartefacts

Toolsartefacts

Subject

Rulesconventions

Community Divisionof labor

Subject

Toolsartefacts

Processes that are central lines of development at one age become peripheral lines of develop-ment at the following age and conversely peripheral lines of development of one age arebrought to the forefront and become central lines since their meaning and relative significancein the total structure of development changes (p 197)2

In developing his important concept of the zone of proximal developmentVygotsky tended to characterize the assistance given by others as ldquoinstructionrdquoand to see its value in ldquothe childrsquos potential to raise himself to a higher intellec-tual level of development through collaboration to move from what he has towhat he does not have through imitationrdquo (1987 p 210) However manyrecent scholars who have built on his work have taken a broader view of thedevelopmental significance of collaboration in joint activities and have characte-rized the assistance that is provided within this relationship in terms such asldquoapprenticeshiprdquo (Lave amp Wenger 1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoguided participationrdquo(Rogoff 1994 2003) and ldquoscaffoldingrdquo (Wood et al 1976) Neverthelesswhile these different metaphors highlight different features of the relationshipwhat they all have in common is the inclusion of the learner in an activity inwhich there is provision of the assistance necessary to help the learner to comple-te an activity in which he or she is interested and to do so in such a way that heor she makes progress toward being able to participate more fully and autono-mously in the future (Maybin Mercer and Stierer 1992)

In many joint activities such as for example traditional forms of craftapprenticeship assistance is only provided when needed and the ldquomasterrdquo doesso with no deliberate didactic intention beyond that of involving the novice inthe completion of the particular task in hand (Lave 1996) Similarly in sociali-zation into activities around the home no explicit instruction is necessary fornovices can learn a great deal by simply watching and listening (cf Rogoff2003) This is what Lave and Wenger (1991) mean when they insist that lear-ning is not an independent activity but an intrinsic aspect of ldquolegitimate perip-heral participationrdquo in a communityrsquos activities From their perspective therefo-re formal education in which learning is the sole purpose of the activity issomething of an anomaly particularly when the only form of assistance providedis the expert teacherrsquos direct instruction and subsequent evaluation of the extentof the studentsrsquo learning

In many recent discussions it has also been recognized that it is not only aldquoteacherrdquo who can provide assistance in the zpd On the one hand in a com-plex activity many participants are more expert than others in some aspectsand therefore on some occasions are able to help those who are less expert(Rogoff 1994) and on the other hand those who provide assistance do nothave to be physically present texts and other artifacts can equally well helpa participant ldquoto go beyond himherselfrdquo as is often the case in intellectualwork such as research and writ ing (Wells 1999) Furthermore asEngestroumlm (1999) and others ndashbuilding on other aspects of Vygotskyrsquos theo-retical writingsndash have noted the material and symbolic tools that have beendeveloped by previous participants in the activity can also provide the samesort of assistance However perhaps the most important point to emphasizeis that there are many situations in which no-one is an expert yet as eachbrings his or her own past experience to the solution of a common problemthe group together is able to achieve more than any single member couldhave done alone Clearly it is such collaboration that has made possible theinventions that have led to the major advances of great civilizations over thecourse of cultural history

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Development in the Pre-School Years

As noted above the responsibility for caring for children in early childhoodvaries very considerably from one society to another Nevertheless in all socie-ties children are involved in joint activities with others in which they receiveassistance with respect to their participation however that may be locally achie-ved For the most part as already mentioned these are activities that are regu-larly repeated in the taken-for-granted routines of daily life The expectation isthat the child will learn to fit in and is simply helped to do so Often referred toas ldquoenculturationrdquo this form of apprenticeship ensures the continuity of the cul-turersquos way of life from one generation to the next and as Donald (1991) arguedit probably occurred even before the emergence of speech

However in all activities there are occasions when problems arise that callfor some level of deliberate decision-making In these situations spoken interac-tion makes possible a degree of reflection and forward planning in which therelations of cause and effect intention action and outcome are made explicitand open to question and discussion The talk that occurs on these occasionsthus plays a particularly important role in helping children to attend to andunderstand the world around them in terms of the culturersquos ways of ldquomakingsenserdquo of it However these occasions can also open up possibilities for changeboth in the form of the activity and in the participantsrsquo understanding of itHow caregivers habitually take up these opportunities is particularly importantfor it plays an important part in shaping the intellectual dispositions withwhich children enter school (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo amp Sterponi2002)

In this section I include some representative examples of kinds of talk thatarise from joint activities in the home These examples are drawn from observa-tions made in settings in England (Wells 1986) and Australia (Hasan 2002) inwhich the young children observed spent most of their time at home with oneparent sometimes with one or more siblings some of the time they entertainedthemselves with occasional adult involvement but they also frequently watchedand ldquohelpedrdquo the parent with household tasks of various kinds

In the first example James (aged 3 12 years) has been playing alone in thegarden and as he reenters the house his mother tries to get him to take off hismuddy shoes However at that moment he sees a bird outside which interestshim more than changing his shoes

Example 1Mother There we are there one slipper onJames I can see a birdMother A what loveJames See a bird Mother (whispering) Is there OutsideJames (pointing and whispering) Yes see

(both continue to speak very softly)Mother Is he eating anythingJames NoMother Where Oh yes hersquos getting- do you know what hersquos doingJames NoMother Hersquos going to the- the paper sack to try to pick out some pieces-

Oh hersquos got some food there and I expect hersquoll pick out somepieces of thread from the sack to go and make his nest under the roofJames Wait a minute and Irsquoll-[James now wants to go out to see more closely but at that moment thebird flies away]

James That birdrsquos gone

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

In the second example Elizabeth (aged 4 years) who is helping with thehouse cleaning watches with interest as her mother shovels wood ash from thefireplace into a bucket

Example 2Elizabeth What are you doing that forMother Irsquom gathering it up and putting it outside so that Daddy can put it on the gardenElizabeth Why does he have to put it on the gardenMother To make the compost rightElizabeth Does that make the grass growMother YesElizabeth Why does itMother You know how I tell you that you need to eat different things like eggs and cab-

bage and rice pudding to make you grow into a big girlElizabeth YesMother Well plants need different foods too and ash is one of the things thatrsquos

good for them

The third example involves James again now eighteen months older Earlierin the afternoon he had been helping his mother with the baking Now hecomes back into the kitchen as his mother is taking the baking trays out of theoven He hears a loud metallic ldquocrackrdquo and asks for an explanation

Example 3James Who did thatMother I expect it was the tin contractingJames Which tinMother The one with your pastry inJames Why did it make that noiseMother Well when it was in the oven it got very hot and stretched a bit Irsquove just taken

it out of the oven and itrsquos cooling down very quickly you see and that noisehappens when it gets smaller again and goes back to its normal shape

James Oh was it a different shape in the ovenMother Oh not very different just a little biggerJames Naughty little tin you might get smacked if you do it again

In all three of these examples the mother willingly responds to the childrsquosinterest and provides information to explain the significance of what the child isseeing or hearing even when in the first this interrupts the motherrsquos plan Allthree cases show how the childrsquos participation in the activity with the adult assu-res that there is intersubjectivity of attention to what interests the child and thisenables the mother to provide relevant information Clearly this is a form ofldquoinstructionrdquo however it is spontaneous and contingent on the childrsquos interestrather than presented as part of a pre-planned curriculum

The third example is particularly interesting from this point of view as thephenomenon of interest to James requires a somewhat technical explanation Atsome point in the future no doubt the expansion of metal when heated and itssubsequent contraction when removed from the heat will figure in the schoolscience curriculum in relation to the systematic study of heat here however itis an interesting side-effect of baking and the motherrsquos explanation while tech-nical in content is couched in everyday language rather than in the abstractterms of scientific generalization As Hasan (2002) has observed

the discourse of quasi specialised knowledge occurs in the lsquomiddle ofrsquo daily activities and bynecessity it calls for a readiness on the motherrsquos part to entertain contextual shifts to bewilling to reclassify the context of the on-going discourse The tendency to move with thechildrsquos moving discourse the readiness to re-classify context is a discourse characteristic of thesame group of mothers who frequently ask questions made precise by qualification and whoattend to their childrenrsquos questions and provide them with well developed answers (p 123)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 8: Actividad y Aprendizaje

la misma secuencia que siguioacute la especie como un todo a lo largo del curso de lahistoria

En las primeras semanas de vida los bebeacutes actuacutean en su entorno inmediatotanto animado como inanimado y comienzan a desarrollar lo que Piaget (1970)llamoacute inteligencia sensorio-motora Aunque eacutesta es la forma maacutes baacutesica de acti-vidad y puede parecer refleja (instintiva) es tambieacuten inherentemente social yaque en primer lugar todos los nintildeos nacen en un entorno que es cultural en elsentido de haber sido compartido por incontables generaciones precedentes yen segundo lugar la accioacuten del recieacuten nacido es realzada en interacciones sociales(Newson 1978) En una segunda fase que comienza generalmente en los prime-ros meses los bebeacutes tambieacuten comienzan a implicarse en la comunicacioacuten ges-tual mediante fijaciones de la mirada expresiones faciales y gestos rudimenta-rios (Bruner 1990) Apoyaacutendose en los teacuterminos de intersubjetividad primaria ysecundaria esta fase ha sido descrita con mucho detalle por Trevarthen (Trevart-hen y Hubley 1978 Trevarthen 1979) La intersubjetividad primaria se desa-rrolla cuando el nintildeo y su progenitor se dirigen mutuamente miradas fijascomunicaacutendose asiacute que se estaacuten atendiendo y respondiendo En la intersubjetivi-dad secundaria la atencioacuten conjunta recae sobre un tercer elemento como cuan-do el progenitor mediante miradas fijas dirige la atencioacuten del bebeacute a un objetode intereacutes potencial o sigue la direccioacuten de la mirada del nintildeo y sentildeala que tam-bieacuten estaacute atendiendo al mismo objeto

Sobre esta base de accioacuten y atencioacuten conjunta hacia el final del primer antildeo elnintildeo comienza a explotar su repertorio creciente de vocalizaciones a menudoacompantildeadas de gestos para empezar a comunicarse mediante el habla Deacuerdo con la investigacioacuten disponible realizada principalmente con nintildeos desociedades ldquooccidentalesrdquo al principio las elocuciones son idiosincraacutesicas dibu-jando soacutelo parcialmente en el habla ndashno del todondash aquello que les rodea sinembargo los padres y otros miembros de la familia tienen pocas dificultadespara interpretarlas dentro de un contexto y de nuevo responden de una maneraque es contingente con su interpretacioacuten estableciendo asiacute la comunicacioacutenhablada como una actividad interactiva conjunta Al final del segundo antildeo sinembargo los nintildeos parecen abandonar su forma indiosincraacutesica ldquoprotolinguumliacutesti-cardquo de comunicacioacuten y comienzan a construir un potencial de significados lin-guumliacutesticos sistemaacuteticamente relacionado con el lenguaje que les dirigen en lasactividades habituales de la vida familiar (Bruner 1990 Halliday 1975 Wells1986) Expresivamente en una comunidad linguumliacutestica particular la secuencia enla que los nintildeos dominan los significados baacutesicos y las formas leacutexicogramaticalesen las que se realizan tiende a ser muy similar de unos nintildeos a otros (Wells1985)

La secuencia de desarrollo que acaba de describirse ndashaccioacuten gesto hablandash escomuacuten a los nintildeos en todas las culturas y en todos los casos tiene lugar con otrosfamiliares y miembros de la comunidad mediante la accioacuten e interaccioacuten conjun-ta Sin embargo aunque la secuencia es universal el modo concreto en el que sedespliega variacutea considerablemente de unas culturas a otras Estas diferenciasdependen de muchos factores determinados culturalmente tales como las expec-tativas de los adultos sobre el desarrollo de sus hijos la posicioacuten en la que el bebeacutees sostenido o llevado ndashdando la cara al cuidador o con la cara vuelta en la mismadireccioacuten que el adultondash la configuracioacuten y tamantildeo de los grupos interaccionalesen los que la comunicacioacuten suele tener lugar y si estos eventos son parte de lavida familiar y comunitaria maacutes general o son deliberadamente disentildeados yestructurados para el supuesto beneficio del nintildeo (Rogoff 2003) En las etapastardiacuteas del desarrollo del lenguaje la gama y amplitud de significados potencia-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187172

les que los nintildeos construyen comienza a variar incluso de manera maacutes ampliadependiendo de las actividades en las que intervengan de los registros linguumliacutesti-cos que se usan en esas actividades y de las posturas tiacutepicamente adoptadas porlos interlocutores hacia el uso del lenguaje en sus interacciones con los nintildeos(Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

Hasta ahora la secuencia de desarrollo ontogeneacutetico que he descrito es baacutesica-mente similar en todas las culturas y sigue la secuencia filogeneacutetica en la que loshumanos han ido acumulando de manera progresiva nuevos recursos semioacuteticosmediacionales a sus repertorios comunicativos De forma llamativa por lo tantoel modo uacuteltimo de representacioacuten en el esquema de Donald que es la escrituraes un extra opcional puesto que muchas culturas han sobrevivido y prosperadosin una modalidad escrita de representacioacuten de significados Ademaacutes incluso enculturas que poseen un sistema de escritura el grado y alcance de alfabetizacioacutenque los individuos logran variacutea considerablemente dependiendo de los sistemasde actividad en los que participan del valor otorgado por la comunidad a los tex-tos escritos de los propoacutesitos a los que sirven y de los geacuteneros que se usan paraalcanzar esos propoacutesitos Sin embargo ya que la alfabetizacioacuten y sus usos estaacutenfuertemente asociados a la escolarizacioacuten maacutes adelante abordareacute con mayor pro-fundidad la discusioacuten de esta modalidad de mediacioacuten semioacutetica

Sin embargo quiero explorar con maacutes detalle el concepto de mediacioacutensemioacutetica antes de concluir esta seccioacuten En uno de los pasajes mejor conocidosde los escritos de Vygotski donde argumenta en favor del origen social y cultu-ral de las funciones metales superiores escribe que cada funcioacuten ocurre en dosplanos primero en la actividad e interaccioacuten entre personas y despueacutes en el apren-diz individual (Vygotski 1981) Lo que sirve de puente entre estos dos planoscomo se aclara en otros escritos suyos es la mediacioacuten semioacutetica Recueacuterdesecoacutemo formula Leontiev este argumento

es imposible transmitir los significados y meacutetodos necesarios para realizar un proceso de otraforma que no sea social ndashen la forma de una accioacuten o habla externandash En otras palabras los pro-cesos psicoloacutegicos superiores exclusivamente humanos soacutelo pueden ser adquiridos mediante lainteraccioacuten con otros esto es a traveacutes de un proceso interpsicoloacutegico que soacutelo maacutes tardecomenzaraacute a ser desarrollado independientemente por el individuo (1981 pp 55-56)

En otras palabras cuando las personas realizan una actividad conjunta susacciones gestos y discurso no soacutelo median la coordinacioacuten de la participacioacutentambieacuten hacen puacuteblicas las actividades mentales implicadas quedando asiacute dis-ponibles para su apropiacioacuten por parte de los participantes novatos1 Halliday sepronuncia con mucha claridad al respecto Aunque la cita siguiente se refieresoacutelo al lenguaje el teacutermino ldquolenguajerdquo podriacutea justificadamente ser reemplazadoaquiacute por ldquomediacioacuten semioacuteticardquo

En el desarrollo del nintildeo como un ser social el lenguaje posee el papel central El lenguaje es elprincipal canal por el que los patrones de vida le son transmitidos mediante el cual aprende aactuar como un miembro de la ldquosociedadrdquo ndashen y mediante la variedad de grupos sociales lafamilia los vecinos etceacuteterandash y a adoptar su ldquoculturardquo su modo de pensar y actuar sus creen-cias y sus valoresrdquo (1978 p 9)

Sin embargo a medida que los nintildeos crecen el lenguaje se convierte en elmodo predominante de mediacioacuten semioacutetica y como el mismo autor escribioacute enun trabajo posterior ldquoEl lenguaje es la condicioacuten esencial del conocimiento elproceso por el que la experiencia se convierte en conocimientordquo (Halliday 1993 p94 cursiva en el original)

173El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Ayuda para aprender en actividades conjuntas

Hasta ahora en la discusioacuten del papel de la actividad conjunta en el desarrollohumano me he centrado en las herramientas y particularmente en los modossemioacuteticos de representacioacuten que median los logros obtenidos como resultado dela actividad En esta seccioacuten en cambio me detendreacute en el papel que jueganotras personas ya sean miembros de la familia o de la comunidad extensa

Hasta este momento me he referido a los coparticipantes en una actividad enteacuterminos generales pero claramente hay distinciones adicionales por hacer Par-ticularmente uacutetil al respecto es el modelo de sistema de actividad de Engestroumlmel cual se representa en la figura 1

Lo que este modelo muestra es que cuando observamos una actividad encurso desde el punto de vista de un participante individual (Sujeto t) ese indivi-duo estaacute atrapado en un nudo de relaciones que le unen a otros ldquoparticipantesrdquolas Herramientas y Artefactos para mediar la accioacuten sobre el Objeto pero tam-bieacuten la Comunidad a la que pertenecen las personas implicadas en la actividadjunto con la Divisioacuten de Trabajo propia de la comunidad y tambieacuten las Reglas yConvenciones que gobierna la manera en la que la actividad se desarrolla(Engestroumlm 1999) Lo que subraya esta uacuteltima categoriacutea de ldquoparticipantesrdquo es ladimensioacuten histoacuterica de un sistema de actividad ya que estas reglas y convencio-nes ndashal igual que las herramientas y artefactosndash traen al presente las praacutecticasdestiladas de las generaciones previas que han participado en la actividad y estaspraacutecticas son interpretadas y utilizadas por la comunidad actual

Para ilustrar la relevancia de este modelo en el desarrollo del nintildeo pequentildeopodemos comparar dos versiones de una actividad similar descrita por WertschMinick y Arns (1984) En este estudio un grupo de nintildeos de Brasil ordenan unpuzzle en dos situaciones distintas la primera con sus madres y la segunda conun profesor de primaria Los investigadores observaron que en general las

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187174

FIGURA 1Triaacutengulo de Actividad

Artefactosherramientas y

praacutecticas

Valores reglasy convenciones

Comunidad Divisioacuten delabor

Engestrom 1999

Objeto ResultadosSujeto

madres y los profesores participan en la actividad de manera sistemaacuteticamentediferente Mientras que las madres tendiacutean a dirigir el comportamiento de losnintildeos o incluso a realizar parte de la tarea ellas mismas para completarla de unamanera eficaz ndashtal y como habriacutean hecho si se tratara de una tarea domeacutesticandashlos profesores tendiacutean a promover la actuacioacuten autoacutenoma de los nintildeos y soacutelo pro-porcionaban consejos y sugerencias cuando lo juzgaban necesario para el avancede la comprensioacuten de los nintildeos Interpretando estos resultados los investigado-res sugeriacutean que los dos grupos de adultos perteneciacutean a dos comunidades dife-rentes (o sistemas de actividad) con diferentes reglas y convenciones sobre la par-ticipacioacuten en actividades conjuntas Y esto alternativamente conduciacutea a la dife-rente divisioacuten del trabajo que ellos observaron De manera similar Rogoff(2003) cita muchos ejemplos de diferencias sustanciales entre culturas en casitodos los aspectos del crecimiento infantil con respecto a sus modos de implicar alos nintildeos en las actividades que consideran importantes

Lo que estaacute claro es que ldquodetraacutes derdquo un adulto particular en contacto directocon el nintildeo ndasho en algunas culturas un hermano mayorndash hay una comunidadamplia formada por los miembros de la familia vecinos y otras personas interesa-das en la educacioacuten del nintildeo que comparten determinadas creencias sobre elmodo maacutes apropiado de introducir a los nintildeos en las actividades de la vida diariaPor eso ya sea en Espantildea Japoacuten o las Montantildeas Peruanas aunque las praacutecticasactuales variacutean a traveacutes de las culturas en todas los responsables del bienestar ydel desarrollo de los nintildeos actuacutean como agentes de una comunidad maacutes ampliacuyas creencias y praacutecticas estaacuten arraigadas en una larga tradicioacuten sobre coacutemodeben llevarse a cabo las actividades Pero igualmente en todas las culturas laspraacutecticas tambieacuten cambian en respuesta a los cambios en el mundo maacutes allaacute deuna comunidad particular En muchos hogares Occidentales por ejemplo losjuegos de ordenadores o los programas de televisioacuten han ocupado recientementeel lugar de los cuentos antes de dormir mientras que en muchas comunidadesindiacutegenas las artes que hasta hace poco soacutelo cubriacutean las necesidades locales sonahora explotadas comercialmente por el mercado turiacutestico cambiando los ritmosde la vida diaria las relaciones entre los miembros de la familia y las actividadesen las que los nintildeos estaacuten inmersos Sin embargo como anteriormente se sugirioacutepara comprender las actividades en las que los nintildeos participan hoy necesitamosmirar no soacutelo a la situacioacuten inmediata sino tambieacuten a la comunidad maacutes ampliay a los cambios que han tenido lugar en las escalas temporales

Microgeacutenesis y Zona de Desarrollo Proacuteximo

Lo inmediato sin embargo es siempre la situacioacuten microgeneacutetica que es ellugar del desarrollo ontogeneacutetico ndashla accioacuten e interaccioacuten entre el aprendiz yaquellos con quien estaacute implicado en la actividad en cursondash Cuando adoptamosesta perspectiva microgeneacutetica sin embargo necesitamos modificar la represen-tacioacuten del sistema de actividad reflejada en la figura 1 Esta representacioacutensubraya el hecho de que la accioacuten estaacute orientada a un propoacutesito De manera dis-tinta ahora conviene resaltar la interaccioacuten entre los participantes ndashsus tentativaspara lograr intersubjetividad con respecto a los objetivos comunes y a las habili-dades complementarias de conocimiento que aportan a la co-construccioacuten delresultado previsto (ver Figura 2)ndash Lo que la figura 2 enfatiza es el hecho de queaunque las herramientas y artefactos que estaacuten disponibles para mediar la accioacutenemprendida conjuntamente son los mismos para cada participante cada unoaporta una familiaridad algo diferente con su uso como resultado de su diferentetrayectoria vital siendo esta variabilidad en su pericia la que hace posible paracada uno de ellos proporcionar asistencia a los otros al menos en algunos aspectos

175El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

de la accioacuten conjunta Visto desde esta perspectiva estaacute claro por queacute Vygotskienfatizoacute el papel de la actividad conjunta en el desarrollo y escribioacute sobre supotencial para permitir a los participantes ldquoir maacutes allaacute de siacute mismosrdquo con laayuda de otros maacutes expertos

La metaacutefora usada por Vygotski para caracterizar el potencial para el aprendi-zaje que esta clase de actividad crea fue ldquozona de desarrollo proacuteximordquo Como eacutelescribioacute cuando otro participante en la actividad proporciona instruccioacuten que essuministrada apropiadamente maacutes allaacute de lo que el aprendiz puede llegar a hacerpor siacute mismo ldquodespierta toda una serie de funciones que estaacuten en estado demaduracioacuten latente en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximordquo (1987 p 212) Vygotskiconceptualizoacute el desarrollo como la formacioacuten de nuevos sistemas funcionales(ldquoneoformacionesrdquo) y de cambios en las relaciones entre sistemas que seguacuten eacutelconsideraba ocurriacutean como una secuencia de ldquocrisis del desarrollordquo particular-mente facilitadas por la participacioacuten en las ldquoactividades guiadasrdquo relevantes decada etapa por ejemplo jugar en la nintildeez y aprender a leer y a escribir en los pri-meros antildeos escolares Sin embargo puede ser un error dirigir la atencioacuten soacutelo alos periodos de cambios revolucionarios ya que como eacutel igualmente enfatizoacutetambieacuten tienen lugar en cualquier momento otros procesos graduales de creci-miento

Los procesos que son liacuteneas centrales de desarrollo en una edad se convierten en liacuteneas perifeacute-ricas de desarrollo en la edad siguiente y contrariamente liacuteneas perifeacutericas de desarrollo deuna edad son traiacutedas a la vanguardia y se convierten en liacuteneas centrales en el momento en elque cambia su significado y su significacioacuten relativa en la estructura total del desarrollo(1987 p 197)2

En la elaboracioacuten de su importante concepto de zona de desarrollo proacuteximoVygotski tendioacute a caracterizar la ayuda proporcionada por otros como ldquoinstruc-cioacutenrdquo asiacute como a ver su valor en ldquoel potencial del nintildeo para elevarse a siacute mismo

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187176

FIGURA 2Diaacutelogo en la Actividad Conjunta (Wells 2002b)

Resultadosmateriales yartefactossemioacuteticos

Herramientasartefactos

Sujeto

Reglasconvenciones

Comunidad Divisioacuten delabor

Sujeto

Herramientasartefactos

gracias a la colaboracioacuten hacia un nivel intelectual mayor de desarrollo despla-zaacutendose mediante la imitacioacuten desde lo que eacutel es hasta lo que eacutel no esrdquo (1987p 210) Sin embargo muchos eruditos contemporaacuteneos que han construidosobre su trabajo han adoptado una visioacuten de conjunto del significado evolutivode la colaboracioacuten en actividades conjuntas y han caracterizado la ayuda propor-cionada en esta relacioacuten con teacuterminos tales como ldquoaprendizajerdquo (Lave y Wenger1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoparticipacioacuten guiadardquo (Rogoff 1994 2003) y ldquoandamia-jerdquo (Wood Bruner y Ross 1976) Sin embargo mientras estas metaacuteforas dife-rentes iluminan caracteriacutesticas diferentes de la relacioacuten lo que tienen todas encomuacuten es la inclusioacuten del aprendizaje en una actividad que ofrezca el nivel deapoyo necesario para ayudar al aprendizaje a completar una actividad en la que eacutelo ella estaacute interesado y a hacer esto de tal manera que eacutel o ella progresen hastapoder participar maacutes plena y autoacutenomamente en el futuro (Maybin Mercer yStierer 1992)

En muchas actividades conjuntas tales como por ejemplo formas tradicio-nales de aprendizaje de oficios la ayuda es proporcionada soacutelo cuando se necesitay de este modo el ldquomaestrordquo la ofrece sin intenciones didaacutecticas deliberadas maacutesallaacute de arropar al principiante para terminar una tarea particular en curso (Lave1996) De manera similar la socializacioacuten en actividades domeacutesticas no necesitauna instruccioacuten expliacutecita ya que los principiantes pueden aprender mucho sim-plemente mirando y escuchando (cf Rogoff 2003) Esto es lo que Lave y Wen-ger (1991) quieren decir cuando insisten en que el aprendizaje no es una activi-dad independiente sino un aspecto intriacutenseco de la ldquoparticipacioacuten perifeacutericalegiacutetimardquo en las actividades de una comunidad Desde su perspectiva por lotanto la educacioacuten formal en la que el aprendizaje es el uacutenico propoacutesito de laactividad tiene algo anoacutemalo particularmente cuando la uacutenica forma de ayudaproporcionada es la instruccioacuten directa del profesor experto y la consiguienteevaluacioacuten del grado de aprendizaje de los alumnos

En muchas discusiones recientes se ha reconocido tambieacuten que no es soacutelo unldquoprofesorrdquo quien puede proporcionar ayuda en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximo Porun lado en una actividad compleja muchos participantes son maacutes expertos queotros en algunos aspectos y por lo tanto en algunas ocasiones estaacuten preparadospara ayudar a aquellos que son menos expertos (Rogoff 1994) Por otro ladoaquellos que proporcionan ayuda no tienen que estar fiacutesicamente presentes lostextos y otros artefactos pueden igualmente ayudar de manera satisfactoria a unparticipante ldquoa ir maacutes allaacute de siacute mismo o siacute mismardquo como ocurre con frecuenciaen el trabajo intelectual como la investigacioacuten y la escritura (Wells 1999) Ade-maacutes como Engestroumlm (1999) y otros ndashbasaacutendose en distintos aspectos de losescritos teoacutericos de Vygotskindash han anotado las herramientas materiales y simboacute-licas que han sido desarrolladas por participantes anteriores en la actividad pue-den tambieacuten proporcionar la misma clase de ayuda Sin embargo el punto maacutesimportante que quizaacutes debe subrayarse es que hay muchas situaciones en las quenadie es un experto incluso como cada uno aporta su propia experiencia pasadaa la solucioacuten de un problema comuacuten el grupo en su conjunto es capaz de alcan-zar maacutes de lo que cualquier miembro singular podriacutea haber hecho de maneraindependiente Evidentemente es esta colaboracioacuten la que ha hecho posible lasinvenciones que han llevado a los mayores avances de las grandes civilizaciones alo largo del curso de la historia cultural

Desarrollo en los antildeos preescolares

La responsabilidad para cuidar a los nintildeos en la nintildeez temprana variacutea conside-rablemente de una sociedad a otra como antes anoteacute Sin embargo en todas las

177El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

sociedades los nintildeos estaacuten inmersos en actividades conjuntas con otros en las quereciben ayuda para participar aunque puedan llevarlas a cabo parcialmente Ensu mayor parte como ya se mencionoacute eacutestas son actividades cotidianas repetidasregularmente en las rutinas establecidas Se espera que el nintildeo aprenderaacute a asu-mirlas y es simplemente ayudado para hacerlo Esta forma de aprendizaje deno-minada habitualmente ldquoenculturacioacutenrdquo asegura la continuidad de las formas devida culturales desde una generacioacuten a la siguiente y como Donald (1991) argu-menta probablemente tuvo lugar incluso antes de la emergencia del habla

Sin embargo en todas las actividades hay ocasiones en las que cuando surgealguacuten problema se requiere alguacuten nivel de toma de decisiones deliberado En estassituaciones la interaccioacuten verbal hace posible un grado de reflexioacuten y planificacioacutenhacia delante en la que las relaciones de causa y efecto intencioacuten accioacuten y resultadose hacen expliacutecitas y abiertas para su anaacutelisis y discusioacuten La conversacioacuten que semantiene en estas ocasiones juega asiacute un papel particularmente importante en laayuda a los nintildeos para atender y comprender el mundo que les rodea de acuerdo conlos modos culturales de ldquodarle sentidordquo Sin embargo estas ocasiones pueden tam-bieacuten abrir posibilidades para el cambio tanto en la forma de la actividad como lacomprensioacuten que de ella alcanzan los participantes Coacutemo los cuidadores tomanhabitualmente estas oportunidades es de gran relevancia aquiacute ya que juega en la for-macioacuten de las disposiciones intelectuales con las que los nintildeos entran en la escuelaun papel importante (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo y Sterponi 2002)

En esta seccioacuten incluyo algunos ejemplos representativos del modo de hablarque surge de las actividades conjuntas en el hogar Estos ejemplos se han extraiacute-do de observaciones realizadas en contextos ingleses (Wells 1986) y australianos(Hasan 2002) donde los nintildeos pequentildeos observados pasaban la mayor parte desu tiempo en el hogar en compantildeiacutea de un progenitor o algunas veces con uno omaacutes hermanos mientras que el resto del tiempo se entreteniacutean ellos solos (conuna participacioacuten esporaacutedica del adulto) o algo que haciacutean con frecuencia mira-ban y ldquoayudabanrdquo a sus progenitores con tareas domeacutesticas de diferente tipo

En el primer ejemplo James (de tres antildeos y medio de edad) ha estado jugandosolo en el jardiacuten y cuando entra de nuevo en casa su madre intenta que se quitelos zapatos embarrados Sin embargo en ese momento ve un paacutejaro fuera que leinteresa maacutes que cambiarse de zapatos

Ejemplo 1Madre Alliacute Vamoshellip Alliacutehellip Una zapatilla enJames Puedo ver un paacutejaroMadre iquestUn queacute amorJames Mira un paacutejaroMadre (Susurrando) iquestEstaacute alliacute iquestFueraJames (Sentildealando y susurrando) Siacute mira

(Ambos continuacutean hablando muy suavemente)Madre iquestEstaacute comiendo algoJames NoMadre iquestDoacutende Oh siacute estaacute consiguiendo iquestSabes queacute estaacute haciendoJames NoMadre Estaacute yendo al saco de papel para intentar escoger algunos pedazos

Oh tiene un poco de alimento alliacute Y espero que escoja algunos pedazos de hilodel saco para ir y hacer su nido bajo la azotea James Espera un minuto y [James ahora quiere salir a ver maacutes cerca pero en ese momento el paacutejaro se escapavolando]

James Se ha ido

En el segundo ejemplo Elizabeth (de cuatro antildeos de edad) que estaacute ayudandoen la limpieza de casa mira con intereacutes coacutemo su madre mete en un cubo la cenizade la lentildea de la chimenea

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187178

Ejemplo 2Elizabeth iquestPara queacute estaacutes haciendo esoMadre Estoy recogieacutendolo y ponieacutendolo fuera para que papaacute pueda ponerlo en el jardiacutenElizabeth iquestPor queacute lo tiene que poner en el jardiacuten Madre Para abonar bienElizabeth iquestEso hace que la hierba crezcaMadre SiacuteElizabeth iquestPor queacuteMadre Sabes que te digo que necesitas comer cosas diferentes como huevos y col y

pudin de arroz para convertirte en una nintildea mayor Elizabeth SiacuteMadre Bien las plantas tambieacuten necesitan comida diferente Y la ceniza es una de las

cosas buenas para ellas

El tercer ejemplo se refiere a James de nuevo ahora 18 meses mayor Por lamantildeana temprano ha estado ayudando a su madre con la elaboracioacuten de unos dul-ces en el horno Ahora vuelve a la cocina cuando su madre estaacute sacando las bande-jas fuera del horno Oye un ruidoso ldquocrackrdquo metaacutelico y solicita una explicacioacuten

Ejemplo 3James iquestQuieacuten hizo esoMadre Espero que fuera la contraccioacuten de la lata James iquestQueacute lataMadre La que estaacute con los pasteles dentro James iquestPor queacute hizo ese ruidoMadre Bien cuando estaba en el horno se calentoacute mucho y se estiroacute un pedacito Ape-

nas la he sacado del horno y se estaacute enfriando muy raacutepido mira y ese ruido ocu-rre cuando se hace maacutes pequentildea otra vez y vuelve a su forma normal

James Oh iquesttiene una forma diferente en el horno Madre Oh no muy diferente Soacutelo un poco mayor James Pequentildea lata traviesa Puede que consigas que te den un azote si lo haces otra vez

En estos tres ejemplos la madre responde con prontitud a los intereses delnintildeo y proporciona informacioacuten para explicar el significado de lo que los nintildeosestaacuten viendo u oyendo incluso cuando inicialmente esto interrumpe los planesde la madre Los tres casos muestran coacutemo la participacioacuten de los nintildeos en la acti-vidad con el adulto garantiza una atencioacuten intersubjetiva hacia los intereses delnintildeo lo que permite a la madre proporcionar informacioacuten relevante Esto es cla-ramente una forma de ldquoinstruccioacutenrdquo sin embargo es espontaacutenea y contingentecon los intereses de los nintildeos en lugar de ser presentada como parte de un curri-culum pre-planificado

El tercer ejemplo es particularmente interesante desde este punto de vista yaque el fenoacutemeno que despierta el intereacutes de James requiere una explicacioacuten algoteacutecnica En alguacuten momento del futuro sin duda la dilatacioacuten del metal cuandose calienta y su consiguiente contraccioacuten cuando es apartado del calor figuraraacuteen el curriculum de ciencias de la escuela en relacioacuten con el estudio sistemaacuteticodel calor aquiacute sin embargo es un efecto secundario de la elaboracioacuten de los pas-teles en el horno y la explicacioacuten de la madre aunque teacutecnica en cuanto al conte-nido se asienta en el lenguaje cotidiano y no en los teacuterminos abstractos de lageneralizacioacuten cientiacutefica Como Hasan (2002) ha observado

el discurso del conocimiento quasi especializado tiene lugar lsquoen medio dersquo las actividades dia-rias y necesariamente exige una buena disposicioacuten por parte de la madre para acoger los cam-bios contextuales para tener la voluntad de reclasificar el contexto del discurso en marcha Latendencia a conectar con el discurso en movimiento del nintildeo la buena disposicioacuten para reclasi-ficar el contexto es una caracteriacutestica discursiva del mismo grupo de madres que con frecuen-cia lanzan preguntas precisas para la calificacioacuten de los objetos que atienden a las preguntas desus hijos y que les proporcionan respuestas bien desarrolladas (p 123)

179El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

No todos los nintildeos experimentan esta clase de respuesta altamente informati-va para sus intereses por supuesto Sobre la base de un corpus sustancial de inte-racciones madre-hijo Hasan (2002) siguiendo a Bernstein (1982) distingueentre mediacioacuten semioacutetica ldquovisiblerdquo e ldquoinvisiblerdquo Mientras que todos los ejem-plos citados anteriormente giran sobre la actividad conjunta y las preguntas delos nintildeos merecen una exploracioacuten adicional en un modo expliacutecito ldquovisiblerdquo lostemas de las contribuciones de muchos otros nintildeos a la actividad y la interaccioacutenson tratados por los padres como ldquoobviosrdquo y por lo tanto como si no requirieranexplicacioacuten En este sentido la mediacioacuten de las creencias culturales y de laspraacutecticas permanece ldquoinvisiblerdquo esto es la forma de ser del mundo y el tema nomerece una discusioacuten adicional El Ejemplo 4 (tomado de Hasan 2002) bajoestaacutes liacuteneas proporciona una buena ilustracioacuten

Ejemplo 4 Madre Ponlo sobre la estufa y deacutejalo alliacuteKaren iquestPor queacuteMadre PorqueKaren iquestAquiacute es doacutende va Madre SiacuteUn poco despueacutesKaren iquestCoacutemo conseguiste esoiquestNo saliste Madre Camineacute encima y lo conseguiacute iquestno me viste Karen HmmMadre Debes estar ciega

Los dos breves extractos del Ejemplo 4 son tiacutepicos de un estilo muy diferentede interaccioacuten comparados con los anteriores Aquiacute el eacutenfasis de los padres enconseguir que el nintildeo se adapte a los modos de la cultura local de actuar y pensarcon eficacia suprime la curiosidad del nintildeo y el deseo de comprender lo quetambieacuten hace menos probable que el nintildeo desarrolle la capacidad para cuestionarel status quo y participar en los esfuerzos por cambiarlo y mejorarlo

Finalmente antes de dejar el tema del aprendizaje a traveacutes de la conversacioacutenen actividades conjuntas es importante considerar la actividad conjunta en elcontexto del juego Vygotski (1978) consideroacute el juego como la actividad princi-pal en los antildeos preescolares ya que anima al nintildeo a explorar las posibilidades dela mediacioacuten semioacutetica mediante el uso de objetos presentes que pueden ser uti-lizados para representar otros objetos no presentes mediante el ldquorole playrdquo en elque el lenguaje crea un mundo imaginario En el Ejemplo 5 James ahora contres antildeos y nueve meses estaacute sentaacutendose en el brazo de un sofaacute conduciendo untren imaginario con su madre como pasajera

Ejemplo 5Madre Aquiacute estamos Me sentareacute al lado Perfecto iquestestaacutes listo iquestTodo a punto

Bien Quita el frenoJames Comenzareacute a levantarloMadre Oh perdoacuten Estaacute bienJames Mamaacute no conduzcas todaviacuteaMadre Oh BienJames [Hace un ruido simulando arrancar el motor]Madre iexclOh Este motor arranca raacutepido Muy bien iquestHay suficiente carboacuten en la parte

posterior iquestHas cargado suficiente carboacuten JamesJames SiacuteMadre Bien Entonces vaacutemonos lejos Despiacutedete de tus amigos James [Suena el ruido del motor que acelera Se riacutee y hace el sonido del silbido del

motor]Madre Ahora vamos muy raacutepido iquestPuedes sentir el traqueteo de los vagones James Siacute

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187180

Madre Oh todo me da vueltas Oh mi desayuno estaacute retumbando en mi barriga iexclOhiexclOh iexclOh

James [Hace el ruido del motor]Madre Creo que deberiacuteamos disminuir la velocidad iquestNo crees James Mm (asintiendo)Madre Creo que estamos yendo un poco raacutepido

Es mejor es maacutes faacutecil ahora iquestno James Mm (asintiendo)Madre [Muje] Mira las vacas en el campo JamesJames MmMadre Y hay un granjero mira El granjero te estaacute saludando

Como contar historias compartidas que es otra actividad conjunta importan-te a esta edad el juego imaginario tambieacuten tiene una funcioacuten importante en lapreparacioacuten del nintildeo para explorar el poder del lenguaje ldquopara crear un mundomediante las palabrasrdquo Como seraacute discutido debajo este uso del lenguaje pararepresentar objetos y eventos no presentes y las relaciones entre ellos adoptagran significado en el contexto de la escolarizacioacuten puacuteblica tiacutepica donde propor-ciona los significados mediacionales principales mediante los que gran parte delcurriculum se materializa (Wells 1986)

En suma con la excepcioacuten del Ejemplo 4 todos los extractos precedentes sonejemplos claros de un adulto ldquotrabajando en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximo delnintildeordquo (Vygotski 1987) ya que se implican en la interaccioacuten en el proceso dedesarrollar la actividad en la que estaacuten conjuntamente inmersos Como Vygotski(1987) enfatizoacute en la actividad conjunta colaborativa el nintildeo puede siemprehacer maacutes de lo que le es posible hacer independientemente La actividad pro-porciona el marco organizacional en el que parte de la conversacioacuten dirige ycomenta la actividad y parte explora los resultados a los que conduce En estecontexto el adulto hace disponible para la apropiacioacuten del nintildeo no soacutelo infor-macioacuten especiacutefica como respuesta a los intereses del nintildeo sino tambieacuten una pos-tura hacia la experiencia que valora la actitud de investigacioacuten Tratando las pre-guntas del nintildeo como dignas de respuesta expliacutecita el adulto apoya el desarrollode una disposicioacuten a plantearse preguntas y a buscarles respuesta mediante lainvestigacioacuten futura (Wells 1999)

El papel de la actividad en la educacioacuten

Aunque el teacutermino ldquoeducacioacutenrdquo se emplea a menudo como sinoacutenimo deldquoescolarizacioacutenrdquo seguacuten una interpretacioacuten maacutes amplia la educacioacuten viene refi-rieacutendose a los primeros antildeos del nintildeo y de hecho como se vio arriba hay muchasocasiones en las que un coparticipante en una actividad en curso proporciona ins-truccioacuten expliacutecita Sin embargo la educacioacuten ndashen el sentido de escolarizacioacutenndashtiende a ser muy diferente de la clase de actividades ilustradas maacutes arriba Maacutesimportante en las escuelas la instruccioacuten es tanto deliberada como sistemaacutetica yes gobernada no por los intereses de los alumnos sino por un curriculum que hasido disentildeado por expertos que no estaacuten familiarizados con los alumnos que van aser instruidos Como resultado a menudo lo que se ensentildea en la escuela no estaacuterelacionado con aquello que a los alumnos maacutes les interesa aprender y es muyprobable que no se obtengan beneficios de las oportunidades que la escuelapodriacutea proporcionar

En las primeras secciones de este trabajo se ha argumentado que el aprendi-zaje no es un fin en siacute mismo sino un aspecto integrado del domino de nuevasformas de actividad que tienen significado y valor para el desarrollo de los apren-dices como miembros de una comunidad y como individuos autoacutenomos uacutenicos

181El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Como Wygotsky insistentemente precisoacute el aprendizaje conduce el desarrollo yla instruccioacuten deberiacutea estar organizada para ayudar a este proceso

La instruccioacuten es soacutelo uacutetil cuando se mueve delante del desarrollo Cuando esto ocurre impulsao despierta toda una serie de funciones que estaacuten en estado de maduracioacuten latente en la zona dedesarrollo proacuteximo (1987 p 212)

La pregunta central para la escolarizacioacuten debe por lo tanto ser coacutemo ofrecerinstruccioacuten que sea relevante para las trayectorias de desarrollo de los alumnos yque de manera adecuada ldquose situacutee dentrordquo de sus zonas de desarrollo proacuteximoJunto a esta una segunda pregunta es coacutemo proporcionar ayuda a los alumnosindividuales para que su aprendizaje les permita de hecho avanzar en su desa-rrollo

Procurando proporcionar respuesta a estas preguntas el concepto de ldquoactivi-dad guiadardquo junto con el de recapitulacioacuten de la secuencia de desarrollo de losmodos de conocimiento puede ofrecer un comienzo uacutetil Los nintildeos cuandoingresan en la escuela han dominado en gran parte los modos de conocimientoasociados con la accioacuten el gesto y el habla (Nelson 1996) Lo que ahora necesi-tan es un aprendizaje de los modos de conocimiento asociado con el lenguajeescrito y de las distintas clases de representacioacuten simboacutelica que derivan de eacutelndashmatemaacutetica cientiacutefica musical etceacuteterandash Es decir necesitan aprenderlos parausar estas formas de representacioacuten como herramienta para la deliberacioacutenmediada la comunicacioacuten reflexiva y el pensamiento y para apropiarse de losdiferentes dominios de conocimiento teoacuterico que han sido construidos acumula-tivamente por las generaciones previas con la ayuda de las ventajas que confierenesos sistemas de ldquomemoria externardquo (Donald 1991)

La recapitulacioacuten del desarrollo histoacuterico cultural orienta la trayectoria a largoplazo para la educacioacuten formal en la escuela y en otras instituciones Pero inclusomaacutes importante para procurar responder la pregunta central presentada arriba esdeterminar los procedimientos efectivos para organizar los pequentildeos pasos queconfiguran las lecciones las unidades curriculares y los programas anuales a lolargo de esta trayectoria Basaacutendonos en las ideas presentadas en la seccioacuten ante-rior dos principios parecen en siacute mismos evidentes En primer lugar los encuen-tros educativos necesitan para estar organizados ser ldquoactividades conjuntasrdquo enlas que todos los participantes contribuyen a las metas convenidas con lo mejorde sus habilidades Y en segundo lugar debe convertirse en norma dar y recibirayuda por parte de cada participante Una de las implicaciones de estos dos prin-cipios es que no puede haber formas universales mejores para participar en alguacutenaspecto del curriculum puesto que cada clase variacutea en las experiencias e interesesque sus miembros aportan y en los valores y praacutecticas aprendidos culturalmenteque motivan y dirigen su implicacioacuten con el nuevo conocimiento y con las habi-lidades que estaacuten esperando dominar

Aunque siempre es importante reconocer valorar y construir sobre las expe-riencias previas de los alumnos ha llegado a ser incluso maacutes necesario a medidaque la migracioacuten tanto inter como intra paiacuteses ha aumentado significativamen-te ya que las diferentes etnias clases y religiones en las comunidades han dadolugar a su vez a comunidades de escuela y aula cada vez maacutes diversas ndashy estadiversidad es incluso mayor donde una proporcioacuten sustancial de alumnos estaacuteaprendiendo la lengua de clase como una segunda lengua (o subsiguiente)ndash Taldiversidad en el bagaje cultural y en la experiencia previa es generalmente vistocomo un problema que necesita ser superado en paiacuteses donde los disentildeadores delcurriculum apuntan a estandarizar la instruccioacuten para alcanzar ideacutenticos resulta-dos para todos los estudiantes como es hoy el caso en Estados Unidos Sin

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187182

embargo cuando las diferencias entre personas en teacuterminos de experiencia valo-res y praacutecticas son reconocidas como normales y deseables esta diversidad puedeconvertirse en una ventaja en la clase ya que las praacutecticas y puntos de vista alter-nativos que afloran pueden enriquecer la comunidad de clase y conducir a discu-siones valiosas en las que las creencias dadas por sentadas sean modificadas y sealcance una comprensioacuten maacutes profunda de los puntos considerados (Wells1999)

En este contexto he encontrado de ayuda pensar en el aprendizaje basado enla escuela en teacuterminos de una espiral del conocimiento donde el resultado espe-rado con cada giro de la espiral es una mayor comprensioacuten (Wells 1999) (verFigura 3) En la primera fase cuando la clase se embarca en un nuevo aspecto delcurriculum es importante animar a los alumnos a compartir sus experienciasprevias ya que como las investigaciones en campos muy diferentes han mostra-do (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotski) esas experiencias proporcionan elpunto de partida para su aprendizaje sean o no reconocidas puacuteblicamente Des-cubriendo lo que los estudiantes ya saben y aquello que les interesa explorar conmaacutes detalle el profesor puede tambieacuten planificar la unidad en cooperacioacuten conlos alumnos (Donoahue 2003) La segunda fase de la espiral conlleva varios acer-camientos a la nueva informacioacuten ndashmediante la explicacioacuten del profesor a traveacutesde materiales impresos o medios audiovusiales o en la forma de feedback de laspropias acciones e investigaciones de los alumnosndash Es importante reconocer sinembargo que la recepcioacuten de la nueva informacioacuten no asegura en siacute misma unaumento de la comprensioacuten Para que esto ocurra la nueva informacioacuten debearticularse con la comprensioacuten existente y con la experiencia previa relevantepara ser despueacutes puesta a prueba mediante la accioacuten en el mundo ndashobteniendofeedback (informacioacuten adicional)ndash yo mediante el diaacutelogo con otros para laconstruccioacuten del conocimiento donde el propoacutesito es llegar a una eleccioacuten con-sensuada entre las teoriacuteas alternativas demandas o interpretaciones sobre la basede una consideracioacuten de las evidencias y argumentos apropiados Finalmentepara consolidar la nuevas comprensiones obtenidas es valioso para la clase com-pleta reflexionar juntos sobre lo que han aprendido y sobre el proceso de cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento en el que han participado sobre las implicaciones quela nueva comprensioacuten tiene para sus propias acciones ndashtanto fuera como dentrode clasendash y sobre las preguntas importantes a las que ellos deben ahora dirigir susinvestigaciones futuras En otras palabras la fase final en el ciclo implica a lacomunidad en un ldquoacercamiento lsquometarsquordquo (Olson y Bruner 1996) es decir en laadopcioacuten de una perspectiva metacognitiva sobre su propio aprendizaje que a lolargo de miles de antildeos probablemente ha jugado un importante papel en eldesarrollo de cada modo de conocimiento presentado en la siacutentesis del desarrollohistoacuterico cultural de Donald (1991)3

Esta espiral necesita varias anotaciones adicionales La primera tiene quever con la naturaleza incompleta y provisional del conocimiento eacuteste estaacutesiempre abierto a la mejora mediante ciclos futuros a traveacutes de la espiral Lasegunda anotacioacuten concierne a la naturaleza esencialmente interactiva ysocial del crecimiento individual y comunitario en la comprensioacuten eacutesta seconsigue gracias a los esfuerzos de los participantes para clarificar sus pro-pios significados a los otros y alternativamente para tener en cuenta y res-ponder a los de los demaacutes (Bajtiacuten 1986) En tercer lugar es necesario enfati-zar que el crecimien to en la comprensioacuten requeriraacute espirales futuras queactiven los diferentes modos de conocimiento ya que la mayoriacutea de los cam-bios y problemas que ocurren en las instituciones maacutes allaacute del aula deman-dan un conocimiento procedimental substantivo y esteacutetico al igual que

183El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

teoacuterico y cada modo de conocimiento tiene una contribucioacuten que hacer aleacutexito de soluciones comprensivas que realcen significativamente la com-prensioacuten Finalmente en la representacioacuten de estas relaciones en la figura 3la espiral tambieacuten resalta la interdependencia de los individuos y la comuni-dad Mientras que la experiencia y la comprensioacuten son esencialmente indivi-duales en su naturaleza crecen fuera de eacutel y adoptan su significado de la par-ticipacioacuten de los individuos en el intercambio de informacioacuten y en su com-promiso en la construccioacuten de conocimiento en la comunidad extensa de laque cada individuo es miembro

Desafortunadamente muchos educadores no comprenden estas relacionesfundamentales y por eso su instruccioacuten no es conceptualizada y planificada demanera que sea oacuteptima para el desarrollo de los estudiantes Como numerososestudios han mostrado (Langer y Applebee 1987 Nystrand y Gamoran 1991)en la mayoriacutea de las clases la que gobierna la praacutectica es la concepcioacuten bancariadel conocimiento (Freire 1970) seguacuten la cual el propoacutesito de la instruccioacuten quetiene lugar en el aula es que un alumno individual esteacute preparado para puntuarbien en los tests y no tanto ampliar su conocimiento Dada esta orientacioacuten lasactividades en las que se pide a los alumnos que participen estaacuten determinadaspor la guiacutea curricular del libro de texto maacutes que por el conocimiento de los pro-fesores sobre los intereses y habilidades de los alumnos particulares de los queson responsables A esto es a lo que Tharp y Gallimore (1988) se refieren con laexpresioacuten ldquoguioacuten recitativordquo unido a la ocupacioacuten de un lugar individual de tra-bajo que domina la rutina diaria Ademaacutes los planes sobre coacutemo proceder sonndashcomo cabiacutea esperarndash unilateralmente impuestos en lugar de ser configuradossobre la base de las decisiones tomadas por la comunidad de clase como un todoy el modus operandi es la competicioacuten en lugar de la colaboracioacuten

Sin embargo como he argumentado en otra parte (Wells 1986 19992002a) eacuteste no es el uacutenico modo en el que la escolarizacioacuten puede ser condu-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187184

FIGURA 3La espiral del conocimiento

ACCIOacuteN Construccioacuten

deconocimiento

ComprensioacutenSubstantivo

Esteacutetico

Teoacuterico

Procedimental

Instrumental

Experiencia Informacioacuten

Modos de conocimiento

cida ndasha pensar de la larga historia de la recitacioacuten que se remonta a maacutes detres mil antildeos a las tempranas instituciones que entrenaban a los escribas yadministradores para leer y escribir (Cole 1996)ndash Pero probablemente elmodo por defecto de la escolarizacioacuten es parecido a una preparacioacuten para ldquolavida adultardquo y no una etapa criacutetica del desarrollo que merece la pena y essignificativa en siacute misma Como Vygotski argumentoacute sobre el dominio de laalfabetizacioacuten ldquola ensentildeanza debe organizarse de tal manera que la lectura yla escritura sean necesarias para algo La escritura debe ser incorporada enuna tarea relevante y necesaria para la vidardquo (1978 pp117-118) Y porldquovidardquo quiere decir no la vida futura sino la totalidad de los intereses y pre-ocupaciones actuales de los aprendices

En los uacuteltimos antildeos se han divulgado proyectos de una variedad de paiacuteses enlos que educadores universitarios han procurado crear condiciones para elldquoaprendizaje auteacutenticordquo en las aulas En todos estos proyectos se ha otorgado unpapel central a las actividades colaborativas que alternando entre los formatos departicipacioacuten individual en pequentildeo grupo y de la clase completa implican alos estudiantes en la exploracioacuten de temas centrales mediante investigacionespraacutecticas y tambieacuten teoacutericas y en la discusioacuten criacutetica y constructiva de sus hallaz-gos y de las implicaciones para futuras acciones El espacio no permite aquiacute unadiscusioacuten individual de estos proyectos pero lo que puede ser dicho sobre todosellos es que en sus diferentes formas valoran tanto los intereses de los alumnoscomo sus experiencias previas y persiguen ayudarles a desarrollar la disposicioacutenpara buscar la comprensioacuten maacutes que la acumulacioacuten simple de informacioacuten ypara valorar la colaboracioacuten maacutes que la competicioacuten como el medio para alcanzaresta menta4

En este contexto es digno atraer la atencioacuten hacia varias instituciones poste-riores a la escuela tales como la Fifth Dimension donde la participacioacuten en activi-dades elegidas personalmente ndasha menudo basadas en ordenadoresndash requiere a losnintildeos dominar habilidades que son tambieacuten necesarias para la escolarizacioacuten y lesproporcionan oportunidades para interactuar con voluntarios universitarios enuna posicioacuten de igualdad (Brown y Cole 2002) De manera similar algunosprogramas basados en museos (Leinhardst Crowley y Kuntson 2002) y variasformas de educacioacuten al aire libre tambieacuten capitalizan los intereses de los estu-diantes para implicarles en actividades desafiantes que demandan para la cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento procesos de diaacutelogo y toma de decisiones comparablesa aquellos encontrados en los contextos escolares previamente descritos

Finalmente si estas praacutecticas pioneras arraigan e influyen en la educacioacutenpuacuteblica con mayor amplitud es esencial que los profesores tengan oportunidadessimilares para desarrollar las disposiciones y pericia necesarias para actuar comoagentes de cambio y liacutederes de una reforma en las instituciones en las que traba-jan Es por lo tanto estimulante ver que a pesar del eacutenfasis de los dirigentes poliacute-ticos en estandarizar los curricula y en los resultados cuantificables algunos pro-gramas de formacioacuten de profesores y desarrollo profesional anima a los profeso-res sobre la base de investigaciones sobre su propia praacutectica a tomar sus propiasdecisiones sobre queacute debe ser ensentildeado y coacutemo y a compartir los resultados desus investigaciones con los compantildeeros Este ha sido el motor de mi propio tra-bajo en los antildeos recientes ya que he participado en la investigacioacuten colaborativacon profesores para crear y mantener comunidades de investigacioacuten tanto en cla-ses como entre los mismos profesores5

185El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Notas1 La secuencia temporal implicada por esta formulacioacuten ha sido ampliamente debatida y especialmente el movimiento desde fueraa dentro que sugiere Mi propia comprensioacuten de lo que la apropiacioacuten supone se capta mejor con el ejemplo de aprender a bailarmediante la inmersioacuten en la actividad con otros (Wells 1999) En muchos casos no hay separacioacuten entre antes y despueacutes o entrefuera y dentro y no hay necesidad de demostracioacuten o ejemplificacioacuten En lugar de esto estando inmerso en la actividad conjuntael principiante es literalmente entrenado fiacutesicamente por los movimiento del coparticipante mientras que al mismo tiempoconstruye su propia organizacioacuten ndashy quizaacute incluso una representacioacuten esquemaacuteticandash de los movimientos corporales A lo largo deltiempo este esquema estaacute tan bien organizado que el principiante se convierte en un experto que estaacute preparado paralelamentepara introducir a otros en la actividad Esto es lo que Lave y Wenger (1991) y Rogoff (2003) quieren decir por desarrollo median-te la participacioacuten en actividades culturales

2 Estoy agradecido a Natalia Gajdamaschko y Steve Gabosch por sus valiosas discusiones de esta distincioacuten durante el XMCA cursoonline sobre la teoriacutea de la actividad histoacuterico cultural Abril 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Aunque estaacute incluido en la Tabla I este modo de conocimiento no ha sido discutido aquiacute ya que el reconocimiento expliacutecito deeste importante modo de conocimiento es muy reciente (Brown 1975) Sin embargo eso no significa que sea en siacute mismo unnuevo fenoacutemeno

4 Para algunos ejemplos representativos veacutease Brown y Campione 1994 Lampert Rittenhouse y Crumbaugh 1996 McMahonRaphael Goatley y Pardo 1997 Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford y Brown 1998 Scardamalia Bereiter y Lamon 1994

5 Juntos formamos un grupo de investigacioacuten colaborativo DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project)(Wells (Ed) 2001)

ReferenciasBAJTIacuteN M M (1986) Speech genres and other late essays Austin University of Texas PressBERNSTEIN B (1982) Codes modalities and the process of cultural reproduction A model En M Apple (Ed) Cultural and econo-

mic reproduction in education (pp 304-355) Londres Routledge amp Kegan PaulBROWN A L (1975) The development of memory Knowing knowing about knowing and knowing how to know En H W

Reese (Ed) Advances in child development and behavior (Vol 10 pp 103-152) Nueva York Academic Press BROWN A L amp CAMPIONE J C (1994) Guided discovery in a community of learners En K McGilly (Ed) Integrating cognitive

theory and classroom practice Classroom lessons (pp 229-270) Cambridge MA MIT PressBradford BooksBROWN K amp COLE M (2002) Cultural historical activity theory and the expansion of opportunities for learning after school En

G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 225-238)Oxford Blackwell

BRUNER J S (1990) Acts of meaning Cambridge MA Harvard University PressCARR M (2002) Emerging learning narratives A perspective from early childhood education En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds)

Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 99-111) Oxford BlackwellCOLE M (1996) Cultural psychology A once and future discipline Cambridge MA The Bellknap Press of Harvard University PressDEACON T W (1997) The symbolic species The co-evolution of language and the brain Nueva York NortonDIAMOND J (1998) Guns germs and steel The fates of human societies Nueva York NortonDONALD M (1991) Origins of the Modern Mind Three Stages in the Evolution of Culture and Cognition Cambridge MA Harvard

University PressDONOAHUE Z (2003) Science teaching and learning Teachers and children plan together Networks 6(1) httpwwwoiseuto-

rontoca~ctdnetworksjournal Vol 6 (1) 2003marchENGESTROumlM Y (1999) Activity theory and individual and social transformation Y En Engestrom R Miettinen amp R-L Puna-

maki (Eds) Perspectives on activity theory (pp 19-38) Cambridge Cambridge University PressFREIRE P (1970) Pedagogy of the oppressed Nueva York Herder and HerderHALLIDAY M A K (1975) Learning how to mean Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1978) Language as social semiotic The social interpretation of language and meaning Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1993) Towards a language-based theory of learning Linguistics and Education 5 93-116HASAN R (2002) Semiotic mediation and mental development in pluralistic societies Some implications for tomorrowrsquos schoo-

ling En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural peerspectives on the future of education (pp112-126) Oxford Blackwell

HEATH S B (1983) Ways with words Cambridge Cambridge University PressLAMPERT M RITTENHOUSE P amp CRUMBAUGH C (1996) Agreeing to disagree Developing sociable mathematical discourse En

D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook of education and human development (pp 731-764) Cambridge MA Blackwell LANGER J A amp APPLEBEE A N (1987) How writing shapes thinking A study of teaching and learning Urbana IL National Council

of Teachers of EnglishLAVE J (1996) Teaching as learning in practice Mind Culture and Activity 3 (3) 149-164LAVE J amp WENGER E (1991) Situated Learning Legitimate peripheral participation Nueva York Cambridge University PressLEINHARDT G CROWLEY K amp KNUTSON K (2002) Learning conversations Explanation and identity in museums Mahwah NJ

Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesLEONTIEV A N (1981) The problem of activity in psychology En J VWertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 37-71) Armonk NY SharpeMAYBIN J MERCER N amp STIERER B (1992) lsquoScaffoldingrsquo learning in the classroom En K Norman (Ed) Thinking voices The

work of the National Oracy Project (pp 186-195) Londres Hodder amp StoughtonMCMAHON S I RAPHAEL T E GOATLEY V J amp PARDO L S (Eds) (1997) The Book Club connection Literacy learning and class-

room talk Nueva York Teachers College PressNELSON K (1996) Language in cognitive development The emergence of the mediated mind Nueva York Cambridge University PressNEWSON J (1978) Dialogue and development En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol The emergence of language (pp 31-42)

New York Academic Press

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187186

NYSTRAND M amp GAMORAN A (1991) Student engagement When recitation becomes conversation En H C Waxman amp H JWalberg (Eds) Effective teaching Current research (pp 257-276)Berkeley CA McCutchan Publishing Corp

OLSON D R amp BRUNER J S (1996) Folk psychology and folk pedagogy En D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook ofeducation and human development (pp 9-27) Cambridge MA Blackwell

PALINCSAR A MAGNUSSON S MARANO N FORD D amp BROWN N (1998) Designing a community of practice Principlesand practices of the GIsML Community Teaching and Teacher Education 14 (1) 5-20

PIAGET J (1970) Piagetrsquos theory En P H Mussen (Ed) Carmichaelrsquos handbook of child development (pp 703-732) Nueva YorkWiley

PONTECORVO C amp STERPONI L (2002) Learning to argue and reason through discourse in educational settings En G Wells ampG Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 127-140) OxfordBlackwell

ROGOFF B (1990) Apprenticeship in thinking Cognitive development in social context Nueva York Oxford University PressROGOFF B (1994) Developing understanding of the idea of Communities of Learners Mind Culture and Activity 1 (4) 209-

229ROGOFF B (2003) The cultural nature of human development Nueva York Oxford University PressROSENBLATT L (1978) The reader the text the poem The transactional theory of the literary work Carbondale IL Southern Illinois

University PressSCARDAMALIA M C BEREITER amp LAMON M (1994) The CSILE project Trying to bring the classroom into World 3 En K

McGilley (Ed) Classroom lessons Integrating cognitive theory and classroom practice (pp 201-228) Cambridge MA MITPress

SCRIBNER S (1985) Vygotskyrsquos uses of history En J V Wertsch (Ed) Culture communication and cognition Vygotskian perspectives(pp 119-145) Cambridge Cambridge University Press

THARP R amp GALLIMORE R (1988) Rousing minds to life Nueva York Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C (1979) Communication and cooperation in early infancy a description of primary intersubjectivity En M

Bullowa (Ed) Before speech The beginning of interpersonal communication (pp 321-348) Cambridge Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C amp HUBLEY P (1978) Secondary intersubjectivity Confidence confiding and acts of meaning in the first year

En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol the emergence of language (pp 183-230) Nueva York Academic PressVYGOTSKI L S (1978)Mind in society The development of higher psychological processes Cambridge MA Harvard University PressVYGOTSKI L S (1981) The genesis of higher mental functions En J V Wertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 144-188) Armonk NY SharpeVYGOTSKI L S (1987) Thinking and speech En R W Rieber amp A S Carton (Eds) The collected works of L S Vygotsky Volumen

1 Problems of general psychology (pp 39-285) Nueva York PlenumWARTOFSKY M (1979) Models representation and scientific understanding Boston ReidelWELLS G (1985) Language development in the pre-school years Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (1986) The meaning makers Children learning language and using language to learn Portsmouth NH HeinemannWELLS G (1999) Dialogic inquiry Towards a sociocultural practice and theory of education Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (Ed) (2001) Action talk and text Learning and teaching through inquiry Nueva York Teachers College PressWELLS G (2002a) Learning and teaching for understanding The key role of collaborative knowledge building En J Brophy

(Ed) Social constructivist teaching Affordances and constraints (pp 1-41) Osford Elsevier ScienceJAIWELLS G (2002b) The role of dialogue in activity theory Mind Culture and Activity 9 (1) 43-66WERTSCH J V MINICK N amp ARNS F J (1984) The creation of context in joint problem solving En B Rogoff amp J Lave (Eds)

Everyday cognition Its development in social context (pp 151-171) Cambridge Cambridge University PressWOOD D BRUNER J S amp ROSS G (1976) The role of tutoring in problem-solving Journal of Child Psychology and Child Psy-

chiatry 17 89-100

187El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Original text

Introduction

Compared with other species the characteristic that distinguishes humans isthe ability and proclivity to engage in tool-mediated joint activity with otherhumans It is this characteristic that accounts for the development of human cul-tures over the course of history as they invented artefacts of various kinds inorder to adapt to and exploit the ecological niches in which they found themsel-ves It also accounts for the diversity of individual personsrsquo development whichdepend on the particular activities in which they participate As Vygotsky(1978 1981) was one of the first to point out the lsquohigherrsquo mental functions thatmake us human are not biologically given but are developmentally constructedthrough the appropriation of historically developed tools and practices that aremade manifest to the child and lsquoscaffoldedrsquo in the meaningful actions and utte-rances of the coparticipants in joint activity

Before continuing readers might find it interesting to reflect on their owndevelopmental trajectories to who they are today I suspect that they may findthemselves agreeing that Who we become depends on the company we keep and what wedo together

A Brief History of the Development of Joint Activity

Leontrsquoev provides a succinct account of Vygotskyrsquos insight in the followingsummary

The initial ideas that led Vygotsky to investigate the genesis of internal mental activity fromexternal activity are fundamentally different from the theoretical approaches of other modernauthors These ideas came from the analysis of the features unique to human productive laboractivity which is mediated by tools This activity is initially social in nature that is it is deve-loped under the conditions of cooperation and social interaction among people Vygotskyidentified two main interconnected features [of this activity] that are necessarily fundamentalfor psychology its tool-like (lsquoinstrumentalrsquo) structure and its inclusion in a system of interre-lations with other people It is these features that define the nature of human psychologicalprocesses The tool mediates activity and thus connects humans not only with the world ofobjects but also with other people Because of this humanrsquos activity assimilates the experience ofhumankind This means that humansrsquo mental processes (their lsquohigher psychological functionsrsquo)acquire a structure necessarily tied to the sociohistorically formed means and methods trans-mitted to them by others in the process of cooperative labor and social interaction But it isimpossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in any way otherthan a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words higher psycho-logical processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction with others thatis through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried out indepen-dently by the individual (Leontrsquoev 1981 pp 55-56 emphases in the original)

As well as emphasizing the social and cooperative nature of human activity thisquotation is important with respect to the arguments that I want to develop inthis paper as it highlights the central role of semiotic mediation in developmentKnowledge is created as well as appropriated in the discourse among peoplewho are working together in a specific situation in order to create or improve anartefact or to solve a problem of importance to the group However Leontrsquoevalso alludes to another of Vygotskyrsquos key insights namely that in order tounderstand current activity it is necessary to investigate the history of that acti-vity It is to this that I next turn

In analyzing the history of human development at least four different time-scales need to be considered The longest is the history of the cultural evolution of

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

the species (the phylogenetic level) next is the historical development of particu-lar cultures The third level (ontogenetic) traces the developmental trajectory ofindividual humans over the course of the lifespan Finally the microgenetic levelis concerned with the development of an instance of a particular activity

In practice it is the latter that has been explored in most detail for usingcontemporary technology it is relatively easy to observe and record the sequenceof actions through which an activity is enacted and the specific operations inwhich the participants engage making use of the relevant artefacts that are avai-lable in the situation (Leontrsquoev 1981) These artefacts may be either material(knives pencils automobiles) or symbolic (utterances maps theories) ndashthoughas Cole (1996) has pointed out to function as mediators of joint activity all arte-facts must have some form of material embodiment as well as a symbolic mea-ning that is to say they must be ready to hand and also have a cultural signifi-cance relevant to the situation

However the form in which a particular instance of activity is realizeddepends not only on the artefacts that are to hand in the situation but also onthe participantsrsquo past experiences with the practices in which the artefacts areused to mediate achievement of the action goals that contribute to the joint acti-vity Thus the microgenesis of a particular instance of activity is necessarilydependent upon the ontogenetic development of the participants that is to sayupon the opportunities their life trajectories have afforded them to appropriatethe relevant cultural knowledge through participation in instances of similaractions and operations

But on the time-scale of ontogenetic development each individualrsquos trajectoryof development is itself strongly influenced by the culture in which he or she isgrowing up and on the historical development of that culture As Rogoff (2003)illustrates in considerable detail cultures vary considerably both over time andacross ecological niches in what mediating artefacts and practices are available andin the relative value accorded to each Moreover within each culture at any parti-cular historical moment participants in activities both incorporate the ways ofprevious generations and adapt them to the exigencies of current conditions

Stepping up one further level the historical development of a particular cul-tures is itself shaped by development on the even larger timescale of the culturaland biological evolution of the species This is the most difficult timescale todescribe in detail for lack of the necessary evidence But certain broad distinc-tions between human communities can be made in terms of their modes of sub-sistence and of the mediating means available for joint activity (Diamond 1998Donald 1991) As recent research has shown our earliest ancestors some 5million years ago lived in small bands of hunter gatherers often on the edge oflakes and oceans Initially their tools were found in the surroundings but overseveral million years they invented ways of making more sophisticated artefactssuch as knives arrowheads baskets and clothing from flints bones skins andvegetable materials Then as some groups migrated to particularly fertile partsof the world they adopted a more settled agrarian way of life growing cropsand breeding animals The resulting ability to produce more food than imme-diately required led in turn to the emergence of trade and to a diversity of spe-cialist occupations such as potters and tailors who exchanged their products forfood and other necessities This stage also saw the development of much largerpopulation groupings with hierarchical class structures that included prieststax collectors and other religious and political functionaries

While migration had been a common feature of human existence from theearliest times the development of large settled populations and of weapons

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

made of bronze and iron led to the expansion of certain cultural groups throughterritorial conquest and colonization by sea and by land As a result during thelast few thousand years the latest phase of phylogenetic development has beencharacterized by the rise and fall of imperial cultures which have imposed theirtechnologies laws and administrative procedures as well as their religions artsknowledge and values on widely diverse subjugated populations Most recentlythe further development of the inventions that led to the first industrial revolu-tion has simply served to increase the scale and intensity of these imperialisttrends At the same time these inventions as well as those of the current indus-trial revolution have also led to a great increase in humansrsquo understanding oftheir social and material environment both through scientific and social rese-arch and through the dissemination of information about other times and placesresulting from travel and the use of print and electronic technologies

In presenting this very condensed account of phylogenetic development Ihave emphasized the material tools that have mediated the progressively morecomplex and diverse activities in which humans have engaged over the course ofthe speciesrsquo history However bearing in mind that what has been the drivingforce of human development is joint activity an equally ndashif not morendash impor-tant determinant of this history is the development of the modes of representa-tion through which humans have communicated and developed their unders-tanding of the world Table I presents the developmental sequence proposed byDonald (1991) based on archeological neuroanatomical historical and othertypes of evidence The table also includes the stages in the historical develop-ment of ways of knowing that were proposed by Wartofsky (1979)

The first stage in this sequence corresponds to the phase in which proto-humans began to diverge from other primate species In this phase as in thebehavior of contemporary higher primates practical action was the predomi-nant form of communication as ndashnot necessarily deliberatelyndash participants sig-naled their intentions in a shared situation and these intentions were interpre-ted and responded to by their co-participants in the activity In the secondmimetic phase which must have developed gradually over many millenniacommunication became somewhat differentiated from the activity to which itreferred as humans deliberately used gestures mime facial expression andvarious types of phonation to comment on as well as to coordinate action and theobjects to which it was directed Later still with the gradual modification of thevocal tract and of the primate brain there emerged the ability to communicatethrough speech and hence the ability to refer not only to particular objects andactions but also to generalized classes and to express observed and intendedrelationships between objects actions and events thus allowing participants toplan for and reflect on the outcomes of joint activity Finally the invention ofwriting which ushered in the final phase in Donaldrsquos proposed sequence occu-rred extremely recently in the long trajectory of phylogenetic development Yetas with those that preceded it enormously increased the human repertoire ofmeans for making and communicating meaning Essentially what it added wasan ldquoexternal memoryrdquo By creating a (relatively) permanent representation oflinguistic meaning it made possible the compilation and distillation of repor-ted information from many sources including the writerrsquos own verbalizedthoughts It also allowed the writer and those who read his or her written textto review critique and revise the meanings expressed and to make the resultsavailable to people in later times and other places for further constructive debateand improvement

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

However action gesture speech and writing are not simply progressivelymore powerful modes of communication They are also progressively morepowerful mediators of thinking This is most obvious with respect to the lin-guistic modes of communication But even before the emergence of speechaction and ndashto an even greater extentndash mimesis enabled humans to think toget-her and thereby to create a shared interpretation of their joint activities In fact ithas been argued that the emergence of language was not simply the result ofbrain and vocal tract development but rather was part of a more general patternof adaptation that building upon the cognitive achievements of mimetic kno-wing strove to integrate the unconnected bits of information in a more compre-hensive and coherent account of being-in-the-world (Deacon 1997) Neverthe-less it is also true that the availability of language greatly enhanced both com-munication and thinking together for as Halliday observed

the grammar of every natural language is (among other things) a theory of human experienceit is through our acts of meaning that we transform experience into the coherent -though farfrom consistent- patchwork that we learn to project as lsquorealityrsquo (1993 p 46)

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

TABLE IModes Of Knowing Phylogenetic And Cultural Development (from Wells 1999)

Time Mode of Participants Donald(1991) Wartofsky(1979)Years BP Knowing

2 million Instrumental Individual in action Episodic Primary artifactsyears material tools

1 -- 15 million Procedural Between individuals while Mimetic Secondaryyears engaged in action artifacts tools

and practicesmimeticinteraction

50000 Substantive Among members of a (Linguistic) Secondaryyears cultural group reflecting on artifacts

action and as a basis for representations ofplanning further action tools and

practices spokeninteraction

50000 Aesthetic Among members of a Mythic Tertiary artifactsyears cultural group making sense artistic represent-

of the human predicament ations in mythnarrative graphicand musical modes

2500 Theoretical Among members of a Theoretic Tertiary artifactsyears specialist community decontextualized

seeking to explain the natural representationsand human world such as

taxonomiestheories models etc

Meta Among members of a Tertiary artifacts cultural group also representations ofindividuals seeking to mental andunderstand and control their semioticown mental activity processes

In sum what Donald and other scholars argue is that contemporary mentalabilities are the outcome of the development over time of a series of progressi-vely more powerful and flexible modes of representation ndashor in Vygotskyanterms of semiotic mediators of higher mental functions- that have made possi-ble the rational theoretically oriented modes of knowing that underpin theachievements of modern science and its technological applications In the philo-sopher Wartofskyrsquos words

our own perceptual and cognitive understanding of the world is in large part shaped andchanged by the representational artifacts we ourselves create We are in effect the products ofour own activity in this way we transform our own perceptual and cognitive modes our waysof seeing and of understanding by means of the representations we make (1979 p xxiii)

There is however one further important aspect of Donaldrsquos (1991) thesis thatis crucial for the argument that I wish to develop Although the semiotic sys-tems of mimesis speech and writing each powered a new mode of cognitiveactivity they did not replace those that preceded but were additive in theireffects The result is that contemporary humans have a variety of modes of kno-wing at their disposal as they engage in joint activity Furthermore most suchactivities call for more than one mode of knowing and require the complemen-tary and interdependent use of more than one mode of representation

Joint Activity as the Site of Ontogenetic Learning and Development

Two important implications follow from the multi-level historical concep-tion of development just outlined First on any occasion the type of activitythat is undertaken and the specific manner in which it is enacted are necessarilydependent on the particular cultural-historical antecedents of the participantsboth human and artefactual that come together in its realization In particularthe manner in which the situation is interpreted ndashin terms of what action goalsare appropriate and how they can be achievedndash depends on the motives valuesand knowledgeable skills of the human participants and on the affordances ofthe technologies available in the situation And second every instance of an acti-vity provides an occasion for a triple transformation of the situation in whichthe activity is carried out of the artefacts and practices that mediate its enact-ment and most importantly of the knowledge and skills of the human partici-pants Taken together these propositions clarify the way in which cultural andindividual development are both interdependent and rooted in particular situa-ted occasions of joint activity As Rogoff (1994) argues

People of each generation as they engage in sociocultural endeavors with other people makeuse of and extend cultural tools and practices inherited from previous generations As peopledevelop through their shared use of cultural tools and practices they simultaneously contribu-te to the transformation of cultural tools practices and institutions (p 52)

Potentially therefore every occasion of joint activity provides an opportunityfor development on the part of all participants This is a point to which I shallreturn But first I want to consider more carefully the concept of developmentitself

Clearly built into the concept of development is the implication of change andtypically of change in the direction of increasing complexity and effectiveness Inother words development is typically taken to imply improvement or progresstoward some ideal end state or capability However in the light of the previousdiscussion such a progression while it may be meaningful to (some of the) partici-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

pants in any particular situation cannot be understood in any absolute sense butmust be seen as relative to the unfolding historical trajectory of the species of aparticular culture and of the immediate community ndashits values its dominantactivities and the knowledgeable skills that form its resources Furthermore just asthese have changed in the past they will continue to change in the future in res-ponse to the changing demands of the larger environment So while ontogeneticdevelopment does indeed involve increasing complexity and effectiveness of indi-vidualsrsquo participation in the activity systems in which they are involved in theirdaily lives the overall trajectory of development is emergent and its endpoint cannever be specified in advance even in terms of an ideal to be attained

Nevertheless this does not mean that there are not strong regularities in thesequence of ontogenetic development particularly in the early years Indeed asNelson (1996) has suggested during the preschool years children follow a trajec-tory very similar to the sequence of phylogenetic development proposed byDonald (1991) (see Table I above) as they appropriate the semiotic tools of repre-sentation afforded by action mimesis speech and writing Of course this is not asimple recapitulation children growing up in a contemporary literate culture forexample are surrounded from birth by artifacts and practices that result from andembody all the available modes of knowing (Cole 1996) Appropriating existingcultural tools is thus very different from inventing them ex novo as Scribner (1985)points out Nevertheless given the combination of biological and cultural inheri-tance it is not surprising that in most if not all cultures children follow the samesequence as did the species as a whole over the course of history

In the first weeks of life infants act on their immediate surroundings bothanimate and inanimate and begin to develop what Piaget (1970) called sensori-motor intelligence However although this most basic form of activity mayappear to be instinctual it is nevertheless also inherently social First all infantsare born into an environment that is cultural in the sense of having been shapedby countless preceding generations and second the infantrsquos actions are treatedas being intentional and are responded to as such So from the beginning theinfant is caught up in social interaction (Newson 1978) In the second phasewhich typically begins in the first few months the infant also begins to engagein mimetic communication through gaze facial expression and rudimentarygesture (Bruner 1990) Couched in terms of primary and secondary intersubjec-tivity this phase has been described in considerable detail by Trevarthen (19781979) Primary intersubjectivity develops as the infant and parent engage inmutual gaze thereby communicating that they are attending to and respondingto each other In secondary intersubjectivity third parties are brought into jointattention as the parent through gaze directs the infantrsquos attention to an object ofpotential interest or follows the childrsquos direction of gaze and signals that he orshe is also attending to the same object

It is on this basis of joint action and attention that towards the end of thefirst year the child begins to exploit his or her growing command of vocaliza-tion often accompanied by gesture to begin to communicate through speechFrom research predominantly involving children in ldquoWesternrdquo societies it hasbeen established that at first the childrsquos utterances are idiosyncratic drawingonly partially ndashif at allndash on the speech of those around him or her neverthelessparents and other family members have little difficulty in interpreting them incontext and once again they respond in a manner that is contingent on theirinterpretation thereby establishing spoken communication as a joint interactiveactivity By the end of the second year however children appear to abandon thisidiosyncratic ldquoprotolanguagerdquo form of communication and begin to construct a

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

linguistic meaning potential that is systematically related to the language thatis addressed to them in the oft-repeated activities of family life (Bruner 1990Halliday 1975 Wells 1986) Significantly within particular language com-munities the sequence in which children master the basic meanings and thelexicogrammatical forms in which they are realized tends to be very similar fromchild to child (Wells 1985)

The developmental sequence just described ndashaction mimesis speechndash is com-mon to children in all cultures and in all cases takes place in and through jointactivity and interaction with other family and community members Howeveralthough the sequence is universal the manner and pace at which it proceeds varyvery considerably across cultures These differences depend upon many culturally-determined factors such as adult expectations about their childrenrsquos developmentthe position in which the infant is typically held or carried facing the caregiver orturned outwards to face in the same direction as the caregiver the makeup and sizeof the interactional groups in which communication typically occurs and whetherthese events are part of family and community life more generally or are delibera-tely arranged and structured for the presumed benefit of the child (Rogoff 2003)In the later stages of language development the range and extent of the meaningpotential that children construct begins to vary even more widely depending onthe activities in which they engage the linguistic registers that are used in thoseactivities and the stances typically adopted by interlocutors toward the use of lan-guage in their interactions with children (Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

So far the ontogenetic developmental sequence I have described is funda-mentally similar across cultures and follows the phylogenetic sequence in whichhumans have progressively added new semiotic mediational means to theircommunicative repertoires In an important sense therefore the final mode ofrepresentation in Donaldrsquos scheme that of writing is an optional extra sincemany cultures have survived and prospered without a written mode of represen-ting meaning Moreover even in cultures that have a writing system the extentand scope of literacy that individuals attain varies very considerably dependingon the activity systems in which they participate the value that is placed onwritten texts by those communmities the purposes to which they are put andthe genres that are used for those purposes However since literacy and its usesare so strongly associated with schooling I shall leave further discussion of thismode of semiotic mediation to a later part of this paper

Before concluding this section however I want to explore further the con-cept of semiotic mediation In one of the better known passages in Vygotskyrsquoswritings where he argued for the social and cultural origin of higher mentalfunctions he wrote that every function occurs on two planes first in activity andinteraction between people and then within the individual learner (Vygotsky1981) What bridges between these two planes as is clear from his other wri-tings is semiotic mediation To recall Leontrsquoevrsquos formulation of this argument

hellip it is impossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in anyway other than a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words hig-her psychological processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction withothers that is through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried outindependently by the individual (1981 pp 55-56)

In other words when people engage in joint activity their actions gesturesand speech not only mediate the coordination of participation but they alsomake overt the mental activities involved and so render them available forappropriation by novice participants1 Halliday is very clear about this Alt-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

hough the following quotation refers only to language the term lsquolanguagersquocould justifiably be replaced by lsquosemiotic mediationrsquo

In the development of the child as a social being language has the central role Language is themain channel through which the patterns of living are transmitted to him through which helearns to act as a member of lsquosocietyrsquo ndashin and through the various social groups the family theneighbourhood and so onndash and to adopt its lsquoculturersquo its modes of thought and action itsbeliefs and its values (1978 p 9)

However as the child grows older language does become the predominantmode of semiotic mediation and as he wrote in a later paper ldquoLanguage is theessential condition of knowing the process by which experience becomes know-ledge (Halliday 1993 p 94 original emphasis)

Assistance for Learning in Joint Activitie

So far in the discussion of the role of joint activity in human development Ihave concentrated on the tools and particularly the semiotic modes of represen-tation that mediate the achievement of the outcome of activity In this sectionon the other hand I turn to the role of other people in this process both familymembers and the larger community

Until now I have referred to coparticipants in an activity in general termsbut clearly there are further distinctions to be made Particularly helpful in thisrespect is Engestroumlmrsquos model of an activity system which is shown in figure 1

What this model shows is that when we look at an ongoing activity from thepoint of view of an individual participant (t Subject) that individual is involvedin a nexus of other relationships that link him or her to other lsquoparticipantsrsquo theTools and artifacts to mediate action on the Object but also the Community of

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 1The Triangle of Activity

Artifactstools andpractices

Values rulesamp conventions

Community Divisioacutenof labor

Engestrom 1999

Object OutcomeSubject

others engaged in the activity together with the Division of Labor within thatcommunity and also the Rules and Conventions that govern the manner inwhich the activity is carried out (Engestroumlm 1999) What this latter category oflsquoparticipantrsquo underscores is the historical dimension of an activity system sincethese rules and conventions ndashas well as the tools and artifactsndash bring into thepresent the distilled practices of previous generations who have engaged in theactivity as these are interpreted and utilized by the current community

To illustrate the relevance of this model to the development of the youngchild we might compare two versions of a similar activity reported by WertschMinick and Arns (1984) In their study Brazilian children carried out a puzzletask on two occasions first with the mother and secondly with a primary tea-cher What the researchers found was that in general the mothers and teachersengaged in the activity in systematically different ways Whereas the motherstended to direct the childrenrsquos behavior or even carry out parts of the task them-selves in order to complete it in an efficient manner ndashjust as they would havedone if engaged in a household taskndash the teachers tended to encourage thechildrsquos autonomous performance and only provided hints and suggestions whenthey judged them to be necessary to advance the childrenrsquos understandingInterpreting these results the researchers suggested that the two groups ofadults belonged to two different communities (or activity systems) that had dif-ferent rules and conventions about engaging in this joint activity And this inturn led to the different divisions of labor that they observed Similarly Rogoff(2003) cites many examples of substantial differences between cultures inalmost all aspects of child rearing with respect to their ways of engaging chil-dren in the activities that they consider important

What is clear is that ldquobehindrdquo the particular adult ndashor older siblings in someculturesndash who are directly engaged with the child there is a wider communityof family members neighbors and others who have an interest in the upbrin-ging of children and who share beliefs about appropriate ways to involve themin the activities of daily life So whether in Spain Japan or the Peruvian High-lands although the actual practices vary across cultures in each those responsi-ble for childrenrsquos well-being and development act as agents of a wider commu-nity whose beliefs and practices are rooted in a long tradition concerning howactivities should be carried out But equally in all cultures practices also changein response to changes in the world beyond the particular community In manyWestern homes for example computer games or television programs haverecently taken the place of the bedtime story while in many indigenous com-munities crafts that until recently only supplied local needs are now exploitedcommercially for the tourist trade changing the rhythms of daily life and therelationships among family members and the activities in which children areinvolved As suggested earlier therefore in order to understand the activities inwhich children participate today we need to look not only at the immediatesituation but also at the wider community and the changes taking place on allthese time-scales

Microgenesis and the Zone of Proximal Development

It is nevertheless always the immediate microgenetic situation that isthe site of ontogenetic development ndashthe action and interaction between thelearner and those with whom he or she is engaged in the activity in pro-gress When we adopt this microgenetic perspective however we need tomodify the representation of an activity system presented in figure 1 Inthat representation the focus was on the goal-oriented nature of action

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Here we need to focus on the interaction among the participants ndashtheirattempt to attain intersubjectivity with respect to the common object andthe complementarity of the knowledgeable skills they bring to the cocons-truction of the intended outcome (see Figure 2) What figure 2 emphasizesis the fact that although the tools and artefacts that are available to mediatethe jointly undertaken action are the same for each participant each bringsa somewhat different familiarity with their use as a result of their differentlife trajectories and it is this variability in their expertise that makes it pos-sible for each to provide assistance to the others in at least some aspects ofthe joint action Viewed in this light it is clear why Vygotsky emphasizedthe role of joint activity in development and wrote of its potential to enablelearners ldquoto go beyond themselvesrdquo with the assistance of more expertothers

The metaphor Vygotsky used to characterize the potential for learning thatthis sort of activity creates was the ldquozone of proximal developmentrdquo As hewrote when another participant in the activity provides instruction that isappropriately pitched beyond what the learner can manage to do on his or herown it ldquowakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturationlying in the zone of proximal developmentrdquo (1987 p 212) Vygotsky concep-tualized development as the formation of new functional systems (ldquoneoforma-tionsrdquo) and of changes in the relationships among systems which he consideredto occur as a succession of ldquocrises of developmentrdquo that are particularly facilitatedby engagement in the relevant ldquoleading activityrdquo at each stage for example playin childhood and learning to read and write in the early school yearsHowever itwould be a mistake to focus only on the periods of revolutionary change since ashe equally emphasized at any time there are also other more gradual processes ofgrowth

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 2Dialogue in Joint Activity(from Wells2002b)

Outcomematerial ampsemioticartefacts

Toolsartefacts

Subject

Rulesconventions

Community Divisionof labor

Subject

Toolsartefacts

Processes that are central lines of development at one age become peripheral lines of develop-ment at the following age and conversely peripheral lines of development of one age arebrought to the forefront and become central lines since their meaning and relative significancein the total structure of development changes (p 197)2

In developing his important concept of the zone of proximal developmentVygotsky tended to characterize the assistance given by others as ldquoinstructionrdquoand to see its value in ldquothe childrsquos potential to raise himself to a higher intellec-tual level of development through collaboration to move from what he has towhat he does not have through imitationrdquo (1987 p 210) However manyrecent scholars who have built on his work have taken a broader view of thedevelopmental significance of collaboration in joint activities and have characte-rized the assistance that is provided within this relationship in terms such asldquoapprenticeshiprdquo (Lave amp Wenger 1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoguided participationrdquo(Rogoff 1994 2003) and ldquoscaffoldingrdquo (Wood et al 1976) Neverthelesswhile these different metaphors highlight different features of the relationshipwhat they all have in common is the inclusion of the learner in an activity inwhich there is provision of the assistance necessary to help the learner to comple-te an activity in which he or she is interested and to do so in such a way that heor she makes progress toward being able to participate more fully and autono-mously in the future (Maybin Mercer and Stierer 1992)

In many joint activities such as for example traditional forms of craftapprenticeship assistance is only provided when needed and the ldquomasterrdquo doesso with no deliberate didactic intention beyond that of involving the novice inthe completion of the particular task in hand (Lave 1996) Similarly in sociali-zation into activities around the home no explicit instruction is necessary fornovices can learn a great deal by simply watching and listening (cf Rogoff2003) This is what Lave and Wenger (1991) mean when they insist that lear-ning is not an independent activity but an intrinsic aspect of ldquolegitimate perip-heral participationrdquo in a communityrsquos activities From their perspective therefo-re formal education in which learning is the sole purpose of the activity issomething of an anomaly particularly when the only form of assistance providedis the expert teacherrsquos direct instruction and subsequent evaluation of the extentof the studentsrsquo learning

In many recent discussions it has also been recognized that it is not only aldquoteacherrdquo who can provide assistance in the zpd On the one hand in a com-plex activity many participants are more expert than others in some aspectsand therefore on some occasions are able to help those who are less expert(Rogoff 1994) and on the other hand those who provide assistance do nothave to be physically present texts and other artifacts can equally well helpa participant ldquoto go beyond himherselfrdquo as is often the case in intellectualwork such as research and writ ing (Wells 1999) Furthermore asEngestroumlm (1999) and others ndashbuilding on other aspects of Vygotskyrsquos theo-retical writingsndash have noted the material and symbolic tools that have beendeveloped by previous participants in the activity can also provide the samesort of assistance However perhaps the most important point to emphasizeis that there are many situations in which no-one is an expert yet as eachbrings his or her own past experience to the solution of a common problemthe group together is able to achieve more than any single member couldhave done alone Clearly it is such collaboration that has made possible theinventions that have led to the major advances of great civilizations over thecourse of cultural history

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Development in the Pre-School Years

As noted above the responsibility for caring for children in early childhoodvaries very considerably from one society to another Nevertheless in all socie-ties children are involved in joint activities with others in which they receiveassistance with respect to their participation however that may be locally achie-ved For the most part as already mentioned these are activities that are regu-larly repeated in the taken-for-granted routines of daily life The expectation isthat the child will learn to fit in and is simply helped to do so Often referred toas ldquoenculturationrdquo this form of apprenticeship ensures the continuity of the cul-turersquos way of life from one generation to the next and as Donald (1991) arguedit probably occurred even before the emergence of speech

However in all activities there are occasions when problems arise that callfor some level of deliberate decision-making In these situations spoken interac-tion makes possible a degree of reflection and forward planning in which therelations of cause and effect intention action and outcome are made explicitand open to question and discussion The talk that occurs on these occasionsthus plays a particularly important role in helping children to attend to andunderstand the world around them in terms of the culturersquos ways of ldquomakingsenserdquo of it However these occasions can also open up possibilities for changeboth in the form of the activity and in the participantsrsquo understanding of itHow caregivers habitually take up these opportunities is particularly importantfor it plays an important part in shaping the intellectual dispositions withwhich children enter school (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo amp Sterponi2002)

In this section I include some representative examples of kinds of talk thatarise from joint activities in the home These examples are drawn from observa-tions made in settings in England (Wells 1986) and Australia (Hasan 2002) inwhich the young children observed spent most of their time at home with oneparent sometimes with one or more siblings some of the time they entertainedthemselves with occasional adult involvement but they also frequently watchedand ldquohelpedrdquo the parent with household tasks of various kinds

In the first example James (aged 3 12 years) has been playing alone in thegarden and as he reenters the house his mother tries to get him to take off hismuddy shoes However at that moment he sees a bird outside which interestshim more than changing his shoes

Example 1Mother There we are there one slipper onJames I can see a birdMother A what loveJames See a bird Mother (whispering) Is there OutsideJames (pointing and whispering) Yes see

(both continue to speak very softly)Mother Is he eating anythingJames NoMother Where Oh yes hersquos getting- do you know what hersquos doingJames NoMother Hersquos going to the- the paper sack to try to pick out some pieces-

Oh hersquos got some food there and I expect hersquoll pick out somepieces of thread from the sack to go and make his nest under the roofJames Wait a minute and Irsquoll-[James now wants to go out to see more closely but at that moment thebird flies away]

James That birdrsquos gone

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

In the second example Elizabeth (aged 4 years) who is helping with thehouse cleaning watches with interest as her mother shovels wood ash from thefireplace into a bucket

Example 2Elizabeth What are you doing that forMother Irsquom gathering it up and putting it outside so that Daddy can put it on the gardenElizabeth Why does he have to put it on the gardenMother To make the compost rightElizabeth Does that make the grass growMother YesElizabeth Why does itMother You know how I tell you that you need to eat different things like eggs and cab-

bage and rice pudding to make you grow into a big girlElizabeth YesMother Well plants need different foods too and ash is one of the things thatrsquos

good for them

The third example involves James again now eighteen months older Earlierin the afternoon he had been helping his mother with the baking Now hecomes back into the kitchen as his mother is taking the baking trays out of theoven He hears a loud metallic ldquocrackrdquo and asks for an explanation

Example 3James Who did thatMother I expect it was the tin contractingJames Which tinMother The one with your pastry inJames Why did it make that noiseMother Well when it was in the oven it got very hot and stretched a bit Irsquove just taken

it out of the oven and itrsquos cooling down very quickly you see and that noisehappens when it gets smaller again and goes back to its normal shape

James Oh was it a different shape in the ovenMother Oh not very different just a little biggerJames Naughty little tin you might get smacked if you do it again

In all three of these examples the mother willingly responds to the childrsquosinterest and provides information to explain the significance of what the child isseeing or hearing even when in the first this interrupts the motherrsquos plan Allthree cases show how the childrsquos participation in the activity with the adult assu-res that there is intersubjectivity of attention to what interests the child and thisenables the mother to provide relevant information Clearly this is a form ofldquoinstructionrdquo however it is spontaneous and contingent on the childrsquos interestrather than presented as part of a pre-planned curriculum

The third example is particularly interesting from this point of view as thephenomenon of interest to James requires a somewhat technical explanation Atsome point in the future no doubt the expansion of metal when heated and itssubsequent contraction when removed from the heat will figure in the schoolscience curriculum in relation to the systematic study of heat here however itis an interesting side-effect of baking and the motherrsquos explanation while tech-nical in content is couched in everyday language rather than in the abstractterms of scientific generalization As Hasan (2002) has observed

the discourse of quasi specialised knowledge occurs in the lsquomiddle ofrsquo daily activities and bynecessity it calls for a readiness on the motherrsquos part to entertain contextual shifts to bewilling to reclassify the context of the on-going discourse The tendency to move with thechildrsquos moving discourse the readiness to re-classify context is a discourse characteristic of thesame group of mothers who frequently ask questions made precise by qualification and whoattend to their childrenrsquos questions and provide them with well developed answers (p 123)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 9: Actividad y Aprendizaje

les que los nintildeos construyen comienza a variar incluso de manera maacutes ampliadependiendo de las actividades en las que intervengan de los registros linguumliacutesti-cos que se usan en esas actividades y de las posturas tiacutepicamente adoptadas porlos interlocutores hacia el uso del lenguaje en sus interacciones con los nintildeos(Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

Hasta ahora la secuencia de desarrollo ontogeneacutetico que he descrito es baacutesica-mente similar en todas las culturas y sigue la secuencia filogeneacutetica en la que loshumanos han ido acumulando de manera progresiva nuevos recursos semioacuteticosmediacionales a sus repertorios comunicativos De forma llamativa por lo tantoel modo uacuteltimo de representacioacuten en el esquema de Donald que es la escrituraes un extra opcional puesto que muchas culturas han sobrevivido y prosperadosin una modalidad escrita de representacioacuten de significados Ademaacutes incluso enculturas que poseen un sistema de escritura el grado y alcance de alfabetizacioacutenque los individuos logran variacutea considerablemente dependiendo de los sistemasde actividad en los que participan del valor otorgado por la comunidad a los tex-tos escritos de los propoacutesitos a los que sirven y de los geacuteneros que se usan paraalcanzar esos propoacutesitos Sin embargo ya que la alfabetizacioacuten y sus usos estaacutenfuertemente asociados a la escolarizacioacuten maacutes adelante abordareacute con mayor pro-fundidad la discusioacuten de esta modalidad de mediacioacuten semioacutetica

Sin embargo quiero explorar con maacutes detalle el concepto de mediacioacutensemioacutetica antes de concluir esta seccioacuten En uno de los pasajes mejor conocidosde los escritos de Vygotski donde argumenta en favor del origen social y cultu-ral de las funciones metales superiores escribe que cada funcioacuten ocurre en dosplanos primero en la actividad e interaccioacuten entre personas y despueacutes en el apren-diz individual (Vygotski 1981) Lo que sirve de puente entre estos dos planoscomo se aclara en otros escritos suyos es la mediacioacuten semioacutetica Recueacuterdesecoacutemo formula Leontiev este argumento

es imposible transmitir los significados y meacutetodos necesarios para realizar un proceso de otraforma que no sea social ndashen la forma de una accioacuten o habla externandash En otras palabras los pro-cesos psicoloacutegicos superiores exclusivamente humanos soacutelo pueden ser adquiridos mediante lainteraccioacuten con otros esto es a traveacutes de un proceso interpsicoloacutegico que soacutelo maacutes tardecomenzaraacute a ser desarrollado independientemente por el individuo (1981 pp 55-56)

En otras palabras cuando las personas realizan una actividad conjunta susacciones gestos y discurso no soacutelo median la coordinacioacuten de la participacioacutentambieacuten hacen puacuteblicas las actividades mentales implicadas quedando asiacute dis-ponibles para su apropiacioacuten por parte de los participantes novatos1 Halliday sepronuncia con mucha claridad al respecto Aunque la cita siguiente se refieresoacutelo al lenguaje el teacutermino ldquolenguajerdquo podriacutea justificadamente ser reemplazadoaquiacute por ldquomediacioacuten semioacuteticardquo

En el desarrollo del nintildeo como un ser social el lenguaje posee el papel central El lenguaje es elprincipal canal por el que los patrones de vida le son transmitidos mediante el cual aprende aactuar como un miembro de la ldquosociedadrdquo ndashen y mediante la variedad de grupos sociales lafamilia los vecinos etceacuteterandash y a adoptar su ldquoculturardquo su modo de pensar y actuar sus creen-cias y sus valoresrdquo (1978 p 9)

Sin embargo a medida que los nintildeos crecen el lenguaje se convierte en elmodo predominante de mediacioacuten semioacutetica y como el mismo autor escribioacute enun trabajo posterior ldquoEl lenguaje es la condicioacuten esencial del conocimiento elproceso por el que la experiencia se convierte en conocimientordquo (Halliday 1993 p94 cursiva en el original)

173El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Ayuda para aprender en actividades conjuntas

Hasta ahora en la discusioacuten del papel de la actividad conjunta en el desarrollohumano me he centrado en las herramientas y particularmente en los modossemioacuteticos de representacioacuten que median los logros obtenidos como resultado dela actividad En esta seccioacuten en cambio me detendreacute en el papel que jueganotras personas ya sean miembros de la familia o de la comunidad extensa

Hasta este momento me he referido a los coparticipantes en una actividad enteacuterminos generales pero claramente hay distinciones adicionales por hacer Par-ticularmente uacutetil al respecto es el modelo de sistema de actividad de Engestroumlmel cual se representa en la figura 1

Lo que este modelo muestra es que cuando observamos una actividad encurso desde el punto de vista de un participante individual (Sujeto t) ese indivi-duo estaacute atrapado en un nudo de relaciones que le unen a otros ldquoparticipantesrdquolas Herramientas y Artefactos para mediar la accioacuten sobre el Objeto pero tam-bieacuten la Comunidad a la que pertenecen las personas implicadas en la actividadjunto con la Divisioacuten de Trabajo propia de la comunidad y tambieacuten las Reglas yConvenciones que gobierna la manera en la que la actividad se desarrolla(Engestroumlm 1999) Lo que subraya esta uacuteltima categoriacutea de ldquoparticipantesrdquo es ladimensioacuten histoacuterica de un sistema de actividad ya que estas reglas y convencio-nes ndashal igual que las herramientas y artefactosndash traen al presente las praacutecticasdestiladas de las generaciones previas que han participado en la actividad y estaspraacutecticas son interpretadas y utilizadas por la comunidad actual

Para ilustrar la relevancia de este modelo en el desarrollo del nintildeo pequentildeopodemos comparar dos versiones de una actividad similar descrita por WertschMinick y Arns (1984) En este estudio un grupo de nintildeos de Brasil ordenan unpuzzle en dos situaciones distintas la primera con sus madres y la segunda conun profesor de primaria Los investigadores observaron que en general las

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187174

FIGURA 1Triaacutengulo de Actividad

Artefactosherramientas y

praacutecticas

Valores reglasy convenciones

Comunidad Divisioacuten delabor

Engestrom 1999

Objeto ResultadosSujeto

madres y los profesores participan en la actividad de manera sistemaacuteticamentediferente Mientras que las madres tendiacutean a dirigir el comportamiento de losnintildeos o incluso a realizar parte de la tarea ellas mismas para completarla de unamanera eficaz ndashtal y como habriacutean hecho si se tratara de una tarea domeacutesticandashlos profesores tendiacutean a promover la actuacioacuten autoacutenoma de los nintildeos y soacutelo pro-porcionaban consejos y sugerencias cuando lo juzgaban necesario para el avancede la comprensioacuten de los nintildeos Interpretando estos resultados los investigado-res sugeriacutean que los dos grupos de adultos perteneciacutean a dos comunidades dife-rentes (o sistemas de actividad) con diferentes reglas y convenciones sobre la par-ticipacioacuten en actividades conjuntas Y esto alternativamente conduciacutea a la dife-rente divisioacuten del trabajo que ellos observaron De manera similar Rogoff(2003) cita muchos ejemplos de diferencias sustanciales entre culturas en casitodos los aspectos del crecimiento infantil con respecto a sus modos de implicar alos nintildeos en las actividades que consideran importantes

Lo que estaacute claro es que ldquodetraacutes derdquo un adulto particular en contacto directocon el nintildeo ndasho en algunas culturas un hermano mayorndash hay una comunidadamplia formada por los miembros de la familia vecinos y otras personas interesa-das en la educacioacuten del nintildeo que comparten determinadas creencias sobre elmodo maacutes apropiado de introducir a los nintildeos en las actividades de la vida diariaPor eso ya sea en Espantildea Japoacuten o las Montantildeas Peruanas aunque las praacutecticasactuales variacutean a traveacutes de las culturas en todas los responsables del bienestar ydel desarrollo de los nintildeos actuacutean como agentes de una comunidad maacutes ampliacuyas creencias y praacutecticas estaacuten arraigadas en una larga tradicioacuten sobre coacutemodeben llevarse a cabo las actividades Pero igualmente en todas las culturas laspraacutecticas tambieacuten cambian en respuesta a los cambios en el mundo maacutes allaacute deuna comunidad particular En muchos hogares Occidentales por ejemplo losjuegos de ordenadores o los programas de televisioacuten han ocupado recientementeel lugar de los cuentos antes de dormir mientras que en muchas comunidadesindiacutegenas las artes que hasta hace poco soacutelo cubriacutean las necesidades locales sonahora explotadas comercialmente por el mercado turiacutestico cambiando los ritmosde la vida diaria las relaciones entre los miembros de la familia y las actividadesen las que los nintildeos estaacuten inmersos Sin embargo como anteriormente se sugirioacutepara comprender las actividades en las que los nintildeos participan hoy necesitamosmirar no soacutelo a la situacioacuten inmediata sino tambieacuten a la comunidad maacutes ampliay a los cambios que han tenido lugar en las escalas temporales

Microgeacutenesis y Zona de Desarrollo Proacuteximo

Lo inmediato sin embargo es siempre la situacioacuten microgeneacutetica que es ellugar del desarrollo ontogeneacutetico ndashla accioacuten e interaccioacuten entre el aprendiz yaquellos con quien estaacute implicado en la actividad en cursondash Cuando adoptamosesta perspectiva microgeneacutetica sin embargo necesitamos modificar la represen-tacioacuten del sistema de actividad reflejada en la figura 1 Esta representacioacutensubraya el hecho de que la accioacuten estaacute orientada a un propoacutesito De manera dis-tinta ahora conviene resaltar la interaccioacuten entre los participantes ndashsus tentativaspara lograr intersubjetividad con respecto a los objetivos comunes y a las habili-dades complementarias de conocimiento que aportan a la co-construccioacuten delresultado previsto (ver Figura 2)ndash Lo que la figura 2 enfatiza es el hecho de queaunque las herramientas y artefactos que estaacuten disponibles para mediar la accioacutenemprendida conjuntamente son los mismos para cada participante cada unoaporta una familiaridad algo diferente con su uso como resultado de su diferentetrayectoria vital siendo esta variabilidad en su pericia la que hace posible paracada uno de ellos proporcionar asistencia a los otros al menos en algunos aspectos

175El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

de la accioacuten conjunta Visto desde esta perspectiva estaacute claro por queacute Vygotskienfatizoacute el papel de la actividad conjunta en el desarrollo y escribioacute sobre supotencial para permitir a los participantes ldquoir maacutes allaacute de siacute mismosrdquo con laayuda de otros maacutes expertos

La metaacutefora usada por Vygotski para caracterizar el potencial para el aprendi-zaje que esta clase de actividad crea fue ldquozona de desarrollo proacuteximordquo Como eacutelescribioacute cuando otro participante en la actividad proporciona instruccioacuten que essuministrada apropiadamente maacutes allaacute de lo que el aprendiz puede llegar a hacerpor siacute mismo ldquodespierta toda una serie de funciones que estaacuten en estado demaduracioacuten latente en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximordquo (1987 p 212) Vygotskiconceptualizoacute el desarrollo como la formacioacuten de nuevos sistemas funcionales(ldquoneoformacionesrdquo) y de cambios en las relaciones entre sistemas que seguacuten eacutelconsideraba ocurriacutean como una secuencia de ldquocrisis del desarrollordquo particular-mente facilitadas por la participacioacuten en las ldquoactividades guiadasrdquo relevantes decada etapa por ejemplo jugar en la nintildeez y aprender a leer y a escribir en los pri-meros antildeos escolares Sin embargo puede ser un error dirigir la atencioacuten soacutelo alos periodos de cambios revolucionarios ya que como eacutel igualmente enfatizoacutetambieacuten tienen lugar en cualquier momento otros procesos graduales de creci-miento

Los procesos que son liacuteneas centrales de desarrollo en una edad se convierten en liacuteneas perifeacute-ricas de desarrollo en la edad siguiente y contrariamente liacuteneas perifeacutericas de desarrollo deuna edad son traiacutedas a la vanguardia y se convierten en liacuteneas centrales en el momento en elque cambia su significado y su significacioacuten relativa en la estructura total del desarrollo(1987 p 197)2

En la elaboracioacuten de su importante concepto de zona de desarrollo proacuteximoVygotski tendioacute a caracterizar la ayuda proporcionada por otros como ldquoinstruc-cioacutenrdquo asiacute como a ver su valor en ldquoel potencial del nintildeo para elevarse a siacute mismo

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187176

FIGURA 2Diaacutelogo en la Actividad Conjunta (Wells 2002b)

Resultadosmateriales yartefactossemioacuteticos

Herramientasartefactos

Sujeto

Reglasconvenciones

Comunidad Divisioacuten delabor

Sujeto

Herramientasartefactos

gracias a la colaboracioacuten hacia un nivel intelectual mayor de desarrollo despla-zaacutendose mediante la imitacioacuten desde lo que eacutel es hasta lo que eacutel no esrdquo (1987p 210) Sin embargo muchos eruditos contemporaacuteneos que han construidosobre su trabajo han adoptado una visioacuten de conjunto del significado evolutivode la colaboracioacuten en actividades conjuntas y han caracterizado la ayuda propor-cionada en esta relacioacuten con teacuterminos tales como ldquoaprendizajerdquo (Lave y Wenger1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoparticipacioacuten guiadardquo (Rogoff 1994 2003) y ldquoandamia-jerdquo (Wood Bruner y Ross 1976) Sin embargo mientras estas metaacuteforas dife-rentes iluminan caracteriacutesticas diferentes de la relacioacuten lo que tienen todas encomuacuten es la inclusioacuten del aprendizaje en una actividad que ofrezca el nivel deapoyo necesario para ayudar al aprendizaje a completar una actividad en la que eacutelo ella estaacute interesado y a hacer esto de tal manera que eacutel o ella progresen hastapoder participar maacutes plena y autoacutenomamente en el futuro (Maybin Mercer yStierer 1992)

En muchas actividades conjuntas tales como por ejemplo formas tradicio-nales de aprendizaje de oficios la ayuda es proporcionada soacutelo cuando se necesitay de este modo el ldquomaestrordquo la ofrece sin intenciones didaacutecticas deliberadas maacutesallaacute de arropar al principiante para terminar una tarea particular en curso (Lave1996) De manera similar la socializacioacuten en actividades domeacutesticas no necesitauna instruccioacuten expliacutecita ya que los principiantes pueden aprender mucho sim-plemente mirando y escuchando (cf Rogoff 2003) Esto es lo que Lave y Wen-ger (1991) quieren decir cuando insisten en que el aprendizaje no es una activi-dad independiente sino un aspecto intriacutenseco de la ldquoparticipacioacuten perifeacutericalegiacutetimardquo en las actividades de una comunidad Desde su perspectiva por lotanto la educacioacuten formal en la que el aprendizaje es el uacutenico propoacutesito de laactividad tiene algo anoacutemalo particularmente cuando la uacutenica forma de ayudaproporcionada es la instruccioacuten directa del profesor experto y la consiguienteevaluacioacuten del grado de aprendizaje de los alumnos

En muchas discusiones recientes se ha reconocido tambieacuten que no es soacutelo unldquoprofesorrdquo quien puede proporcionar ayuda en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximo Porun lado en una actividad compleja muchos participantes son maacutes expertos queotros en algunos aspectos y por lo tanto en algunas ocasiones estaacuten preparadospara ayudar a aquellos que son menos expertos (Rogoff 1994) Por otro ladoaquellos que proporcionan ayuda no tienen que estar fiacutesicamente presentes lostextos y otros artefactos pueden igualmente ayudar de manera satisfactoria a unparticipante ldquoa ir maacutes allaacute de siacute mismo o siacute mismardquo como ocurre con frecuenciaen el trabajo intelectual como la investigacioacuten y la escritura (Wells 1999) Ade-maacutes como Engestroumlm (1999) y otros ndashbasaacutendose en distintos aspectos de losescritos teoacutericos de Vygotskindash han anotado las herramientas materiales y simboacute-licas que han sido desarrolladas por participantes anteriores en la actividad pue-den tambieacuten proporcionar la misma clase de ayuda Sin embargo el punto maacutesimportante que quizaacutes debe subrayarse es que hay muchas situaciones en las quenadie es un experto incluso como cada uno aporta su propia experiencia pasadaa la solucioacuten de un problema comuacuten el grupo en su conjunto es capaz de alcan-zar maacutes de lo que cualquier miembro singular podriacutea haber hecho de maneraindependiente Evidentemente es esta colaboracioacuten la que ha hecho posible lasinvenciones que han llevado a los mayores avances de las grandes civilizaciones alo largo del curso de la historia cultural

Desarrollo en los antildeos preescolares

La responsabilidad para cuidar a los nintildeos en la nintildeez temprana variacutea conside-rablemente de una sociedad a otra como antes anoteacute Sin embargo en todas las

177El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

sociedades los nintildeos estaacuten inmersos en actividades conjuntas con otros en las quereciben ayuda para participar aunque puedan llevarlas a cabo parcialmente Ensu mayor parte como ya se mencionoacute eacutestas son actividades cotidianas repetidasregularmente en las rutinas establecidas Se espera que el nintildeo aprenderaacute a asu-mirlas y es simplemente ayudado para hacerlo Esta forma de aprendizaje deno-minada habitualmente ldquoenculturacioacutenrdquo asegura la continuidad de las formas devida culturales desde una generacioacuten a la siguiente y como Donald (1991) argu-menta probablemente tuvo lugar incluso antes de la emergencia del habla

Sin embargo en todas las actividades hay ocasiones en las que cuando surgealguacuten problema se requiere alguacuten nivel de toma de decisiones deliberado En estassituaciones la interaccioacuten verbal hace posible un grado de reflexioacuten y planificacioacutenhacia delante en la que las relaciones de causa y efecto intencioacuten accioacuten y resultadose hacen expliacutecitas y abiertas para su anaacutelisis y discusioacuten La conversacioacuten que semantiene en estas ocasiones juega asiacute un papel particularmente importante en laayuda a los nintildeos para atender y comprender el mundo que les rodea de acuerdo conlos modos culturales de ldquodarle sentidordquo Sin embargo estas ocasiones pueden tam-bieacuten abrir posibilidades para el cambio tanto en la forma de la actividad como lacomprensioacuten que de ella alcanzan los participantes Coacutemo los cuidadores tomanhabitualmente estas oportunidades es de gran relevancia aquiacute ya que juega en la for-macioacuten de las disposiciones intelectuales con las que los nintildeos entran en la escuelaun papel importante (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo y Sterponi 2002)

En esta seccioacuten incluyo algunos ejemplos representativos del modo de hablarque surge de las actividades conjuntas en el hogar Estos ejemplos se han extraiacute-do de observaciones realizadas en contextos ingleses (Wells 1986) y australianos(Hasan 2002) donde los nintildeos pequentildeos observados pasaban la mayor parte desu tiempo en el hogar en compantildeiacutea de un progenitor o algunas veces con uno omaacutes hermanos mientras que el resto del tiempo se entreteniacutean ellos solos (conuna participacioacuten esporaacutedica del adulto) o algo que haciacutean con frecuencia mira-ban y ldquoayudabanrdquo a sus progenitores con tareas domeacutesticas de diferente tipo

En el primer ejemplo James (de tres antildeos y medio de edad) ha estado jugandosolo en el jardiacuten y cuando entra de nuevo en casa su madre intenta que se quitelos zapatos embarrados Sin embargo en ese momento ve un paacutejaro fuera que leinteresa maacutes que cambiarse de zapatos

Ejemplo 1Madre Alliacute Vamoshellip Alliacutehellip Una zapatilla enJames Puedo ver un paacutejaroMadre iquestUn queacute amorJames Mira un paacutejaroMadre (Susurrando) iquestEstaacute alliacute iquestFueraJames (Sentildealando y susurrando) Siacute mira

(Ambos continuacutean hablando muy suavemente)Madre iquestEstaacute comiendo algoJames NoMadre iquestDoacutende Oh siacute estaacute consiguiendo iquestSabes queacute estaacute haciendoJames NoMadre Estaacute yendo al saco de papel para intentar escoger algunos pedazos

Oh tiene un poco de alimento alliacute Y espero que escoja algunos pedazos de hilodel saco para ir y hacer su nido bajo la azotea James Espera un minuto y [James ahora quiere salir a ver maacutes cerca pero en ese momento el paacutejaro se escapavolando]

James Se ha ido

En el segundo ejemplo Elizabeth (de cuatro antildeos de edad) que estaacute ayudandoen la limpieza de casa mira con intereacutes coacutemo su madre mete en un cubo la cenizade la lentildea de la chimenea

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187178

Ejemplo 2Elizabeth iquestPara queacute estaacutes haciendo esoMadre Estoy recogieacutendolo y ponieacutendolo fuera para que papaacute pueda ponerlo en el jardiacutenElizabeth iquestPor queacute lo tiene que poner en el jardiacuten Madre Para abonar bienElizabeth iquestEso hace que la hierba crezcaMadre SiacuteElizabeth iquestPor queacuteMadre Sabes que te digo que necesitas comer cosas diferentes como huevos y col y

pudin de arroz para convertirte en una nintildea mayor Elizabeth SiacuteMadre Bien las plantas tambieacuten necesitan comida diferente Y la ceniza es una de las

cosas buenas para ellas

El tercer ejemplo se refiere a James de nuevo ahora 18 meses mayor Por lamantildeana temprano ha estado ayudando a su madre con la elaboracioacuten de unos dul-ces en el horno Ahora vuelve a la cocina cuando su madre estaacute sacando las bande-jas fuera del horno Oye un ruidoso ldquocrackrdquo metaacutelico y solicita una explicacioacuten

Ejemplo 3James iquestQuieacuten hizo esoMadre Espero que fuera la contraccioacuten de la lata James iquestQueacute lataMadre La que estaacute con los pasteles dentro James iquestPor queacute hizo ese ruidoMadre Bien cuando estaba en el horno se calentoacute mucho y se estiroacute un pedacito Ape-

nas la he sacado del horno y se estaacute enfriando muy raacutepido mira y ese ruido ocu-rre cuando se hace maacutes pequentildea otra vez y vuelve a su forma normal

James Oh iquesttiene una forma diferente en el horno Madre Oh no muy diferente Soacutelo un poco mayor James Pequentildea lata traviesa Puede que consigas que te den un azote si lo haces otra vez

En estos tres ejemplos la madre responde con prontitud a los intereses delnintildeo y proporciona informacioacuten para explicar el significado de lo que los nintildeosestaacuten viendo u oyendo incluso cuando inicialmente esto interrumpe los planesde la madre Los tres casos muestran coacutemo la participacioacuten de los nintildeos en la acti-vidad con el adulto garantiza una atencioacuten intersubjetiva hacia los intereses delnintildeo lo que permite a la madre proporcionar informacioacuten relevante Esto es cla-ramente una forma de ldquoinstruccioacutenrdquo sin embargo es espontaacutenea y contingentecon los intereses de los nintildeos en lugar de ser presentada como parte de un curri-culum pre-planificado

El tercer ejemplo es particularmente interesante desde este punto de vista yaque el fenoacutemeno que despierta el intereacutes de James requiere una explicacioacuten algoteacutecnica En alguacuten momento del futuro sin duda la dilatacioacuten del metal cuandose calienta y su consiguiente contraccioacuten cuando es apartado del calor figuraraacuteen el curriculum de ciencias de la escuela en relacioacuten con el estudio sistemaacuteticodel calor aquiacute sin embargo es un efecto secundario de la elaboracioacuten de los pas-teles en el horno y la explicacioacuten de la madre aunque teacutecnica en cuanto al conte-nido se asienta en el lenguaje cotidiano y no en los teacuterminos abstractos de lageneralizacioacuten cientiacutefica Como Hasan (2002) ha observado

el discurso del conocimiento quasi especializado tiene lugar lsquoen medio dersquo las actividades dia-rias y necesariamente exige una buena disposicioacuten por parte de la madre para acoger los cam-bios contextuales para tener la voluntad de reclasificar el contexto del discurso en marcha Latendencia a conectar con el discurso en movimiento del nintildeo la buena disposicioacuten para reclasi-ficar el contexto es una caracteriacutestica discursiva del mismo grupo de madres que con frecuen-cia lanzan preguntas precisas para la calificacioacuten de los objetos que atienden a las preguntas desus hijos y que les proporcionan respuestas bien desarrolladas (p 123)

179El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

No todos los nintildeos experimentan esta clase de respuesta altamente informati-va para sus intereses por supuesto Sobre la base de un corpus sustancial de inte-racciones madre-hijo Hasan (2002) siguiendo a Bernstein (1982) distingueentre mediacioacuten semioacutetica ldquovisiblerdquo e ldquoinvisiblerdquo Mientras que todos los ejem-plos citados anteriormente giran sobre la actividad conjunta y las preguntas delos nintildeos merecen una exploracioacuten adicional en un modo expliacutecito ldquovisiblerdquo lostemas de las contribuciones de muchos otros nintildeos a la actividad y la interaccioacutenson tratados por los padres como ldquoobviosrdquo y por lo tanto como si no requirieranexplicacioacuten En este sentido la mediacioacuten de las creencias culturales y de laspraacutecticas permanece ldquoinvisiblerdquo esto es la forma de ser del mundo y el tema nomerece una discusioacuten adicional El Ejemplo 4 (tomado de Hasan 2002) bajoestaacutes liacuteneas proporciona una buena ilustracioacuten

Ejemplo 4 Madre Ponlo sobre la estufa y deacutejalo alliacuteKaren iquestPor queacuteMadre PorqueKaren iquestAquiacute es doacutende va Madre SiacuteUn poco despueacutesKaren iquestCoacutemo conseguiste esoiquestNo saliste Madre Camineacute encima y lo conseguiacute iquestno me viste Karen HmmMadre Debes estar ciega

Los dos breves extractos del Ejemplo 4 son tiacutepicos de un estilo muy diferentede interaccioacuten comparados con los anteriores Aquiacute el eacutenfasis de los padres enconseguir que el nintildeo se adapte a los modos de la cultura local de actuar y pensarcon eficacia suprime la curiosidad del nintildeo y el deseo de comprender lo quetambieacuten hace menos probable que el nintildeo desarrolle la capacidad para cuestionarel status quo y participar en los esfuerzos por cambiarlo y mejorarlo

Finalmente antes de dejar el tema del aprendizaje a traveacutes de la conversacioacutenen actividades conjuntas es importante considerar la actividad conjunta en elcontexto del juego Vygotski (1978) consideroacute el juego como la actividad princi-pal en los antildeos preescolares ya que anima al nintildeo a explorar las posibilidades dela mediacioacuten semioacutetica mediante el uso de objetos presentes que pueden ser uti-lizados para representar otros objetos no presentes mediante el ldquorole playrdquo en elque el lenguaje crea un mundo imaginario En el Ejemplo 5 James ahora contres antildeos y nueve meses estaacute sentaacutendose en el brazo de un sofaacute conduciendo untren imaginario con su madre como pasajera

Ejemplo 5Madre Aquiacute estamos Me sentareacute al lado Perfecto iquestestaacutes listo iquestTodo a punto

Bien Quita el frenoJames Comenzareacute a levantarloMadre Oh perdoacuten Estaacute bienJames Mamaacute no conduzcas todaviacuteaMadre Oh BienJames [Hace un ruido simulando arrancar el motor]Madre iexclOh Este motor arranca raacutepido Muy bien iquestHay suficiente carboacuten en la parte

posterior iquestHas cargado suficiente carboacuten JamesJames SiacuteMadre Bien Entonces vaacutemonos lejos Despiacutedete de tus amigos James [Suena el ruido del motor que acelera Se riacutee y hace el sonido del silbido del

motor]Madre Ahora vamos muy raacutepido iquestPuedes sentir el traqueteo de los vagones James Siacute

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187180

Madre Oh todo me da vueltas Oh mi desayuno estaacute retumbando en mi barriga iexclOhiexclOh iexclOh

James [Hace el ruido del motor]Madre Creo que deberiacuteamos disminuir la velocidad iquestNo crees James Mm (asintiendo)Madre Creo que estamos yendo un poco raacutepido

Es mejor es maacutes faacutecil ahora iquestno James Mm (asintiendo)Madre [Muje] Mira las vacas en el campo JamesJames MmMadre Y hay un granjero mira El granjero te estaacute saludando

Como contar historias compartidas que es otra actividad conjunta importan-te a esta edad el juego imaginario tambieacuten tiene una funcioacuten importante en lapreparacioacuten del nintildeo para explorar el poder del lenguaje ldquopara crear un mundomediante las palabrasrdquo Como seraacute discutido debajo este uso del lenguaje pararepresentar objetos y eventos no presentes y las relaciones entre ellos adoptagran significado en el contexto de la escolarizacioacuten puacuteblica tiacutepica donde propor-ciona los significados mediacionales principales mediante los que gran parte delcurriculum se materializa (Wells 1986)

En suma con la excepcioacuten del Ejemplo 4 todos los extractos precedentes sonejemplos claros de un adulto ldquotrabajando en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximo delnintildeordquo (Vygotski 1987) ya que se implican en la interaccioacuten en el proceso dedesarrollar la actividad en la que estaacuten conjuntamente inmersos Como Vygotski(1987) enfatizoacute en la actividad conjunta colaborativa el nintildeo puede siemprehacer maacutes de lo que le es posible hacer independientemente La actividad pro-porciona el marco organizacional en el que parte de la conversacioacuten dirige ycomenta la actividad y parte explora los resultados a los que conduce En estecontexto el adulto hace disponible para la apropiacioacuten del nintildeo no soacutelo infor-macioacuten especiacutefica como respuesta a los intereses del nintildeo sino tambieacuten una pos-tura hacia la experiencia que valora la actitud de investigacioacuten Tratando las pre-guntas del nintildeo como dignas de respuesta expliacutecita el adulto apoya el desarrollode una disposicioacuten a plantearse preguntas y a buscarles respuesta mediante lainvestigacioacuten futura (Wells 1999)

El papel de la actividad en la educacioacuten

Aunque el teacutermino ldquoeducacioacutenrdquo se emplea a menudo como sinoacutenimo deldquoescolarizacioacutenrdquo seguacuten una interpretacioacuten maacutes amplia la educacioacuten viene refi-rieacutendose a los primeros antildeos del nintildeo y de hecho como se vio arriba hay muchasocasiones en las que un coparticipante en una actividad en curso proporciona ins-truccioacuten expliacutecita Sin embargo la educacioacuten ndashen el sentido de escolarizacioacutenndashtiende a ser muy diferente de la clase de actividades ilustradas maacutes arriba Maacutesimportante en las escuelas la instruccioacuten es tanto deliberada como sistemaacutetica yes gobernada no por los intereses de los alumnos sino por un curriculum que hasido disentildeado por expertos que no estaacuten familiarizados con los alumnos que van aser instruidos Como resultado a menudo lo que se ensentildea en la escuela no estaacuterelacionado con aquello que a los alumnos maacutes les interesa aprender y es muyprobable que no se obtengan beneficios de las oportunidades que la escuelapodriacutea proporcionar

En las primeras secciones de este trabajo se ha argumentado que el aprendi-zaje no es un fin en siacute mismo sino un aspecto integrado del domino de nuevasformas de actividad que tienen significado y valor para el desarrollo de los apren-dices como miembros de una comunidad y como individuos autoacutenomos uacutenicos

181El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Como Wygotsky insistentemente precisoacute el aprendizaje conduce el desarrollo yla instruccioacuten deberiacutea estar organizada para ayudar a este proceso

La instruccioacuten es soacutelo uacutetil cuando se mueve delante del desarrollo Cuando esto ocurre impulsao despierta toda una serie de funciones que estaacuten en estado de maduracioacuten latente en la zona dedesarrollo proacuteximo (1987 p 212)

La pregunta central para la escolarizacioacuten debe por lo tanto ser coacutemo ofrecerinstruccioacuten que sea relevante para las trayectorias de desarrollo de los alumnos yque de manera adecuada ldquose situacutee dentrordquo de sus zonas de desarrollo proacuteximoJunto a esta una segunda pregunta es coacutemo proporcionar ayuda a los alumnosindividuales para que su aprendizaje les permita de hecho avanzar en su desa-rrollo

Procurando proporcionar respuesta a estas preguntas el concepto de ldquoactivi-dad guiadardquo junto con el de recapitulacioacuten de la secuencia de desarrollo de losmodos de conocimiento puede ofrecer un comienzo uacutetil Los nintildeos cuandoingresan en la escuela han dominado en gran parte los modos de conocimientoasociados con la accioacuten el gesto y el habla (Nelson 1996) Lo que ahora necesi-tan es un aprendizaje de los modos de conocimiento asociado con el lenguajeescrito y de las distintas clases de representacioacuten simboacutelica que derivan de eacutelndashmatemaacutetica cientiacutefica musical etceacuteterandash Es decir necesitan aprenderlos parausar estas formas de representacioacuten como herramienta para la deliberacioacutenmediada la comunicacioacuten reflexiva y el pensamiento y para apropiarse de losdiferentes dominios de conocimiento teoacuterico que han sido construidos acumula-tivamente por las generaciones previas con la ayuda de las ventajas que confierenesos sistemas de ldquomemoria externardquo (Donald 1991)

La recapitulacioacuten del desarrollo histoacuterico cultural orienta la trayectoria a largoplazo para la educacioacuten formal en la escuela y en otras instituciones Pero inclusomaacutes importante para procurar responder la pregunta central presentada arriba esdeterminar los procedimientos efectivos para organizar los pequentildeos pasos queconfiguran las lecciones las unidades curriculares y los programas anuales a lolargo de esta trayectoria Basaacutendonos en las ideas presentadas en la seccioacuten ante-rior dos principios parecen en siacute mismos evidentes En primer lugar los encuen-tros educativos necesitan para estar organizados ser ldquoactividades conjuntasrdquo enlas que todos los participantes contribuyen a las metas convenidas con lo mejorde sus habilidades Y en segundo lugar debe convertirse en norma dar y recibirayuda por parte de cada participante Una de las implicaciones de estos dos prin-cipios es que no puede haber formas universales mejores para participar en alguacutenaspecto del curriculum puesto que cada clase variacutea en las experiencias e interesesque sus miembros aportan y en los valores y praacutecticas aprendidos culturalmenteque motivan y dirigen su implicacioacuten con el nuevo conocimiento y con las habi-lidades que estaacuten esperando dominar

Aunque siempre es importante reconocer valorar y construir sobre las expe-riencias previas de los alumnos ha llegado a ser incluso maacutes necesario a medidaque la migracioacuten tanto inter como intra paiacuteses ha aumentado significativamen-te ya que las diferentes etnias clases y religiones en las comunidades han dadolugar a su vez a comunidades de escuela y aula cada vez maacutes diversas ndashy estadiversidad es incluso mayor donde una proporcioacuten sustancial de alumnos estaacuteaprendiendo la lengua de clase como una segunda lengua (o subsiguiente)ndash Taldiversidad en el bagaje cultural y en la experiencia previa es generalmente vistocomo un problema que necesita ser superado en paiacuteses donde los disentildeadores delcurriculum apuntan a estandarizar la instruccioacuten para alcanzar ideacutenticos resulta-dos para todos los estudiantes como es hoy el caso en Estados Unidos Sin

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187182

embargo cuando las diferencias entre personas en teacuterminos de experiencia valo-res y praacutecticas son reconocidas como normales y deseables esta diversidad puedeconvertirse en una ventaja en la clase ya que las praacutecticas y puntos de vista alter-nativos que afloran pueden enriquecer la comunidad de clase y conducir a discu-siones valiosas en las que las creencias dadas por sentadas sean modificadas y sealcance una comprensioacuten maacutes profunda de los puntos considerados (Wells1999)

En este contexto he encontrado de ayuda pensar en el aprendizaje basado enla escuela en teacuterminos de una espiral del conocimiento donde el resultado espe-rado con cada giro de la espiral es una mayor comprensioacuten (Wells 1999) (verFigura 3) En la primera fase cuando la clase se embarca en un nuevo aspecto delcurriculum es importante animar a los alumnos a compartir sus experienciasprevias ya que como las investigaciones en campos muy diferentes han mostra-do (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotski) esas experiencias proporcionan elpunto de partida para su aprendizaje sean o no reconocidas puacuteblicamente Des-cubriendo lo que los estudiantes ya saben y aquello que les interesa explorar conmaacutes detalle el profesor puede tambieacuten planificar la unidad en cooperacioacuten conlos alumnos (Donoahue 2003) La segunda fase de la espiral conlleva varios acer-camientos a la nueva informacioacuten ndashmediante la explicacioacuten del profesor a traveacutesde materiales impresos o medios audiovusiales o en la forma de feedback de laspropias acciones e investigaciones de los alumnosndash Es importante reconocer sinembargo que la recepcioacuten de la nueva informacioacuten no asegura en siacute misma unaumento de la comprensioacuten Para que esto ocurra la nueva informacioacuten debearticularse con la comprensioacuten existente y con la experiencia previa relevantepara ser despueacutes puesta a prueba mediante la accioacuten en el mundo ndashobteniendofeedback (informacioacuten adicional)ndash yo mediante el diaacutelogo con otros para laconstruccioacuten del conocimiento donde el propoacutesito es llegar a una eleccioacuten con-sensuada entre las teoriacuteas alternativas demandas o interpretaciones sobre la basede una consideracioacuten de las evidencias y argumentos apropiados Finalmentepara consolidar la nuevas comprensiones obtenidas es valioso para la clase com-pleta reflexionar juntos sobre lo que han aprendido y sobre el proceso de cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento en el que han participado sobre las implicaciones quela nueva comprensioacuten tiene para sus propias acciones ndashtanto fuera como dentrode clasendash y sobre las preguntas importantes a las que ellos deben ahora dirigir susinvestigaciones futuras En otras palabras la fase final en el ciclo implica a lacomunidad en un ldquoacercamiento lsquometarsquordquo (Olson y Bruner 1996) es decir en laadopcioacuten de una perspectiva metacognitiva sobre su propio aprendizaje que a lolargo de miles de antildeos probablemente ha jugado un importante papel en eldesarrollo de cada modo de conocimiento presentado en la siacutentesis del desarrollohistoacuterico cultural de Donald (1991)3

Esta espiral necesita varias anotaciones adicionales La primera tiene quever con la naturaleza incompleta y provisional del conocimiento eacuteste estaacutesiempre abierto a la mejora mediante ciclos futuros a traveacutes de la espiral Lasegunda anotacioacuten concierne a la naturaleza esencialmente interactiva ysocial del crecimiento individual y comunitario en la comprensioacuten eacutesta seconsigue gracias a los esfuerzos de los participantes para clarificar sus pro-pios significados a los otros y alternativamente para tener en cuenta y res-ponder a los de los demaacutes (Bajtiacuten 1986) En tercer lugar es necesario enfati-zar que el crecimien to en la comprensioacuten requeriraacute espirales futuras queactiven los diferentes modos de conocimiento ya que la mayoriacutea de los cam-bios y problemas que ocurren en las instituciones maacutes allaacute del aula deman-dan un conocimiento procedimental substantivo y esteacutetico al igual que

183El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

teoacuterico y cada modo de conocimiento tiene una contribucioacuten que hacer aleacutexito de soluciones comprensivas que realcen significativamente la com-prensioacuten Finalmente en la representacioacuten de estas relaciones en la figura 3la espiral tambieacuten resalta la interdependencia de los individuos y la comuni-dad Mientras que la experiencia y la comprensioacuten son esencialmente indivi-duales en su naturaleza crecen fuera de eacutel y adoptan su significado de la par-ticipacioacuten de los individuos en el intercambio de informacioacuten y en su com-promiso en la construccioacuten de conocimiento en la comunidad extensa de laque cada individuo es miembro

Desafortunadamente muchos educadores no comprenden estas relacionesfundamentales y por eso su instruccioacuten no es conceptualizada y planificada demanera que sea oacuteptima para el desarrollo de los estudiantes Como numerososestudios han mostrado (Langer y Applebee 1987 Nystrand y Gamoran 1991)en la mayoriacutea de las clases la que gobierna la praacutectica es la concepcioacuten bancariadel conocimiento (Freire 1970) seguacuten la cual el propoacutesito de la instruccioacuten quetiene lugar en el aula es que un alumno individual esteacute preparado para puntuarbien en los tests y no tanto ampliar su conocimiento Dada esta orientacioacuten lasactividades en las que se pide a los alumnos que participen estaacuten determinadaspor la guiacutea curricular del libro de texto maacutes que por el conocimiento de los pro-fesores sobre los intereses y habilidades de los alumnos particulares de los queson responsables A esto es a lo que Tharp y Gallimore (1988) se refieren con laexpresioacuten ldquoguioacuten recitativordquo unido a la ocupacioacuten de un lugar individual de tra-bajo que domina la rutina diaria Ademaacutes los planes sobre coacutemo proceder sonndashcomo cabiacutea esperarndash unilateralmente impuestos en lugar de ser configuradossobre la base de las decisiones tomadas por la comunidad de clase como un todoy el modus operandi es la competicioacuten en lugar de la colaboracioacuten

Sin embargo como he argumentado en otra parte (Wells 1986 19992002a) eacuteste no es el uacutenico modo en el que la escolarizacioacuten puede ser condu-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187184

FIGURA 3La espiral del conocimiento

ACCIOacuteN Construccioacuten

deconocimiento

ComprensioacutenSubstantivo

Esteacutetico

Teoacuterico

Procedimental

Instrumental

Experiencia Informacioacuten

Modos de conocimiento

cida ndasha pensar de la larga historia de la recitacioacuten que se remonta a maacutes detres mil antildeos a las tempranas instituciones que entrenaban a los escribas yadministradores para leer y escribir (Cole 1996)ndash Pero probablemente elmodo por defecto de la escolarizacioacuten es parecido a una preparacioacuten para ldquolavida adultardquo y no una etapa criacutetica del desarrollo que merece la pena y essignificativa en siacute misma Como Vygotski argumentoacute sobre el dominio de laalfabetizacioacuten ldquola ensentildeanza debe organizarse de tal manera que la lectura yla escritura sean necesarias para algo La escritura debe ser incorporada enuna tarea relevante y necesaria para la vidardquo (1978 pp117-118) Y porldquovidardquo quiere decir no la vida futura sino la totalidad de los intereses y pre-ocupaciones actuales de los aprendices

En los uacuteltimos antildeos se han divulgado proyectos de una variedad de paiacuteses enlos que educadores universitarios han procurado crear condiciones para elldquoaprendizaje auteacutenticordquo en las aulas En todos estos proyectos se ha otorgado unpapel central a las actividades colaborativas que alternando entre los formatos departicipacioacuten individual en pequentildeo grupo y de la clase completa implican alos estudiantes en la exploracioacuten de temas centrales mediante investigacionespraacutecticas y tambieacuten teoacutericas y en la discusioacuten criacutetica y constructiva de sus hallaz-gos y de las implicaciones para futuras acciones El espacio no permite aquiacute unadiscusioacuten individual de estos proyectos pero lo que puede ser dicho sobre todosellos es que en sus diferentes formas valoran tanto los intereses de los alumnoscomo sus experiencias previas y persiguen ayudarles a desarrollar la disposicioacutenpara buscar la comprensioacuten maacutes que la acumulacioacuten simple de informacioacuten ypara valorar la colaboracioacuten maacutes que la competicioacuten como el medio para alcanzaresta menta4

En este contexto es digno atraer la atencioacuten hacia varias instituciones poste-riores a la escuela tales como la Fifth Dimension donde la participacioacuten en activi-dades elegidas personalmente ndasha menudo basadas en ordenadoresndash requiere a losnintildeos dominar habilidades que son tambieacuten necesarias para la escolarizacioacuten y lesproporcionan oportunidades para interactuar con voluntarios universitarios enuna posicioacuten de igualdad (Brown y Cole 2002) De manera similar algunosprogramas basados en museos (Leinhardst Crowley y Kuntson 2002) y variasformas de educacioacuten al aire libre tambieacuten capitalizan los intereses de los estu-diantes para implicarles en actividades desafiantes que demandan para la cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento procesos de diaacutelogo y toma de decisiones comparablesa aquellos encontrados en los contextos escolares previamente descritos

Finalmente si estas praacutecticas pioneras arraigan e influyen en la educacioacutenpuacuteblica con mayor amplitud es esencial que los profesores tengan oportunidadessimilares para desarrollar las disposiciones y pericia necesarias para actuar comoagentes de cambio y liacutederes de una reforma en las instituciones en las que traba-jan Es por lo tanto estimulante ver que a pesar del eacutenfasis de los dirigentes poliacute-ticos en estandarizar los curricula y en los resultados cuantificables algunos pro-gramas de formacioacuten de profesores y desarrollo profesional anima a los profeso-res sobre la base de investigaciones sobre su propia praacutectica a tomar sus propiasdecisiones sobre queacute debe ser ensentildeado y coacutemo y a compartir los resultados desus investigaciones con los compantildeeros Este ha sido el motor de mi propio tra-bajo en los antildeos recientes ya que he participado en la investigacioacuten colaborativacon profesores para crear y mantener comunidades de investigacioacuten tanto en cla-ses como entre los mismos profesores5

185El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Notas1 La secuencia temporal implicada por esta formulacioacuten ha sido ampliamente debatida y especialmente el movimiento desde fueraa dentro que sugiere Mi propia comprensioacuten de lo que la apropiacioacuten supone se capta mejor con el ejemplo de aprender a bailarmediante la inmersioacuten en la actividad con otros (Wells 1999) En muchos casos no hay separacioacuten entre antes y despueacutes o entrefuera y dentro y no hay necesidad de demostracioacuten o ejemplificacioacuten En lugar de esto estando inmerso en la actividad conjuntael principiante es literalmente entrenado fiacutesicamente por los movimiento del coparticipante mientras que al mismo tiempoconstruye su propia organizacioacuten ndashy quizaacute incluso una representacioacuten esquemaacuteticandash de los movimientos corporales A lo largo deltiempo este esquema estaacute tan bien organizado que el principiante se convierte en un experto que estaacute preparado paralelamentepara introducir a otros en la actividad Esto es lo que Lave y Wenger (1991) y Rogoff (2003) quieren decir por desarrollo median-te la participacioacuten en actividades culturales

2 Estoy agradecido a Natalia Gajdamaschko y Steve Gabosch por sus valiosas discusiones de esta distincioacuten durante el XMCA cursoonline sobre la teoriacutea de la actividad histoacuterico cultural Abril 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Aunque estaacute incluido en la Tabla I este modo de conocimiento no ha sido discutido aquiacute ya que el reconocimiento expliacutecito deeste importante modo de conocimiento es muy reciente (Brown 1975) Sin embargo eso no significa que sea en siacute mismo unnuevo fenoacutemeno

4 Para algunos ejemplos representativos veacutease Brown y Campione 1994 Lampert Rittenhouse y Crumbaugh 1996 McMahonRaphael Goatley y Pardo 1997 Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford y Brown 1998 Scardamalia Bereiter y Lamon 1994

5 Juntos formamos un grupo de investigacioacuten colaborativo DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project)(Wells (Ed) 2001)

ReferenciasBAJTIacuteN M M (1986) Speech genres and other late essays Austin University of Texas PressBERNSTEIN B (1982) Codes modalities and the process of cultural reproduction A model En M Apple (Ed) Cultural and econo-

mic reproduction in education (pp 304-355) Londres Routledge amp Kegan PaulBROWN A L (1975) The development of memory Knowing knowing about knowing and knowing how to know En H W

Reese (Ed) Advances in child development and behavior (Vol 10 pp 103-152) Nueva York Academic Press BROWN A L amp CAMPIONE J C (1994) Guided discovery in a community of learners En K McGilly (Ed) Integrating cognitive

theory and classroom practice Classroom lessons (pp 229-270) Cambridge MA MIT PressBradford BooksBROWN K amp COLE M (2002) Cultural historical activity theory and the expansion of opportunities for learning after school En

G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 225-238)Oxford Blackwell

BRUNER J S (1990) Acts of meaning Cambridge MA Harvard University PressCARR M (2002) Emerging learning narratives A perspective from early childhood education En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds)

Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 99-111) Oxford BlackwellCOLE M (1996) Cultural psychology A once and future discipline Cambridge MA The Bellknap Press of Harvard University PressDEACON T W (1997) The symbolic species The co-evolution of language and the brain Nueva York NortonDIAMOND J (1998) Guns germs and steel The fates of human societies Nueva York NortonDONALD M (1991) Origins of the Modern Mind Three Stages in the Evolution of Culture and Cognition Cambridge MA Harvard

University PressDONOAHUE Z (2003) Science teaching and learning Teachers and children plan together Networks 6(1) httpwwwoiseuto-

rontoca~ctdnetworksjournal Vol 6 (1) 2003marchENGESTROumlM Y (1999) Activity theory and individual and social transformation Y En Engestrom R Miettinen amp R-L Puna-

maki (Eds) Perspectives on activity theory (pp 19-38) Cambridge Cambridge University PressFREIRE P (1970) Pedagogy of the oppressed Nueva York Herder and HerderHALLIDAY M A K (1975) Learning how to mean Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1978) Language as social semiotic The social interpretation of language and meaning Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1993) Towards a language-based theory of learning Linguistics and Education 5 93-116HASAN R (2002) Semiotic mediation and mental development in pluralistic societies Some implications for tomorrowrsquos schoo-

ling En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural peerspectives on the future of education (pp112-126) Oxford Blackwell

HEATH S B (1983) Ways with words Cambridge Cambridge University PressLAMPERT M RITTENHOUSE P amp CRUMBAUGH C (1996) Agreeing to disagree Developing sociable mathematical discourse En

D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook of education and human development (pp 731-764) Cambridge MA Blackwell LANGER J A amp APPLEBEE A N (1987) How writing shapes thinking A study of teaching and learning Urbana IL National Council

of Teachers of EnglishLAVE J (1996) Teaching as learning in practice Mind Culture and Activity 3 (3) 149-164LAVE J amp WENGER E (1991) Situated Learning Legitimate peripheral participation Nueva York Cambridge University PressLEINHARDT G CROWLEY K amp KNUTSON K (2002) Learning conversations Explanation and identity in museums Mahwah NJ

Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesLEONTIEV A N (1981) The problem of activity in psychology En J VWertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 37-71) Armonk NY SharpeMAYBIN J MERCER N amp STIERER B (1992) lsquoScaffoldingrsquo learning in the classroom En K Norman (Ed) Thinking voices The

work of the National Oracy Project (pp 186-195) Londres Hodder amp StoughtonMCMAHON S I RAPHAEL T E GOATLEY V J amp PARDO L S (Eds) (1997) The Book Club connection Literacy learning and class-

room talk Nueva York Teachers College PressNELSON K (1996) Language in cognitive development The emergence of the mediated mind Nueva York Cambridge University PressNEWSON J (1978) Dialogue and development En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol The emergence of language (pp 31-42)

New York Academic Press

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187186

NYSTRAND M amp GAMORAN A (1991) Student engagement When recitation becomes conversation En H C Waxman amp H JWalberg (Eds) Effective teaching Current research (pp 257-276)Berkeley CA McCutchan Publishing Corp

OLSON D R amp BRUNER J S (1996) Folk psychology and folk pedagogy En D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook ofeducation and human development (pp 9-27) Cambridge MA Blackwell

PALINCSAR A MAGNUSSON S MARANO N FORD D amp BROWN N (1998) Designing a community of practice Principlesand practices of the GIsML Community Teaching and Teacher Education 14 (1) 5-20

PIAGET J (1970) Piagetrsquos theory En P H Mussen (Ed) Carmichaelrsquos handbook of child development (pp 703-732) Nueva YorkWiley

PONTECORVO C amp STERPONI L (2002) Learning to argue and reason through discourse in educational settings En G Wells ampG Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 127-140) OxfordBlackwell

ROGOFF B (1990) Apprenticeship in thinking Cognitive development in social context Nueva York Oxford University PressROGOFF B (1994) Developing understanding of the idea of Communities of Learners Mind Culture and Activity 1 (4) 209-

229ROGOFF B (2003) The cultural nature of human development Nueva York Oxford University PressROSENBLATT L (1978) The reader the text the poem The transactional theory of the literary work Carbondale IL Southern Illinois

University PressSCARDAMALIA M C BEREITER amp LAMON M (1994) The CSILE project Trying to bring the classroom into World 3 En K

McGilley (Ed) Classroom lessons Integrating cognitive theory and classroom practice (pp 201-228) Cambridge MA MITPress

SCRIBNER S (1985) Vygotskyrsquos uses of history En J V Wertsch (Ed) Culture communication and cognition Vygotskian perspectives(pp 119-145) Cambridge Cambridge University Press

THARP R amp GALLIMORE R (1988) Rousing minds to life Nueva York Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C (1979) Communication and cooperation in early infancy a description of primary intersubjectivity En M

Bullowa (Ed) Before speech The beginning of interpersonal communication (pp 321-348) Cambridge Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C amp HUBLEY P (1978) Secondary intersubjectivity Confidence confiding and acts of meaning in the first year

En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol the emergence of language (pp 183-230) Nueva York Academic PressVYGOTSKI L S (1978)Mind in society The development of higher psychological processes Cambridge MA Harvard University PressVYGOTSKI L S (1981) The genesis of higher mental functions En J V Wertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 144-188) Armonk NY SharpeVYGOTSKI L S (1987) Thinking and speech En R W Rieber amp A S Carton (Eds) The collected works of L S Vygotsky Volumen

1 Problems of general psychology (pp 39-285) Nueva York PlenumWARTOFSKY M (1979) Models representation and scientific understanding Boston ReidelWELLS G (1985) Language development in the pre-school years Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (1986) The meaning makers Children learning language and using language to learn Portsmouth NH HeinemannWELLS G (1999) Dialogic inquiry Towards a sociocultural practice and theory of education Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (Ed) (2001) Action talk and text Learning and teaching through inquiry Nueva York Teachers College PressWELLS G (2002a) Learning and teaching for understanding The key role of collaborative knowledge building En J Brophy

(Ed) Social constructivist teaching Affordances and constraints (pp 1-41) Osford Elsevier ScienceJAIWELLS G (2002b) The role of dialogue in activity theory Mind Culture and Activity 9 (1) 43-66WERTSCH J V MINICK N amp ARNS F J (1984) The creation of context in joint problem solving En B Rogoff amp J Lave (Eds)

Everyday cognition Its development in social context (pp 151-171) Cambridge Cambridge University PressWOOD D BRUNER J S amp ROSS G (1976) The role of tutoring in problem-solving Journal of Child Psychology and Child Psy-

chiatry 17 89-100

187El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Original text

Introduction

Compared with other species the characteristic that distinguishes humans isthe ability and proclivity to engage in tool-mediated joint activity with otherhumans It is this characteristic that accounts for the development of human cul-tures over the course of history as they invented artefacts of various kinds inorder to adapt to and exploit the ecological niches in which they found themsel-ves It also accounts for the diversity of individual personsrsquo development whichdepend on the particular activities in which they participate As Vygotsky(1978 1981) was one of the first to point out the lsquohigherrsquo mental functions thatmake us human are not biologically given but are developmentally constructedthrough the appropriation of historically developed tools and practices that aremade manifest to the child and lsquoscaffoldedrsquo in the meaningful actions and utte-rances of the coparticipants in joint activity

Before continuing readers might find it interesting to reflect on their owndevelopmental trajectories to who they are today I suspect that they may findthemselves agreeing that Who we become depends on the company we keep and what wedo together

A Brief History of the Development of Joint Activity

Leontrsquoev provides a succinct account of Vygotskyrsquos insight in the followingsummary

The initial ideas that led Vygotsky to investigate the genesis of internal mental activity fromexternal activity are fundamentally different from the theoretical approaches of other modernauthors These ideas came from the analysis of the features unique to human productive laboractivity which is mediated by tools This activity is initially social in nature that is it is deve-loped under the conditions of cooperation and social interaction among people Vygotskyidentified two main interconnected features [of this activity] that are necessarily fundamentalfor psychology its tool-like (lsquoinstrumentalrsquo) structure and its inclusion in a system of interre-lations with other people It is these features that define the nature of human psychologicalprocesses The tool mediates activity and thus connects humans not only with the world ofobjects but also with other people Because of this humanrsquos activity assimilates the experience ofhumankind This means that humansrsquo mental processes (their lsquohigher psychological functionsrsquo)acquire a structure necessarily tied to the sociohistorically formed means and methods trans-mitted to them by others in the process of cooperative labor and social interaction But it isimpossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in any way otherthan a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words higher psycho-logical processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction with others thatis through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried out indepen-dently by the individual (Leontrsquoev 1981 pp 55-56 emphases in the original)

As well as emphasizing the social and cooperative nature of human activity thisquotation is important with respect to the arguments that I want to develop inthis paper as it highlights the central role of semiotic mediation in developmentKnowledge is created as well as appropriated in the discourse among peoplewho are working together in a specific situation in order to create or improve anartefact or to solve a problem of importance to the group However Leontrsquoevalso alludes to another of Vygotskyrsquos key insights namely that in order tounderstand current activity it is necessary to investigate the history of that acti-vity It is to this that I next turn

In analyzing the history of human development at least four different time-scales need to be considered The longest is the history of the cultural evolution of

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

the species (the phylogenetic level) next is the historical development of particu-lar cultures The third level (ontogenetic) traces the developmental trajectory ofindividual humans over the course of the lifespan Finally the microgenetic levelis concerned with the development of an instance of a particular activity

In practice it is the latter that has been explored in most detail for usingcontemporary technology it is relatively easy to observe and record the sequenceof actions through which an activity is enacted and the specific operations inwhich the participants engage making use of the relevant artefacts that are avai-lable in the situation (Leontrsquoev 1981) These artefacts may be either material(knives pencils automobiles) or symbolic (utterances maps theories) ndashthoughas Cole (1996) has pointed out to function as mediators of joint activity all arte-facts must have some form of material embodiment as well as a symbolic mea-ning that is to say they must be ready to hand and also have a cultural signifi-cance relevant to the situation

However the form in which a particular instance of activity is realizeddepends not only on the artefacts that are to hand in the situation but also onthe participantsrsquo past experiences with the practices in which the artefacts areused to mediate achievement of the action goals that contribute to the joint acti-vity Thus the microgenesis of a particular instance of activity is necessarilydependent upon the ontogenetic development of the participants that is to sayupon the opportunities their life trajectories have afforded them to appropriatethe relevant cultural knowledge through participation in instances of similaractions and operations

But on the time-scale of ontogenetic development each individualrsquos trajectoryof development is itself strongly influenced by the culture in which he or she isgrowing up and on the historical development of that culture As Rogoff (2003)illustrates in considerable detail cultures vary considerably both over time andacross ecological niches in what mediating artefacts and practices are available andin the relative value accorded to each Moreover within each culture at any parti-cular historical moment participants in activities both incorporate the ways ofprevious generations and adapt them to the exigencies of current conditions

Stepping up one further level the historical development of a particular cul-tures is itself shaped by development on the even larger timescale of the culturaland biological evolution of the species This is the most difficult timescale todescribe in detail for lack of the necessary evidence But certain broad distinc-tions between human communities can be made in terms of their modes of sub-sistence and of the mediating means available for joint activity (Diamond 1998Donald 1991) As recent research has shown our earliest ancestors some 5million years ago lived in small bands of hunter gatherers often on the edge oflakes and oceans Initially their tools were found in the surroundings but overseveral million years they invented ways of making more sophisticated artefactssuch as knives arrowheads baskets and clothing from flints bones skins andvegetable materials Then as some groups migrated to particularly fertile partsof the world they adopted a more settled agrarian way of life growing cropsand breeding animals The resulting ability to produce more food than imme-diately required led in turn to the emergence of trade and to a diversity of spe-cialist occupations such as potters and tailors who exchanged their products forfood and other necessities This stage also saw the development of much largerpopulation groupings with hierarchical class structures that included prieststax collectors and other religious and political functionaries

While migration had been a common feature of human existence from theearliest times the development of large settled populations and of weapons

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

made of bronze and iron led to the expansion of certain cultural groups throughterritorial conquest and colonization by sea and by land As a result during thelast few thousand years the latest phase of phylogenetic development has beencharacterized by the rise and fall of imperial cultures which have imposed theirtechnologies laws and administrative procedures as well as their religions artsknowledge and values on widely diverse subjugated populations Most recentlythe further development of the inventions that led to the first industrial revolu-tion has simply served to increase the scale and intensity of these imperialisttrends At the same time these inventions as well as those of the current indus-trial revolution have also led to a great increase in humansrsquo understanding oftheir social and material environment both through scientific and social rese-arch and through the dissemination of information about other times and placesresulting from travel and the use of print and electronic technologies

In presenting this very condensed account of phylogenetic development Ihave emphasized the material tools that have mediated the progressively morecomplex and diverse activities in which humans have engaged over the course ofthe speciesrsquo history However bearing in mind that what has been the drivingforce of human development is joint activity an equally ndashif not morendash impor-tant determinant of this history is the development of the modes of representa-tion through which humans have communicated and developed their unders-tanding of the world Table I presents the developmental sequence proposed byDonald (1991) based on archeological neuroanatomical historical and othertypes of evidence The table also includes the stages in the historical develop-ment of ways of knowing that were proposed by Wartofsky (1979)

The first stage in this sequence corresponds to the phase in which proto-humans began to diverge from other primate species In this phase as in thebehavior of contemporary higher primates practical action was the predomi-nant form of communication as ndashnot necessarily deliberatelyndash participants sig-naled their intentions in a shared situation and these intentions were interpre-ted and responded to by their co-participants in the activity In the secondmimetic phase which must have developed gradually over many millenniacommunication became somewhat differentiated from the activity to which itreferred as humans deliberately used gestures mime facial expression andvarious types of phonation to comment on as well as to coordinate action and theobjects to which it was directed Later still with the gradual modification of thevocal tract and of the primate brain there emerged the ability to communicatethrough speech and hence the ability to refer not only to particular objects andactions but also to generalized classes and to express observed and intendedrelationships between objects actions and events thus allowing participants toplan for and reflect on the outcomes of joint activity Finally the invention ofwriting which ushered in the final phase in Donaldrsquos proposed sequence occu-rred extremely recently in the long trajectory of phylogenetic development Yetas with those that preceded it enormously increased the human repertoire ofmeans for making and communicating meaning Essentially what it added wasan ldquoexternal memoryrdquo By creating a (relatively) permanent representation oflinguistic meaning it made possible the compilation and distillation of repor-ted information from many sources including the writerrsquos own verbalizedthoughts It also allowed the writer and those who read his or her written textto review critique and revise the meanings expressed and to make the resultsavailable to people in later times and other places for further constructive debateand improvement

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

However action gesture speech and writing are not simply progressivelymore powerful modes of communication They are also progressively morepowerful mediators of thinking This is most obvious with respect to the lin-guistic modes of communication But even before the emergence of speechaction and ndashto an even greater extentndash mimesis enabled humans to think toget-her and thereby to create a shared interpretation of their joint activities In fact ithas been argued that the emergence of language was not simply the result ofbrain and vocal tract development but rather was part of a more general patternof adaptation that building upon the cognitive achievements of mimetic kno-wing strove to integrate the unconnected bits of information in a more compre-hensive and coherent account of being-in-the-world (Deacon 1997) Neverthe-less it is also true that the availability of language greatly enhanced both com-munication and thinking together for as Halliday observed

the grammar of every natural language is (among other things) a theory of human experienceit is through our acts of meaning that we transform experience into the coherent -though farfrom consistent- patchwork that we learn to project as lsquorealityrsquo (1993 p 46)

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

TABLE IModes Of Knowing Phylogenetic And Cultural Development (from Wells 1999)

Time Mode of Participants Donald(1991) Wartofsky(1979)Years BP Knowing

2 million Instrumental Individual in action Episodic Primary artifactsyears material tools

1 -- 15 million Procedural Between individuals while Mimetic Secondaryyears engaged in action artifacts tools

and practicesmimeticinteraction

50000 Substantive Among members of a (Linguistic) Secondaryyears cultural group reflecting on artifacts

action and as a basis for representations ofplanning further action tools and

practices spokeninteraction

50000 Aesthetic Among members of a Mythic Tertiary artifactsyears cultural group making sense artistic represent-

of the human predicament ations in mythnarrative graphicand musical modes

2500 Theoretical Among members of a Theoretic Tertiary artifactsyears specialist community decontextualized

seeking to explain the natural representationsand human world such as

taxonomiestheories models etc

Meta Among members of a Tertiary artifacts cultural group also representations ofindividuals seeking to mental andunderstand and control their semioticown mental activity processes

In sum what Donald and other scholars argue is that contemporary mentalabilities are the outcome of the development over time of a series of progressi-vely more powerful and flexible modes of representation ndashor in Vygotskyanterms of semiotic mediators of higher mental functions- that have made possi-ble the rational theoretically oriented modes of knowing that underpin theachievements of modern science and its technological applications In the philo-sopher Wartofskyrsquos words

our own perceptual and cognitive understanding of the world is in large part shaped andchanged by the representational artifacts we ourselves create We are in effect the products ofour own activity in this way we transform our own perceptual and cognitive modes our waysof seeing and of understanding by means of the representations we make (1979 p xxiii)

There is however one further important aspect of Donaldrsquos (1991) thesis thatis crucial for the argument that I wish to develop Although the semiotic sys-tems of mimesis speech and writing each powered a new mode of cognitiveactivity they did not replace those that preceded but were additive in theireffects The result is that contemporary humans have a variety of modes of kno-wing at their disposal as they engage in joint activity Furthermore most suchactivities call for more than one mode of knowing and require the complemen-tary and interdependent use of more than one mode of representation

Joint Activity as the Site of Ontogenetic Learning and Development

Two important implications follow from the multi-level historical concep-tion of development just outlined First on any occasion the type of activitythat is undertaken and the specific manner in which it is enacted are necessarilydependent on the particular cultural-historical antecedents of the participantsboth human and artefactual that come together in its realization In particularthe manner in which the situation is interpreted ndashin terms of what action goalsare appropriate and how they can be achievedndash depends on the motives valuesand knowledgeable skills of the human participants and on the affordances ofthe technologies available in the situation And second every instance of an acti-vity provides an occasion for a triple transformation of the situation in whichthe activity is carried out of the artefacts and practices that mediate its enact-ment and most importantly of the knowledge and skills of the human partici-pants Taken together these propositions clarify the way in which cultural andindividual development are both interdependent and rooted in particular situa-ted occasions of joint activity As Rogoff (1994) argues

People of each generation as they engage in sociocultural endeavors with other people makeuse of and extend cultural tools and practices inherited from previous generations As peopledevelop through their shared use of cultural tools and practices they simultaneously contribu-te to the transformation of cultural tools practices and institutions (p 52)

Potentially therefore every occasion of joint activity provides an opportunityfor development on the part of all participants This is a point to which I shallreturn But first I want to consider more carefully the concept of developmentitself

Clearly built into the concept of development is the implication of change andtypically of change in the direction of increasing complexity and effectiveness Inother words development is typically taken to imply improvement or progresstoward some ideal end state or capability However in the light of the previousdiscussion such a progression while it may be meaningful to (some of the) partici-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

pants in any particular situation cannot be understood in any absolute sense butmust be seen as relative to the unfolding historical trajectory of the species of aparticular culture and of the immediate community ndashits values its dominantactivities and the knowledgeable skills that form its resources Furthermore just asthese have changed in the past they will continue to change in the future in res-ponse to the changing demands of the larger environment So while ontogeneticdevelopment does indeed involve increasing complexity and effectiveness of indi-vidualsrsquo participation in the activity systems in which they are involved in theirdaily lives the overall trajectory of development is emergent and its endpoint cannever be specified in advance even in terms of an ideal to be attained

Nevertheless this does not mean that there are not strong regularities in thesequence of ontogenetic development particularly in the early years Indeed asNelson (1996) has suggested during the preschool years children follow a trajec-tory very similar to the sequence of phylogenetic development proposed byDonald (1991) (see Table I above) as they appropriate the semiotic tools of repre-sentation afforded by action mimesis speech and writing Of course this is not asimple recapitulation children growing up in a contemporary literate culture forexample are surrounded from birth by artifacts and practices that result from andembody all the available modes of knowing (Cole 1996) Appropriating existingcultural tools is thus very different from inventing them ex novo as Scribner (1985)points out Nevertheless given the combination of biological and cultural inheri-tance it is not surprising that in most if not all cultures children follow the samesequence as did the species as a whole over the course of history

In the first weeks of life infants act on their immediate surroundings bothanimate and inanimate and begin to develop what Piaget (1970) called sensori-motor intelligence However although this most basic form of activity mayappear to be instinctual it is nevertheless also inherently social First all infantsare born into an environment that is cultural in the sense of having been shapedby countless preceding generations and second the infantrsquos actions are treatedas being intentional and are responded to as such So from the beginning theinfant is caught up in social interaction (Newson 1978) In the second phasewhich typically begins in the first few months the infant also begins to engagein mimetic communication through gaze facial expression and rudimentarygesture (Bruner 1990) Couched in terms of primary and secondary intersubjec-tivity this phase has been described in considerable detail by Trevarthen (19781979) Primary intersubjectivity develops as the infant and parent engage inmutual gaze thereby communicating that they are attending to and respondingto each other In secondary intersubjectivity third parties are brought into jointattention as the parent through gaze directs the infantrsquos attention to an object ofpotential interest or follows the childrsquos direction of gaze and signals that he orshe is also attending to the same object

It is on this basis of joint action and attention that towards the end of thefirst year the child begins to exploit his or her growing command of vocaliza-tion often accompanied by gesture to begin to communicate through speechFrom research predominantly involving children in ldquoWesternrdquo societies it hasbeen established that at first the childrsquos utterances are idiosyncratic drawingonly partially ndashif at allndash on the speech of those around him or her neverthelessparents and other family members have little difficulty in interpreting them incontext and once again they respond in a manner that is contingent on theirinterpretation thereby establishing spoken communication as a joint interactiveactivity By the end of the second year however children appear to abandon thisidiosyncratic ldquoprotolanguagerdquo form of communication and begin to construct a

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

linguistic meaning potential that is systematically related to the language thatis addressed to them in the oft-repeated activities of family life (Bruner 1990Halliday 1975 Wells 1986) Significantly within particular language com-munities the sequence in which children master the basic meanings and thelexicogrammatical forms in which they are realized tends to be very similar fromchild to child (Wells 1985)

The developmental sequence just described ndashaction mimesis speechndash is com-mon to children in all cultures and in all cases takes place in and through jointactivity and interaction with other family and community members Howeveralthough the sequence is universal the manner and pace at which it proceeds varyvery considerably across cultures These differences depend upon many culturally-determined factors such as adult expectations about their childrenrsquos developmentthe position in which the infant is typically held or carried facing the caregiver orturned outwards to face in the same direction as the caregiver the makeup and sizeof the interactional groups in which communication typically occurs and whetherthese events are part of family and community life more generally or are delibera-tely arranged and structured for the presumed benefit of the child (Rogoff 2003)In the later stages of language development the range and extent of the meaningpotential that children construct begins to vary even more widely depending onthe activities in which they engage the linguistic registers that are used in thoseactivities and the stances typically adopted by interlocutors toward the use of lan-guage in their interactions with children (Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

So far the ontogenetic developmental sequence I have described is funda-mentally similar across cultures and follows the phylogenetic sequence in whichhumans have progressively added new semiotic mediational means to theircommunicative repertoires In an important sense therefore the final mode ofrepresentation in Donaldrsquos scheme that of writing is an optional extra sincemany cultures have survived and prospered without a written mode of represen-ting meaning Moreover even in cultures that have a writing system the extentand scope of literacy that individuals attain varies very considerably dependingon the activity systems in which they participate the value that is placed onwritten texts by those communmities the purposes to which they are put andthe genres that are used for those purposes However since literacy and its usesare so strongly associated with schooling I shall leave further discussion of thismode of semiotic mediation to a later part of this paper

Before concluding this section however I want to explore further the con-cept of semiotic mediation In one of the better known passages in Vygotskyrsquoswritings where he argued for the social and cultural origin of higher mentalfunctions he wrote that every function occurs on two planes first in activity andinteraction between people and then within the individual learner (Vygotsky1981) What bridges between these two planes as is clear from his other wri-tings is semiotic mediation To recall Leontrsquoevrsquos formulation of this argument

hellip it is impossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in anyway other than a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words hig-her psychological processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction withothers that is through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried outindependently by the individual (1981 pp 55-56)

In other words when people engage in joint activity their actions gesturesand speech not only mediate the coordination of participation but they alsomake overt the mental activities involved and so render them available forappropriation by novice participants1 Halliday is very clear about this Alt-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

hough the following quotation refers only to language the term lsquolanguagersquocould justifiably be replaced by lsquosemiotic mediationrsquo

In the development of the child as a social being language has the central role Language is themain channel through which the patterns of living are transmitted to him through which helearns to act as a member of lsquosocietyrsquo ndashin and through the various social groups the family theneighbourhood and so onndash and to adopt its lsquoculturersquo its modes of thought and action itsbeliefs and its values (1978 p 9)

However as the child grows older language does become the predominantmode of semiotic mediation and as he wrote in a later paper ldquoLanguage is theessential condition of knowing the process by which experience becomes know-ledge (Halliday 1993 p 94 original emphasis)

Assistance for Learning in Joint Activitie

So far in the discussion of the role of joint activity in human development Ihave concentrated on the tools and particularly the semiotic modes of represen-tation that mediate the achievement of the outcome of activity In this sectionon the other hand I turn to the role of other people in this process both familymembers and the larger community

Until now I have referred to coparticipants in an activity in general termsbut clearly there are further distinctions to be made Particularly helpful in thisrespect is Engestroumlmrsquos model of an activity system which is shown in figure 1

What this model shows is that when we look at an ongoing activity from thepoint of view of an individual participant (t Subject) that individual is involvedin a nexus of other relationships that link him or her to other lsquoparticipantsrsquo theTools and artifacts to mediate action on the Object but also the Community of

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 1The Triangle of Activity

Artifactstools andpractices

Values rulesamp conventions

Community Divisioacutenof labor

Engestrom 1999

Object OutcomeSubject

others engaged in the activity together with the Division of Labor within thatcommunity and also the Rules and Conventions that govern the manner inwhich the activity is carried out (Engestroumlm 1999) What this latter category oflsquoparticipantrsquo underscores is the historical dimension of an activity system sincethese rules and conventions ndashas well as the tools and artifactsndash bring into thepresent the distilled practices of previous generations who have engaged in theactivity as these are interpreted and utilized by the current community

To illustrate the relevance of this model to the development of the youngchild we might compare two versions of a similar activity reported by WertschMinick and Arns (1984) In their study Brazilian children carried out a puzzletask on two occasions first with the mother and secondly with a primary tea-cher What the researchers found was that in general the mothers and teachersengaged in the activity in systematically different ways Whereas the motherstended to direct the childrenrsquos behavior or even carry out parts of the task them-selves in order to complete it in an efficient manner ndashjust as they would havedone if engaged in a household taskndash the teachers tended to encourage thechildrsquos autonomous performance and only provided hints and suggestions whenthey judged them to be necessary to advance the childrenrsquos understandingInterpreting these results the researchers suggested that the two groups ofadults belonged to two different communities (or activity systems) that had dif-ferent rules and conventions about engaging in this joint activity And this inturn led to the different divisions of labor that they observed Similarly Rogoff(2003) cites many examples of substantial differences between cultures inalmost all aspects of child rearing with respect to their ways of engaging chil-dren in the activities that they consider important

What is clear is that ldquobehindrdquo the particular adult ndashor older siblings in someculturesndash who are directly engaged with the child there is a wider communityof family members neighbors and others who have an interest in the upbrin-ging of children and who share beliefs about appropriate ways to involve themin the activities of daily life So whether in Spain Japan or the Peruvian High-lands although the actual practices vary across cultures in each those responsi-ble for childrenrsquos well-being and development act as agents of a wider commu-nity whose beliefs and practices are rooted in a long tradition concerning howactivities should be carried out But equally in all cultures practices also changein response to changes in the world beyond the particular community In manyWestern homes for example computer games or television programs haverecently taken the place of the bedtime story while in many indigenous com-munities crafts that until recently only supplied local needs are now exploitedcommercially for the tourist trade changing the rhythms of daily life and therelationships among family members and the activities in which children areinvolved As suggested earlier therefore in order to understand the activities inwhich children participate today we need to look not only at the immediatesituation but also at the wider community and the changes taking place on allthese time-scales

Microgenesis and the Zone of Proximal Development

It is nevertheless always the immediate microgenetic situation that isthe site of ontogenetic development ndashthe action and interaction between thelearner and those with whom he or she is engaged in the activity in pro-gress When we adopt this microgenetic perspective however we need tomodify the representation of an activity system presented in figure 1 Inthat representation the focus was on the goal-oriented nature of action

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Here we need to focus on the interaction among the participants ndashtheirattempt to attain intersubjectivity with respect to the common object andthe complementarity of the knowledgeable skills they bring to the cocons-truction of the intended outcome (see Figure 2) What figure 2 emphasizesis the fact that although the tools and artefacts that are available to mediatethe jointly undertaken action are the same for each participant each bringsa somewhat different familiarity with their use as a result of their differentlife trajectories and it is this variability in their expertise that makes it pos-sible for each to provide assistance to the others in at least some aspects ofthe joint action Viewed in this light it is clear why Vygotsky emphasizedthe role of joint activity in development and wrote of its potential to enablelearners ldquoto go beyond themselvesrdquo with the assistance of more expertothers

The metaphor Vygotsky used to characterize the potential for learning thatthis sort of activity creates was the ldquozone of proximal developmentrdquo As hewrote when another participant in the activity provides instruction that isappropriately pitched beyond what the learner can manage to do on his or herown it ldquowakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturationlying in the zone of proximal developmentrdquo (1987 p 212) Vygotsky concep-tualized development as the formation of new functional systems (ldquoneoforma-tionsrdquo) and of changes in the relationships among systems which he consideredto occur as a succession of ldquocrises of developmentrdquo that are particularly facilitatedby engagement in the relevant ldquoleading activityrdquo at each stage for example playin childhood and learning to read and write in the early school yearsHowever itwould be a mistake to focus only on the periods of revolutionary change since ashe equally emphasized at any time there are also other more gradual processes ofgrowth

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 2Dialogue in Joint Activity(from Wells2002b)

Outcomematerial ampsemioticartefacts

Toolsartefacts

Subject

Rulesconventions

Community Divisionof labor

Subject

Toolsartefacts

Processes that are central lines of development at one age become peripheral lines of develop-ment at the following age and conversely peripheral lines of development of one age arebrought to the forefront and become central lines since their meaning and relative significancein the total structure of development changes (p 197)2

In developing his important concept of the zone of proximal developmentVygotsky tended to characterize the assistance given by others as ldquoinstructionrdquoand to see its value in ldquothe childrsquos potential to raise himself to a higher intellec-tual level of development through collaboration to move from what he has towhat he does not have through imitationrdquo (1987 p 210) However manyrecent scholars who have built on his work have taken a broader view of thedevelopmental significance of collaboration in joint activities and have characte-rized the assistance that is provided within this relationship in terms such asldquoapprenticeshiprdquo (Lave amp Wenger 1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoguided participationrdquo(Rogoff 1994 2003) and ldquoscaffoldingrdquo (Wood et al 1976) Neverthelesswhile these different metaphors highlight different features of the relationshipwhat they all have in common is the inclusion of the learner in an activity inwhich there is provision of the assistance necessary to help the learner to comple-te an activity in which he or she is interested and to do so in such a way that heor she makes progress toward being able to participate more fully and autono-mously in the future (Maybin Mercer and Stierer 1992)

In many joint activities such as for example traditional forms of craftapprenticeship assistance is only provided when needed and the ldquomasterrdquo doesso with no deliberate didactic intention beyond that of involving the novice inthe completion of the particular task in hand (Lave 1996) Similarly in sociali-zation into activities around the home no explicit instruction is necessary fornovices can learn a great deal by simply watching and listening (cf Rogoff2003) This is what Lave and Wenger (1991) mean when they insist that lear-ning is not an independent activity but an intrinsic aspect of ldquolegitimate perip-heral participationrdquo in a communityrsquos activities From their perspective therefo-re formal education in which learning is the sole purpose of the activity issomething of an anomaly particularly when the only form of assistance providedis the expert teacherrsquos direct instruction and subsequent evaluation of the extentof the studentsrsquo learning

In many recent discussions it has also been recognized that it is not only aldquoteacherrdquo who can provide assistance in the zpd On the one hand in a com-plex activity many participants are more expert than others in some aspectsand therefore on some occasions are able to help those who are less expert(Rogoff 1994) and on the other hand those who provide assistance do nothave to be physically present texts and other artifacts can equally well helpa participant ldquoto go beyond himherselfrdquo as is often the case in intellectualwork such as research and writ ing (Wells 1999) Furthermore asEngestroumlm (1999) and others ndashbuilding on other aspects of Vygotskyrsquos theo-retical writingsndash have noted the material and symbolic tools that have beendeveloped by previous participants in the activity can also provide the samesort of assistance However perhaps the most important point to emphasizeis that there are many situations in which no-one is an expert yet as eachbrings his or her own past experience to the solution of a common problemthe group together is able to achieve more than any single member couldhave done alone Clearly it is such collaboration that has made possible theinventions that have led to the major advances of great civilizations over thecourse of cultural history

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Development in the Pre-School Years

As noted above the responsibility for caring for children in early childhoodvaries very considerably from one society to another Nevertheless in all socie-ties children are involved in joint activities with others in which they receiveassistance with respect to their participation however that may be locally achie-ved For the most part as already mentioned these are activities that are regu-larly repeated in the taken-for-granted routines of daily life The expectation isthat the child will learn to fit in and is simply helped to do so Often referred toas ldquoenculturationrdquo this form of apprenticeship ensures the continuity of the cul-turersquos way of life from one generation to the next and as Donald (1991) arguedit probably occurred even before the emergence of speech

However in all activities there are occasions when problems arise that callfor some level of deliberate decision-making In these situations spoken interac-tion makes possible a degree of reflection and forward planning in which therelations of cause and effect intention action and outcome are made explicitand open to question and discussion The talk that occurs on these occasionsthus plays a particularly important role in helping children to attend to andunderstand the world around them in terms of the culturersquos ways of ldquomakingsenserdquo of it However these occasions can also open up possibilities for changeboth in the form of the activity and in the participantsrsquo understanding of itHow caregivers habitually take up these opportunities is particularly importantfor it plays an important part in shaping the intellectual dispositions withwhich children enter school (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo amp Sterponi2002)

In this section I include some representative examples of kinds of talk thatarise from joint activities in the home These examples are drawn from observa-tions made in settings in England (Wells 1986) and Australia (Hasan 2002) inwhich the young children observed spent most of their time at home with oneparent sometimes with one or more siblings some of the time they entertainedthemselves with occasional adult involvement but they also frequently watchedand ldquohelpedrdquo the parent with household tasks of various kinds

In the first example James (aged 3 12 years) has been playing alone in thegarden and as he reenters the house his mother tries to get him to take off hismuddy shoes However at that moment he sees a bird outside which interestshim more than changing his shoes

Example 1Mother There we are there one slipper onJames I can see a birdMother A what loveJames See a bird Mother (whispering) Is there OutsideJames (pointing and whispering) Yes see

(both continue to speak very softly)Mother Is he eating anythingJames NoMother Where Oh yes hersquos getting- do you know what hersquos doingJames NoMother Hersquos going to the- the paper sack to try to pick out some pieces-

Oh hersquos got some food there and I expect hersquoll pick out somepieces of thread from the sack to go and make his nest under the roofJames Wait a minute and Irsquoll-[James now wants to go out to see more closely but at that moment thebird flies away]

James That birdrsquos gone

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

In the second example Elizabeth (aged 4 years) who is helping with thehouse cleaning watches with interest as her mother shovels wood ash from thefireplace into a bucket

Example 2Elizabeth What are you doing that forMother Irsquom gathering it up and putting it outside so that Daddy can put it on the gardenElizabeth Why does he have to put it on the gardenMother To make the compost rightElizabeth Does that make the grass growMother YesElizabeth Why does itMother You know how I tell you that you need to eat different things like eggs and cab-

bage and rice pudding to make you grow into a big girlElizabeth YesMother Well plants need different foods too and ash is one of the things thatrsquos

good for them

The third example involves James again now eighteen months older Earlierin the afternoon he had been helping his mother with the baking Now hecomes back into the kitchen as his mother is taking the baking trays out of theoven He hears a loud metallic ldquocrackrdquo and asks for an explanation

Example 3James Who did thatMother I expect it was the tin contractingJames Which tinMother The one with your pastry inJames Why did it make that noiseMother Well when it was in the oven it got very hot and stretched a bit Irsquove just taken

it out of the oven and itrsquos cooling down very quickly you see and that noisehappens when it gets smaller again and goes back to its normal shape

James Oh was it a different shape in the ovenMother Oh not very different just a little biggerJames Naughty little tin you might get smacked if you do it again

In all three of these examples the mother willingly responds to the childrsquosinterest and provides information to explain the significance of what the child isseeing or hearing even when in the first this interrupts the motherrsquos plan Allthree cases show how the childrsquos participation in the activity with the adult assu-res that there is intersubjectivity of attention to what interests the child and thisenables the mother to provide relevant information Clearly this is a form ofldquoinstructionrdquo however it is spontaneous and contingent on the childrsquos interestrather than presented as part of a pre-planned curriculum

The third example is particularly interesting from this point of view as thephenomenon of interest to James requires a somewhat technical explanation Atsome point in the future no doubt the expansion of metal when heated and itssubsequent contraction when removed from the heat will figure in the schoolscience curriculum in relation to the systematic study of heat here however itis an interesting side-effect of baking and the motherrsquos explanation while tech-nical in content is couched in everyday language rather than in the abstractterms of scientific generalization As Hasan (2002) has observed

the discourse of quasi specialised knowledge occurs in the lsquomiddle ofrsquo daily activities and bynecessity it calls for a readiness on the motherrsquos part to entertain contextual shifts to bewilling to reclassify the context of the on-going discourse The tendency to move with thechildrsquos moving discourse the readiness to re-classify context is a discourse characteristic of thesame group of mothers who frequently ask questions made precise by qualification and whoattend to their childrenrsquos questions and provide them with well developed answers (p 123)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 10: Actividad y Aprendizaje

Ayuda para aprender en actividades conjuntas

Hasta ahora en la discusioacuten del papel de la actividad conjunta en el desarrollohumano me he centrado en las herramientas y particularmente en los modossemioacuteticos de representacioacuten que median los logros obtenidos como resultado dela actividad En esta seccioacuten en cambio me detendreacute en el papel que jueganotras personas ya sean miembros de la familia o de la comunidad extensa

Hasta este momento me he referido a los coparticipantes en una actividad enteacuterminos generales pero claramente hay distinciones adicionales por hacer Par-ticularmente uacutetil al respecto es el modelo de sistema de actividad de Engestroumlmel cual se representa en la figura 1

Lo que este modelo muestra es que cuando observamos una actividad encurso desde el punto de vista de un participante individual (Sujeto t) ese indivi-duo estaacute atrapado en un nudo de relaciones que le unen a otros ldquoparticipantesrdquolas Herramientas y Artefactos para mediar la accioacuten sobre el Objeto pero tam-bieacuten la Comunidad a la que pertenecen las personas implicadas en la actividadjunto con la Divisioacuten de Trabajo propia de la comunidad y tambieacuten las Reglas yConvenciones que gobierna la manera en la que la actividad se desarrolla(Engestroumlm 1999) Lo que subraya esta uacuteltima categoriacutea de ldquoparticipantesrdquo es ladimensioacuten histoacuterica de un sistema de actividad ya que estas reglas y convencio-nes ndashal igual que las herramientas y artefactosndash traen al presente las praacutecticasdestiladas de las generaciones previas que han participado en la actividad y estaspraacutecticas son interpretadas y utilizadas por la comunidad actual

Para ilustrar la relevancia de este modelo en el desarrollo del nintildeo pequentildeopodemos comparar dos versiones de una actividad similar descrita por WertschMinick y Arns (1984) En este estudio un grupo de nintildeos de Brasil ordenan unpuzzle en dos situaciones distintas la primera con sus madres y la segunda conun profesor de primaria Los investigadores observaron que en general las

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187174

FIGURA 1Triaacutengulo de Actividad

Artefactosherramientas y

praacutecticas

Valores reglasy convenciones

Comunidad Divisioacuten delabor

Engestrom 1999

Objeto ResultadosSujeto

madres y los profesores participan en la actividad de manera sistemaacuteticamentediferente Mientras que las madres tendiacutean a dirigir el comportamiento de losnintildeos o incluso a realizar parte de la tarea ellas mismas para completarla de unamanera eficaz ndashtal y como habriacutean hecho si se tratara de una tarea domeacutesticandashlos profesores tendiacutean a promover la actuacioacuten autoacutenoma de los nintildeos y soacutelo pro-porcionaban consejos y sugerencias cuando lo juzgaban necesario para el avancede la comprensioacuten de los nintildeos Interpretando estos resultados los investigado-res sugeriacutean que los dos grupos de adultos perteneciacutean a dos comunidades dife-rentes (o sistemas de actividad) con diferentes reglas y convenciones sobre la par-ticipacioacuten en actividades conjuntas Y esto alternativamente conduciacutea a la dife-rente divisioacuten del trabajo que ellos observaron De manera similar Rogoff(2003) cita muchos ejemplos de diferencias sustanciales entre culturas en casitodos los aspectos del crecimiento infantil con respecto a sus modos de implicar alos nintildeos en las actividades que consideran importantes

Lo que estaacute claro es que ldquodetraacutes derdquo un adulto particular en contacto directocon el nintildeo ndasho en algunas culturas un hermano mayorndash hay una comunidadamplia formada por los miembros de la familia vecinos y otras personas interesa-das en la educacioacuten del nintildeo que comparten determinadas creencias sobre elmodo maacutes apropiado de introducir a los nintildeos en las actividades de la vida diariaPor eso ya sea en Espantildea Japoacuten o las Montantildeas Peruanas aunque las praacutecticasactuales variacutean a traveacutes de las culturas en todas los responsables del bienestar ydel desarrollo de los nintildeos actuacutean como agentes de una comunidad maacutes ampliacuyas creencias y praacutecticas estaacuten arraigadas en una larga tradicioacuten sobre coacutemodeben llevarse a cabo las actividades Pero igualmente en todas las culturas laspraacutecticas tambieacuten cambian en respuesta a los cambios en el mundo maacutes allaacute deuna comunidad particular En muchos hogares Occidentales por ejemplo losjuegos de ordenadores o los programas de televisioacuten han ocupado recientementeel lugar de los cuentos antes de dormir mientras que en muchas comunidadesindiacutegenas las artes que hasta hace poco soacutelo cubriacutean las necesidades locales sonahora explotadas comercialmente por el mercado turiacutestico cambiando los ritmosde la vida diaria las relaciones entre los miembros de la familia y las actividadesen las que los nintildeos estaacuten inmersos Sin embargo como anteriormente se sugirioacutepara comprender las actividades en las que los nintildeos participan hoy necesitamosmirar no soacutelo a la situacioacuten inmediata sino tambieacuten a la comunidad maacutes ampliay a los cambios que han tenido lugar en las escalas temporales

Microgeacutenesis y Zona de Desarrollo Proacuteximo

Lo inmediato sin embargo es siempre la situacioacuten microgeneacutetica que es ellugar del desarrollo ontogeneacutetico ndashla accioacuten e interaccioacuten entre el aprendiz yaquellos con quien estaacute implicado en la actividad en cursondash Cuando adoptamosesta perspectiva microgeneacutetica sin embargo necesitamos modificar la represen-tacioacuten del sistema de actividad reflejada en la figura 1 Esta representacioacutensubraya el hecho de que la accioacuten estaacute orientada a un propoacutesito De manera dis-tinta ahora conviene resaltar la interaccioacuten entre los participantes ndashsus tentativaspara lograr intersubjetividad con respecto a los objetivos comunes y a las habili-dades complementarias de conocimiento que aportan a la co-construccioacuten delresultado previsto (ver Figura 2)ndash Lo que la figura 2 enfatiza es el hecho de queaunque las herramientas y artefactos que estaacuten disponibles para mediar la accioacutenemprendida conjuntamente son los mismos para cada participante cada unoaporta una familiaridad algo diferente con su uso como resultado de su diferentetrayectoria vital siendo esta variabilidad en su pericia la que hace posible paracada uno de ellos proporcionar asistencia a los otros al menos en algunos aspectos

175El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

de la accioacuten conjunta Visto desde esta perspectiva estaacute claro por queacute Vygotskienfatizoacute el papel de la actividad conjunta en el desarrollo y escribioacute sobre supotencial para permitir a los participantes ldquoir maacutes allaacute de siacute mismosrdquo con laayuda de otros maacutes expertos

La metaacutefora usada por Vygotski para caracterizar el potencial para el aprendi-zaje que esta clase de actividad crea fue ldquozona de desarrollo proacuteximordquo Como eacutelescribioacute cuando otro participante en la actividad proporciona instruccioacuten que essuministrada apropiadamente maacutes allaacute de lo que el aprendiz puede llegar a hacerpor siacute mismo ldquodespierta toda una serie de funciones que estaacuten en estado demaduracioacuten latente en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximordquo (1987 p 212) Vygotskiconceptualizoacute el desarrollo como la formacioacuten de nuevos sistemas funcionales(ldquoneoformacionesrdquo) y de cambios en las relaciones entre sistemas que seguacuten eacutelconsideraba ocurriacutean como una secuencia de ldquocrisis del desarrollordquo particular-mente facilitadas por la participacioacuten en las ldquoactividades guiadasrdquo relevantes decada etapa por ejemplo jugar en la nintildeez y aprender a leer y a escribir en los pri-meros antildeos escolares Sin embargo puede ser un error dirigir la atencioacuten soacutelo alos periodos de cambios revolucionarios ya que como eacutel igualmente enfatizoacutetambieacuten tienen lugar en cualquier momento otros procesos graduales de creci-miento

Los procesos que son liacuteneas centrales de desarrollo en una edad se convierten en liacuteneas perifeacute-ricas de desarrollo en la edad siguiente y contrariamente liacuteneas perifeacutericas de desarrollo deuna edad son traiacutedas a la vanguardia y se convierten en liacuteneas centrales en el momento en elque cambia su significado y su significacioacuten relativa en la estructura total del desarrollo(1987 p 197)2

En la elaboracioacuten de su importante concepto de zona de desarrollo proacuteximoVygotski tendioacute a caracterizar la ayuda proporcionada por otros como ldquoinstruc-cioacutenrdquo asiacute como a ver su valor en ldquoel potencial del nintildeo para elevarse a siacute mismo

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187176

FIGURA 2Diaacutelogo en la Actividad Conjunta (Wells 2002b)

Resultadosmateriales yartefactossemioacuteticos

Herramientasartefactos

Sujeto

Reglasconvenciones

Comunidad Divisioacuten delabor

Sujeto

Herramientasartefactos

gracias a la colaboracioacuten hacia un nivel intelectual mayor de desarrollo despla-zaacutendose mediante la imitacioacuten desde lo que eacutel es hasta lo que eacutel no esrdquo (1987p 210) Sin embargo muchos eruditos contemporaacuteneos que han construidosobre su trabajo han adoptado una visioacuten de conjunto del significado evolutivode la colaboracioacuten en actividades conjuntas y han caracterizado la ayuda propor-cionada en esta relacioacuten con teacuterminos tales como ldquoaprendizajerdquo (Lave y Wenger1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoparticipacioacuten guiadardquo (Rogoff 1994 2003) y ldquoandamia-jerdquo (Wood Bruner y Ross 1976) Sin embargo mientras estas metaacuteforas dife-rentes iluminan caracteriacutesticas diferentes de la relacioacuten lo que tienen todas encomuacuten es la inclusioacuten del aprendizaje en una actividad que ofrezca el nivel deapoyo necesario para ayudar al aprendizaje a completar una actividad en la que eacutelo ella estaacute interesado y a hacer esto de tal manera que eacutel o ella progresen hastapoder participar maacutes plena y autoacutenomamente en el futuro (Maybin Mercer yStierer 1992)

En muchas actividades conjuntas tales como por ejemplo formas tradicio-nales de aprendizaje de oficios la ayuda es proporcionada soacutelo cuando se necesitay de este modo el ldquomaestrordquo la ofrece sin intenciones didaacutecticas deliberadas maacutesallaacute de arropar al principiante para terminar una tarea particular en curso (Lave1996) De manera similar la socializacioacuten en actividades domeacutesticas no necesitauna instruccioacuten expliacutecita ya que los principiantes pueden aprender mucho sim-plemente mirando y escuchando (cf Rogoff 2003) Esto es lo que Lave y Wen-ger (1991) quieren decir cuando insisten en que el aprendizaje no es una activi-dad independiente sino un aspecto intriacutenseco de la ldquoparticipacioacuten perifeacutericalegiacutetimardquo en las actividades de una comunidad Desde su perspectiva por lotanto la educacioacuten formal en la que el aprendizaje es el uacutenico propoacutesito de laactividad tiene algo anoacutemalo particularmente cuando la uacutenica forma de ayudaproporcionada es la instruccioacuten directa del profesor experto y la consiguienteevaluacioacuten del grado de aprendizaje de los alumnos

En muchas discusiones recientes se ha reconocido tambieacuten que no es soacutelo unldquoprofesorrdquo quien puede proporcionar ayuda en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximo Porun lado en una actividad compleja muchos participantes son maacutes expertos queotros en algunos aspectos y por lo tanto en algunas ocasiones estaacuten preparadospara ayudar a aquellos que son menos expertos (Rogoff 1994) Por otro ladoaquellos que proporcionan ayuda no tienen que estar fiacutesicamente presentes lostextos y otros artefactos pueden igualmente ayudar de manera satisfactoria a unparticipante ldquoa ir maacutes allaacute de siacute mismo o siacute mismardquo como ocurre con frecuenciaen el trabajo intelectual como la investigacioacuten y la escritura (Wells 1999) Ade-maacutes como Engestroumlm (1999) y otros ndashbasaacutendose en distintos aspectos de losescritos teoacutericos de Vygotskindash han anotado las herramientas materiales y simboacute-licas que han sido desarrolladas por participantes anteriores en la actividad pue-den tambieacuten proporcionar la misma clase de ayuda Sin embargo el punto maacutesimportante que quizaacutes debe subrayarse es que hay muchas situaciones en las quenadie es un experto incluso como cada uno aporta su propia experiencia pasadaa la solucioacuten de un problema comuacuten el grupo en su conjunto es capaz de alcan-zar maacutes de lo que cualquier miembro singular podriacutea haber hecho de maneraindependiente Evidentemente es esta colaboracioacuten la que ha hecho posible lasinvenciones que han llevado a los mayores avances de las grandes civilizaciones alo largo del curso de la historia cultural

Desarrollo en los antildeos preescolares

La responsabilidad para cuidar a los nintildeos en la nintildeez temprana variacutea conside-rablemente de una sociedad a otra como antes anoteacute Sin embargo en todas las

177El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

sociedades los nintildeos estaacuten inmersos en actividades conjuntas con otros en las quereciben ayuda para participar aunque puedan llevarlas a cabo parcialmente Ensu mayor parte como ya se mencionoacute eacutestas son actividades cotidianas repetidasregularmente en las rutinas establecidas Se espera que el nintildeo aprenderaacute a asu-mirlas y es simplemente ayudado para hacerlo Esta forma de aprendizaje deno-minada habitualmente ldquoenculturacioacutenrdquo asegura la continuidad de las formas devida culturales desde una generacioacuten a la siguiente y como Donald (1991) argu-menta probablemente tuvo lugar incluso antes de la emergencia del habla

Sin embargo en todas las actividades hay ocasiones en las que cuando surgealguacuten problema se requiere alguacuten nivel de toma de decisiones deliberado En estassituaciones la interaccioacuten verbal hace posible un grado de reflexioacuten y planificacioacutenhacia delante en la que las relaciones de causa y efecto intencioacuten accioacuten y resultadose hacen expliacutecitas y abiertas para su anaacutelisis y discusioacuten La conversacioacuten que semantiene en estas ocasiones juega asiacute un papel particularmente importante en laayuda a los nintildeos para atender y comprender el mundo que les rodea de acuerdo conlos modos culturales de ldquodarle sentidordquo Sin embargo estas ocasiones pueden tam-bieacuten abrir posibilidades para el cambio tanto en la forma de la actividad como lacomprensioacuten que de ella alcanzan los participantes Coacutemo los cuidadores tomanhabitualmente estas oportunidades es de gran relevancia aquiacute ya que juega en la for-macioacuten de las disposiciones intelectuales con las que los nintildeos entran en la escuelaun papel importante (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo y Sterponi 2002)

En esta seccioacuten incluyo algunos ejemplos representativos del modo de hablarque surge de las actividades conjuntas en el hogar Estos ejemplos se han extraiacute-do de observaciones realizadas en contextos ingleses (Wells 1986) y australianos(Hasan 2002) donde los nintildeos pequentildeos observados pasaban la mayor parte desu tiempo en el hogar en compantildeiacutea de un progenitor o algunas veces con uno omaacutes hermanos mientras que el resto del tiempo se entreteniacutean ellos solos (conuna participacioacuten esporaacutedica del adulto) o algo que haciacutean con frecuencia mira-ban y ldquoayudabanrdquo a sus progenitores con tareas domeacutesticas de diferente tipo

En el primer ejemplo James (de tres antildeos y medio de edad) ha estado jugandosolo en el jardiacuten y cuando entra de nuevo en casa su madre intenta que se quitelos zapatos embarrados Sin embargo en ese momento ve un paacutejaro fuera que leinteresa maacutes que cambiarse de zapatos

Ejemplo 1Madre Alliacute Vamoshellip Alliacutehellip Una zapatilla enJames Puedo ver un paacutejaroMadre iquestUn queacute amorJames Mira un paacutejaroMadre (Susurrando) iquestEstaacute alliacute iquestFueraJames (Sentildealando y susurrando) Siacute mira

(Ambos continuacutean hablando muy suavemente)Madre iquestEstaacute comiendo algoJames NoMadre iquestDoacutende Oh siacute estaacute consiguiendo iquestSabes queacute estaacute haciendoJames NoMadre Estaacute yendo al saco de papel para intentar escoger algunos pedazos

Oh tiene un poco de alimento alliacute Y espero que escoja algunos pedazos de hilodel saco para ir y hacer su nido bajo la azotea James Espera un minuto y [James ahora quiere salir a ver maacutes cerca pero en ese momento el paacutejaro se escapavolando]

James Se ha ido

En el segundo ejemplo Elizabeth (de cuatro antildeos de edad) que estaacute ayudandoen la limpieza de casa mira con intereacutes coacutemo su madre mete en un cubo la cenizade la lentildea de la chimenea

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187178

Ejemplo 2Elizabeth iquestPara queacute estaacutes haciendo esoMadre Estoy recogieacutendolo y ponieacutendolo fuera para que papaacute pueda ponerlo en el jardiacutenElizabeth iquestPor queacute lo tiene que poner en el jardiacuten Madre Para abonar bienElizabeth iquestEso hace que la hierba crezcaMadre SiacuteElizabeth iquestPor queacuteMadre Sabes que te digo que necesitas comer cosas diferentes como huevos y col y

pudin de arroz para convertirte en una nintildea mayor Elizabeth SiacuteMadre Bien las plantas tambieacuten necesitan comida diferente Y la ceniza es una de las

cosas buenas para ellas

El tercer ejemplo se refiere a James de nuevo ahora 18 meses mayor Por lamantildeana temprano ha estado ayudando a su madre con la elaboracioacuten de unos dul-ces en el horno Ahora vuelve a la cocina cuando su madre estaacute sacando las bande-jas fuera del horno Oye un ruidoso ldquocrackrdquo metaacutelico y solicita una explicacioacuten

Ejemplo 3James iquestQuieacuten hizo esoMadre Espero que fuera la contraccioacuten de la lata James iquestQueacute lataMadre La que estaacute con los pasteles dentro James iquestPor queacute hizo ese ruidoMadre Bien cuando estaba en el horno se calentoacute mucho y se estiroacute un pedacito Ape-

nas la he sacado del horno y se estaacute enfriando muy raacutepido mira y ese ruido ocu-rre cuando se hace maacutes pequentildea otra vez y vuelve a su forma normal

James Oh iquesttiene una forma diferente en el horno Madre Oh no muy diferente Soacutelo un poco mayor James Pequentildea lata traviesa Puede que consigas que te den un azote si lo haces otra vez

En estos tres ejemplos la madre responde con prontitud a los intereses delnintildeo y proporciona informacioacuten para explicar el significado de lo que los nintildeosestaacuten viendo u oyendo incluso cuando inicialmente esto interrumpe los planesde la madre Los tres casos muestran coacutemo la participacioacuten de los nintildeos en la acti-vidad con el adulto garantiza una atencioacuten intersubjetiva hacia los intereses delnintildeo lo que permite a la madre proporcionar informacioacuten relevante Esto es cla-ramente una forma de ldquoinstruccioacutenrdquo sin embargo es espontaacutenea y contingentecon los intereses de los nintildeos en lugar de ser presentada como parte de un curri-culum pre-planificado

El tercer ejemplo es particularmente interesante desde este punto de vista yaque el fenoacutemeno que despierta el intereacutes de James requiere una explicacioacuten algoteacutecnica En alguacuten momento del futuro sin duda la dilatacioacuten del metal cuandose calienta y su consiguiente contraccioacuten cuando es apartado del calor figuraraacuteen el curriculum de ciencias de la escuela en relacioacuten con el estudio sistemaacuteticodel calor aquiacute sin embargo es un efecto secundario de la elaboracioacuten de los pas-teles en el horno y la explicacioacuten de la madre aunque teacutecnica en cuanto al conte-nido se asienta en el lenguaje cotidiano y no en los teacuterminos abstractos de lageneralizacioacuten cientiacutefica Como Hasan (2002) ha observado

el discurso del conocimiento quasi especializado tiene lugar lsquoen medio dersquo las actividades dia-rias y necesariamente exige una buena disposicioacuten por parte de la madre para acoger los cam-bios contextuales para tener la voluntad de reclasificar el contexto del discurso en marcha Latendencia a conectar con el discurso en movimiento del nintildeo la buena disposicioacuten para reclasi-ficar el contexto es una caracteriacutestica discursiva del mismo grupo de madres que con frecuen-cia lanzan preguntas precisas para la calificacioacuten de los objetos que atienden a las preguntas desus hijos y que les proporcionan respuestas bien desarrolladas (p 123)

179El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

No todos los nintildeos experimentan esta clase de respuesta altamente informati-va para sus intereses por supuesto Sobre la base de un corpus sustancial de inte-racciones madre-hijo Hasan (2002) siguiendo a Bernstein (1982) distingueentre mediacioacuten semioacutetica ldquovisiblerdquo e ldquoinvisiblerdquo Mientras que todos los ejem-plos citados anteriormente giran sobre la actividad conjunta y las preguntas delos nintildeos merecen una exploracioacuten adicional en un modo expliacutecito ldquovisiblerdquo lostemas de las contribuciones de muchos otros nintildeos a la actividad y la interaccioacutenson tratados por los padres como ldquoobviosrdquo y por lo tanto como si no requirieranexplicacioacuten En este sentido la mediacioacuten de las creencias culturales y de laspraacutecticas permanece ldquoinvisiblerdquo esto es la forma de ser del mundo y el tema nomerece una discusioacuten adicional El Ejemplo 4 (tomado de Hasan 2002) bajoestaacutes liacuteneas proporciona una buena ilustracioacuten

Ejemplo 4 Madre Ponlo sobre la estufa y deacutejalo alliacuteKaren iquestPor queacuteMadre PorqueKaren iquestAquiacute es doacutende va Madre SiacuteUn poco despueacutesKaren iquestCoacutemo conseguiste esoiquestNo saliste Madre Camineacute encima y lo conseguiacute iquestno me viste Karen HmmMadre Debes estar ciega

Los dos breves extractos del Ejemplo 4 son tiacutepicos de un estilo muy diferentede interaccioacuten comparados con los anteriores Aquiacute el eacutenfasis de los padres enconseguir que el nintildeo se adapte a los modos de la cultura local de actuar y pensarcon eficacia suprime la curiosidad del nintildeo y el deseo de comprender lo quetambieacuten hace menos probable que el nintildeo desarrolle la capacidad para cuestionarel status quo y participar en los esfuerzos por cambiarlo y mejorarlo

Finalmente antes de dejar el tema del aprendizaje a traveacutes de la conversacioacutenen actividades conjuntas es importante considerar la actividad conjunta en elcontexto del juego Vygotski (1978) consideroacute el juego como la actividad princi-pal en los antildeos preescolares ya que anima al nintildeo a explorar las posibilidades dela mediacioacuten semioacutetica mediante el uso de objetos presentes que pueden ser uti-lizados para representar otros objetos no presentes mediante el ldquorole playrdquo en elque el lenguaje crea un mundo imaginario En el Ejemplo 5 James ahora contres antildeos y nueve meses estaacute sentaacutendose en el brazo de un sofaacute conduciendo untren imaginario con su madre como pasajera

Ejemplo 5Madre Aquiacute estamos Me sentareacute al lado Perfecto iquestestaacutes listo iquestTodo a punto

Bien Quita el frenoJames Comenzareacute a levantarloMadre Oh perdoacuten Estaacute bienJames Mamaacute no conduzcas todaviacuteaMadre Oh BienJames [Hace un ruido simulando arrancar el motor]Madre iexclOh Este motor arranca raacutepido Muy bien iquestHay suficiente carboacuten en la parte

posterior iquestHas cargado suficiente carboacuten JamesJames SiacuteMadre Bien Entonces vaacutemonos lejos Despiacutedete de tus amigos James [Suena el ruido del motor que acelera Se riacutee y hace el sonido del silbido del

motor]Madre Ahora vamos muy raacutepido iquestPuedes sentir el traqueteo de los vagones James Siacute

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187180

Madre Oh todo me da vueltas Oh mi desayuno estaacute retumbando en mi barriga iexclOhiexclOh iexclOh

James [Hace el ruido del motor]Madre Creo que deberiacuteamos disminuir la velocidad iquestNo crees James Mm (asintiendo)Madre Creo que estamos yendo un poco raacutepido

Es mejor es maacutes faacutecil ahora iquestno James Mm (asintiendo)Madre [Muje] Mira las vacas en el campo JamesJames MmMadre Y hay un granjero mira El granjero te estaacute saludando

Como contar historias compartidas que es otra actividad conjunta importan-te a esta edad el juego imaginario tambieacuten tiene una funcioacuten importante en lapreparacioacuten del nintildeo para explorar el poder del lenguaje ldquopara crear un mundomediante las palabrasrdquo Como seraacute discutido debajo este uso del lenguaje pararepresentar objetos y eventos no presentes y las relaciones entre ellos adoptagran significado en el contexto de la escolarizacioacuten puacuteblica tiacutepica donde propor-ciona los significados mediacionales principales mediante los que gran parte delcurriculum se materializa (Wells 1986)

En suma con la excepcioacuten del Ejemplo 4 todos los extractos precedentes sonejemplos claros de un adulto ldquotrabajando en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximo delnintildeordquo (Vygotski 1987) ya que se implican en la interaccioacuten en el proceso dedesarrollar la actividad en la que estaacuten conjuntamente inmersos Como Vygotski(1987) enfatizoacute en la actividad conjunta colaborativa el nintildeo puede siemprehacer maacutes de lo que le es posible hacer independientemente La actividad pro-porciona el marco organizacional en el que parte de la conversacioacuten dirige ycomenta la actividad y parte explora los resultados a los que conduce En estecontexto el adulto hace disponible para la apropiacioacuten del nintildeo no soacutelo infor-macioacuten especiacutefica como respuesta a los intereses del nintildeo sino tambieacuten una pos-tura hacia la experiencia que valora la actitud de investigacioacuten Tratando las pre-guntas del nintildeo como dignas de respuesta expliacutecita el adulto apoya el desarrollode una disposicioacuten a plantearse preguntas y a buscarles respuesta mediante lainvestigacioacuten futura (Wells 1999)

El papel de la actividad en la educacioacuten

Aunque el teacutermino ldquoeducacioacutenrdquo se emplea a menudo como sinoacutenimo deldquoescolarizacioacutenrdquo seguacuten una interpretacioacuten maacutes amplia la educacioacuten viene refi-rieacutendose a los primeros antildeos del nintildeo y de hecho como se vio arriba hay muchasocasiones en las que un coparticipante en una actividad en curso proporciona ins-truccioacuten expliacutecita Sin embargo la educacioacuten ndashen el sentido de escolarizacioacutenndashtiende a ser muy diferente de la clase de actividades ilustradas maacutes arriba Maacutesimportante en las escuelas la instruccioacuten es tanto deliberada como sistemaacutetica yes gobernada no por los intereses de los alumnos sino por un curriculum que hasido disentildeado por expertos que no estaacuten familiarizados con los alumnos que van aser instruidos Como resultado a menudo lo que se ensentildea en la escuela no estaacuterelacionado con aquello que a los alumnos maacutes les interesa aprender y es muyprobable que no se obtengan beneficios de las oportunidades que la escuelapodriacutea proporcionar

En las primeras secciones de este trabajo se ha argumentado que el aprendi-zaje no es un fin en siacute mismo sino un aspecto integrado del domino de nuevasformas de actividad que tienen significado y valor para el desarrollo de los apren-dices como miembros de una comunidad y como individuos autoacutenomos uacutenicos

181El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Como Wygotsky insistentemente precisoacute el aprendizaje conduce el desarrollo yla instruccioacuten deberiacutea estar organizada para ayudar a este proceso

La instruccioacuten es soacutelo uacutetil cuando se mueve delante del desarrollo Cuando esto ocurre impulsao despierta toda una serie de funciones que estaacuten en estado de maduracioacuten latente en la zona dedesarrollo proacuteximo (1987 p 212)

La pregunta central para la escolarizacioacuten debe por lo tanto ser coacutemo ofrecerinstruccioacuten que sea relevante para las trayectorias de desarrollo de los alumnos yque de manera adecuada ldquose situacutee dentrordquo de sus zonas de desarrollo proacuteximoJunto a esta una segunda pregunta es coacutemo proporcionar ayuda a los alumnosindividuales para que su aprendizaje les permita de hecho avanzar en su desa-rrollo

Procurando proporcionar respuesta a estas preguntas el concepto de ldquoactivi-dad guiadardquo junto con el de recapitulacioacuten de la secuencia de desarrollo de losmodos de conocimiento puede ofrecer un comienzo uacutetil Los nintildeos cuandoingresan en la escuela han dominado en gran parte los modos de conocimientoasociados con la accioacuten el gesto y el habla (Nelson 1996) Lo que ahora necesi-tan es un aprendizaje de los modos de conocimiento asociado con el lenguajeescrito y de las distintas clases de representacioacuten simboacutelica que derivan de eacutelndashmatemaacutetica cientiacutefica musical etceacuteterandash Es decir necesitan aprenderlos parausar estas formas de representacioacuten como herramienta para la deliberacioacutenmediada la comunicacioacuten reflexiva y el pensamiento y para apropiarse de losdiferentes dominios de conocimiento teoacuterico que han sido construidos acumula-tivamente por las generaciones previas con la ayuda de las ventajas que confierenesos sistemas de ldquomemoria externardquo (Donald 1991)

La recapitulacioacuten del desarrollo histoacuterico cultural orienta la trayectoria a largoplazo para la educacioacuten formal en la escuela y en otras instituciones Pero inclusomaacutes importante para procurar responder la pregunta central presentada arriba esdeterminar los procedimientos efectivos para organizar los pequentildeos pasos queconfiguran las lecciones las unidades curriculares y los programas anuales a lolargo de esta trayectoria Basaacutendonos en las ideas presentadas en la seccioacuten ante-rior dos principios parecen en siacute mismos evidentes En primer lugar los encuen-tros educativos necesitan para estar organizados ser ldquoactividades conjuntasrdquo enlas que todos los participantes contribuyen a las metas convenidas con lo mejorde sus habilidades Y en segundo lugar debe convertirse en norma dar y recibirayuda por parte de cada participante Una de las implicaciones de estos dos prin-cipios es que no puede haber formas universales mejores para participar en alguacutenaspecto del curriculum puesto que cada clase variacutea en las experiencias e interesesque sus miembros aportan y en los valores y praacutecticas aprendidos culturalmenteque motivan y dirigen su implicacioacuten con el nuevo conocimiento y con las habi-lidades que estaacuten esperando dominar

Aunque siempre es importante reconocer valorar y construir sobre las expe-riencias previas de los alumnos ha llegado a ser incluso maacutes necesario a medidaque la migracioacuten tanto inter como intra paiacuteses ha aumentado significativamen-te ya que las diferentes etnias clases y religiones en las comunidades han dadolugar a su vez a comunidades de escuela y aula cada vez maacutes diversas ndashy estadiversidad es incluso mayor donde una proporcioacuten sustancial de alumnos estaacuteaprendiendo la lengua de clase como una segunda lengua (o subsiguiente)ndash Taldiversidad en el bagaje cultural y en la experiencia previa es generalmente vistocomo un problema que necesita ser superado en paiacuteses donde los disentildeadores delcurriculum apuntan a estandarizar la instruccioacuten para alcanzar ideacutenticos resulta-dos para todos los estudiantes como es hoy el caso en Estados Unidos Sin

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187182

embargo cuando las diferencias entre personas en teacuterminos de experiencia valo-res y praacutecticas son reconocidas como normales y deseables esta diversidad puedeconvertirse en una ventaja en la clase ya que las praacutecticas y puntos de vista alter-nativos que afloran pueden enriquecer la comunidad de clase y conducir a discu-siones valiosas en las que las creencias dadas por sentadas sean modificadas y sealcance una comprensioacuten maacutes profunda de los puntos considerados (Wells1999)

En este contexto he encontrado de ayuda pensar en el aprendizaje basado enla escuela en teacuterminos de una espiral del conocimiento donde el resultado espe-rado con cada giro de la espiral es una mayor comprensioacuten (Wells 1999) (verFigura 3) En la primera fase cuando la clase se embarca en un nuevo aspecto delcurriculum es importante animar a los alumnos a compartir sus experienciasprevias ya que como las investigaciones en campos muy diferentes han mostra-do (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotski) esas experiencias proporcionan elpunto de partida para su aprendizaje sean o no reconocidas puacuteblicamente Des-cubriendo lo que los estudiantes ya saben y aquello que les interesa explorar conmaacutes detalle el profesor puede tambieacuten planificar la unidad en cooperacioacuten conlos alumnos (Donoahue 2003) La segunda fase de la espiral conlleva varios acer-camientos a la nueva informacioacuten ndashmediante la explicacioacuten del profesor a traveacutesde materiales impresos o medios audiovusiales o en la forma de feedback de laspropias acciones e investigaciones de los alumnosndash Es importante reconocer sinembargo que la recepcioacuten de la nueva informacioacuten no asegura en siacute misma unaumento de la comprensioacuten Para que esto ocurra la nueva informacioacuten debearticularse con la comprensioacuten existente y con la experiencia previa relevantepara ser despueacutes puesta a prueba mediante la accioacuten en el mundo ndashobteniendofeedback (informacioacuten adicional)ndash yo mediante el diaacutelogo con otros para laconstruccioacuten del conocimiento donde el propoacutesito es llegar a una eleccioacuten con-sensuada entre las teoriacuteas alternativas demandas o interpretaciones sobre la basede una consideracioacuten de las evidencias y argumentos apropiados Finalmentepara consolidar la nuevas comprensiones obtenidas es valioso para la clase com-pleta reflexionar juntos sobre lo que han aprendido y sobre el proceso de cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento en el que han participado sobre las implicaciones quela nueva comprensioacuten tiene para sus propias acciones ndashtanto fuera como dentrode clasendash y sobre las preguntas importantes a las que ellos deben ahora dirigir susinvestigaciones futuras En otras palabras la fase final en el ciclo implica a lacomunidad en un ldquoacercamiento lsquometarsquordquo (Olson y Bruner 1996) es decir en laadopcioacuten de una perspectiva metacognitiva sobre su propio aprendizaje que a lolargo de miles de antildeos probablemente ha jugado un importante papel en eldesarrollo de cada modo de conocimiento presentado en la siacutentesis del desarrollohistoacuterico cultural de Donald (1991)3

Esta espiral necesita varias anotaciones adicionales La primera tiene quever con la naturaleza incompleta y provisional del conocimiento eacuteste estaacutesiempre abierto a la mejora mediante ciclos futuros a traveacutes de la espiral Lasegunda anotacioacuten concierne a la naturaleza esencialmente interactiva ysocial del crecimiento individual y comunitario en la comprensioacuten eacutesta seconsigue gracias a los esfuerzos de los participantes para clarificar sus pro-pios significados a los otros y alternativamente para tener en cuenta y res-ponder a los de los demaacutes (Bajtiacuten 1986) En tercer lugar es necesario enfati-zar que el crecimien to en la comprensioacuten requeriraacute espirales futuras queactiven los diferentes modos de conocimiento ya que la mayoriacutea de los cam-bios y problemas que ocurren en las instituciones maacutes allaacute del aula deman-dan un conocimiento procedimental substantivo y esteacutetico al igual que

183El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

teoacuterico y cada modo de conocimiento tiene una contribucioacuten que hacer aleacutexito de soluciones comprensivas que realcen significativamente la com-prensioacuten Finalmente en la representacioacuten de estas relaciones en la figura 3la espiral tambieacuten resalta la interdependencia de los individuos y la comuni-dad Mientras que la experiencia y la comprensioacuten son esencialmente indivi-duales en su naturaleza crecen fuera de eacutel y adoptan su significado de la par-ticipacioacuten de los individuos en el intercambio de informacioacuten y en su com-promiso en la construccioacuten de conocimiento en la comunidad extensa de laque cada individuo es miembro

Desafortunadamente muchos educadores no comprenden estas relacionesfundamentales y por eso su instruccioacuten no es conceptualizada y planificada demanera que sea oacuteptima para el desarrollo de los estudiantes Como numerososestudios han mostrado (Langer y Applebee 1987 Nystrand y Gamoran 1991)en la mayoriacutea de las clases la que gobierna la praacutectica es la concepcioacuten bancariadel conocimiento (Freire 1970) seguacuten la cual el propoacutesito de la instruccioacuten quetiene lugar en el aula es que un alumno individual esteacute preparado para puntuarbien en los tests y no tanto ampliar su conocimiento Dada esta orientacioacuten lasactividades en las que se pide a los alumnos que participen estaacuten determinadaspor la guiacutea curricular del libro de texto maacutes que por el conocimiento de los pro-fesores sobre los intereses y habilidades de los alumnos particulares de los queson responsables A esto es a lo que Tharp y Gallimore (1988) se refieren con laexpresioacuten ldquoguioacuten recitativordquo unido a la ocupacioacuten de un lugar individual de tra-bajo que domina la rutina diaria Ademaacutes los planes sobre coacutemo proceder sonndashcomo cabiacutea esperarndash unilateralmente impuestos en lugar de ser configuradossobre la base de las decisiones tomadas por la comunidad de clase como un todoy el modus operandi es la competicioacuten en lugar de la colaboracioacuten

Sin embargo como he argumentado en otra parte (Wells 1986 19992002a) eacuteste no es el uacutenico modo en el que la escolarizacioacuten puede ser condu-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187184

FIGURA 3La espiral del conocimiento

ACCIOacuteN Construccioacuten

deconocimiento

ComprensioacutenSubstantivo

Esteacutetico

Teoacuterico

Procedimental

Instrumental

Experiencia Informacioacuten

Modos de conocimiento

cida ndasha pensar de la larga historia de la recitacioacuten que se remonta a maacutes detres mil antildeos a las tempranas instituciones que entrenaban a los escribas yadministradores para leer y escribir (Cole 1996)ndash Pero probablemente elmodo por defecto de la escolarizacioacuten es parecido a una preparacioacuten para ldquolavida adultardquo y no una etapa criacutetica del desarrollo que merece la pena y essignificativa en siacute misma Como Vygotski argumentoacute sobre el dominio de laalfabetizacioacuten ldquola ensentildeanza debe organizarse de tal manera que la lectura yla escritura sean necesarias para algo La escritura debe ser incorporada enuna tarea relevante y necesaria para la vidardquo (1978 pp117-118) Y porldquovidardquo quiere decir no la vida futura sino la totalidad de los intereses y pre-ocupaciones actuales de los aprendices

En los uacuteltimos antildeos se han divulgado proyectos de una variedad de paiacuteses enlos que educadores universitarios han procurado crear condiciones para elldquoaprendizaje auteacutenticordquo en las aulas En todos estos proyectos se ha otorgado unpapel central a las actividades colaborativas que alternando entre los formatos departicipacioacuten individual en pequentildeo grupo y de la clase completa implican alos estudiantes en la exploracioacuten de temas centrales mediante investigacionespraacutecticas y tambieacuten teoacutericas y en la discusioacuten criacutetica y constructiva de sus hallaz-gos y de las implicaciones para futuras acciones El espacio no permite aquiacute unadiscusioacuten individual de estos proyectos pero lo que puede ser dicho sobre todosellos es que en sus diferentes formas valoran tanto los intereses de los alumnoscomo sus experiencias previas y persiguen ayudarles a desarrollar la disposicioacutenpara buscar la comprensioacuten maacutes que la acumulacioacuten simple de informacioacuten ypara valorar la colaboracioacuten maacutes que la competicioacuten como el medio para alcanzaresta menta4

En este contexto es digno atraer la atencioacuten hacia varias instituciones poste-riores a la escuela tales como la Fifth Dimension donde la participacioacuten en activi-dades elegidas personalmente ndasha menudo basadas en ordenadoresndash requiere a losnintildeos dominar habilidades que son tambieacuten necesarias para la escolarizacioacuten y lesproporcionan oportunidades para interactuar con voluntarios universitarios enuna posicioacuten de igualdad (Brown y Cole 2002) De manera similar algunosprogramas basados en museos (Leinhardst Crowley y Kuntson 2002) y variasformas de educacioacuten al aire libre tambieacuten capitalizan los intereses de los estu-diantes para implicarles en actividades desafiantes que demandan para la cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento procesos de diaacutelogo y toma de decisiones comparablesa aquellos encontrados en los contextos escolares previamente descritos

Finalmente si estas praacutecticas pioneras arraigan e influyen en la educacioacutenpuacuteblica con mayor amplitud es esencial que los profesores tengan oportunidadessimilares para desarrollar las disposiciones y pericia necesarias para actuar comoagentes de cambio y liacutederes de una reforma en las instituciones en las que traba-jan Es por lo tanto estimulante ver que a pesar del eacutenfasis de los dirigentes poliacute-ticos en estandarizar los curricula y en los resultados cuantificables algunos pro-gramas de formacioacuten de profesores y desarrollo profesional anima a los profeso-res sobre la base de investigaciones sobre su propia praacutectica a tomar sus propiasdecisiones sobre queacute debe ser ensentildeado y coacutemo y a compartir los resultados desus investigaciones con los compantildeeros Este ha sido el motor de mi propio tra-bajo en los antildeos recientes ya que he participado en la investigacioacuten colaborativacon profesores para crear y mantener comunidades de investigacioacuten tanto en cla-ses como entre los mismos profesores5

185El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Notas1 La secuencia temporal implicada por esta formulacioacuten ha sido ampliamente debatida y especialmente el movimiento desde fueraa dentro que sugiere Mi propia comprensioacuten de lo que la apropiacioacuten supone se capta mejor con el ejemplo de aprender a bailarmediante la inmersioacuten en la actividad con otros (Wells 1999) En muchos casos no hay separacioacuten entre antes y despueacutes o entrefuera y dentro y no hay necesidad de demostracioacuten o ejemplificacioacuten En lugar de esto estando inmerso en la actividad conjuntael principiante es literalmente entrenado fiacutesicamente por los movimiento del coparticipante mientras que al mismo tiempoconstruye su propia organizacioacuten ndashy quizaacute incluso una representacioacuten esquemaacuteticandash de los movimientos corporales A lo largo deltiempo este esquema estaacute tan bien organizado que el principiante se convierte en un experto que estaacute preparado paralelamentepara introducir a otros en la actividad Esto es lo que Lave y Wenger (1991) y Rogoff (2003) quieren decir por desarrollo median-te la participacioacuten en actividades culturales

2 Estoy agradecido a Natalia Gajdamaschko y Steve Gabosch por sus valiosas discusiones de esta distincioacuten durante el XMCA cursoonline sobre la teoriacutea de la actividad histoacuterico cultural Abril 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Aunque estaacute incluido en la Tabla I este modo de conocimiento no ha sido discutido aquiacute ya que el reconocimiento expliacutecito deeste importante modo de conocimiento es muy reciente (Brown 1975) Sin embargo eso no significa que sea en siacute mismo unnuevo fenoacutemeno

4 Para algunos ejemplos representativos veacutease Brown y Campione 1994 Lampert Rittenhouse y Crumbaugh 1996 McMahonRaphael Goatley y Pardo 1997 Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford y Brown 1998 Scardamalia Bereiter y Lamon 1994

5 Juntos formamos un grupo de investigacioacuten colaborativo DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project)(Wells (Ed) 2001)

ReferenciasBAJTIacuteN M M (1986) Speech genres and other late essays Austin University of Texas PressBERNSTEIN B (1982) Codes modalities and the process of cultural reproduction A model En M Apple (Ed) Cultural and econo-

mic reproduction in education (pp 304-355) Londres Routledge amp Kegan PaulBROWN A L (1975) The development of memory Knowing knowing about knowing and knowing how to know En H W

Reese (Ed) Advances in child development and behavior (Vol 10 pp 103-152) Nueva York Academic Press BROWN A L amp CAMPIONE J C (1994) Guided discovery in a community of learners En K McGilly (Ed) Integrating cognitive

theory and classroom practice Classroom lessons (pp 229-270) Cambridge MA MIT PressBradford BooksBROWN K amp COLE M (2002) Cultural historical activity theory and the expansion of opportunities for learning after school En

G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 225-238)Oxford Blackwell

BRUNER J S (1990) Acts of meaning Cambridge MA Harvard University PressCARR M (2002) Emerging learning narratives A perspective from early childhood education En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds)

Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 99-111) Oxford BlackwellCOLE M (1996) Cultural psychology A once and future discipline Cambridge MA The Bellknap Press of Harvard University PressDEACON T W (1997) The symbolic species The co-evolution of language and the brain Nueva York NortonDIAMOND J (1998) Guns germs and steel The fates of human societies Nueva York NortonDONALD M (1991) Origins of the Modern Mind Three Stages in the Evolution of Culture and Cognition Cambridge MA Harvard

University PressDONOAHUE Z (2003) Science teaching and learning Teachers and children plan together Networks 6(1) httpwwwoiseuto-

rontoca~ctdnetworksjournal Vol 6 (1) 2003marchENGESTROumlM Y (1999) Activity theory and individual and social transformation Y En Engestrom R Miettinen amp R-L Puna-

maki (Eds) Perspectives on activity theory (pp 19-38) Cambridge Cambridge University PressFREIRE P (1970) Pedagogy of the oppressed Nueva York Herder and HerderHALLIDAY M A K (1975) Learning how to mean Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1978) Language as social semiotic The social interpretation of language and meaning Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1993) Towards a language-based theory of learning Linguistics and Education 5 93-116HASAN R (2002) Semiotic mediation and mental development in pluralistic societies Some implications for tomorrowrsquos schoo-

ling En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural peerspectives on the future of education (pp112-126) Oxford Blackwell

HEATH S B (1983) Ways with words Cambridge Cambridge University PressLAMPERT M RITTENHOUSE P amp CRUMBAUGH C (1996) Agreeing to disagree Developing sociable mathematical discourse En

D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook of education and human development (pp 731-764) Cambridge MA Blackwell LANGER J A amp APPLEBEE A N (1987) How writing shapes thinking A study of teaching and learning Urbana IL National Council

of Teachers of EnglishLAVE J (1996) Teaching as learning in practice Mind Culture and Activity 3 (3) 149-164LAVE J amp WENGER E (1991) Situated Learning Legitimate peripheral participation Nueva York Cambridge University PressLEINHARDT G CROWLEY K amp KNUTSON K (2002) Learning conversations Explanation and identity in museums Mahwah NJ

Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesLEONTIEV A N (1981) The problem of activity in psychology En J VWertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 37-71) Armonk NY SharpeMAYBIN J MERCER N amp STIERER B (1992) lsquoScaffoldingrsquo learning in the classroom En K Norman (Ed) Thinking voices The

work of the National Oracy Project (pp 186-195) Londres Hodder amp StoughtonMCMAHON S I RAPHAEL T E GOATLEY V J amp PARDO L S (Eds) (1997) The Book Club connection Literacy learning and class-

room talk Nueva York Teachers College PressNELSON K (1996) Language in cognitive development The emergence of the mediated mind Nueva York Cambridge University PressNEWSON J (1978) Dialogue and development En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol The emergence of language (pp 31-42)

New York Academic Press

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187186

NYSTRAND M amp GAMORAN A (1991) Student engagement When recitation becomes conversation En H C Waxman amp H JWalberg (Eds) Effective teaching Current research (pp 257-276)Berkeley CA McCutchan Publishing Corp

OLSON D R amp BRUNER J S (1996) Folk psychology and folk pedagogy En D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook ofeducation and human development (pp 9-27) Cambridge MA Blackwell

PALINCSAR A MAGNUSSON S MARANO N FORD D amp BROWN N (1998) Designing a community of practice Principlesand practices of the GIsML Community Teaching and Teacher Education 14 (1) 5-20

PIAGET J (1970) Piagetrsquos theory En P H Mussen (Ed) Carmichaelrsquos handbook of child development (pp 703-732) Nueva YorkWiley

PONTECORVO C amp STERPONI L (2002) Learning to argue and reason through discourse in educational settings En G Wells ampG Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 127-140) OxfordBlackwell

ROGOFF B (1990) Apprenticeship in thinking Cognitive development in social context Nueva York Oxford University PressROGOFF B (1994) Developing understanding of the idea of Communities of Learners Mind Culture and Activity 1 (4) 209-

229ROGOFF B (2003) The cultural nature of human development Nueva York Oxford University PressROSENBLATT L (1978) The reader the text the poem The transactional theory of the literary work Carbondale IL Southern Illinois

University PressSCARDAMALIA M C BEREITER amp LAMON M (1994) The CSILE project Trying to bring the classroom into World 3 En K

McGilley (Ed) Classroom lessons Integrating cognitive theory and classroom practice (pp 201-228) Cambridge MA MITPress

SCRIBNER S (1985) Vygotskyrsquos uses of history En J V Wertsch (Ed) Culture communication and cognition Vygotskian perspectives(pp 119-145) Cambridge Cambridge University Press

THARP R amp GALLIMORE R (1988) Rousing minds to life Nueva York Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C (1979) Communication and cooperation in early infancy a description of primary intersubjectivity En M

Bullowa (Ed) Before speech The beginning of interpersonal communication (pp 321-348) Cambridge Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C amp HUBLEY P (1978) Secondary intersubjectivity Confidence confiding and acts of meaning in the first year

En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol the emergence of language (pp 183-230) Nueva York Academic PressVYGOTSKI L S (1978)Mind in society The development of higher psychological processes Cambridge MA Harvard University PressVYGOTSKI L S (1981) The genesis of higher mental functions En J V Wertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 144-188) Armonk NY SharpeVYGOTSKI L S (1987) Thinking and speech En R W Rieber amp A S Carton (Eds) The collected works of L S Vygotsky Volumen

1 Problems of general psychology (pp 39-285) Nueva York PlenumWARTOFSKY M (1979) Models representation and scientific understanding Boston ReidelWELLS G (1985) Language development in the pre-school years Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (1986) The meaning makers Children learning language and using language to learn Portsmouth NH HeinemannWELLS G (1999) Dialogic inquiry Towards a sociocultural practice and theory of education Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (Ed) (2001) Action talk and text Learning and teaching through inquiry Nueva York Teachers College PressWELLS G (2002a) Learning and teaching for understanding The key role of collaborative knowledge building En J Brophy

(Ed) Social constructivist teaching Affordances and constraints (pp 1-41) Osford Elsevier ScienceJAIWELLS G (2002b) The role of dialogue in activity theory Mind Culture and Activity 9 (1) 43-66WERTSCH J V MINICK N amp ARNS F J (1984) The creation of context in joint problem solving En B Rogoff amp J Lave (Eds)

Everyday cognition Its development in social context (pp 151-171) Cambridge Cambridge University PressWOOD D BRUNER J S amp ROSS G (1976) The role of tutoring in problem-solving Journal of Child Psychology and Child Psy-

chiatry 17 89-100

187El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Original text

Introduction

Compared with other species the characteristic that distinguishes humans isthe ability and proclivity to engage in tool-mediated joint activity with otherhumans It is this characteristic that accounts for the development of human cul-tures over the course of history as they invented artefacts of various kinds inorder to adapt to and exploit the ecological niches in which they found themsel-ves It also accounts for the diversity of individual personsrsquo development whichdepend on the particular activities in which they participate As Vygotsky(1978 1981) was one of the first to point out the lsquohigherrsquo mental functions thatmake us human are not biologically given but are developmentally constructedthrough the appropriation of historically developed tools and practices that aremade manifest to the child and lsquoscaffoldedrsquo in the meaningful actions and utte-rances of the coparticipants in joint activity

Before continuing readers might find it interesting to reflect on their owndevelopmental trajectories to who they are today I suspect that they may findthemselves agreeing that Who we become depends on the company we keep and what wedo together

A Brief History of the Development of Joint Activity

Leontrsquoev provides a succinct account of Vygotskyrsquos insight in the followingsummary

The initial ideas that led Vygotsky to investigate the genesis of internal mental activity fromexternal activity are fundamentally different from the theoretical approaches of other modernauthors These ideas came from the analysis of the features unique to human productive laboractivity which is mediated by tools This activity is initially social in nature that is it is deve-loped under the conditions of cooperation and social interaction among people Vygotskyidentified two main interconnected features [of this activity] that are necessarily fundamentalfor psychology its tool-like (lsquoinstrumentalrsquo) structure and its inclusion in a system of interre-lations with other people It is these features that define the nature of human psychologicalprocesses The tool mediates activity and thus connects humans not only with the world ofobjects but also with other people Because of this humanrsquos activity assimilates the experience ofhumankind This means that humansrsquo mental processes (their lsquohigher psychological functionsrsquo)acquire a structure necessarily tied to the sociohistorically formed means and methods trans-mitted to them by others in the process of cooperative labor and social interaction But it isimpossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in any way otherthan a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words higher psycho-logical processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction with others thatis through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried out indepen-dently by the individual (Leontrsquoev 1981 pp 55-56 emphases in the original)

As well as emphasizing the social and cooperative nature of human activity thisquotation is important with respect to the arguments that I want to develop inthis paper as it highlights the central role of semiotic mediation in developmentKnowledge is created as well as appropriated in the discourse among peoplewho are working together in a specific situation in order to create or improve anartefact or to solve a problem of importance to the group However Leontrsquoevalso alludes to another of Vygotskyrsquos key insights namely that in order tounderstand current activity it is necessary to investigate the history of that acti-vity It is to this that I next turn

In analyzing the history of human development at least four different time-scales need to be considered The longest is the history of the cultural evolution of

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

the species (the phylogenetic level) next is the historical development of particu-lar cultures The third level (ontogenetic) traces the developmental trajectory ofindividual humans over the course of the lifespan Finally the microgenetic levelis concerned with the development of an instance of a particular activity

In practice it is the latter that has been explored in most detail for usingcontemporary technology it is relatively easy to observe and record the sequenceof actions through which an activity is enacted and the specific operations inwhich the participants engage making use of the relevant artefacts that are avai-lable in the situation (Leontrsquoev 1981) These artefacts may be either material(knives pencils automobiles) or symbolic (utterances maps theories) ndashthoughas Cole (1996) has pointed out to function as mediators of joint activity all arte-facts must have some form of material embodiment as well as a symbolic mea-ning that is to say they must be ready to hand and also have a cultural signifi-cance relevant to the situation

However the form in which a particular instance of activity is realizeddepends not only on the artefacts that are to hand in the situation but also onthe participantsrsquo past experiences with the practices in which the artefacts areused to mediate achievement of the action goals that contribute to the joint acti-vity Thus the microgenesis of a particular instance of activity is necessarilydependent upon the ontogenetic development of the participants that is to sayupon the opportunities their life trajectories have afforded them to appropriatethe relevant cultural knowledge through participation in instances of similaractions and operations

But on the time-scale of ontogenetic development each individualrsquos trajectoryof development is itself strongly influenced by the culture in which he or she isgrowing up and on the historical development of that culture As Rogoff (2003)illustrates in considerable detail cultures vary considerably both over time andacross ecological niches in what mediating artefacts and practices are available andin the relative value accorded to each Moreover within each culture at any parti-cular historical moment participants in activities both incorporate the ways ofprevious generations and adapt them to the exigencies of current conditions

Stepping up one further level the historical development of a particular cul-tures is itself shaped by development on the even larger timescale of the culturaland biological evolution of the species This is the most difficult timescale todescribe in detail for lack of the necessary evidence But certain broad distinc-tions between human communities can be made in terms of their modes of sub-sistence and of the mediating means available for joint activity (Diamond 1998Donald 1991) As recent research has shown our earliest ancestors some 5million years ago lived in small bands of hunter gatherers often on the edge oflakes and oceans Initially their tools were found in the surroundings but overseveral million years they invented ways of making more sophisticated artefactssuch as knives arrowheads baskets and clothing from flints bones skins andvegetable materials Then as some groups migrated to particularly fertile partsof the world they adopted a more settled agrarian way of life growing cropsand breeding animals The resulting ability to produce more food than imme-diately required led in turn to the emergence of trade and to a diversity of spe-cialist occupations such as potters and tailors who exchanged their products forfood and other necessities This stage also saw the development of much largerpopulation groupings with hierarchical class structures that included prieststax collectors and other religious and political functionaries

While migration had been a common feature of human existence from theearliest times the development of large settled populations and of weapons

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

made of bronze and iron led to the expansion of certain cultural groups throughterritorial conquest and colonization by sea and by land As a result during thelast few thousand years the latest phase of phylogenetic development has beencharacterized by the rise and fall of imperial cultures which have imposed theirtechnologies laws and administrative procedures as well as their religions artsknowledge and values on widely diverse subjugated populations Most recentlythe further development of the inventions that led to the first industrial revolu-tion has simply served to increase the scale and intensity of these imperialisttrends At the same time these inventions as well as those of the current indus-trial revolution have also led to a great increase in humansrsquo understanding oftheir social and material environment both through scientific and social rese-arch and through the dissemination of information about other times and placesresulting from travel and the use of print and electronic technologies

In presenting this very condensed account of phylogenetic development Ihave emphasized the material tools that have mediated the progressively morecomplex and diverse activities in which humans have engaged over the course ofthe speciesrsquo history However bearing in mind that what has been the drivingforce of human development is joint activity an equally ndashif not morendash impor-tant determinant of this history is the development of the modes of representa-tion through which humans have communicated and developed their unders-tanding of the world Table I presents the developmental sequence proposed byDonald (1991) based on archeological neuroanatomical historical and othertypes of evidence The table also includes the stages in the historical develop-ment of ways of knowing that were proposed by Wartofsky (1979)

The first stage in this sequence corresponds to the phase in which proto-humans began to diverge from other primate species In this phase as in thebehavior of contemporary higher primates practical action was the predomi-nant form of communication as ndashnot necessarily deliberatelyndash participants sig-naled their intentions in a shared situation and these intentions were interpre-ted and responded to by their co-participants in the activity In the secondmimetic phase which must have developed gradually over many millenniacommunication became somewhat differentiated from the activity to which itreferred as humans deliberately used gestures mime facial expression andvarious types of phonation to comment on as well as to coordinate action and theobjects to which it was directed Later still with the gradual modification of thevocal tract and of the primate brain there emerged the ability to communicatethrough speech and hence the ability to refer not only to particular objects andactions but also to generalized classes and to express observed and intendedrelationships between objects actions and events thus allowing participants toplan for and reflect on the outcomes of joint activity Finally the invention ofwriting which ushered in the final phase in Donaldrsquos proposed sequence occu-rred extremely recently in the long trajectory of phylogenetic development Yetas with those that preceded it enormously increased the human repertoire ofmeans for making and communicating meaning Essentially what it added wasan ldquoexternal memoryrdquo By creating a (relatively) permanent representation oflinguistic meaning it made possible the compilation and distillation of repor-ted information from many sources including the writerrsquos own verbalizedthoughts It also allowed the writer and those who read his or her written textto review critique and revise the meanings expressed and to make the resultsavailable to people in later times and other places for further constructive debateand improvement

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

However action gesture speech and writing are not simply progressivelymore powerful modes of communication They are also progressively morepowerful mediators of thinking This is most obvious with respect to the lin-guistic modes of communication But even before the emergence of speechaction and ndashto an even greater extentndash mimesis enabled humans to think toget-her and thereby to create a shared interpretation of their joint activities In fact ithas been argued that the emergence of language was not simply the result ofbrain and vocal tract development but rather was part of a more general patternof adaptation that building upon the cognitive achievements of mimetic kno-wing strove to integrate the unconnected bits of information in a more compre-hensive and coherent account of being-in-the-world (Deacon 1997) Neverthe-less it is also true that the availability of language greatly enhanced both com-munication and thinking together for as Halliday observed

the grammar of every natural language is (among other things) a theory of human experienceit is through our acts of meaning that we transform experience into the coherent -though farfrom consistent- patchwork that we learn to project as lsquorealityrsquo (1993 p 46)

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

TABLE IModes Of Knowing Phylogenetic And Cultural Development (from Wells 1999)

Time Mode of Participants Donald(1991) Wartofsky(1979)Years BP Knowing

2 million Instrumental Individual in action Episodic Primary artifactsyears material tools

1 -- 15 million Procedural Between individuals while Mimetic Secondaryyears engaged in action artifacts tools

and practicesmimeticinteraction

50000 Substantive Among members of a (Linguistic) Secondaryyears cultural group reflecting on artifacts

action and as a basis for representations ofplanning further action tools and

practices spokeninteraction

50000 Aesthetic Among members of a Mythic Tertiary artifactsyears cultural group making sense artistic represent-

of the human predicament ations in mythnarrative graphicand musical modes

2500 Theoretical Among members of a Theoretic Tertiary artifactsyears specialist community decontextualized

seeking to explain the natural representationsand human world such as

taxonomiestheories models etc

Meta Among members of a Tertiary artifacts cultural group also representations ofindividuals seeking to mental andunderstand and control their semioticown mental activity processes

In sum what Donald and other scholars argue is that contemporary mentalabilities are the outcome of the development over time of a series of progressi-vely more powerful and flexible modes of representation ndashor in Vygotskyanterms of semiotic mediators of higher mental functions- that have made possi-ble the rational theoretically oriented modes of knowing that underpin theachievements of modern science and its technological applications In the philo-sopher Wartofskyrsquos words

our own perceptual and cognitive understanding of the world is in large part shaped andchanged by the representational artifacts we ourselves create We are in effect the products ofour own activity in this way we transform our own perceptual and cognitive modes our waysof seeing and of understanding by means of the representations we make (1979 p xxiii)

There is however one further important aspect of Donaldrsquos (1991) thesis thatis crucial for the argument that I wish to develop Although the semiotic sys-tems of mimesis speech and writing each powered a new mode of cognitiveactivity they did not replace those that preceded but were additive in theireffects The result is that contemporary humans have a variety of modes of kno-wing at their disposal as they engage in joint activity Furthermore most suchactivities call for more than one mode of knowing and require the complemen-tary and interdependent use of more than one mode of representation

Joint Activity as the Site of Ontogenetic Learning and Development

Two important implications follow from the multi-level historical concep-tion of development just outlined First on any occasion the type of activitythat is undertaken and the specific manner in which it is enacted are necessarilydependent on the particular cultural-historical antecedents of the participantsboth human and artefactual that come together in its realization In particularthe manner in which the situation is interpreted ndashin terms of what action goalsare appropriate and how they can be achievedndash depends on the motives valuesand knowledgeable skills of the human participants and on the affordances ofthe technologies available in the situation And second every instance of an acti-vity provides an occasion for a triple transformation of the situation in whichthe activity is carried out of the artefacts and practices that mediate its enact-ment and most importantly of the knowledge and skills of the human partici-pants Taken together these propositions clarify the way in which cultural andindividual development are both interdependent and rooted in particular situa-ted occasions of joint activity As Rogoff (1994) argues

People of each generation as they engage in sociocultural endeavors with other people makeuse of and extend cultural tools and practices inherited from previous generations As peopledevelop through their shared use of cultural tools and practices they simultaneously contribu-te to the transformation of cultural tools practices and institutions (p 52)

Potentially therefore every occasion of joint activity provides an opportunityfor development on the part of all participants This is a point to which I shallreturn But first I want to consider more carefully the concept of developmentitself

Clearly built into the concept of development is the implication of change andtypically of change in the direction of increasing complexity and effectiveness Inother words development is typically taken to imply improvement or progresstoward some ideal end state or capability However in the light of the previousdiscussion such a progression while it may be meaningful to (some of the) partici-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

pants in any particular situation cannot be understood in any absolute sense butmust be seen as relative to the unfolding historical trajectory of the species of aparticular culture and of the immediate community ndashits values its dominantactivities and the knowledgeable skills that form its resources Furthermore just asthese have changed in the past they will continue to change in the future in res-ponse to the changing demands of the larger environment So while ontogeneticdevelopment does indeed involve increasing complexity and effectiveness of indi-vidualsrsquo participation in the activity systems in which they are involved in theirdaily lives the overall trajectory of development is emergent and its endpoint cannever be specified in advance even in terms of an ideal to be attained

Nevertheless this does not mean that there are not strong regularities in thesequence of ontogenetic development particularly in the early years Indeed asNelson (1996) has suggested during the preschool years children follow a trajec-tory very similar to the sequence of phylogenetic development proposed byDonald (1991) (see Table I above) as they appropriate the semiotic tools of repre-sentation afforded by action mimesis speech and writing Of course this is not asimple recapitulation children growing up in a contemporary literate culture forexample are surrounded from birth by artifacts and practices that result from andembody all the available modes of knowing (Cole 1996) Appropriating existingcultural tools is thus very different from inventing them ex novo as Scribner (1985)points out Nevertheless given the combination of biological and cultural inheri-tance it is not surprising that in most if not all cultures children follow the samesequence as did the species as a whole over the course of history

In the first weeks of life infants act on their immediate surroundings bothanimate and inanimate and begin to develop what Piaget (1970) called sensori-motor intelligence However although this most basic form of activity mayappear to be instinctual it is nevertheless also inherently social First all infantsare born into an environment that is cultural in the sense of having been shapedby countless preceding generations and second the infantrsquos actions are treatedas being intentional and are responded to as such So from the beginning theinfant is caught up in social interaction (Newson 1978) In the second phasewhich typically begins in the first few months the infant also begins to engagein mimetic communication through gaze facial expression and rudimentarygesture (Bruner 1990) Couched in terms of primary and secondary intersubjec-tivity this phase has been described in considerable detail by Trevarthen (19781979) Primary intersubjectivity develops as the infant and parent engage inmutual gaze thereby communicating that they are attending to and respondingto each other In secondary intersubjectivity third parties are brought into jointattention as the parent through gaze directs the infantrsquos attention to an object ofpotential interest or follows the childrsquos direction of gaze and signals that he orshe is also attending to the same object

It is on this basis of joint action and attention that towards the end of thefirst year the child begins to exploit his or her growing command of vocaliza-tion often accompanied by gesture to begin to communicate through speechFrom research predominantly involving children in ldquoWesternrdquo societies it hasbeen established that at first the childrsquos utterances are idiosyncratic drawingonly partially ndashif at allndash on the speech of those around him or her neverthelessparents and other family members have little difficulty in interpreting them incontext and once again they respond in a manner that is contingent on theirinterpretation thereby establishing spoken communication as a joint interactiveactivity By the end of the second year however children appear to abandon thisidiosyncratic ldquoprotolanguagerdquo form of communication and begin to construct a

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

linguistic meaning potential that is systematically related to the language thatis addressed to them in the oft-repeated activities of family life (Bruner 1990Halliday 1975 Wells 1986) Significantly within particular language com-munities the sequence in which children master the basic meanings and thelexicogrammatical forms in which they are realized tends to be very similar fromchild to child (Wells 1985)

The developmental sequence just described ndashaction mimesis speechndash is com-mon to children in all cultures and in all cases takes place in and through jointactivity and interaction with other family and community members Howeveralthough the sequence is universal the manner and pace at which it proceeds varyvery considerably across cultures These differences depend upon many culturally-determined factors such as adult expectations about their childrenrsquos developmentthe position in which the infant is typically held or carried facing the caregiver orturned outwards to face in the same direction as the caregiver the makeup and sizeof the interactional groups in which communication typically occurs and whetherthese events are part of family and community life more generally or are delibera-tely arranged and structured for the presumed benefit of the child (Rogoff 2003)In the later stages of language development the range and extent of the meaningpotential that children construct begins to vary even more widely depending onthe activities in which they engage the linguistic registers that are used in thoseactivities and the stances typically adopted by interlocutors toward the use of lan-guage in their interactions with children (Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

So far the ontogenetic developmental sequence I have described is funda-mentally similar across cultures and follows the phylogenetic sequence in whichhumans have progressively added new semiotic mediational means to theircommunicative repertoires In an important sense therefore the final mode ofrepresentation in Donaldrsquos scheme that of writing is an optional extra sincemany cultures have survived and prospered without a written mode of represen-ting meaning Moreover even in cultures that have a writing system the extentand scope of literacy that individuals attain varies very considerably dependingon the activity systems in which they participate the value that is placed onwritten texts by those communmities the purposes to which they are put andthe genres that are used for those purposes However since literacy and its usesare so strongly associated with schooling I shall leave further discussion of thismode of semiotic mediation to a later part of this paper

Before concluding this section however I want to explore further the con-cept of semiotic mediation In one of the better known passages in Vygotskyrsquoswritings where he argued for the social and cultural origin of higher mentalfunctions he wrote that every function occurs on two planes first in activity andinteraction between people and then within the individual learner (Vygotsky1981) What bridges between these two planes as is clear from his other wri-tings is semiotic mediation To recall Leontrsquoevrsquos formulation of this argument

hellip it is impossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in anyway other than a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words hig-her psychological processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction withothers that is through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried outindependently by the individual (1981 pp 55-56)

In other words when people engage in joint activity their actions gesturesand speech not only mediate the coordination of participation but they alsomake overt the mental activities involved and so render them available forappropriation by novice participants1 Halliday is very clear about this Alt-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

hough the following quotation refers only to language the term lsquolanguagersquocould justifiably be replaced by lsquosemiotic mediationrsquo

In the development of the child as a social being language has the central role Language is themain channel through which the patterns of living are transmitted to him through which helearns to act as a member of lsquosocietyrsquo ndashin and through the various social groups the family theneighbourhood and so onndash and to adopt its lsquoculturersquo its modes of thought and action itsbeliefs and its values (1978 p 9)

However as the child grows older language does become the predominantmode of semiotic mediation and as he wrote in a later paper ldquoLanguage is theessential condition of knowing the process by which experience becomes know-ledge (Halliday 1993 p 94 original emphasis)

Assistance for Learning in Joint Activitie

So far in the discussion of the role of joint activity in human development Ihave concentrated on the tools and particularly the semiotic modes of represen-tation that mediate the achievement of the outcome of activity In this sectionon the other hand I turn to the role of other people in this process both familymembers and the larger community

Until now I have referred to coparticipants in an activity in general termsbut clearly there are further distinctions to be made Particularly helpful in thisrespect is Engestroumlmrsquos model of an activity system which is shown in figure 1

What this model shows is that when we look at an ongoing activity from thepoint of view of an individual participant (t Subject) that individual is involvedin a nexus of other relationships that link him or her to other lsquoparticipantsrsquo theTools and artifacts to mediate action on the Object but also the Community of

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 1The Triangle of Activity

Artifactstools andpractices

Values rulesamp conventions

Community Divisioacutenof labor

Engestrom 1999

Object OutcomeSubject

others engaged in the activity together with the Division of Labor within thatcommunity and also the Rules and Conventions that govern the manner inwhich the activity is carried out (Engestroumlm 1999) What this latter category oflsquoparticipantrsquo underscores is the historical dimension of an activity system sincethese rules and conventions ndashas well as the tools and artifactsndash bring into thepresent the distilled practices of previous generations who have engaged in theactivity as these are interpreted and utilized by the current community

To illustrate the relevance of this model to the development of the youngchild we might compare two versions of a similar activity reported by WertschMinick and Arns (1984) In their study Brazilian children carried out a puzzletask on two occasions first with the mother and secondly with a primary tea-cher What the researchers found was that in general the mothers and teachersengaged in the activity in systematically different ways Whereas the motherstended to direct the childrenrsquos behavior or even carry out parts of the task them-selves in order to complete it in an efficient manner ndashjust as they would havedone if engaged in a household taskndash the teachers tended to encourage thechildrsquos autonomous performance and only provided hints and suggestions whenthey judged them to be necessary to advance the childrenrsquos understandingInterpreting these results the researchers suggested that the two groups ofadults belonged to two different communities (or activity systems) that had dif-ferent rules and conventions about engaging in this joint activity And this inturn led to the different divisions of labor that they observed Similarly Rogoff(2003) cites many examples of substantial differences between cultures inalmost all aspects of child rearing with respect to their ways of engaging chil-dren in the activities that they consider important

What is clear is that ldquobehindrdquo the particular adult ndashor older siblings in someculturesndash who are directly engaged with the child there is a wider communityof family members neighbors and others who have an interest in the upbrin-ging of children and who share beliefs about appropriate ways to involve themin the activities of daily life So whether in Spain Japan or the Peruvian High-lands although the actual practices vary across cultures in each those responsi-ble for childrenrsquos well-being and development act as agents of a wider commu-nity whose beliefs and practices are rooted in a long tradition concerning howactivities should be carried out But equally in all cultures practices also changein response to changes in the world beyond the particular community In manyWestern homes for example computer games or television programs haverecently taken the place of the bedtime story while in many indigenous com-munities crafts that until recently only supplied local needs are now exploitedcommercially for the tourist trade changing the rhythms of daily life and therelationships among family members and the activities in which children areinvolved As suggested earlier therefore in order to understand the activities inwhich children participate today we need to look not only at the immediatesituation but also at the wider community and the changes taking place on allthese time-scales

Microgenesis and the Zone of Proximal Development

It is nevertheless always the immediate microgenetic situation that isthe site of ontogenetic development ndashthe action and interaction between thelearner and those with whom he or she is engaged in the activity in pro-gress When we adopt this microgenetic perspective however we need tomodify the representation of an activity system presented in figure 1 Inthat representation the focus was on the goal-oriented nature of action

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Here we need to focus on the interaction among the participants ndashtheirattempt to attain intersubjectivity with respect to the common object andthe complementarity of the knowledgeable skills they bring to the cocons-truction of the intended outcome (see Figure 2) What figure 2 emphasizesis the fact that although the tools and artefacts that are available to mediatethe jointly undertaken action are the same for each participant each bringsa somewhat different familiarity with their use as a result of their differentlife trajectories and it is this variability in their expertise that makes it pos-sible for each to provide assistance to the others in at least some aspects ofthe joint action Viewed in this light it is clear why Vygotsky emphasizedthe role of joint activity in development and wrote of its potential to enablelearners ldquoto go beyond themselvesrdquo with the assistance of more expertothers

The metaphor Vygotsky used to characterize the potential for learning thatthis sort of activity creates was the ldquozone of proximal developmentrdquo As hewrote when another participant in the activity provides instruction that isappropriately pitched beyond what the learner can manage to do on his or herown it ldquowakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturationlying in the zone of proximal developmentrdquo (1987 p 212) Vygotsky concep-tualized development as the formation of new functional systems (ldquoneoforma-tionsrdquo) and of changes in the relationships among systems which he consideredto occur as a succession of ldquocrises of developmentrdquo that are particularly facilitatedby engagement in the relevant ldquoleading activityrdquo at each stage for example playin childhood and learning to read and write in the early school yearsHowever itwould be a mistake to focus only on the periods of revolutionary change since ashe equally emphasized at any time there are also other more gradual processes ofgrowth

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 2Dialogue in Joint Activity(from Wells2002b)

Outcomematerial ampsemioticartefacts

Toolsartefacts

Subject

Rulesconventions

Community Divisionof labor

Subject

Toolsartefacts

Processes that are central lines of development at one age become peripheral lines of develop-ment at the following age and conversely peripheral lines of development of one age arebrought to the forefront and become central lines since their meaning and relative significancein the total structure of development changes (p 197)2

In developing his important concept of the zone of proximal developmentVygotsky tended to characterize the assistance given by others as ldquoinstructionrdquoand to see its value in ldquothe childrsquos potential to raise himself to a higher intellec-tual level of development through collaboration to move from what he has towhat he does not have through imitationrdquo (1987 p 210) However manyrecent scholars who have built on his work have taken a broader view of thedevelopmental significance of collaboration in joint activities and have characte-rized the assistance that is provided within this relationship in terms such asldquoapprenticeshiprdquo (Lave amp Wenger 1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoguided participationrdquo(Rogoff 1994 2003) and ldquoscaffoldingrdquo (Wood et al 1976) Neverthelesswhile these different metaphors highlight different features of the relationshipwhat they all have in common is the inclusion of the learner in an activity inwhich there is provision of the assistance necessary to help the learner to comple-te an activity in which he or she is interested and to do so in such a way that heor she makes progress toward being able to participate more fully and autono-mously in the future (Maybin Mercer and Stierer 1992)

In many joint activities such as for example traditional forms of craftapprenticeship assistance is only provided when needed and the ldquomasterrdquo doesso with no deliberate didactic intention beyond that of involving the novice inthe completion of the particular task in hand (Lave 1996) Similarly in sociali-zation into activities around the home no explicit instruction is necessary fornovices can learn a great deal by simply watching and listening (cf Rogoff2003) This is what Lave and Wenger (1991) mean when they insist that lear-ning is not an independent activity but an intrinsic aspect of ldquolegitimate perip-heral participationrdquo in a communityrsquos activities From their perspective therefo-re formal education in which learning is the sole purpose of the activity issomething of an anomaly particularly when the only form of assistance providedis the expert teacherrsquos direct instruction and subsequent evaluation of the extentof the studentsrsquo learning

In many recent discussions it has also been recognized that it is not only aldquoteacherrdquo who can provide assistance in the zpd On the one hand in a com-plex activity many participants are more expert than others in some aspectsand therefore on some occasions are able to help those who are less expert(Rogoff 1994) and on the other hand those who provide assistance do nothave to be physically present texts and other artifacts can equally well helpa participant ldquoto go beyond himherselfrdquo as is often the case in intellectualwork such as research and writ ing (Wells 1999) Furthermore asEngestroumlm (1999) and others ndashbuilding on other aspects of Vygotskyrsquos theo-retical writingsndash have noted the material and symbolic tools that have beendeveloped by previous participants in the activity can also provide the samesort of assistance However perhaps the most important point to emphasizeis that there are many situations in which no-one is an expert yet as eachbrings his or her own past experience to the solution of a common problemthe group together is able to achieve more than any single member couldhave done alone Clearly it is such collaboration that has made possible theinventions that have led to the major advances of great civilizations over thecourse of cultural history

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Development in the Pre-School Years

As noted above the responsibility for caring for children in early childhoodvaries very considerably from one society to another Nevertheless in all socie-ties children are involved in joint activities with others in which they receiveassistance with respect to their participation however that may be locally achie-ved For the most part as already mentioned these are activities that are regu-larly repeated in the taken-for-granted routines of daily life The expectation isthat the child will learn to fit in and is simply helped to do so Often referred toas ldquoenculturationrdquo this form of apprenticeship ensures the continuity of the cul-turersquos way of life from one generation to the next and as Donald (1991) arguedit probably occurred even before the emergence of speech

However in all activities there are occasions when problems arise that callfor some level of deliberate decision-making In these situations spoken interac-tion makes possible a degree of reflection and forward planning in which therelations of cause and effect intention action and outcome are made explicitand open to question and discussion The talk that occurs on these occasionsthus plays a particularly important role in helping children to attend to andunderstand the world around them in terms of the culturersquos ways of ldquomakingsenserdquo of it However these occasions can also open up possibilities for changeboth in the form of the activity and in the participantsrsquo understanding of itHow caregivers habitually take up these opportunities is particularly importantfor it plays an important part in shaping the intellectual dispositions withwhich children enter school (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo amp Sterponi2002)

In this section I include some representative examples of kinds of talk thatarise from joint activities in the home These examples are drawn from observa-tions made in settings in England (Wells 1986) and Australia (Hasan 2002) inwhich the young children observed spent most of their time at home with oneparent sometimes with one or more siblings some of the time they entertainedthemselves with occasional adult involvement but they also frequently watchedand ldquohelpedrdquo the parent with household tasks of various kinds

In the first example James (aged 3 12 years) has been playing alone in thegarden and as he reenters the house his mother tries to get him to take off hismuddy shoes However at that moment he sees a bird outside which interestshim more than changing his shoes

Example 1Mother There we are there one slipper onJames I can see a birdMother A what loveJames See a bird Mother (whispering) Is there OutsideJames (pointing and whispering) Yes see

(both continue to speak very softly)Mother Is he eating anythingJames NoMother Where Oh yes hersquos getting- do you know what hersquos doingJames NoMother Hersquos going to the- the paper sack to try to pick out some pieces-

Oh hersquos got some food there and I expect hersquoll pick out somepieces of thread from the sack to go and make his nest under the roofJames Wait a minute and Irsquoll-[James now wants to go out to see more closely but at that moment thebird flies away]

James That birdrsquos gone

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

In the second example Elizabeth (aged 4 years) who is helping with thehouse cleaning watches with interest as her mother shovels wood ash from thefireplace into a bucket

Example 2Elizabeth What are you doing that forMother Irsquom gathering it up and putting it outside so that Daddy can put it on the gardenElizabeth Why does he have to put it on the gardenMother To make the compost rightElizabeth Does that make the grass growMother YesElizabeth Why does itMother You know how I tell you that you need to eat different things like eggs and cab-

bage and rice pudding to make you grow into a big girlElizabeth YesMother Well plants need different foods too and ash is one of the things thatrsquos

good for them

The third example involves James again now eighteen months older Earlierin the afternoon he had been helping his mother with the baking Now hecomes back into the kitchen as his mother is taking the baking trays out of theoven He hears a loud metallic ldquocrackrdquo and asks for an explanation

Example 3James Who did thatMother I expect it was the tin contractingJames Which tinMother The one with your pastry inJames Why did it make that noiseMother Well when it was in the oven it got very hot and stretched a bit Irsquove just taken

it out of the oven and itrsquos cooling down very quickly you see and that noisehappens when it gets smaller again and goes back to its normal shape

James Oh was it a different shape in the ovenMother Oh not very different just a little biggerJames Naughty little tin you might get smacked if you do it again

In all three of these examples the mother willingly responds to the childrsquosinterest and provides information to explain the significance of what the child isseeing or hearing even when in the first this interrupts the motherrsquos plan Allthree cases show how the childrsquos participation in the activity with the adult assu-res that there is intersubjectivity of attention to what interests the child and thisenables the mother to provide relevant information Clearly this is a form ofldquoinstructionrdquo however it is spontaneous and contingent on the childrsquos interestrather than presented as part of a pre-planned curriculum

The third example is particularly interesting from this point of view as thephenomenon of interest to James requires a somewhat technical explanation Atsome point in the future no doubt the expansion of metal when heated and itssubsequent contraction when removed from the heat will figure in the schoolscience curriculum in relation to the systematic study of heat here however itis an interesting side-effect of baking and the motherrsquos explanation while tech-nical in content is couched in everyday language rather than in the abstractterms of scientific generalization As Hasan (2002) has observed

the discourse of quasi specialised knowledge occurs in the lsquomiddle ofrsquo daily activities and bynecessity it calls for a readiness on the motherrsquos part to entertain contextual shifts to bewilling to reclassify the context of the on-going discourse The tendency to move with thechildrsquos moving discourse the readiness to re-classify context is a discourse characteristic of thesame group of mothers who frequently ask questions made precise by qualification and whoattend to their childrenrsquos questions and provide them with well developed answers (p 123)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 11: Actividad y Aprendizaje

madres y los profesores participan en la actividad de manera sistemaacuteticamentediferente Mientras que las madres tendiacutean a dirigir el comportamiento de losnintildeos o incluso a realizar parte de la tarea ellas mismas para completarla de unamanera eficaz ndashtal y como habriacutean hecho si se tratara de una tarea domeacutesticandashlos profesores tendiacutean a promover la actuacioacuten autoacutenoma de los nintildeos y soacutelo pro-porcionaban consejos y sugerencias cuando lo juzgaban necesario para el avancede la comprensioacuten de los nintildeos Interpretando estos resultados los investigado-res sugeriacutean que los dos grupos de adultos perteneciacutean a dos comunidades dife-rentes (o sistemas de actividad) con diferentes reglas y convenciones sobre la par-ticipacioacuten en actividades conjuntas Y esto alternativamente conduciacutea a la dife-rente divisioacuten del trabajo que ellos observaron De manera similar Rogoff(2003) cita muchos ejemplos de diferencias sustanciales entre culturas en casitodos los aspectos del crecimiento infantil con respecto a sus modos de implicar alos nintildeos en las actividades que consideran importantes

Lo que estaacute claro es que ldquodetraacutes derdquo un adulto particular en contacto directocon el nintildeo ndasho en algunas culturas un hermano mayorndash hay una comunidadamplia formada por los miembros de la familia vecinos y otras personas interesa-das en la educacioacuten del nintildeo que comparten determinadas creencias sobre elmodo maacutes apropiado de introducir a los nintildeos en las actividades de la vida diariaPor eso ya sea en Espantildea Japoacuten o las Montantildeas Peruanas aunque las praacutecticasactuales variacutean a traveacutes de las culturas en todas los responsables del bienestar ydel desarrollo de los nintildeos actuacutean como agentes de una comunidad maacutes ampliacuyas creencias y praacutecticas estaacuten arraigadas en una larga tradicioacuten sobre coacutemodeben llevarse a cabo las actividades Pero igualmente en todas las culturas laspraacutecticas tambieacuten cambian en respuesta a los cambios en el mundo maacutes allaacute deuna comunidad particular En muchos hogares Occidentales por ejemplo losjuegos de ordenadores o los programas de televisioacuten han ocupado recientementeel lugar de los cuentos antes de dormir mientras que en muchas comunidadesindiacutegenas las artes que hasta hace poco soacutelo cubriacutean las necesidades locales sonahora explotadas comercialmente por el mercado turiacutestico cambiando los ritmosde la vida diaria las relaciones entre los miembros de la familia y las actividadesen las que los nintildeos estaacuten inmersos Sin embargo como anteriormente se sugirioacutepara comprender las actividades en las que los nintildeos participan hoy necesitamosmirar no soacutelo a la situacioacuten inmediata sino tambieacuten a la comunidad maacutes ampliay a los cambios que han tenido lugar en las escalas temporales

Microgeacutenesis y Zona de Desarrollo Proacuteximo

Lo inmediato sin embargo es siempre la situacioacuten microgeneacutetica que es ellugar del desarrollo ontogeneacutetico ndashla accioacuten e interaccioacuten entre el aprendiz yaquellos con quien estaacute implicado en la actividad en cursondash Cuando adoptamosesta perspectiva microgeneacutetica sin embargo necesitamos modificar la represen-tacioacuten del sistema de actividad reflejada en la figura 1 Esta representacioacutensubraya el hecho de que la accioacuten estaacute orientada a un propoacutesito De manera dis-tinta ahora conviene resaltar la interaccioacuten entre los participantes ndashsus tentativaspara lograr intersubjetividad con respecto a los objetivos comunes y a las habili-dades complementarias de conocimiento que aportan a la co-construccioacuten delresultado previsto (ver Figura 2)ndash Lo que la figura 2 enfatiza es el hecho de queaunque las herramientas y artefactos que estaacuten disponibles para mediar la accioacutenemprendida conjuntamente son los mismos para cada participante cada unoaporta una familiaridad algo diferente con su uso como resultado de su diferentetrayectoria vital siendo esta variabilidad en su pericia la que hace posible paracada uno de ellos proporcionar asistencia a los otros al menos en algunos aspectos

175El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

de la accioacuten conjunta Visto desde esta perspectiva estaacute claro por queacute Vygotskienfatizoacute el papel de la actividad conjunta en el desarrollo y escribioacute sobre supotencial para permitir a los participantes ldquoir maacutes allaacute de siacute mismosrdquo con laayuda de otros maacutes expertos

La metaacutefora usada por Vygotski para caracterizar el potencial para el aprendi-zaje que esta clase de actividad crea fue ldquozona de desarrollo proacuteximordquo Como eacutelescribioacute cuando otro participante en la actividad proporciona instruccioacuten que essuministrada apropiadamente maacutes allaacute de lo que el aprendiz puede llegar a hacerpor siacute mismo ldquodespierta toda una serie de funciones que estaacuten en estado demaduracioacuten latente en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximordquo (1987 p 212) Vygotskiconceptualizoacute el desarrollo como la formacioacuten de nuevos sistemas funcionales(ldquoneoformacionesrdquo) y de cambios en las relaciones entre sistemas que seguacuten eacutelconsideraba ocurriacutean como una secuencia de ldquocrisis del desarrollordquo particular-mente facilitadas por la participacioacuten en las ldquoactividades guiadasrdquo relevantes decada etapa por ejemplo jugar en la nintildeez y aprender a leer y a escribir en los pri-meros antildeos escolares Sin embargo puede ser un error dirigir la atencioacuten soacutelo alos periodos de cambios revolucionarios ya que como eacutel igualmente enfatizoacutetambieacuten tienen lugar en cualquier momento otros procesos graduales de creci-miento

Los procesos que son liacuteneas centrales de desarrollo en una edad se convierten en liacuteneas perifeacute-ricas de desarrollo en la edad siguiente y contrariamente liacuteneas perifeacutericas de desarrollo deuna edad son traiacutedas a la vanguardia y se convierten en liacuteneas centrales en el momento en elque cambia su significado y su significacioacuten relativa en la estructura total del desarrollo(1987 p 197)2

En la elaboracioacuten de su importante concepto de zona de desarrollo proacuteximoVygotski tendioacute a caracterizar la ayuda proporcionada por otros como ldquoinstruc-cioacutenrdquo asiacute como a ver su valor en ldquoel potencial del nintildeo para elevarse a siacute mismo

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187176

FIGURA 2Diaacutelogo en la Actividad Conjunta (Wells 2002b)

Resultadosmateriales yartefactossemioacuteticos

Herramientasartefactos

Sujeto

Reglasconvenciones

Comunidad Divisioacuten delabor

Sujeto

Herramientasartefactos

gracias a la colaboracioacuten hacia un nivel intelectual mayor de desarrollo despla-zaacutendose mediante la imitacioacuten desde lo que eacutel es hasta lo que eacutel no esrdquo (1987p 210) Sin embargo muchos eruditos contemporaacuteneos que han construidosobre su trabajo han adoptado una visioacuten de conjunto del significado evolutivode la colaboracioacuten en actividades conjuntas y han caracterizado la ayuda propor-cionada en esta relacioacuten con teacuterminos tales como ldquoaprendizajerdquo (Lave y Wenger1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoparticipacioacuten guiadardquo (Rogoff 1994 2003) y ldquoandamia-jerdquo (Wood Bruner y Ross 1976) Sin embargo mientras estas metaacuteforas dife-rentes iluminan caracteriacutesticas diferentes de la relacioacuten lo que tienen todas encomuacuten es la inclusioacuten del aprendizaje en una actividad que ofrezca el nivel deapoyo necesario para ayudar al aprendizaje a completar una actividad en la que eacutelo ella estaacute interesado y a hacer esto de tal manera que eacutel o ella progresen hastapoder participar maacutes plena y autoacutenomamente en el futuro (Maybin Mercer yStierer 1992)

En muchas actividades conjuntas tales como por ejemplo formas tradicio-nales de aprendizaje de oficios la ayuda es proporcionada soacutelo cuando se necesitay de este modo el ldquomaestrordquo la ofrece sin intenciones didaacutecticas deliberadas maacutesallaacute de arropar al principiante para terminar una tarea particular en curso (Lave1996) De manera similar la socializacioacuten en actividades domeacutesticas no necesitauna instruccioacuten expliacutecita ya que los principiantes pueden aprender mucho sim-plemente mirando y escuchando (cf Rogoff 2003) Esto es lo que Lave y Wen-ger (1991) quieren decir cuando insisten en que el aprendizaje no es una activi-dad independiente sino un aspecto intriacutenseco de la ldquoparticipacioacuten perifeacutericalegiacutetimardquo en las actividades de una comunidad Desde su perspectiva por lotanto la educacioacuten formal en la que el aprendizaje es el uacutenico propoacutesito de laactividad tiene algo anoacutemalo particularmente cuando la uacutenica forma de ayudaproporcionada es la instruccioacuten directa del profesor experto y la consiguienteevaluacioacuten del grado de aprendizaje de los alumnos

En muchas discusiones recientes se ha reconocido tambieacuten que no es soacutelo unldquoprofesorrdquo quien puede proporcionar ayuda en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximo Porun lado en una actividad compleja muchos participantes son maacutes expertos queotros en algunos aspectos y por lo tanto en algunas ocasiones estaacuten preparadospara ayudar a aquellos que son menos expertos (Rogoff 1994) Por otro ladoaquellos que proporcionan ayuda no tienen que estar fiacutesicamente presentes lostextos y otros artefactos pueden igualmente ayudar de manera satisfactoria a unparticipante ldquoa ir maacutes allaacute de siacute mismo o siacute mismardquo como ocurre con frecuenciaen el trabajo intelectual como la investigacioacuten y la escritura (Wells 1999) Ade-maacutes como Engestroumlm (1999) y otros ndashbasaacutendose en distintos aspectos de losescritos teoacutericos de Vygotskindash han anotado las herramientas materiales y simboacute-licas que han sido desarrolladas por participantes anteriores en la actividad pue-den tambieacuten proporcionar la misma clase de ayuda Sin embargo el punto maacutesimportante que quizaacutes debe subrayarse es que hay muchas situaciones en las quenadie es un experto incluso como cada uno aporta su propia experiencia pasadaa la solucioacuten de un problema comuacuten el grupo en su conjunto es capaz de alcan-zar maacutes de lo que cualquier miembro singular podriacutea haber hecho de maneraindependiente Evidentemente es esta colaboracioacuten la que ha hecho posible lasinvenciones que han llevado a los mayores avances de las grandes civilizaciones alo largo del curso de la historia cultural

Desarrollo en los antildeos preescolares

La responsabilidad para cuidar a los nintildeos en la nintildeez temprana variacutea conside-rablemente de una sociedad a otra como antes anoteacute Sin embargo en todas las

177El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

sociedades los nintildeos estaacuten inmersos en actividades conjuntas con otros en las quereciben ayuda para participar aunque puedan llevarlas a cabo parcialmente Ensu mayor parte como ya se mencionoacute eacutestas son actividades cotidianas repetidasregularmente en las rutinas establecidas Se espera que el nintildeo aprenderaacute a asu-mirlas y es simplemente ayudado para hacerlo Esta forma de aprendizaje deno-minada habitualmente ldquoenculturacioacutenrdquo asegura la continuidad de las formas devida culturales desde una generacioacuten a la siguiente y como Donald (1991) argu-menta probablemente tuvo lugar incluso antes de la emergencia del habla

Sin embargo en todas las actividades hay ocasiones en las que cuando surgealguacuten problema se requiere alguacuten nivel de toma de decisiones deliberado En estassituaciones la interaccioacuten verbal hace posible un grado de reflexioacuten y planificacioacutenhacia delante en la que las relaciones de causa y efecto intencioacuten accioacuten y resultadose hacen expliacutecitas y abiertas para su anaacutelisis y discusioacuten La conversacioacuten que semantiene en estas ocasiones juega asiacute un papel particularmente importante en laayuda a los nintildeos para atender y comprender el mundo que les rodea de acuerdo conlos modos culturales de ldquodarle sentidordquo Sin embargo estas ocasiones pueden tam-bieacuten abrir posibilidades para el cambio tanto en la forma de la actividad como lacomprensioacuten que de ella alcanzan los participantes Coacutemo los cuidadores tomanhabitualmente estas oportunidades es de gran relevancia aquiacute ya que juega en la for-macioacuten de las disposiciones intelectuales con las que los nintildeos entran en la escuelaun papel importante (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo y Sterponi 2002)

En esta seccioacuten incluyo algunos ejemplos representativos del modo de hablarque surge de las actividades conjuntas en el hogar Estos ejemplos se han extraiacute-do de observaciones realizadas en contextos ingleses (Wells 1986) y australianos(Hasan 2002) donde los nintildeos pequentildeos observados pasaban la mayor parte desu tiempo en el hogar en compantildeiacutea de un progenitor o algunas veces con uno omaacutes hermanos mientras que el resto del tiempo se entreteniacutean ellos solos (conuna participacioacuten esporaacutedica del adulto) o algo que haciacutean con frecuencia mira-ban y ldquoayudabanrdquo a sus progenitores con tareas domeacutesticas de diferente tipo

En el primer ejemplo James (de tres antildeos y medio de edad) ha estado jugandosolo en el jardiacuten y cuando entra de nuevo en casa su madre intenta que se quitelos zapatos embarrados Sin embargo en ese momento ve un paacutejaro fuera que leinteresa maacutes que cambiarse de zapatos

Ejemplo 1Madre Alliacute Vamoshellip Alliacutehellip Una zapatilla enJames Puedo ver un paacutejaroMadre iquestUn queacute amorJames Mira un paacutejaroMadre (Susurrando) iquestEstaacute alliacute iquestFueraJames (Sentildealando y susurrando) Siacute mira

(Ambos continuacutean hablando muy suavemente)Madre iquestEstaacute comiendo algoJames NoMadre iquestDoacutende Oh siacute estaacute consiguiendo iquestSabes queacute estaacute haciendoJames NoMadre Estaacute yendo al saco de papel para intentar escoger algunos pedazos

Oh tiene un poco de alimento alliacute Y espero que escoja algunos pedazos de hilodel saco para ir y hacer su nido bajo la azotea James Espera un minuto y [James ahora quiere salir a ver maacutes cerca pero en ese momento el paacutejaro se escapavolando]

James Se ha ido

En el segundo ejemplo Elizabeth (de cuatro antildeos de edad) que estaacute ayudandoen la limpieza de casa mira con intereacutes coacutemo su madre mete en un cubo la cenizade la lentildea de la chimenea

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187178

Ejemplo 2Elizabeth iquestPara queacute estaacutes haciendo esoMadre Estoy recogieacutendolo y ponieacutendolo fuera para que papaacute pueda ponerlo en el jardiacutenElizabeth iquestPor queacute lo tiene que poner en el jardiacuten Madre Para abonar bienElizabeth iquestEso hace que la hierba crezcaMadre SiacuteElizabeth iquestPor queacuteMadre Sabes que te digo que necesitas comer cosas diferentes como huevos y col y

pudin de arroz para convertirte en una nintildea mayor Elizabeth SiacuteMadre Bien las plantas tambieacuten necesitan comida diferente Y la ceniza es una de las

cosas buenas para ellas

El tercer ejemplo se refiere a James de nuevo ahora 18 meses mayor Por lamantildeana temprano ha estado ayudando a su madre con la elaboracioacuten de unos dul-ces en el horno Ahora vuelve a la cocina cuando su madre estaacute sacando las bande-jas fuera del horno Oye un ruidoso ldquocrackrdquo metaacutelico y solicita una explicacioacuten

Ejemplo 3James iquestQuieacuten hizo esoMadre Espero que fuera la contraccioacuten de la lata James iquestQueacute lataMadre La que estaacute con los pasteles dentro James iquestPor queacute hizo ese ruidoMadre Bien cuando estaba en el horno se calentoacute mucho y se estiroacute un pedacito Ape-

nas la he sacado del horno y se estaacute enfriando muy raacutepido mira y ese ruido ocu-rre cuando se hace maacutes pequentildea otra vez y vuelve a su forma normal

James Oh iquesttiene una forma diferente en el horno Madre Oh no muy diferente Soacutelo un poco mayor James Pequentildea lata traviesa Puede que consigas que te den un azote si lo haces otra vez

En estos tres ejemplos la madre responde con prontitud a los intereses delnintildeo y proporciona informacioacuten para explicar el significado de lo que los nintildeosestaacuten viendo u oyendo incluso cuando inicialmente esto interrumpe los planesde la madre Los tres casos muestran coacutemo la participacioacuten de los nintildeos en la acti-vidad con el adulto garantiza una atencioacuten intersubjetiva hacia los intereses delnintildeo lo que permite a la madre proporcionar informacioacuten relevante Esto es cla-ramente una forma de ldquoinstruccioacutenrdquo sin embargo es espontaacutenea y contingentecon los intereses de los nintildeos en lugar de ser presentada como parte de un curri-culum pre-planificado

El tercer ejemplo es particularmente interesante desde este punto de vista yaque el fenoacutemeno que despierta el intereacutes de James requiere una explicacioacuten algoteacutecnica En alguacuten momento del futuro sin duda la dilatacioacuten del metal cuandose calienta y su consiguiente contraccioacuten cuando es apartado del calor figuraraacuteen el curriculum de ciencias de la escuela en relacioacuten con el estudio sistemaacuteticodel calor aquiacute sin embargo es un efecto secundario de la elaboracioacuten de los pas-teles en el horno y la explicacioacuten de la madre aunque teacutecnica en cuanto al conte-nido se asienta en el lenguaje cotidiano y no en los teacuterminos abstractos de lageneralizacioacuten cientiacutefica Como Hasan (2002) ha observado

el discurso del conocimiento quasi especializado tiene lugar lsquoen medio dersquo las actividades dia-rias y necesariamente exige una buena disposicioacuten por parte de la madre para acoger los cam-bios contextuales para tener la voluntad de reclasificar el contexto del discurso en marcha Latendencia a conectar con el discurso en movimiento del nintildeo la buena disposicioacuten para reclasi-ficar el contexto es una caracteriacutestica discursiva del mismo grupo de madres que con frecuen-cia lanzan preguntas precisas para la calificacioacuten de los objetos que atienden a las preguntas desus hijos y que les proporcionan respuestas bien desarrolladas (p 123)

179El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

No todos los nintildeos experimentan esta clase de respuesta altamente informati-va para sus intereses por supuesto Sobre la base de un corpus sustancial de inte-racciones madre-hijo Hasan (2002) siguiendo a Bernstein (1982) distingueentre mediacioacuten semioacutetica ldquovisiblerdquo e ldquoinvisiblerdquo Mientras que todos los ejem-plos citados anteriormente giran sobre la actividad conjunta y las preguntas delos nintildeos merecen una exploracioacuten adicional en un modo expliacutecito ldquovisiblerdquo lostemas de las contribuciones de muchos otros nintildeos a la actividad y la interaccioacutenson tratados por los padres como ldquoobviosrdquo y por lo tanto como si no requirieranexplicacioacuten En este sentido la mediacioacuten de las creencias culturales y de laspraacutecticas permanece ldquoinvisiblerdquo esto es la forma de ser del mundo y el tema nomerece una discusioacuten adicional El Ejemplo 4 (tomado de Hasan 2002) bajoestaacutes liacuteneas proporciona una buena ilustracioacuten

Ejemplo 4 Madre Ponlo sobre la estufa y deacutejalo alliacuteKaren iquestPor queacuteMadre PorqueKaren iquestAquiacute es doacutende va Madre SiacuteUn poco despueacutesKaren iquestCoacutemo conseguiste esoiquestNo saliste Madre Camineacute encima y lo conseguiacute iquestno me viste Karen HmmMadre Debes estar ciega

Los dos breves extractos del Ejemplo 4 son tiacutepicos de un estilo muy diferentede interaccioacuten comparados con los anteriores Aquiacute el eacutenfasis de los padres enconseguir que el nintildeo se adapte a los modos de la cultura local de actuar y pensarcon eficacia suprime la curiosidad del nintildeo y el deseo de comprender lo quetambieacuten hace menos probable que el nintildeo desarrolle la capacidad para cuestionarel status quo y participar en los esfuerzos por cambiarlo y mejorarlo

Finalmente antes de dejar el tema del aprendizaje a traveacutes de la conversacioacutenen actividades conjuntas es importante considerar la actividad conjunta en elcontexto del juego Vygotski (1978) consideroacute el juego como la actividad princi-pal en los antildeos preescolares ya que anima al nintildeo a explorar las posibilidades dela mediacioacuten semioacutetica mediante el uso de objetos presentes que pueden ser uti-lizados para representar otros objetos no presentes mediante el ldquorole playrdquo en elque el lenguaje crea un mundo imaginario En el Ejemplo 5 James ahora contres antildeos y nueve meses estaacute sentaacutendose en el brazo de un sofaacute conduciendo untren imaginario con su madre como pasajera

Ejemplo 5Madre Aquiacute estamos Me sentareacute al lado Perfecto iquestestaacutes listo iquestTodo a punto

Bien Quita el frenoJames Comenzareacute a levantarloMadre Oh perdoacuten Estaacute bienJames Mamaacute no conduzcas todaviacuteaMadre Oh BienJames [Hace un ruido simulando arrancar el motor]Madre iexclOh Este motor arranca raacutepido Muy bien iquestHay suficiente carboacuten en la parte

posterior iquestHas cargado suficiente carboacuten JamesJames SiacuteMadre Bien Entonces vaacutemonos lejos Despiacutedete de tus amigos James [Suena el ruido del motor que acelera Se riacutee y hace el sonido del silbido del

motor]Madre Ahora vamos muy raacutepido iquestPuedes sentir el traqueteo de los vagones James Siacute

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187180

Madre Oh todo me da vueltas Oh mi desayuno estaacute retumbando en mi barriga iexclOhiexclOh iexclOh

James [Hace el ruido del motor]Madre Creo que deberiacuteamos disminuir la velocidad iquestNo crees James Mm (asintiendo)Madre Creo que estamos yendo un poco raacutepido

Es mejor es maacutes faacutecil ahora iquestno James Mm (asintiendo)Madre [Muje] Mira las vacas en el campo JamesJames MmMadre Y hay un granjero mira El granjero te estaacute saludando

Como contar historias compartidas que es otra actividad conjunta importan-te a esta edad el juego imaginario tambieacuten tiene una funcioacuten importante en lapreparacioacuten del nintildeo para explorar el poder del lenguaje ldquopara crear un mundomediante las palabrasrdquo Como seraacute discutido debajo este uso del lenguaje pararepresentar objetos y eventos no presentes y las relaciones entre ellos adoptagran significado en el contexto de la escolarizacioacuten puacuteblica tiacutepica donde propor-ciona los significados mediacionales principales mediante los que gran parte delcurriculum se materializa (Wells 1986)

En suma con la excepcioacuten del Ejemplo 4 todos los extractos precedentes sonejemplos claros de un adulto ldquotrabajando en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximo delnintildeordquo (Vygotski 1987) ya que se implican en la interaccioacuten en el proceso dedesarrollar la actividad en la que estaacuten conjuntamente inmersos Como Vygotski(1987) enfatizoacute en la actividad conjunta colaborativa el nintildeo puede siemprehacer maacutes de lo que le es posible hacer independientemente La actividad pro-porciona el marco organizacional en el que parte de la conversacioacuten dirige ycomenta la actividad y parte explora los resultados a los que conduce En estecontexto el adulto hace disponible para la apropiacioacuten del nintildeo no soacutelo infor-macioacuten especiacutefica como respuesta a los intereses del nintildeo sino tambieacuten una pos-tura hacia la experiencia que valora la actitud de investigacioacuten Tratando las pre-guntas del nintildeo como dignas de respuesta expliacutecita el adulto apoya el desarrollode una disposicioacuten a plantearse preguntas y a buscarles respuesta mediante lainvestigacioacuten futura (Wells 1999)

El papel de la actividad en la educacioacuten

Aunque el teacutermino ldquoeducacioacutenrdquo se emplea a menudo como sinoacutenimo deldquoescolarizacioacutenrdquo seguacuten una interpretacioacuten maacutes amplia la educacioacuten viene refi-rieacutendose a los primeros antildeos del nintildeo y de hecho como se vio arriba hay muchasocasiones en las que un coparticipante en una actividad en curso proporciona ins-truccioacuten expliacutecita Sin embargo la educacioacuten ndashen el sentido de escolarizacioacutenndashtiende a ser muy diferente de la clase de actividades ilustradas maacutes arriba Maacutesimportante en las escuelas la instruccioacuten es tanto deliberada como sistemaacutetica yes gobernada no por los intereses de los alumnos sino por un curriculum que hasido disentildeado por expertos que no estaacuten familiarizados con los alumnos que van aser instruidos Como resultado a menudo lo que se ensentildea en la escuela no estaacuterelacionado con aquello que a los alumnos maacutes les interesa aprender y es muyprobable que no se obtengan beneficios de las oportunidades que la escuelapodriacutea proporcionar

En las primeras secciones de este trabajo se ha argumentado que el aprendi-zaje no es un fin en siacute mismo sino un aspecto integrado del domino de nuevasformas de actividad que tienen significado y valor para el desarrollo de los apren-dices como miembros de una comunidad y como individuos autoacutenomos uacutenicos

181El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Como Wygotsky insistentemente precisoacute el aprendizaje conduce el desarrollo yla instruccioacuten deberiacutea estar organizada para ayudar a este proceso

La instruccioacuten es soacutelo uacutetil cuando se mueve delante del desarrollo Cuando esto ocurre impulsao despierta toda una serie de funciones que estaacuten en estado de maduracioacuten latente en la zona dedesarrollo proacuteximo (1987 p 212)

La pregunta central para la escolarizacioacuten debe por lo tanto ser coacutemo ofrecerinstruccioacuten que sea relevante para las trayectorias de desarrollo de los alumnos yque de manera adecuada ldquose situacutee dentrordquo de sus zonas de desarrollo proacuteximoJunto a esta una segunda pregunta es coacutemo proporcionar ayuda a los alumnosindividuales para que su aprendizaje les permita de hecho avanzar en su desa-rrollo

Procurando proporcionar respuesta a estas preguntas el concepto de ldquoactivi-dad guiadardquo junto con el de recapitulacioacuten de la secuencia de desarrollo de losmodos de conocimiento puede ofrecer un comienzo uacutetil Los nintildeos cuandoingresan en la escuela han dominado en gran parte los modos de conocimientoasociados con la accioacuten el gesto y el habla (Nelson 1996) Lo que ahora necesi-tan es un aprendizaje de los modos de conocimiento asociado con el lenguajeescrito y de las distintas clases de representacioacuten simboacutelica que derivan de eacutelndashmatemaacutetica cientiacutefica musical etceacuteterandash Es decir necesitan aprenderlos parausar estas formas de representacioacuten como herramienta para la deliberacioacutenmediada la comunicacioacuten reflexiva y el pensamiento y para apropiarse de losdiferentes dominios de conocimiento teoacuterico que han sido construidos acumula-tivamente por las generaciones previas con la ayuda de las ventajas que confierenesos sistemas de ldquomemoria externardquo (Donald 1991)

La recapitulacioacuten del desarrollo histoacuterico cultural orienta la trayectoria a largoplazo para la educacioacuten formal en la escuela y en otras instituciones Pero inclusomaacutes importante para procurar responder la pregunta central presentada arriba esdeterminar los procedimientos efectivos para organizar los pequentildeos pasos queconfiguran las lecciones las unidades curriculares y los programas anuales a lolargo de esta trayectoria Basaacutendonos en las ideas presentadas en la seccioacuten ante-rior dos principios parecen en siacute mismos evidentes En primer lugar los encuen-tros educativos necesitan para estar organizados ser ldquoactividades conjuntasrdquo enlas que todos los participantes contribuyen a las metas convenidas con lo mejorde sus habilidades Y en segundo lugar debe convertirse en norma dar y recibirayuda por parte de cada participante Una de las implicaciones de estos dos prin-cipios es que no puede haber formas universales mejores para participar en alguacutenaspecto del curriculum puesto que cada clase variacutea en las experiencias e interesesque sus miembros aportan y en los valores y praacutecticas aprendidos culturalmenteque motivan y dirigen su implicacioacuten con el nuevo conocimiento y con las habi-lidades que estaacuten esperando dominar

Aunque siempre es importante reconocer valorar y construir sobre las expe-riencias previas de los alumnos ha llegado a ser incluso maacutes necesario a medidaque la migracioacuten tanto inter como intra paiacuteses ha aumentado significativamen-te ya que las diferentes etnias clases y religiones en las comunidades han dadolugar a su vez a comunidades de escuela y aula cada vez maacutes diversas ndashy estadiversidad es incluso mayor donde una proporcioacuten sustancial de alumnos estaacuteaprendiendo la lengua de clase como una segunda lengua (o subsiguiente)ndash Taldiversidad en el bagaje cultural y en la experiencia previa es generalmente vistocomo un problema que necesita ser superado en paiacuteses donde los disentildeadores delcurriculum apuntan a estandarizar la instruccioacuten para alcanzar ideacutenticos resulta-dos para todos los estudiantes como es hoy el caso en Estados Unidos Sin

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187182

embargo cuando las diferencias entre personas en teacuterminos de experiencia valo-res y praacutecticas son reconocidas como normales y deseables esta diversidad puedeconvertirse en una ventaja en la clase ya que las praacutecticas y puntos de vista alter-nativos que afloran pueden enriquecer la comunidad de clase y conducir a discu-siones valiosas en las que las creencias dadas por sentadas sean modificadas y sealcance una comprensioacuten maacutes profunda de los puntos considerados (Wells1999)

En este contexto he encontrado de ayuda pensar en el aprendizaje basado enla escuela en teacuterminos de una espiral del conocimiento donde el resultado espe-rado con cada giro de la espiral es una mayor comprensioacuten (Wells 1999) (verFigura 3) En la primera fase cuando la clase se embarca en un nuevo aspecto delcurriculum es importante animar a los alumnos a compartir sus experienciasprevias ya que como las investigaciones en campos muy diferentes han mostra-do (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotski) esas experiencias proporcionan elpunto de partida para su aprendizaje sean o no reconocidas puacuteblicamente Des-cubriendo lo que los estudiantes ya saben y aquello que les interesa explorar conmaacutes detalle el profesor puede tambieacuten planificar la unidad en cooperacioacuten conlos alumnos (Donoahue 2003) La segunda fase de la espiral conlleva varios acer-camientos a la nueva informacioacuten ndashmediante la explicacioacuten del profesor a traveacutesde materiales impresos o medios audiovusiales o en la forma de feedback de laspropias acciones e investigaciones de los alumnosndash Es importante reconocer sinembargo que la recepcioacuten de la nueva informacioacuten no asegura en siacute misma unaumento de la comprensioacuten Para que esto ocurra la nueva informacioacuten debearticularse con la comprensioacuten existente y con la experiencia previa relevantepara ser despueacutes puesta a prueba mediante la accioacuten en el mundo ndashobteniendofeedback (informacioacuten adicional)ndash yo mediante el diaacutelogo con otros para laconstruccioacuten del conocimiento donde el propoacutesito es llegar a una eleccioacuten con-sensuada entre las teoriacuteas alternativas demandas o interpretaciones sobre la basede una consideracioacuten de las evidencias y argumentos apropiados Finalmentepara consolidar la nuevas comprensiones obtenidas es valioso para la clase com-pleta reflexionar juntos sobre lo que han aprendido y sobre el proceso de cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento en el que han participado sobre las implicaciones quela nueva comprensioacuten tiene para sus propias acciones ndashtanto fuera como dentrode clasendash y sobre las preguntas importantes a las que ellos deben ahora dirigir susinvestigaciones futuras En otras palabras la fase final en el ciclo implica a lacomunidad en un ldquoacercamiento lsquometarsquordquo (Olson y Bruner 1996) es decir en laadopcioacuten de una perspectiva metacognitiva sobre su propio aprendizaje que a lolargo de miles de antildeos probablemente ha jugado un importante papel en eldesarrollo de cada modo de conocimiento presentado en la siacutentesis del desarrollohistoacuterico cultural de Donald (1991)3

Esta espiral necesita varias anotaciones adicionales La primera tiene quever con la naturaleza incompleta y provisional del conocimiento eacuteste estaacutesiempre abierto a la mejora mediante ciclos futuros a traveacutes de la espiral Lasegunda anotacioacuten concierne a la naturaleza esencialmente interactiva ysocial del crecimiento individual y comunitario en la comprensioacuten eacutesta seconsigue gracias a los esfuerzos de los participantes para clarificar sus pro-pios significados a los otros y alternativamente para tener en cuenta y res-ponder a los de los demaacutes (Bajtiacuten 1986) En tercer lugar es necesario enfati-zar que el crecimien to en la comprensioacuten requeriraacute espirales futuras queactiven los diferentes modos de conocimiento ya que la mayoriacutea de los cam-bios y problemas que ocurren en las instituciones maacutes allaacute del aula deman-dan un conocimiento procedimental substantivo y esteacutetico al igual que

183El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

teoacuterico y cada modo de conocimiento tiene una contribucioacuten que hacer aleacutexito de soluciones comprensivas que realcen significativamente la com-prensioacuten Finalmente en la representacioacuten de estas relaciones en la figura 3la espiral tambieacuten resalta la interdependencia de los individuos y la comuni-dad Mientras que la experiencia y la comprensioacuten son esencialmente indivi-duales en su naturaleza crecen fuera de eacutel y adoptan su significado de la par-ticipacioacuten de los individuos en el intercambio de informacioacuten y en su com-promiso en la construccioacuten de conocimiento en la comunidad extensa de laque cada individuo es miembro

Desafortunadamente muchos educadores no comprenden estas relacionesfundamentales y por eso su instruccioacuten no es conceptualizada y planificada demanera que sea oacuteptima para el desarrollo de los estudiantes Como numerososestudios han mostrado (Langer y Applebee 1987 Nystrand y Gamoran 1991)en la mayoriacutea de las clases la que gobierna la praacutectica es la concepcioacuten bancariadel conocimiento (Freire 1970) seguacuten la cual el propoacutesito de la instruccioacuten quetiene lugar en el aula es que un alumno individual esteacute preparado para puntuarbien en los tests y no tanto ampliar su conocimiento Dada esta orientacioacuten lasactividades en las que se pide a los alumnos que participen estaacuten determinadaspor la guiacutea curricular del libro de texto maacutes que por el conocimiento de los pro-fesores sobre los intereses y habilidades de los alumnos particulares de los queson responsables A esto es a lo que Tharp y Gallimore (1988) se refieren con laexpresioacuten ldquoguioacuten recitativordquo unido a la ocupacioacuten de un lugar individual de tra-bajo que domina la rutina diaria Ademaacutes los planes sobre coacutemo proceder sonndashcomo cabiacutea esperarndash unilateralmente impuestos en lugar de ser configuradossobre la base de las decisiones tomadas por la comunidad de clase como un todoy el modus operandi es la competicioacuten en lugar de la colaboracioacuten

Sin embargo como he argumentado en otra parte (Wells 1986 19992002a) eacuteste no es el uacutenico modo en el que la escolarizacioacuten puede ser condu-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187184

FIGURA 3La espiral del conocimiento

ACCIOacuteN Construccioacuten

deconocimiento

ComprensioacutenSubstantivo

Esteacutetico

Teoacuterico

Procedimental

Instrumental

Experiencia Informacioacuten

Modos de conocimiento

cida ndasha pensar de la larga historia de la recitacioacuten que se remonta a maacutes detres mil antildeos a las tempranas instituciones que entrenaban a los escribas yadministradores para leer y escribir (Cole 1996)ndash Pero probablemente elmodo por defecto de la escolarizacioacuten es parecido a una preparacioacuten para ldquolavida adultardquo y no una etapa criacutetica del desarrollo que merece la pena y essignificativa en siacute misma Como Vygotski argumentoacute sobre el dominio de laalfabetizacioacuten ldquola ensentildeanza debe organizarse de tal manera que la lectura yla escritura sean necesarias para algo La escritura debe ser incorporada enuna tarea relevante y necesaria para la vidardquo (1978 pp117-118) Y porldquovidardquo quiere decir no la vida futura sino la totalidad de los intereses y pre-ocupaciones actuales de los aprendices

En los uacuteltimos antildeos se han divulgado proyectos de una variedad de paiacuteses enlos que educadores universitarios han procurado crear condiciones para elldquoaprendizaje auteacutenticordquo en las aulas En todos estos proyectos se ha otorgado unpapel central a las actividades colaborativas que alternando entre los formatos departicipacioacuten individual en pequentildeo grupo y de la clase completa implican alos estudiantes en la exploracioacuten de temas centrales mediante investigacionespraacutecticas y tambieacuten teoacutericas y en la discusioacuten criacutetica y constructiva de sus hallaz-gos y de las implicaciones para futuras acciones El espacio no permite aquiacute unadiscusioacuten individual de estos proyectos pero lo que puede ser dicho sobre todosellos es que en sus diferentes formas valoran tanto los intereses de los alumnoscomo sus experiencias previas y persiguen ayudarles a desarrollar la disposicioacutenpara buscar la comprensioacuten maacutes que la acumulacioacuten simple de informacioacuten ypara valorar la colaboracioacuten maacutes que la competicioacuten como el medio para alcanzaresta menta4

En este contexto es digno atraer la atencioacuten hacia varias instituciones poste-riores a la escuela tales como la Fifth Dimension donde la participacioacuten en activi-dades elegidas personalmente ndasha menudo basadas en ordenadoresndash requiere a losnintildeos dominar habilidades que son tambieacuten necesarias para la escolarizacioacuten y lesproporcionan oportunidades para interactuar con voluntarios universitarios enuna posicioacuten de igualdad (Brown y Cole 2002) De manera similar algunosprogramas basados en museos (Leinhardst Crowley y Kuntson 2002) y variasformas de educacioacuten al aire libre tambieacuten capitalizan los intereses de los estu-diantes para implicarles en actividades desafiantes que demandan para la cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento procesos de diaacutelogo y toma de decisiones comparablesa aquellos encontrados en los contextos escolares previamente descritos

Finalmente si estas praacutecticas pioneras arraigan e influyen en la educacioacutenpuacuteblica con mayor amplitud es esencial que los profesores tengan oportunidadessimilares para desarrollar las disposiciones y pericia necesarias para actuar comoagentes de cambio y liacutederes de una reforma en las instituciones en las que traba-jan Es por lo tanto estimulante ver que a pesar del eacutenfasis de los dirigentes poliacute-ticos en estandarizar los curricula y en los resultados cuantificables algunos pro-gramas de formacioacuten de profesores y desarrollo profesional anima a los profeso-res sobre la base de investigaciones sobre su propia praacutectica a tomar sus propiasdecisiones sobre queacute debe ser ensentildeado y coacutemo y a compartir los resultados desus investigaciones con los compantildeeros Este ha sido el motor de mi propio tra-bajo en los antildeos recientes ya que he participado en la investigacioacuten colaborativacon profesores para crear y mantener comunidades de investigacioacuten tanto en cla-ses como entre los mismos profesores5

185El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Notas1 La secuencia temporal implicada por esta formulacioacuten ha sido ampliamente debatida y especialmente el movimiento desde fueraa dentro que sugiere Mi propia comprensioacuten de lo que la apropiacioacuten supone se capta mejor con el ejemplo de aprender a bailarmediante la inmersioacuten en la actividad con otros (Wells 1999) En muchos casos no hay separacioacuten entre antes y despueacutes o entrefuera y dentro y no hay necesidad de demostracioacuten o ejemplificacioacuten En lugar de esto estando inmerso en la actividad conjuntael principiante es literalmente entrenado fiacutesicamente por los movimiento del coparticipante mientras que al mismo tiempoconstruye su propia organizacioacuten ndashy quizaacute incluso una representacioacuten esquemaacuteticandash de los movimientos corporales A lo largo deltiempo este esquema estaacute tan bien organizado que el principiante se convierte en un experto que estaacute preparado paralelamentepara introducir a otros en la actividad Esto es lo que Lave y Wenger (1991) y Rogoff (2003) quieren decir por desarrollo median-te la participacioacuten en actividades culturales

2 Estoy agradecido a Natalia Gajdamaschko y Steve Gabosch por sus valiosas discusiones de esta distincioacuten durante el XMCA cursoonline sobre la teoriacutea de la actividad histoacuterico cultural Abril 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Aunque estaacute incluido en la Tabla I este modo de conocimiento no ha sido discutido aquiacute ya que el reconocimiento expliacutecito deeste importante modo de conocimiento es muy reciente (Brown 1975) Sin embargo eso no significa que sea en siacute mismo unnuevo fenoacutemeno

4 Para algunos ejemplos representativos veacutease Brown y Campione 1994 Lampert Rittenhouse y Crumbaugh 1996 McMahonRaphael Goatley y Pardo 1997 Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford y Brown 1998 Scardamalia Bereiter y Lamon 1994

5 Juntos formamos un grupo de investigacioacuten colaborativo DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project)(Wells (Ed) 2001)

ReferenciasBAJTIacuteN M M (1986) Speech genres and other late essays Austin University of Texas PressBERNSTEIN B (1982) Codes modalities and the process of cultural reproduction A model En M Apple (Ed) Cultural and econo-

mic reproduction in education (pp 304-355) Londres Routledge amp Kegan PaulBROWN A L (1975) The development of memory Knowing knowing about knowing and knowing how to know En H W

Reese (Ed) Advances in child development and behavior (Vol 10 pp 103-152) Nueva York Academic Press BROWN A L amp CAMPIONE J C (1994) Guided discovery in a community of learners En K McGilly (Ed) Integrating cognitive

theory and classroom practice Classroom lessons (pp 229-270) Cambridge MA MIT PressBradford BooksBROWN K amp COLE M (2002) Cultural historical activity theory and the expansion of opportunities for learning after school En

G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 225-238)Oxford Blackwell

BRUNER J S (1990) Acts of meaning Cambridge MA Harvard University PressCARR M (2002) Emerging learning narratives A perspective from early childhood education En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds)

Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 99-111) Oxford BlackwellCOLE M (1996) Cultural psychology A once and future discipline Cambridge MA The Bellknap Press of Harvard University PressDEACON T W (1997) The symbolic species The co-evolution of language and the brain Nueva York NortonDIAMOND J (1998) Guns germs and steel The fates of human societies Nueva York NortonDONALD M (1991) Origins of the Modern Mind Three Stages in the Evolution of Culture and Cognition Cambridge MA Harvard

University PressDONOAHUE Z (2003) Science teaching and learning Teachers and children plan together Networks 6(1) httpwwwoiseuto-

rontoca~ctdnetworksjournal Vol 6 (1) 2003marchENGESTROumlM Y (1999) Activity theory and individual and social transformation Y En Engestrom R Miettinen amp R-L Puna-

maki (Eds) Perspectives on activity theory (pp 19-38) Cambridge Cambridge University PressFREIRE P (1970) Pedagogy of the oppressed Nueva York Herder and HerderHALLIDAY M A K (1975) Learning how to mean Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1978) Language as social semiotic The social interpretation of language and meaning Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1993) Towards a language-based theory of learning Linguistics and Education 5 93-116HASAN R (2002) Semiotic mediation and mental development in pluralistic societies Some implications for tomorrowrsquos schoo-

ling En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural peerspectives on the future of education (pp112-126) Oxford Blackwell

HEATH S B (1983) Ways with words Cambridge Cambridge University PressLAMPERT M RITTENHOUSE P amp CRUMBAUGH C (1996) Agreeing to disagree Developing sociable mathematical discourse En

D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook of education and human development (pp 731-764) Cambridge MA Blackwell LANGER J A amp APPLEBEE A N (1987) How writing shapes thinking A study of teaching and learning Urbana IL National Council

of Teachers of EnglishLAVE J (1996) Teaching as learning in practice Mind Culture and Activity 3 (3) 149-164LAVE J amp WENGER E (1991) Situated Learning Legitimate peripheral participation Nueva York Cambridge University PressLEINHARDT G CROWLEY K amp KNUTSON K (2002) Learning conversations Explanation and identity in museums Mahwah NJ

Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesLEONTIEV A N (1981) The problem of activity in psychology En J VWertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 37-71) Armonk NY SharpeMAYBIN J MERCER N amp STIERER B (1992) lsquoScaffoldingrsquo learning in the classroom En K Norman (Ed) Thinking voices The

work of the National Oracy Project (pp 186-195) Londres Hodder amp StoughtonMCMAHON S I RAPHAEL T E GOATLEY V J amp PARDO L S (Eds) (1997) The Book Club connection Literacy learning and class-

room talk Nueva York Teachers College PressNELSON K (1996) Language in cognitive development The emergence of the mediated mind Nueva York Cambridge University PressNEWSON J (1978) Dialogue and development En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol The emergence of language (pp 31-42)

New York Academic Press

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187186

NYSTRAND M amp GAMORAN A (1991) Student engagement When recitation becomes conversation En H C Waxman amp H JWalberg (Eds) Effective teaching Current research (pp 257-276)Berkeley CA McCutchan Publishing Corp

OLSON D R amp BRUNER J S (1996) Folk psychology and folk pedagogy En D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook ofeducation and human development (pp 9-27) Cambridge MA Blackwell

PALINCSAR A MAGNUSSON S MARANO N FORD D amp BROWN N (1998) Designing a community of practice Principlesand practices of the GIsML Community Teaching and Teacher Education 14 (1) 5-20

PIAGET J (1970) Piagetrsquos theory En P H Mussen (Ed) Carmichaelrsquos handbook of child development (pp 703-732) Nueva YorkWiley

PONTECORVO C amp STERPONI L (2002) Learning to argue and reason through discourse in educational settings En G Wells ampG Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 127-140) OxfordBlackwell

ROGOFF B (1990) Apprenticeship in thinking Cognitive development in social context Nueva York Oxford University PressROGOFF B (1994) Developing understanding of the idea of Communities of Learners Mind Culture and Activity 1 (4) 209-

229ROGOFF B (2003) The cultural nature of human development Nueva York Oxford University PressROSENBLATT L (1978) The reader the text the poem The transactional theory of the literary work Carbondale IL Southern Illinois

University PressSCARDAMALIA M C BEREITER amp LAMON M (1994) The CSILE project Trying to bring the classroom into World 3 En K

McGilley (Ed) Classroom lessons Integrating cognitive theory and classroom practice (pp 201-228) Cambridge MA MITPress

SCRIBNER S (1985) Vygotskyrsquos uses of history En J V Wertsch (Ed) Culture communication and cognition Vygotskian perspectives(pp 119-145) Cambridge Cambridge University Press

THARP R amp GALLIMORE R (1988) Rousing minds to life Nueva York Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C (1979) Communication and cooperation in early infancy a description of primary intersubjectivity En M

Bullowa (Ed) Before speech The beginning of interpersonal communication (pp 321-348) Cambridge Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C amp HUBLEY P (1978) Secondary intersubjectivity Confidence confiding and acts of meaning in the first year

En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol the emergence of language (pp 183-230) Nueva York Academic PressVYGOTSKI L S (1978)Mind in society The development of higher psychological processes Cambridge MA Harvard University PressVYGOTSKI L S (1981) The genesis of higher mental functions En J V Wertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 144-188) Armonk NY SharpeVYGOTSKI L S (1987) Thinking and speech En R W Rieber amp A S Carton (Eds) The collected works of L S Vygotsky Volumen

1 Problems of general psychology (pp 39-285) Nueva York PlenumWARTOFSKY M (1979) Models representation and scientific understanding Boston ReidelWELLS G (1985) Language development in the pre-school years Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (1986) The meaning makers Children learning language and using language to learn Portsmouth NH HeinemannWELLS G (1999) Dialogic inquiry Towards a sociocultural practice and theory of education Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (Ed) (2001) Action talk and text Learning and teaching through inquiry Nueva York Teachers College PressWELLS G (2002a) Learning and teaching for understanding The key role of collaborative knowledge building En J Brophy

(Ed) Social constructivist teaching Affordances and constraints (pp 1-41) Osford Elsevier ScienceJAIWELLS G (2002b) The role of dialogue in activity theory Mind Culture and Activity 9 (1) 43-66WERTSCH J V MINICK N amp ARNS F J (1984) The creation of context in joint problem solving En B Rogoff amp J Lave (Eds)

Everyday cognition Its development in social context (pp 151-171) Cambridge Cambridge University PressWOOD D BRUNER J S amp ROSS G (1976) The role of tutoring in problem-solving Journal of Child Psychology and Child Psy-

chiatry 17 89-100

187El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Original text

Introduction

Compared with other species the characteristic that distinguishes humans isthe ability and proclivity to engage in tool-mediated joint activity with otherhumans It is this characteristic that accounts for the development of human cul-tures over the course of history as they invented artefacts of various kinds inorder to adapt to and exploit the ecological niches in which they found themsel-ves It also accounts for the diversity of individual personsrsquo development whichdepend on the particular activities in which they participate As Vygotsky(1978 1981) was one of the first to point out the lsquohigherrsquo mental functions thatmake us human are not biologically given but are developmentally constructedthrough the appropriation of historically developed tools and practices that aremade manifest to the child and lsquoscaffoldedrsquo in the meaningful actions and utte-rances of the coparticipants in joint activity

Before continuing readers might find it interesting to reflect on their owndevelopmental trajectories to who they are today I suspect that they may findthemselves agreeing that Who we become depends on the company we keep and what wedo together

A Brief History of the Development of Joint Activity

Leontrsquoev provides a succinct account of Vygotskyrsquos insight in the followingsummary

The initial ideas that led Vygotsky to investigate the genesis of internal mental activity fromexternal activity are fundamentally different from the theoretical approaches of other modernauthors These ideas came from the analysis of the features unique to human productive laboractivity which is mediated by tools This activity is initially social in nature that is it is deve-loped under the conditions of cooperation and social interaction among people Vygotskyidentified two main interconnected features [of this activity] that are necessarily fundamentalfor psychology its tool-like (lsquoinstrumentalrsquo) structure and its inclusion in a system of interre-lations with other people It is these features that define the nature of human psychologicalprocesses The tool mediates activity and thus connects humans not only with the world ofobjects but also with other people Because of this humanrsquos activity assimilates the experience ofhumankind This means that humansrsquo mental processes (their lsquohigher psychological functionsrsquo)acquire a structure necessarily tied to the sociohistorically formed means and methods trans-mitted to them by others in the process of cooperative labor and social interaction But it isimpossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in any way otherthan a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words higher psycho-logical processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction with others thatis through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried out indepen-dently by the individual (Leontrsquoev 1981 pp 55-56 emphases in the original)

As well as emphasizing the social and cooperative nature of human activity thisquotation is important with respect to the arguments that I want to develop inthis paper as it highlights the central role of semiotic mediation in developmentKnowledge is created as well as appropriated in the discourse among peoplewho are working together in a specific situation in order to create or improve anartefact or to solve a problem of importance to the group However Leontrsquoevalso alludes to another of Vygotskyrsquos key insights namely that in order tounderstand current activity it is necessary to investigate the history of that acti-vity It is to this that I next turn

In analyzing the history of human development at least four different time-scales need to be considered The longest is the history of the cultural evolution of

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

the species (the phylogenetic level) next is the historical development of particu-lar cultures The third level (ontogenetic) traces the developmental trajectory ofindividual humans over the course of the lifespan Finally the microgenetic levelis concerned with the development of an instance of a particular activity

In practice it is the latter that has been explored in most detail for usingcontemporary technology it is relatively easy to observe and record the sequenceof actions through which an activity is enacted and the specific operations inwhich the participants engage making use of the relevant artefacts that are avai-lable in the situation (Leontrsquoev 1981) These artefacts may be either material(knives pencils automobiles) or symbolic (utterances maps theories) ndashthoughas Cole (1996) has pointed out to function as mediators of joint activity all arte-facts must have some form of material embodiment as well as a symbolic mea-ning that is to say they must be ready to hand and also have a cultural signifi-cance relevant to the situation

However the form in which a particular instance of activity is realizeddepends not only on the artefacts that are to hand in the situation but also onthe participantsrsquo past experiences with the practices in which the artefacts areused to mediate achievement of the action goals that contribute to the joint acti-vity Thus the microgenesis of a particular instance of activity is necessarilydependent upon the ontogenetic development of the participants that is to sayupon the opportunities their life trajectories have afforded them to appropriatethe relevant cultural knowledge through participation in instances of similaractions and operations

But on the time-scale of ontogenetic development each individualrsquos trajectoryof development is itself strongly influenced by the culture in which he or she isgrowing up and on the historical development of that culture As Rogoff (2003)illustrates in considerable detail cultures vary considerably both over time andacross ecological niches in what mediating artefacts and practices are available andin the relative value accorded to each Moreover within each culture at any parti-cular historical moment participants in activities both incorporate the ways ofprevious generations and adapt them to the exigencies of current conditions

Stepping up one further level the historical development of a particular cul-tures is itself shaped by development on the even larger timescale of the culturaland biological evolution of the species This is the most difficult timescale todescribe in detail for lack of the necessary evidence But certain broad distinc-tions between human communities can be made in terms of their modes of sub-sistence and of the mediating means available for joint activity (Diamond 1998Donald 1991) As recent research has shown our earliest ancestors some 5million years ago lived in small bands of hunter gatherers often on the edge oflakes and oceans Initially their tools were found in the surroundings but overseveral million years they invented ways of making more sophisticated artefactssuch as knives arrowheads baskets and clothing from flints bones skins andvegetable materials Then as some groups migrated to particularly fertile partsof the world they adopted a more settled agrarian way of life growing cropsand breeding animals The resulting ability to produce more food than imme-diately required led in turn to the emergence of trade and to a diversity of spe-cialist occupations such as potters and tailors who exchanged their products forfood and other necessities This stage also saw the development of much largerpopulation groupings with hierarchical class structures that included prieststax collectors and other religious and political functionaries

While migration had been a common feature of human existence from theearliest times the development of large settled populations and of weapons

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

made of bronze and iron led to the expansion of certain cultural groups throughterritorial conquest and colonization by sea and by land As a result during thelast few thousand years the latest phase of phylogenetic development has beencharacterized by the rise and fall of imperial cultures which have imposed theirtechnologies laws and administrative procedures as well as their religions artsknowledge and values on widely diverse subjugated populations Most recentlythe further development of the inventions that led to the first industrial revolu-tion has simply served to increase the scale and intensity of these imperialisttrends At the same time these inventions as well as those of the current indus-trial revolution have also led to a great increase in humansrsquo understanding oftheir social and material environment both through scientific and social rese-arch and through the dissemination of information about other times and placesresulting from travel and the use of print and electronic technologies

In presenting this very condensed account of phylogenetic development Ihave emphasized the material tools that have mediated the progressively morecomplex and diverse activities in which humans have engaged over the course ofthe speciesrsquo history However bearing in mind that what has been the drivingforce of human development is joint activity an equally ndashif not morendash impor-tant determinant of this history is the development of the modes of representa-tion through which humans have communicated and developed their unders-tanding of the world Table I presents the developmental sequence proposed byDonald (1991) based on archeological neuroanatomical historical and othertypes of evidence The table also includes the stages in the historical develop-ment of ways of knowing that were proposed by Wartofsky (1979)

The first stage in this sequence corresponds to the phase in which proto-humans began to diverge from other primate species In this phase as in thebehavior of contemporary higher primates practical action was the predomi-nant form of communication as ndashnot necessarily deliberatelyndash participants sig-naled their intentions in a shared situation and these intentions were interpre-ted and responded to by their co-participants in the activity In the secondmimetic phase which must have developed gradually over many millenniacommunication became somewhat differentiated from the activity to which itreferred as humans deliberately used gestures mime facial expression andvarious types of phonation to comment on as well as to coordinate action and theobjects to which it was directed Later still with the gradual modification of thevocal tract and of the primate brain there emerged the ability to communicatethrough speech and hence the ability to refer not only to particular objects andactions but also to generalized classes and to express observed and intendedrelationships between objects actions and events thus allowing participants toplan for and reflect on the outcomes of joint activity Finally the invention ofwriting which ushered in the final phase in Donaldrsquos proposed sequence occu-rred extremely recently in the long trajectory of phylogenetic development Yetas with those that preceded it enormously increased the human repertoire ofmeans for making and communicating meaning Essentially what it added wasan ldquoexternal memoryrdquo By creating a (relatively) permanent representation oflinguistic meaning it made possible the compilation and distillation of repor-ted information from many sources including the writerrsquos own verbalizedthoughts It also allowed the writer and those who read his or her written textto review critique and revise the meanings expressed and to make the resultsavailable to people in later times and other places for further constructive debateand improvement

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

However action gesture speech and writing are not simply progressivelymore powerful modes of communication They are also progressively morepowerful mediators of thinking This is most obvious with respect to the lin-guistic modes of communication But even before the emergence of speechaction and ndashto an even greater extentndash mimesis enabled humans to think toget-her and thereby to create a shared interpretation of their joint activities In fact ithas been argued that the emergence of language was not simply the result ofbrain and vocal tract development but rather was part of a more general patternof adaptation that building upon the cognitive achievements of mimetic kno-wing strove to integrate the unconnected bits of information in a more compre-hensive and coherent account of being-in-the-world (Deacon 1997) Neverthe-less it is also true that the availability of language greatly enhanced both com-munication and thinking together for as Halliday observed

the grammar of every natural language is (among other things) a theory of human experienceit is through our acts of meaning that we transform experience into the coherent -though farfrom consistent- patchwork that we learn to project as lsquorealityrsquo (1993 p 46)

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

TABLE IModes Of Knowing Phylogenetic And Cultural Development (from Wells 1999)

Time Mode of Participants Donald(1991) Wartofsky(1979)Years BP Knowing

2 million Instrumental Individual in action Episodic Primary artifactsyears material tools

1 -- 15 million Procedural Between individuals while Mimetic Secondaryyears engaged in action artifacts tools

and practicesmimeticinteraction

50000 Substantive Among members of a (Linguistic) Secondaryyears cultural group reflecting on artifacts

action and as a basis for representations ofplanning further action tools and

practices spokeninteraction

50000 Aesthetic Among members of a Mythic Tertiary artifactsyears cultural group making sense artistic represent-

of the human predicament ations in mythnarrative graphicand musical modes

2500 Theoretical Among members of a Theoretic Tertiary artifactsyears specialist community decontextualized

seeking to explain the natural representationsand human world such as

taxonomiestheories models etc

Meta Among members of a Tertiary artifacts cultural group also representations ofindividuals seeking to mental andunderstand and control their semioticown mental activity processes

In sum what Donald and other scholars argue is that contemporary mentalabilities are the outcome of the development over time of a series of progressi-vely more powerful and flexible modes of representation ndashor in Vygotskyanterms of semiotic mediators of higher mental functions- that have made possi-ble the rational theoretically oriented modes of knowing that underpin theachievements of modern science and its technological applications In the philo-sopher Wartofskyrsquos words

our own perceptual and cognitive understanding of the world is in large part shaped andchanged by the representational artifacts we ourselves create We are in effect the products ofour own activity in this way we transform our own perceptual and cognitive modes our waysof seeing and of understanding by means of the representations we make (1979 p xxiii)

There is however one further important aspect of Donaldrsquos (1991) thesis thatis crucial for the argument that I wish to develop Although the semiotic sys-tems of mimesis speech and writing each powered a new mode of cognitiveactivity they did not replace those that preceded but were additive in theireffects The result is that contemporary humans have a variety of modes of kno-wing at their disposal as they engage in joint activity Furthermore most suchactivities call for more than one mode of knowing and require the complemen-tary and interdependent use of more than one mode of representation

Joint Activity as the Site of Ontogenetic Learning and Development

Two important implications follow from the multi-level historical concep-tion of development just outlined First on any occasion the type of activitythat is undertaken and the specific manner in which it is enacted are necessarilydependent on the particular cultural-historical antecedents of the participantsboth human and artefactual that come together in its realization In particularthe manner in which the situation is interpreted ndashin terms of what action goalsare appropriate and how they can be achievedndash depends on the motives valuesand knowledgeable skills of the human participants and on the affordances ofthe technologies available in the situation And second every instance of an acti-vity provides an occasion for a triple transformation of the situation in whichthe activity is carried out of the artefacts and practices that mediate its enact-ment and most importantly of the knowledge and skills of the human partici-pants Taken together these propositions clarify the way in which cultural andindividual development are both interdependent and rooted in particular situa-ted occasions of joint activity As Rogoff (1994) argues

People of each generation as they engage in sociocultural endeavors with other people makeuse of and extend cultural tools and practices inherited from previous generations As peopledevelop through their shared use of cultural tools and practices they simultaneously contribu-te to the transformation of cultural tools practices and institutions (p 52)

Potentially therefore every occasion of joint activity provides an opportunityfor development on the part of all participants This is a point to which I shallreturn But first I want to consider more carefully the concept of developmentitself

Clearly built into the concept of development is the implication of change andtypically of change in the direction of increasing complexity and effectiveness Inother words development is typically taken to imply improvement or progresstoward some ideal end state or capability However in the light of the previousdiscussion such a progression while it may be meaningful to (some of the) partici-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

pants in any particular situation cannot be understood in any absolute sense butmust be seen as relative to the unfolding historical trajectory of the species of aparticular culture and of the immediate community ndashits values its dominantactivities and the knowledgeable skills that form its resources Furthermore just asthese have changed in the past they will continue to change in the future in res-ponse to the changing demands of the larger environment So while ontogeneticdevelopment does indeed involve increasing complexity and effectiveness of indi-vidualsrsquo participation in the activity systems in which they are involved in theirdaily lives the overall trajectory of development is emergent and its endpoint cannever be specified in advance even in terms of an ideal to be attained

Nevertheless this does not mean that there are not strong regularities in thesequence of ontogenetic development particularly in the early years Indeed asNelson (1996) has suggested during the preschool years children follow a trajec-tory very similar to the sequence of phylogenetic development proposed byDonald (1991) (see Table I above) as they appropriate the semiotic tools of repre-sentation afforded by action mimesis speech and writing Of course this is not asimple recapitulation children growing up in a contemporary literate culture forexample are surrounded from birth by artifacts and practices that result from andembody all the available modes of knowing (Cole 1996) Appropriating existingcultural tools is thus very different from inventing them ex novo as Scribner (1985)points out Nevertheless given the combination of biological and cultural inheri-tance it is not surprising that in most if not all cultures children follow the samesequence as did the species as a whole over the course of history

In the first weeks of life infants act on their immediate surroundings bothanimate and inanimate and begin to develop what Piaget (1970) called sensori-motor intelligence However although this most basic form of activity mayappear to be instinctual it is nevertheless also inherently social First all infantsare born into an environment that is cultural in the sense of having been shapedby countless preceding generations and second the infantrsquos actions are treatedas being intentional and are responded to as such So from the beginning theinfant is caught up in social interaction (Newson 1978) In the second phasewhich typically begins in the first few months the infant also begins to engagein mimetic communication through gaze facial expression and rudimentarygesture (Bruner 1990) Couched in terms of primary and secondary intersubjec-tivity this phase has been described in considerable detail by Trevarthen (19781979) Primary intersubjectivity develops as the infant and parent engage inmutual gaze thereby communicating that they are attending to and respondingto each other In secondary intersubjectivity third parties are brought into jointattention as the parent through gaze directs the infantrsquos attention to an object ofpotential interest or follows the childrsquos direction of gaze and signals that he orshe is also attending to the same object

It is on this basis of joint action and attention that towards the end of thefirst year the child begins to exploit his or her growing command of vocaliza-tion often accompanied by gesture to begin to communicate through speechFrom research predominantly involving children in ldquoWesternrdquo societies it hasbeen established that at first the childrsquos utterances are idiosyncratic drawingonly partially ndashif at allndash on the speech of those around him or her neverthelessparents and other family members have little difficulty in interpreting them incontext and once again they respond in a manner that is contingent on theirinterpretation thereby establishing spoken communication as a joint interactiveactivity By the end of the second year however children appear to abandon thisidiosyncratic ldquoprotolanguagerdquo form of communication and begin to construct a

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

linguistic meaning potential that is systematically related to the language thatis addressed to them in the oft-repeated activities of family life (Bruner 1990Halliday 1975 Wells 1986) Significantly within particular language com-munities the sequence in which children master the basic meanings and thelexicogrammatical forms in which they are realized tends to be very similar fromchild to child (Wells 1985)

The developmental sequence just described ndashaction mimesis speechndash is com-mon to children in all cultures and in all cases takes place in and through jointactivity and interaction with other family and community members Howeveralthough the sequence is universal the manner and pace at which it proceeds varyvery considerably across cultures These differences depend upon many culturally-determined factors such as adult expectations about their childrenrsquos developmentthe position in which the infant is typically held or carried facing the caregiver orturned outwards to face in the same direction as the caregiver the makeup and sizeof the interactional groups in which communication typically occurs and whetherthese events are part of family and community life more generally or are delibera-tely arranged and structured for the presumed benefit of the child (Rogoff 2003)In the later stages of language development the range and extent of the meaningpotential that children construct begins to vary even more widely depending onthe activities in which they engage the linguistic registers that are used in thoseactivities and the stances typically adopted by interlocutors toward the use of lan-guage in their interactions with children (Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

So far the ontogenetic developmental sequence I have described is funda-mentally similar across cultures and follows the phylogenetic sequence in whichhumans have progressively added new semiotic mediational means to theircommunicative repertoires In an important sense therefore the final mode ofrepresentation in Donaldrsquos scheme that of writing is an optional extra sincemany cultures have survived and prospered without a written mode of represen-ting meaning Moreover even in cultures that have a writing system the extentand scope of literacy that individuals attain varies very considerably dependingon the activity systems in which they participate the value that is placed onwritten texts by those communmities the purposes to which they are put andthe genres that are used for those purposes However since literacy and its usesare so strongly associated with schooling I shall leave further discussion of thismode of semiotic mediation to a later part of this paper

Before concluding this section however I want to explore further the con-cept of semiotic mediation In one of the better known passages in Vygotskyrsquoswritings where he argued for the social and cultural origin of higher mentalfunctions he wrote that every function occurs on two planes first in activity andinteraction between people and then within the individual learner (Vygotsky1981) What bridges between these two planes as is clear from his other wri-tings is semiotic mediation To recall Leontrsquoevrsquos formulation of this argument

hellip it is impossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in anyway other than a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words hig-her psychological processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction withothers that is through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried outindependently by the individual (1981 pp 55-56)

In other words when people engage in joint activity their actions gesturesand speech not only mediate the coordination of participation but they alsomake overt the mental activities involved and so render them available forappropriation by novice participants1 Halliday is very clear about this Alt-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

hough the following quotation refers only to language the term lsquolanguagersquocould justifiably be replaced by lsquosemiotic mediationrsquo

In the development of the child as a social being language has the central role Language is themain channel through which the patterns of living are transmitted to him through which helearns to act as a member of lsquosocietyrsquo ndashin and through the various social groups the family theneighbourhood and so onndash and to adopt its lsquoculturersquo its modes of thought and action itsbeliefs and its values (1978 p 9)

However as the child grows older language does become the predominantmode of semiotic mediation and as he wrote in a later paper ldquoLanguage is theessential condition of knowing the process by which experience becomes know-ledge (Halliday 1993 p 94 original emphasis)

Assistance for Learning in Joint Activitie

So far in the discussion of the role of joint activity in human development Ihave concentrated on the tools and particularly the semiotic modes of represen-tation that mediate the achievement of the outcome of activity In this sectionon the other hand I turn to the role of other people in this process both familymembers and the larger community

Until now I have referred to coparticipants in an activity in general termsbut clearly there are further distinctions to be made Particularly helpful in thisrespect is Engestroumlmrsquos model of an activity system which is shown in figure 1

What this model shows is that when we look at an ongoing activity from thepoint of view of an individual participant (t Subject) that individual is involvedin a nexus of other relationships that link him or her to other lsquoparticipantsrsquo theTools and artifacts to mediate action on the Object but also the Community of

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 1The Triangle of Activity

Artifactstools andpractices

Values rulesamp conventions

Community Divisioacutenof labor

Engestrom 1999

Object OutcomeSubject

others engaged in the activity together with the Division of Labor within thatcommunity and also the Rules and Conventions that govern the manner inwhich the activity is carried out (Engestroumlm 1999) What this latter category oflsquoparticipantrsquo underscores is the historical dimension of an activity system sincethese rules and conventions ndashas well as the tools and artifactsndash bring into thepresent the distilled practices of previous generations who have engaged in theactivity as these are interpreted and utilized by the current community

To illustrate the relevance of this model to the development of the youngchild we might compare two versions of a similar activity reported by WertschMinick and Arns (1984) In their study Brazilian children carried out a puzzletask on two occasions first with the mother and secondly with a primary tea-cher What the researchers found was that in general the mothers and teachersengaged in the activity in systematically different ways Whereas the motherstended to direct the childrenrsquos behavior or even carry out parts of the task them-selves in order to complete it in an efficient manner ndashjust as they would havedone if engaged in a household taskndash the teachers tended to encourage thechildrsquos autonomous performance and only provided hints and suggestions whenthey judged them to be necessary to advance the childrenrsquos understandingInterpreting these results the researchers suggested that the two groups ofadults belonged to two different communities (or activity systems) that had dif-ferent rules and conventions about engaging in this joint activity And this inturn led to the different divisions of labor that they observed Similarly Rogoff(2003) cites many examples of substantial differences between cultures inalmost all aspects of child rearing with respect to their ways of engaging chil-dren in the activities that they consider important

What is clear is that ldquobehindrdquo the particular adult ndashor older siblings in someculturesndash who are directly engaged with the child there is a wider communityof family members neighbors and others who have an interest in the upbrin-ging of children and who share beliefs about appropriate ways to involve themin the activities of daily life So whether in Spain Japan or the Peruvian High-lands although the actual practices vary across cultures in each those responsi-ble for childrenrsquos well-being and development act as agents of a wider commu-nity whose beliefs and practices are rooted in a long tradition concerning howactivities should be carried out But equally in all cultures practices also changein response to changes in the world beyond the particular community In manyWestern homes for example computer games or television programs haverecently taken the place of the bedtime story while in many indigenous com-munities crafts that until recently only supplied local needs are now exploitedcommercially for the tourist trade changing the rhythms of daily life and therelationships among family members and the activities in which children areinvolved As suggested earlier therefore in order to understand the activities inwhich children participate today we need to look not only at the immediatesituation but also at the wider community and the changes taking place on allthese time-scales

Microgenesis and the Zone of Proximal Development

It is nevertheless always the immediate microgenetic situation that isthe site of ontogenetic development ndashthe action and interaction between thelearner and those with whom he or she is engaged in the activity in pro-gress When we adopt this microgenetic perspective however we need tomodify the representation of an activity system presented in figure 1 Inthat representation the focus was on the goal-oriented nature of action

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Here we need to focus on the interaction among the participants ndashtheirattempt to attain intersubjectivity with respect to the common object andthe complementarity of the knowledgeable skills they bring to the cocons-truction of the intended outcome (see Figure 2) What figure 2 emphasizesis the fact that although the tools and artefacts that are available to mediatethe jointly undertaken action are the same for each participant each bringsa somewhat different familiarity with their use as a result of their differentlife trajectories and it is this variability in their expertise that makes it pos-sible for each to provide assistance to the others in at least some aspects ofthe joint action Viewed in this light it is clear why Vygotsky emphasizedthe role of joint activity in development and wrote of its potential to enablelearners ldquoto go beyond themselvesrdquo with the assistance of more expertothers

The metaphor Vygotsky used to characterize the potential for learning thatthis sort of activity creates was the ldquozone of proximal developmentrdquo As hewrote when another participant in the activity provides instruction that isappropriately pitched beyond what the learner can manage to do on his or herown it ldquowakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturationlying in the zone of proximal developmentrdquo (1987 p 212) Vygotsky concep-tualized development as the formation of new functional systems (ldquoneoforma-tionsrdquo) and of changes in the relationships among systems which he consideredto occur as a succession of ldquocrises of developmentrdquo that are particularly facilitatedby engagement in the relevant ldquoleading activityrdquo at each stage for example playin childhood and learning to read and write in the early school yearsHowever itwould be a mistake to focus only on the periods of revolutionary change since ashe equally emphasized at any time there are also other more gradual processes ofgrowth

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 2Dialogue in Joint Activity(from Wells2002b)

Outcomematerial ampsemioticartefacts

Toolsartefacts

Subject

Rulesconventions

Community Divisionof labor

Subject

Toolsartefacts

Processes that are central lines of development at one age become peripheral lines of develop-ment at the following age and conversely peripheral lines of development of one age arebrought to the forefront and become central lines since their meaning and relative significancein the total structure of development changes (p 197)2

In developing his important concept of the zone of proximal developmentVygotsky tended to characterize the assistance given by others as ldquoinstructionrdquoand to see its value in ldquothe childrsquos potential to raise himself to a higher intellec-tual level of development through collaboration to move from what he has towhat he does not have through imitationrdquo (1987 p 210) However manyrecent scholars who have built on his work have taken a broader view of thedevelopmental significance of collaboration in joint activities and have characte-rized the assistance that is provided within this relationship in terms such asldquoapprenticeshiprdquo (Lave amp Wenger 1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoguided participationrdquo(Rogoff 1994 2003) and ldquoscaffoldingrdquo (Wood et al 1976) Neverthelesswhile these different metaphors highlight different features of the relationshipwhat they all have in common is the inclusion of the learner in an activity inwhich there is provision of the assistance necessary to help the learner to comple-te an activity in which he or she is interested and to do so in such a way that heor she makes progress toward being able to participate more fully and autono-mously in the future (Maybin Mercer and Stierer 1992)

In many joint activities such as for example traditional forms of craftapprenticeship assistance is only provided when needed and the ldquomasterrdquo doesso with no deliberate didactic intention beyond that of involving the novice inthe completion of the particular task in hand (Lave 1996) Similarly in sociali-zation into activities around the home no explicit instruction is necessary fornovices can learn a great deal by simply watching and listening (cf Rogoff2003) This is what Lave and Wenger (1991) mean when they insist that lear-ning is not an independent activity but an intrinsic aspect of ldquolegitimate perip-heral participationrdquo in a communityrsquos activities From their perspective therefo-re formal education in which learning is the sole purpose of the activity issomething of an anomaly particularly when the only form of assistance providedis the expert teacherrsquos direct instruction and subsequent evaluation of the extentof the studentsrsquo learning

In many recent discussions it has also been recognized that it is not only aldquoteacherrdquo who can provide assistance in the zpd On the one hand in a com-plex activity many participants are more expert than others in some aspectsand therefore on some occasions are able to help those who are less expert(Rogoff 1994) and on the other hand those who provide assistance do nothave to be physically present texts and other artifacts can equally well helpa participant ldquoto go beyond himherselfrdquo as is often the case in intellectualwork such as research and writ ing (Wells 1999) Furthermore asEngestroumlm (1999) and others ndashbuilding on other aspects of Vygotskyrsquos theo-retical writingsndash have noted the material and symbolic tools that have beendeveloped by previous participants in the activity can also provide the samesort of assistance However perhaps the most important point to emphasizeis that there are many situations in which no-one is an expert yet as eachbrings his or her own past experience to the solution of a common problemthe group together is able to achieve more than any single member couldhave done alone Clearly it is such collaboration that has made possible theinventions that have led to the major advances of great civilizations over thecourse of cultural history

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Development in the Pre-School Years

As noted above the responsibility for caring for children in early childhoodvaries very considerably from one society to another Nevertheless in all socie-ties children are involved in joint activities with others in which they receiveassistance with respect to their participation however that may be locally achie-ved For the most part as already mentioned these are activities that are regu-larly repeated in the taken-for-granted routines of daily life The expectation isthat the child will learn to fit in and is simply helped to do so Often referred toas ldquoenculturationrdquo this form of apprenticeship ensures the continuity of the cul-turersquos way of life from one generation to the next and as Donald (1991) arguedit probably occurred even before the emergence of speech

However in all activities there are occasions when problems arise that callfor some level of deliberate decision-making In these situations spoken interac-tion makes possible a degree of reflection and forward planning in which therelations of cause and effect intention action and outcome are made explicitand open to question and discussion The talk that occurs on these occasionsthus plays a particularly important role in helping children to attend to andunderstand the world around them in terms of the culturersquos ways of ldquomakingsenserdquo of it However these occasions can also open up possibilities for changeboth in the form of the activity and in the participantsrsquo understanding of itHow caregivers habitually take up these opportunities is particularly importantfor it plays an important part in shaping the intellectual dispositions withwhich children enter school (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo amp Sterponi2002)

In this section I include some representative examples of kinds of talk thatarise from joint activities in the home These examples are drawn from observa-tions made in settings in England (Wells 1986) and Australia (Hasan 2002) inwhich the young children observed spent most of their time at home with oneparent sometimes with one or more siblings some of the time they entertainedthemselves with occasional adult involvement but they also frequently watchedand ldquohelpedrdquo the parent with household tasks of various kinds

In the first example James (aged 3 12 years) has been playing alone in thegarden and as he reenters the house his mother tries to get him to take off hismuddy shoes However at that moment he sees a bird outside which interestshim more than changing his shoes

Example 1Mother There we are there one slipper onJames I can see a birdMother A what loveJames See a bird Mother (whispering) Is there OutsideJames (pointing and whispering) Yes see

(both continue to speak very softly)Mother Is he eating anythingJames NoMother Where Oh yes hersquos getting- do you know what hersquos doingJames NoMother Hersquos going to the- the paper sack to try to pick out some pieces-

Oh hersquos got some food there and I expect hersquoll pick out somepieces of thread from the sack to go and make his nest under the roofJames Wait a minute and Irsquoll-[James now wants to go out to see more closely but at that moment thebird flies away]

James That birdrsquos gone

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

In the second example Elizabeth (aged 4 years) who is helping with thehouse cleaning watches with interest as her mother shovels wood ash from thefireplace into a bucket

Example 2Elizabeth What are you doing that forMother Irsquom gathering it up and putting it outside so that Daddy can put it on the gardenElizabeth Why does he have to put it on the gardenMother To make the compost rightElizabeth Does that make the grass growMother YesElizabeth Why does itMother You know how I tell you that you need to eat different things like eggs and cab-

bage and rice pudding to make you grow into a big girlElizabeth YesMother Well plants need different foods too and ash is one of the things thatrsquos

good for them

The third example involves James again now eighteen months older Earlierin the afternoon he had been helping his mother with the baking Now hecomes back into the kitchen as his mother is taking the baking trays out of theoven He hears a loud metallic ldquocrackrdquo and asks for an explanation

Example 3James Who did thatMother I expect it was the tin contractingJames Which tinMother The one with your pastry inJames Why did it make that noiseMother Well when it was in the oven it got very hot and stretched a bit Irsquove just taken

it out of the oven and itrsquos cooling down very quickly you see and that noisehappens when it gets smaller again and goes back to its normal shape

James Oh was it a different shape in the ovenMother Oh not very different just a little biggerJames Naughty little tin you might get smacked if you do it again

In all three of these examples the mother willingly responds to the childrsquosinterest and provides information to explain the significance of what the child isseeing or hearing even when in the first this interrupts the motherrsquos plan Allthree cases show how the childrsquos participation in the activity with the adult assu-res that there is intersubjectivity of attention to what interests the child and thisenables the mother to provide relevant information Clearly this is a form ofldquoinstructionrdquo however it is spontaneous and contingent on the childrsquos interestrather than presented as part of a pre-planned curriculum

The third example is particularly interesting from this point of view as thephenomenon of interest to James requires a somewhat technical explanation Atsome point in the future no doubt the expansion of metal when heated and itssubsequent contraction when removed from the heat will figure in the schoolscience curriculum in relation to the systematic study of heat here however itis an interesting side-effect of baking and the motherrsquos explanation while tech-nical in content is couched in everyday language rather than in the abstractterms of scientific generalization As Hasan (2002) has observed

the discourse of quasi specialised knowledge occurs in the lsquomiddle ofrsquo daily activities and bynecessity it calls for a readiness on the motherrsquos part to entertain contextual shifts to bewilling to reclassify the context of the on-going discourse The tendency to move with thechildrsquos moving discourse the readiness to re-classify context is a discourse characteristic of thesame group of mothers who frequently ask questions made precise by qualification and whoattend to their childrenrsquos questions and provide them with well developed answers (p 123)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 12: Actividad y Aprendizaje

de la accioacuten conjunta Visto desde esta perspectiva estaacute claro por queacute Vygotskienfatizoacute el papel de la actividad conjunta en el desarrollo y escribioacute sobre supotencial para permitir a los participantes ldquoir maacutes allaacute de siacute mismosrdquo con laayuda de otros maacutes expertos

La metaacutefora usada por Vygotski para caracterizar el potencial para el aprendi-zaje que esta clase de actividad crea fue ldquozona de desarrollo proacuteximordquo Como eacutelescribioacute cuando otro participante en la actividad proporciona instruccioacuten que essuministrada apropiadamente maacutes allaacute de lo que el aprendiz puede llegar a hacerpor siacute mismo ldquodespierta toda una serie de funciones que estaacuten en estado demaduracioacuten latente en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximordquo (1987 p 212) Vygotskiconceptualizoacute el desarrollo como la formacioacuten de nuevos sistemas funcionales(ldquoneoformacionesrdquo) y de cambios en las relaciones entre sistemas que seguacuten eacutelconsideraba ocurriacutean como una secuencia de ldquocrisis del desarrollordquo particular-mente facilitadas por la participacioacuten en las ldquoactividades guiadasrdquo relevantes decada etapa por ejemplo jugar en la nintildeez y aprender a leer y a escribir en los pri-meros antildeos escolares Sin embargo puede ser un error dirigir la atencioacuten soacutelo alos periodos de cambios revolucionarios ya que como eacutel igualmente enfatizoacutetambieacuten tienen lugar en cualquier momento otros procesos graduales de creci-miento

Los procesos que son liacuteneas centrales de desarrollo en una edad se convierten en liacuteneas perifeacute-ricas de desarrollo en la edad siguiente y contrariamente liacuteneas perifeacutericas de desarrollo deuna edad son traiacutedas a la vanguardia y se convierten en liacuteneas centrales en el momento en elque cambia su significado y su significacioacuten relativa en la estructura total del desarrollo(1987 p 197)2

En la elaboracioacuten de su importante concepto de zona de desarrollo proacuteximoVygotski tendioacute a caracterizar la ayuda proporcionada por otros como ldquoinstruc-cioacutenrdquo asiacute como a ver su valor en ldquoel potencial del nintildeo para elevarse a siacute mismo

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187176

FIGURA 2Diaacutelogo en la Actividad Conjunta (Wells 2002b)

Resultadosmateriales yartefactossemioacuteticos

Herramientasartefactos

Sujeto

Reglasconvenciones

Comunidad Divisioacuten delabor

Sujeto

Herramientasartefactos

gracias a la colaboracioacuten hacia un nivel intelectual mayor de desarrollo despla-zaacutendose mediante la imitacioacuten desde lo que eacutel es hasta lo que eacutel no esrdquo (1987p 210) Sin embargo muchos eruditos contemporaacuteneos que han construidosobre su trabajo han adoptado una visioacuten de conjunto del significado evolutivode la colaboracioacuten en actividades conjuntas y han caracterizado la ayuda propor-cionada en esta relacioacuten con teacuterminos tales como ldquoaprendizajerdquo (Lave y Wenger1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoparticipacioacuten guiadardquo (Rogoff 1994 2003) y ldquoandamia-jerdquo (Wood Bruner y Ross 1976) Sin embargo mientras estas metaacuteforas dife-rentes iluminan caracteriacutesticas diferentes de la relacioacuten lo que tienen todas encomuacuten es la inclusioacuten del aprendizaje en una actividad que ofrezca el nivel deapoyo necesario para ayudar al aprendizaje a completar una actividad en la que eacutelo ella estaacute interesado y a hacer esto de tal manera que eacutel o ella progresen hastapoder participar maacutes plena y autoacutenomamente en el futuro (Maybin Mercer yStierer 1992)

En muchas actividades conjuntas tales como por ejemplo formas tradicio-nales de aprendizaje de oficios la ayuda es proporcionada soacutelo cuando se necesitay de este modo el ldquomaestrordquo la ofrece sin intenciones didaacutecticas deliberadas maacutesallaacute de arropar al principiante para terminar una tarea particular en curso (Lave1996) De manera similar la socializacioacuten en actividades domeacutesticas no necesitauna instruccioacuten expliacutecita ya que los principiantes pueden aprender mucho sim-plemente mirando y escuchando (cf Rogoff 2003) Esto es lo que Lave y Wen-ger (1991) quieren decir cuando insisten en que el aprendizaje no es una activi-dad independiente sino un aspecto intriacutenseco de la ldquoparticipacioacuten perifeacutericalegiacutetimardquo en las actividades de una comunidad Desde su perspectiva por lotanto la educacioacuten formal en la que el aprendizaje es el uacutenico propoacutesito de laactividad tiene algo anoacutemalo particularmente cuando la uacutenica forma de ayudaproporcionada es la instruccioacuten directa del profesor experto y la consiguienteevaluacioacuten del grado de aprendizaje de los alumnos

En muchas discusiones recientes se ha reconocido tambieacuten que no es soacutelo unldquoprofesorrdquo quien puede proporcionar ayuda en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximo Porun lado en una actividad compleja muchos participantes son maacutes expertos queotros en algunos aspectos y por lo tanto en algunas ocasiones estaacuten preparadospara ayudar a aquellos que son menos expertos (Rogoff 1994) Por otro ladoaquellos que proporcionan ayuda no tienen que estar fiacutesicamente presentes lostextos y otros artefactos pueden igualmente ayudar de manera satisfactoria a unparticipante ldquoa ir maacutes allaacute de siacute mismo o siacute mismardquo como ocurre con frecuenciaen el trabajo intelectual como la investigacioacuten y la escritura (Wells 1999) Ade-maacutes como Engestroumlm (1999) y otros ndashbasaacutendose en distintos aspectos de losescritos teoacutericos de Vygotskindash han anotado las herramientas materiales y simboacute-licas que han sido desarrolladas por participantes anteriores en la actividad pue-den tambieacuten proporcionar la misma clase de ayuda Sin embargo el punto maacutesimportante que quizaacutes debe subrayarse es que hay muchas situaciones en las quenadie es un experto incluso como cada uno aporta su propia experiencia pasadaa la solucioacuten de un problema comuacuten el grupo en su conjunto es capaz de alcan-zar maacutes de lo que cualquier miembro singular podriacutea haber hecho de maneraindependiente Evidentemente es esta colaboracioacuten la que ha hecho posible lasinvenciones que han llevado a los mayores avances de las grandes civilizaciones alo largo del curso de la historia cultural

Desarrollo en los antildeos preescolares

La responsabilidad para cuidar a los nintildeos en la nintildeez temprana variacutea conside-rablemente de una sociedad a otra como antes anoteacute Sin embargo en todas las

177El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

sociedades los nintildeos estaacuten inmersos en actividades conjuntas con otros en las quereciben ayuda para participar aunque puedan llevarlas a cabo parcialmente Ensu mayor parte como ya se mencionoacute eacutestas son actividades cotidianas repetidasregularmente en las rutinas establecidas Se espera que el nintildeo aprenderaacute a asu-mirlas y es simplemente ayudado para hacerlo Esta forma de aprendizaje deno-minada habitualmente ldquoenculturacioacutenrdquo asegura la continuidad de las formas devida culturales desde una generacioacuten a la siguiente y como Donald (1991) argu-menta probablemente tuvo lugar incluso antes de la emergencia del habla

Sin embargo en todas las actividades hay ocasiones en las que cuando surgealguacuten problema se requiere alguacuten nivel de toma de decisiones deliberado En estassituaciones la interaccioacuten verbal hace posible un grado de reflexioacuten y planificacioacutenhacia delante en la que las relaciones de causa y efecto intencioacuten accioacuten y resultadose hacen expliacutecitas y abiertas para su anaacutelisis y discusioacuten La conversacioacuten que semantiene en estas ocasiones juega asiacute un papel particularmente importante en laayuda a los nintildeos para atender y comprender el mundo que les rodea de acuerdo conlos modos culturales de ldquodarle sentidordquo Sin embargo estas ocasiones pueden tam-bieacuten abrir posibilidades para el cambio tanto en la forma de la actividad como lacomprensioacuten que de ella alcanzan los participantes Coacutemo los cuidadores tomanhabitualmente estas oportunidades es de gran relevancia aquiacute ya que juega en la for-macioacuten de las disposiciones intelectuales con las que los nintildeos entran en la escuelaun papel importante (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo y Sterponi 2002)

En esta seccioacuten incluyo algunos ejemplos representativos del modo de hablarque surge de las actividades conjuntas en el hogar Estos ejemplos se han extraiacute-do de observaciones realizadas en contextos ingleses (Wells 1986) y australianos(Hasan 2002) donde los nintildeos pequentildeos observados pasaban la mayor parte desu tiempo en el hogar en compantildeiacutea de un progenitor o algunas veces con uno omaacutes hermanos mientras que el resto del tiempo se entreteniacutean ellos solos (conuna participacioacuten esporaacutedica del adulto) o algo que haciacutean con frecuencia mira-ban y ldquoayudabanrdquo a sus progenitores con tareas domeacutesticas de diferente tipo

En el primer ejemplo James (de tres antildeos y medio de edad) ha estado jugandosolo en el jardiacuten y cuando entra de nuevo en casa su madre intenta que se quitelos zapatos embarrados Sin embargo en ese momento ve un paacutejaro fuera que leinteresa maacutes que cambiarse de zapatos

Ejemplo 1Madre Alliacute Vamoshellip Alliacutehellip Una zapatilla enJames Puedo ver un paacutejaroMadre iquestUn queacute amorJames Mira un paacutejaroMadre (Susurrando) iquestEstaacute alliacute iquestFueraJames (Sentildealando y susurrando) Siacute mira

(Ambos continuacutean hablando muy suavemente)Madre iquestEstaacute comiendo algoJames NoMadre iquestDoacutende Oh siacute estaacute consiguiendo iquestSabes queacute estaacute haciendoJames NoMadre Estaacute yendo al saco de papel para intentar escoger algunos pedazos

Oh tiene un poco de alimento alliacute Y espero que escoja algunos pedazos de hilodel saco para ir y hacer su nido bajo la azotea James Espera un minuto y [James ahora quiere salir a ver maacutes cerca pero en ese momento el paacutejaro se escapavolando]

James Se ha ido

En el segundo ejemplo Elizabeth (de cuatro antildeos de edad) que estaacute ayudandoen la limpieza de casa mira con intereacutes coacutemo su madre mete en un cubo la cenizade la lentildea de la chimenea

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187178

Ejemplo 2Elizabeth iquestPara queacute estaacutes haciendo esoMadre Estoy recogieacutendolo y ponieacutendolo fuera para que papaacute pueda ponerlo en el jardiacutenElizabeth iquestPor queacute lo tiene que poner en el jardiacuten Madre Para abonar bienElizabeth iquestEso hace que la hierba crezcaMadre SiacuteElizabeth iquestPor queacuteMadre Sabes que te digo que necesitas comer cosas diferentes como huevos y col y

pudin de arroz para convertirte en una nintildea mayor Elizabeth SiacuteMadre Bien las plantas tambieacuten necesitan comida diferente Y la ceniza es una de las

cosas buenas para ellas

El tercer ejemplo se refiere a James de nuevo ahora 18 meses mayor Por lamantildeana temprano ha estado ayudando a su madre con la elaboracioacuten de unos dul-ces en el horno Ahora vuelve a la cocina cuando su madre estaacute sacando las bande-jas fuera del horno Oye un ruidoso ldquocrackrdquo metaacutelico y solicita una explicacioacuten

Ejemplo 3James iquestQuieacuten hizo esoMadre Espero que fuera la contraccioacuten de la lata James iquestQueacute lataMadre La que estaacute con los pasteles dentro James iquestPor queacute hizo ese ruidoMadre Bien cuando estaba en el horno se calentoacute mucho y se estiroacute un pedacito Ape-

nas la he sacado del horno y se estaacute enfriando muy raacutepido mira y ese ruido ocu-rre cuando se hace maacutes pequentildea otra vez y vuelve a su forma normal

James Oh iquesttiene una forma diferente en el horno Madre Oh no muy diferente Soacutelo un poco mayor James Pequentildea lata traviesa Puede que consigas que te den un azote si lo haces otra vez

En estos tres ejemplos la madre responde con prontitud a los intereses delnintildeo y proporciona informacioacuten para explicar el significado de lo que los nintildeosestaacuten viendo u oyendo incluso cuando inicialmente esto interrumpe los planesde la madre Los tres casos muestran coacutemo la participacioacuten de los nintildeos en la acti-vidad con el adulto garantiza una atencioacuten intersubjetiva hacia los intereses delnintildeo lo que permite a la madre proporcionar informacioacuten relevante Esto es cla-ramente una forma de ldquoinstruccioacutenrdquo sin embargo es espontaacutenea y contingentecon los intereses de los nintildeos en lugar de ser presentada como parte de un curri-culum pre-planificado

El tercer ejemplo es particularmente interesante desde este punto de vista yaque el fenoacutemeno que despierta el intereacutes de James requiere una explicacioacuten algoteacutecnica En alguacuten momento del futuro sin duda la dilatacioacuten del metal cuandose calienta y su consiguiente contraccioacuten cuando es apartado del calor figuraraacuteen el curriculum de ciencias de la escuela en relacioacuten con el estudio sistemaacuteticodel calor aquiacute sin embargo es un efecto secundario de la elaboracioacuten de los pas-teles en el horno y la explicacioacuten de la madre aunque teacutecnica en cuanto al conte-nido se asienta en el lenguaje cotidiano y no en los teacuterminos abstractos de lageneralizacioacuten cientiacutefica Como Hasan (2002) ha observado

el discurso del conocimiento quasi especializado tiene lugar lsquoen medio dersquo las actividades dia-rias y necesariamente exige una buena disposicioacuten por parte de la madre para acoger los cam-bios contextuales para tener la voluntad de reclasificar el contexto del discurso en marcha Latendencia a conectar con el discurso en movimiento del nintildeo la buena disposicioacuten para reclasi-ficar el contexto es una caracteriacutestica discursiva del mismo grupo de madres que con frecuen-cia lanzan preguntas precisas para la calificacioacuten de los objetos que atienden a las preguntas desus hijos y que les proporcionan respuestas bien desarrolladas (p 123)

179El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

No todos los nintildeos experimentan esta clase de respuesta altamente informati-va para sus intereses por supuesto Sobre la base de un corpus sustancial de inte-racciones madre-hijo Hasan (2002) siguiendo a Bernstein (1982) distingueentre mediacioacuten semioacutetica ldquovisiblerdquo e ldquoinvisiblerdquo Mientras que todos los ejem-plos citados anteriormente giran sobre la actividad conjunta y las preguntas delos nintildeos merecen una exploracioacuten adicional en un modo expliacutecito ldquovisiblerdquo lostemas de las contribuciones de muchos otros nintildeos a la actividad y la interaccioacutenson tratados por los padres como ldquoobviosrdquo y por lo tanto como si no requirieranexplicacioacuten En este sentido la mediacioacuten de las creencias culturales y de laspraacutecticas permanece ldquoinvisiblerdquo esto es la forma de ser del mundo y el tema nomerece una discusioacuten adicional El Ejemplo 4 (tomado de Hasan 2002) bajoestaacutes liacuteneas proporciona una buena ilustracioacuten

Ejemplo 4 Madre Ponlo sobre la estufa y deacutejalo alliacuteKaren iquestPor queacuteMadre PorqueKaren iquestAquiacute es doacutende va Madre SiacuteUn poco despueacutesKaren iquestCoacutemo conseguiste esoiquestNo saliste Madre Camineacute encima y lo conseguiacute iquestno me viste Karen HmmMadre Debes estar ciega

Los dos breves extractos del Ejemplo 4 son tiacutepicos de un estilo muy diferentede interaccioacuten comparados con los anteriores Aquiacute el eacutenfasis de los padres enconseguir que el nintildeo se adapte a los modos de la cultura local de actuar y pensarcon eficacia suprime la curiosidad del nintildeo y el deseo de comprender lo quetambieacuten hace menos probable que el nintildeo desarrolle la capacidad para cuestionarel status quo y participar en los esfuerzos por cambiarlo y mejorarlo

Finalmente antes de dejar el tema del aprendizaje a traveacutes de la conversacioacutenen actividades conjuntas es importante considerar la actividad conjunta en elcontexto del juego Vygotski (1978) consideroacute el juego como la actividad princi-pal en los antildeos preescolares ya que anima al nintildeo a explorar las posibilidades dela mediacioacuten semioacutetica mediante el uso de objetos presentes que pueden ser uti-lizados para representar otros objetos no presentes mediante el ldquorole playrdquo en elque el lenguaje crea un mundo imaginario En el Ejemplo 5 James ahora contres antildeos y nueve meses estaacute sentaacutendose en el brazo de un sofaacute conduciendo untren imaginario con su madre como pasajera

Ejemplo 5Madre Aquiacute estamos Me sentareacute al lado Perfecto iquestestaacutes listo iquestTodo a punto

Bien Quita el frenoJames Comenzareacute a levantarloMadre Oh perdoacuten Estaacute bienJames Mamaacute no conduzcas todaviacuteaMadre Oh BienJames [Hace un ruido simulando arrancar el motor]Madre iexclOh Este motor arranca raacutepido Muy bien iquestHay suficiente carboacuten en la parte

posterior iquestHas cargado suficiente carboacuten JamesJames SiacuteMadre Bien Entonces vaacutemonos lejos Despiacutedete de tus amigos James [Suena el ruido del motor que acelera Se riacutee y hace el sonido del silbido del

motor]Madre Ahora vamos muy raacutepido iquestPuedes sentir el traqueteo de los vagones James Siacute

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187180

Madre Oh todo me da vueltas Oh mi desayuno estaacute retumbando en mi barriga iexclOhiexclOh iexclOh

James [Hace el ruido del motor]Madre Creo que deberiacuteamos disminuir la velocidad iquestNo crees James Mm (asintiendo)Madre Creo que estamos yendo un poco raacutepido

Es mejor es maacutes faacutecil ahora iquestno James Mm (asintiendo)Madre [Muje] Mira las vacas en el campo JamesJames MmMadre Y hay un granjero mira El granjero te estaacute saludando

Como contar historias compartidas que es otra actividad conjunta importan-te a esta edad el juego imaginario tambieacuten tiene una funcioacuten importante en lapreparacioacuten del nintildeo para explorar el poder del lenguaje ldquopara crear un mundomediante las palabrasrdquo Como seraacute discutido debajo este uso del lenguaje pararepresentar objetos y eventos no presentes y las relaciones entre ellos adoptagran significado en el contexto de la escolarizacioacuten puacuteblica tiacutepica donde propor-ciona los significados mediacionales principales mediante los que gran parte delcurriculum se materializa (Wells 1986)

En suma con la excepcioacuten del Ejemplo 4 todos los extractos precedentes sonejemplos claros de un adulto ldquotrabajando en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximo delnintildeordquo (Vygotski 1987) ya que se implican en la interaccioacuten en el proceso dedesarrollar la actividad en la que estaacuten conjuntamente inmersos Como Vygotski(1987) enfatizoacute en la actividad conjunta colaborativa el nintildeo puede siemprehacer maacutes de lo que le es posible hacer independientemente La actividad pro-porciona el marco organizacional en el que parte de la conversacioacuten dirige ycomenta la actividad y parte explora los resultados a los que conduce En estecontexto el adulto hace disponible para la apropiacioacuten del nintildeo no soacutelo infor-macioacuten especiacutefica como respuesta a los intereses del nintildeo sino tambieacuten una pos-tura hacia la experiencia que valora la actitud de investigacioacuten Tratando las pre-guntas del nintildeo como dignas de respuesta expliacutecita el adulto apoya el desarrollode una disposicioacuten a plantearse preguntas y a buscarles respuesta mediante lainvestigacioacuten futura (Wells 1999)

El papel de la actividad en la educacioacuten

Aunque el teacutermino ldquoeducacioacutenrdquo se emplea a menudo como sinoacutenimo deldquoescolarizacioacutenrdquo seguacuten una interpretacioacuten maacutes amplia la educacioacuten viene refi-rieacutendose a los primeros antildeos del nintildeo y de hecho como se vio arriba hay muchasocasiones en las que un coparticipante en una actividad en curso proporciona ins-truccioacuten expliacutecita Sin embargo la educacioacuten ndashen el sentido de escolarizacioacutenndashtiende a ser muy diferente de la clase de actividades ilustradas maacutes arriba Maacutesimportante en las escuelas la instruccioacuten es tanto deliberada como sistemaacutetica yes gobernada no por los intereses de los alumnos sino por un curriculum que hasido disentildeado por expertos que no estaacuten familiarizados con los alumnos que van aser instruidos Como resultado a menudo lo que se ensentildea en la escuela no estaacuterelacionado con aquello que a los alumnos maacutes les interesa aprender y es muyprobable que no se obtengan beneficios de las oportunidades que la escuelapodriacutea proporcionar

En las primeras secciones de este trabajo se ha argumentado que el aprendi-zaje no es un fin en siacute mismo sino un aspecto integrado del domino de nuevasformas de actividad que tienen significado y valor para el desarrollo de los apren-dices como miembros de una comunidad y como individuos autoacutenomos uacutenicos

181El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Como Wygotsky insistentemente precisoacute el aprendizaje conduce el desarrollo yla instruccioacuten deberiacutea estar organizada para ayudar a este proceso

La instruccioacuten es soacutelo uacutetil cuando se mueve delante del desarrollo Cuando esto ocurre impulsao despierta toda una serie de funciones que estaacuten en estado de maduracioacuten latente en la zona dedesarrollo proacuteximo (1987 p 212)

La pregunta central para la escolarizacioacuten debe por lo tanto ser coacutemo ofrecerinstruccioacuten que sea relevante para las trayectorias de desarrollo de los alumnos yque de manera adecuada ldquose situacutee dentrordquo de sus zonas de desarrollo proacuteximoJunto a esta una segunda pregunta es coacutemo proporcionar ayuda a los alumnosindividuales para que su aprendizaje les permita de hecho avanzar en su desa-rrollo

Procurando proporcionar respuesta a estas preguntas el concepto de ldquoactivi-dad guiadardquo junto con el de recapitulacioacuten de la secuencia de desarrollo de losmodos de conocimiento puede ofrecer un comienzo uacutetil Los nintildeos cuandoingresan en la escuela han dominado en gran parte los modos de conocimientoasociados con la accioacuten el gesto y el habla (Nelson 1996) Lo que ahora necesi-tan es un aprendizaje de los modos de conocimiento asociado con el lenguajeescrito y de las distintas clases de representacioacuten simboacutelica que derivan de eacutelndashmatemaacutetica cientiacutefica musical etceacuteterandash Es decir necesitan aprenderlos parausar estas formas de representacioacuten como herramienta para la deliberacioacutenmediada la comunicacioacuten reflexiva y el pensamiento y para apropiarse de losdiferentes dominios de conocimiento teoacuterico que han sido construidos acumula-tivamente por las generaciones previas con la ayuda de las ventajas que confierenesos sistemas de ldquomemoria externardquo (Donald 1991)

La recapitulacioacuten del desarrollo histoacuterico cultural orienta la trayectoria a largoplazo para la educacioacuten formal en la escuela y en otras instituciones Pero inclusomaacutes importante para procurar responder la pregunta central presentada arriba esdeterminar los procedimientos efectivos para organizar los pequentildeos pasos queconfiguran las lecciones las unidades curriculares y los programas anuales a lolargo de esta trayectoria Basaacutendonos en las ideas presentadas en la seccioacuten ante-rior dos principios parecen en siacute mismos evidentes En primer lugar los encuen-tros educativos necesitan para estar organizados ser ldquoactividades conjuntasrdquo enlas que todos los participantes contribuyen a las metas convenidas con lo mejorde sus habilidades Y en segundo lugar debe convertirse en norma dar y recibirayuda por parte de cada participante Una de las implicaciones de estos dos prin-cipios es que no puede haber formas universales mejores para participar en alguacutenaspecto del curriculum puesto que cada clase variacutea en las experiencias e interesesque sus miembros aportan y en los valores y praacutecticas aprendidos culturalmenteque motivan y dirigen su implicacioacuten con el nuevo conocimiento y con las habi-lidades que estaacuten esperando dominar

Aunque siempre es importante reconocer valorar y construir sobre las expe-riencias previas de los alumnos ha llegado a ser incluso maacutes necesario a medidaque la migracioacuten tanto inter como intra paiacuteses ha aumentado significativamen-te ya que las diferentes etnias clases y religiones en las comunidades han dadolugar a su vez a comunidades de escuela y aula cada vez maacutes diversas ndashy estadiversidad es incluso mayor donde una proporcioacuten sustancial de alumnos estaacuteaprendiendo la lengua de clase como una segunda lengua (o subsiguiente)ndash Taldiversidad en el bagaje cultural y en la experiencia previa es generalmente vistocomo un problema que necesita ser superado en paiacuteses donde los disentildeadores delcurriculum apuntan a estandarizar la instruccioacuten para alcanzar ideacutenticos resulta-dos para todos los estudiantes como es hoy el caso en Estados Unidos Sin

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187182

embargo cuando las diferencias entre personas en teacuterminos de experiencia valo-res y praacutecticas son reconocidas como normales y deseables esta diversidad puedeconvertirse en una ventaja en la clase ya que las praacutecticas y puntos de vista alter-nativos que afloran pueden enriquecer la comunidad de clase y conducir a discu-siones valiosas en las que las creencias dadas por sentadas sean modificadas y sealcance una comprensioacuten maacutes profunda de los puntos considerados (Wells1999)

En este contexto he encontrado de ayuda pensar en el aprendizaje basado enla escuela en teacuterminos de una espiral del conocimiento donde el resultado espe-rado con cada giro de la espiral es una mayor comprensioacuten (Wells 1999) (verFigura 3) En la primera fase cuando la clase se embarca en un nuevo aspecto delcurriculum es importante animar a los alumnos a compartir sus experienciasprevias ya que como las investigaciones en campos muy diferentes han mostra-do (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotski) esas experiencias proporcionan elpunto de partida para su aprendizaje sean o no reconocidas puacuteblicamente Des-cubriendo lo que los estudiantes ya saben y aquello que les interesa explorar conmaacutes detalle el profesor puede tambieacuten planificar la unidad en cooperacioacuten conlos alumnos (Donoahue 2003) La segunda fase de la espiral conlleva varios acer-camientos a la nueva informacioacuten ndashmediante la explicacioacuten del profesor a traveacutesde materiales impresos o medios audiovusiales o en la forma de feedback de laspropias acciones e investigaciones de los alumnosndash Es importante reconocer sinembargo que la recepcioacuten de la nueva informacioacuten no asegura en siacute misma unaumento de la comprensioacuten Para que esto ocurra la nueva informacioacuten debearticularse con la comprensioacuten existente y con la experiencia previa relevantepara ser despueacutes puesta a prueba mediante la accioacuten en el mundo ndashobteniendofeedback (informacioacuten adicional)ndash yo mediante el diaacutelogo con otros para laconstruccioacuten del conocimiento donde el propoacutesito es llegar a una eleccioacuten con-sensuada entre las teoriacuteas alternativas demandas o interpretaciones sobre la basede una consideracioacuten de las evidencias y argumentos apropiados Finalmentepara consolidar la nuevas comprensiones obtenidas es valioso para la clase com-pleta reflexionar juntos sobre lo que han aprendido y sobre el proceso de cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento en el que han participado sobre las implicaciones quela nueva comprensioacuten tiene para sus propias acciones ndashtanto fuera como dentrode clasendash y sobre las preguntas importantes a las que ellos deben ahora dirigir susinvestigaciones futuras En otras palabras la fase final en el ciclo implica a lacomunidad en un ldquoacercamiento lsquometarsquordquo (Olson y Bruner 1996) es decir en laadopcioacuten de una perspectiva metacognitiva sobre su propio aprendizaje que a lolargo de miles de antildeos probablemente ha jugado un importante papel en eldesarrollo de cada modo de conocimiento presentado en la siacutentesis del desarrollohistoacuterico cultural de Donald (1991)3

Esta espiral necesita varias anotaciones adicionales La primera tiene quever con la naturaleza incompleta y provisional del conocimiento eacuteste estaacutesiempre abierto a la mejora mediante ciclos futuros a traveacutes de la espiral Lasegunda anotacioacuten concierne a la naturaleza esencialmente interactiva ysocial del crecimiento individual y comunitario en la comprensioacuten eacutesta seconsigue gracias a los esfuerzos de los participantes para clarificar sus pro-pios significados a los otros y alternativamente para tener en cuenta y res-ponder a los de los demaacutes (Bajtiacuten 1986) En tercer lugar es necesario enfati-zar que el crecimien to en la comprensioacuten requeriraacute espirales futuras queactiven los diferentes modos de conocimiento ya que la mayoriacutea de los cam-bios y problemas que ocurren en las instituciones maacutes allaacute del aula deman-dan un conocimiento procedimental substantivo y esteacutetico al igual que

183El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

teoacuterico y cada modo de conocimiento tiene una contribucioacuten que hacer aleacutexito de soluciones comprensivas que realcen significativamente la com-prensioacuten Finalmente en la representacioacuten de estas relaciones en la figura 3la espiral tambieacuten resalta la interdependencia de los individuos y la comuni-dad Mientras que la experiencia y la comprensioacuten son esencialmente indivi-duales en su naturaleza crecen fuera de eacutel y adoptan su significado de la par-ticipacioacuten de los individuos en el intercambio de informacioacuten y en su com-promiso en la construccioacuten de conocimiento en la comunidad extensa de laque cada individuo es miembro

Desafortunadamente muchos educadores no comprenden estas relacionesfundamentales y por eso su instruccioacuten no es conceptualizada y planificada demanera que sea oacuteptima para el desarrollo de los estudiantes Como numerososestudios han mostrado (Langer y Applebee 1987 Nystrand y Gamoran 1991)en la mayoriacutea de las clases la que gobierna la praacutectica es la concepcioacuten bancariadel conocimiento (Freire 1970) seguacuten la cual el propoacutesito de la instruccioacuten quetiene lugar en el aula es que un alumno individual esteacute preparado para puntuarbien en los tests y no tanto ampliar su conocimiento Dada esta orientacioacuten lasactividades en las que se pide a los alumnos que participen estaacuten determinadaspor la guiacutea curricular del libro de texto maacutes que por el conocimiento de los pro-fesores sobre los intereses y habilidades de los alumnos particulares de los queson responsables A esto es a lo que Tharp y Gallimore (1988) se refieren con laexpresioacuten ldquoguioacuten recitativordquo unido a la ocupacioacuten de un lugar individual de tra-bajo que domina la rutina diaria Ademaacutes los planes sobre coacutemo proceder sonndashcomo cabiacutea esperarndash unilateralmente impuestos en lugar de ser configuradossobre la base de las decisiones tomadas por la comunidad de clase como un todoy el modus operandi es la competicioacuten en lugar de la colaboracioacuten

Sin embargo como he argumentado en otra parte (Wells 1986 19992002a) eacuteste no es el uacutenico modo en el que la escolarizacioacuten puede ser condu-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187184

FIGURA 3La espiral del conocimiento

ACCIOacuteN Construccioacuten

deconocimiento

ComprensioacutenSubstantivo

Esteacutetico

Teoacuterico

Procedimental

Instrumental

Experiencia Informacioacuten

Modos de conocimiento

cida ndasha pensar de la larga historia de la recitacioacuten que se remonta a maacutes detres mil antildeos a las tempranas instituciones que entrenaban a los escribas yadministradores para leer y escribir (Cole 1996)ndash Pero probablemente elmodo por defecto de la escolarizacioacuten es parecido a una preparacioacuten para ldquolavida adultardquo y no una etapa criacutetica del desarrollo que merece la pena y essignificativa en siacute misma Como Vygotski argumentoacute sobre el dominio de laalfabetizacioacuten ldquola ensentildeanza debe organizarse de tal manera que la lectura yla escritura sean necesarias para algo La escritura debe ser incorporada enuna tarea relevante y necesaria para la vidardquo (1978 pp117-118) Y porldquovidardquo quiere decir no la vida futura sino la totalidad de los intereses y pre-ocupaciones actuales de los aprendices

En los uacuteltimos antildeos se han divulgado proyectos de una variedad de paiacuteses enlos que educadores universitarios han procurado crear condiciones para elldquoaprendizaje auteacutenticordquo en las aulas En todos estos proyectos se ha otorgado unpapel central a las actividades colaborativas que alternando entre los formatos departicipacioacuten individual en pequentildeo grupo y de la clase completa implican alos estudiantes en la exploracioacuten de temas centrales mediante investigacionespraacutecticas y tambieacuten teoacutericas y en la discusioacuten criacutetica y constructiva de sus hallaz-gos y de las implicaciones para futuras acciones El espacio no permite aquiacute unadiscusioacuten individual de estos proyectos pero lo que puede ser dicho sobre todosellos es que en sus diferentes formas valoran tanto los intereses de los alumnoscomo sus experiencias previas y persiguen ayudarles a desarrollar la disposicioacutenpara buscar la comprensioacuten maacutes que la acumulacioacuten simple de informacioacuten ypara valorar la colaboracioacuten maacutes que la competicioacuten como el medio para alcanzaresta menta4

En este contexto es digno atraer la atencioacuten hacia varias instituciones poste-riores a la escuela tales como la Fifth Dimension donde la participacioacuten en activi-dades elegidas personalmente ndasha menudo basadas en ordenadoresndash requiere a losnintildeos dominar habilidades que son tambieacuten necesarias para la escolarizacioacuten y lesproporcionan oportunidades para interactuar con voluntarios universitarios enuna posicioacuten de igualdad (Brown y Cole 2002) De manera similar algunosprogramas basados en museos (Leinhardst Crowley y Kuntson 2002) y variasformas de educacioacuten al aire libre tambieacuten capitalizan los intereses de los estu-diantes para implicarles en actividades desafiantes que demandan para la cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento procesos de diaacutelogo y toma de decisiones comparablesa aquellos encontrados en los contextos escolares previamente descritos

Finalmente si estas praacutecticas pioneras arraigan e influyen en la educacioacutenpuacuteblica con mayor amplitud es esencial que los profesores tengan oportunidadessimilares para desarrollar las disposiciones y pericia necesarias para actuar comoagentes de cambio y liacutederes de una reforma en las instituciones en las que traba-jan Es por lo tanto estimulante ver que a pesar del eacutenfasis de los dirigentes poliacute-ticos en estandarizar los curricula y en los resultados cuantificables algunos pro-gramas de formacioacuten de profesores y desarrollo profesional anima a los profeso-res sobre la base de investigaciones sobre su propia praacutectica a tomar sus propiasdecisiones sobre queacute debe ser ensentildeado y coacutemo y a compartir los resultados desus investigaciones con los compantildeeros Este ha sido el motor de mi propio tra-bajo en los antildeos recientes ya que he participado en la investigacioacuten colaborativacon profesores para crear y mantener comunidades de investigacioacuten tanto en cla-ses como entre los mismos profesores5

185El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Notas1 La secuencia temporal implicada por esta formulacioacuten ha sido ampliamente debatida y especialmente el movimiento desde fueraa dentro que sugiere Mi propia comprensioacuten de lo que la apropiacioacuten supone se capta mejor con el ejemplo de aprender a bailarmediante la inmersioacuten en la actividad con otros (Wells 1999) En muchos casos no hay separacioacuten entre antes y despueacutes o entrefuera y dentro y no hay necesidad de demostracioacuten o ejemplificacioacuten En lugar de esto estando inmerso en la actividad conjuntael principiante es literalmente entrenado fiacutesicamente por los movimiento del coparticipante mientras que al mismo tiempoconstruye su propia organizacioacuten ndashy quizaacute incluso una representacioacuten esquemaacuteticandash de los movimientos corporales A lo largo deltiempo este esquema estaacute tan bien organizado que el principiante se convierte en un experto que estaacute preparado paralelamentepara introducir a otros en la actividad Esto es lo que Lave y Wenger (1991) y Rogoff (2003) quieren decir por desarrollo median-te la participacioacuten en actividades culturales

2 Estoy agradecido a Natalia Gajdamaschko y Steve Gabosch por sus valiosas discusiones de esta distincioacuten durante el XMCA cursoonline sobre la teoriacutea de la actividad histoacuterico cultural Abril 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Aunque estaacute incluido en la Tabla I este modo de conocimiento no ha sido discutido aquiacute ya que el reconocimiento expliacutecito deeste importante modo de conocimiento es muy reciente (Brown 1975) Sin embargo eso no significa que sea en siacute mismo unnuevo fenoacutemeno

4 Para algunos ejemplos representativos veacutease Brown y Campione 1994 Lampert Rittenhouse y Crumbaugh 1996 McMahonRaphael Goatley y Pardo 1997 Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford y Brown 1998 Scardamalia Bereiter y Lamon 1994

5 Juntos formamos un grupo de investigacioacuten colaborativo DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project)(Wells (Ed) 2001)

ReferenciasBAJTIacuteN M M (1986) Speech genres and other late essays Austin University of Texas PressBERNSTEIN B (1982) Codes modalities and the process of cultural reproduction A model En M Apple (Ed) Cultural and econo-

mic reproduction in education (pp 304-355) Londres Routledge amp Kegan PaulBROWN A L (1975) The development of memory Knowing knowing about knowing and knowing how to know En H W

Reese (Ed) Advances in child development and behavior (Vol 10 pp 103-152) Nueva York Academic Press BROWN A L amp CAMPIONE J C (1994) Guided discovery in a community of learners En K McGilly (Ed) Integrating cognitive

theory and classroom practice Classroom lessons (pp 229-270) Cambridge MA MIT PressBradford BooksBROWN K amp COLE M (2002) Cultural historical activity theory and the expansion of opportunities for learning after school En

G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 225-238)Oxford Blackwell

BRUNER J S (1990) Acts of meaning Cambridge MA Harvard University PressCARR M (2002) Emerging learning narratives A perspective from early childhood education En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds)

Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 99-111) Oxford BlackwellCOLE M (1996) Cultural psychology A once and future discipline Cambridge MA The Bellknap Press of Harvard University PressDEACON T W (1997) The symbolic species The co-evolution of language and the brain Nueva York NortonDIAMOND J (1998) Guns germs and steel The fates of human societies Nueva York NortonDONALD M (1991) Origins of the Modern Mind Three Stages in the Evolution of Culture and Cognition Cambridge MA Harvard

University PressDONOAHUE Z (2003) Science teaching and learning Teachers and children plan together Networks 6(1) httpwwwoiseuto-

rontoca~ctdnetworksjournal Vol 6 (1) 2003marchENGESTROumlM Y (1999) Activity theory and individual and social transformation Y En Engestrom R Miettinen amp R-L Puna-

maki (Eds) Perspectives on activity theory (pp 19-38) Cambridge Cambridge University PressFREIRE P (1970) Pedagogy of the oppressed Nueva York Herder and HerderHALLIDAY M A K (1975) Learning how to mean Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1978) Language as social semiotic The social interpretation of language and meaning Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1993) Towards a language-based theory of learning Linguistics and Education 5 93-116HASAN R (2002) Semiotic mediation and mental development in pluralistic societies Some implications for tomorrowrsquos schoo-

ling En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural peerspectives on the future of education (pp112-126) Oxford Blackwell

HEATH S B (1983) Ways with words Cambridge Cambridge University PressLAMPERT M RITTENHOUSE P amp CRUMBAUGH C (1996) Agreeing to disagree Developing sociable mathematical discourse En

D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook of education and human development (pp 731-764) Cambridge MA Blackwell LANGER J A amp APPLEBEE A N (1987) How writing shapes thinking A study of teaching and learning Urbana IL National Council

of Teachers of EnglishLAVE J (1996) Teaching as learning in practice Mind Culture and Activity 3 (3) 149-164LAVE J amp WENGER E (1991) Situated Learning Legitimate peripheral participation Nueva York Cambridge University PressLEINHARDT G CROWLEY K amp KNUTSON K (2002) Learning conversations Explanation and identity in museums Mahwah NJ

Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesLEONTIEV A N (1981) The problem of activity in psychology En J VWertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 37-71) Armonk NY SharpeMAYBIN J MERCER N amp STIERER B (1992) lsquoScaffoldingrsquo learning in the classroom En K Norman (Ed) Thinking voices The

work of the National Oracy Project (pp 186-195) Londres Hodder amp StoughtonMCMAHON S I RAPHAEL T E GOATLEY V J amp PARDO L S (Eds) (1997) The Book Club connection Literacy learning and class-

room talk Nueva York Teachers College PressNELSON K (1996) Language in cognitive development The emergence of the mediated mind Nueva York Cambridge University PressNEWSON J (1978) Dialogue and development En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol The emergence of language (pp 31-42)

New York Academic Press

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187186

NYSTRAND M amp GAMORAN A (1991) Student engagement When recitation becomes conversation En H C Waxman amp H JWalberg (Eds) Effective teaching Current research (pp 257-276)Berkeley CA McCutchan Publishing Corp

OLSON D R amp BRUNER J S (1996) Folk psychology and folk pedagogy En D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook ofeducation and human development (pp 9-27) Cambridge MA Blackwell

PALINCSAR A MAGNUSSON S MARANO N FORD D amp BROWN N (1998) Designing a community of practice Principlesand practices of the GIsML Community Teaching and Teacher Education 14 (1) 5-20

PIAGET J (1970) Piagetrsquos theory En P H Mussen (Ed) Carmichaelrsquos handbook of child development (pp 703-732) Nueva YorkWiley

PONTECORVO C amp STERPONI L (2002) Learning to argue and reason through discourse in educational settings En G Wells ampG Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 127-140) OxfordBlackwell

ROGOFF B (1990) Apprenticeship in thinking Cognitive development in social context Nueva York Oxford University PressROGOFF B (1994) Developing understanding of the idea of Communities of Learners Mind Culture and Activity 1 (4) 209-

229ROGOFF B (2003) The cultural nature of human development Nueva York Oxford University PressROSENBLATT L (1978) The reader the text the poem The transactional theory of the literary work Carbondale IL Southern Illinois

University PressSCARDAMALIA M C BEREITER amp LAMON M (1994) The CSILE project Trying to bring the classroom into World 3 En K

McGilley (Ed) Classroom lessons Integrating cognitive theory and classroom practice (pp 201-228) Cambridge MA MITPress

SCRIBNER S (1985) Vygotskyrsquos uses of history En J V Wertsch (Ed) Culture communication and cognition Vygotskian perspectives(pp 119-145) Cambridge Cambridge University Press

THARP R amp GALLIMORE R (1988) Rousing minds to life Nueva York Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C (1979) Communication and cooperation in early infancy a description of primary intersubjectivity En M

Bullowa (Ed) Before speech The beginning of interpersonal communication (pp 321-348) Cambridge Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C amp HUBLEY P (1978) Secondary intersubjectivity Confidence confiding and acts of meaning in the first year

En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol the emergence of language (pp 183-230) Nueva York Academic PressVYGOTSKI L S (1978)Mind in society The development of higher psychological processes Cambridge MA Harvard University PressVYGOTSKI L S (1981) The genesis of higher mental functions En J V Wertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 144-188) Armonk NY SharpeVYGOTSKI L S (1987) Thinking and speech En R W Rieber amp A S Carton (Eds) The collected works of L S Vygotsky Volumen

1 Problems of general psychology (pp 39-285) Nueva York PlenumWARTOFSKY M (1979) Models representation and scientific understanding Boston ReidelWELLS G (1985) Language development in the pre-school years Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (1986) The meaning makers Children learning language and using language to learn Portsmouth NH HeinemannWELLS G (1999) Dialogic inquiry Towards a sociocultural practice and theory of education Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (Ed) (2001) Action talk and text Learning and teaching through inquiry Nueva York Teachers College PressWELLS G (2002a) Learning and teaching for understanding The key role of collaborative knowledge building En J Brophy

(Ed) Social constructivist teaching Affordances and constraints (pp 1-41) Osford Elsevier ScienceJAIWELLS G (2002b) The role of dialogue in activity theory Mind Culture and Activity 9 (1) 43-66WERTSCH J V MINICK N amp ARNS F J (1984) The creation of context in joint problem solving En B Rogoff amp J Lave (Eds)

Everyday cognition Its development in social context (pp 151-171) Cambridge Cambridge University PressWOOD D BRUNER J S amp ROSS G (1976) The role of tutoring in problem-solving Journal of Child Psychology and Child Psy-

chiatry 17 89-100

187El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Original text

Introduction

Compared with other species the characteristic that distinguishes humans isthe ability and proclivity to engage in tool-mediated joint activity with otherhumans It is this characteristic that accounts for the development of human cul-tures over the course of history as they invented artefacts of various kinds inorder to adapt to and exploit the ecological niches in which they found themsel-ves It also accounts for the diversity of individual personsrsquo development whichdepend on the particular activities in which they participate As Vygotsky(1978 1981) was one of the first to point out the lsquohigherrsquo mental functions thatmake us human are not biologically given but are developmentally constructedthrough the appropriation of historically developed tools and practices that aremade manifest to the child and lsquoscaffoldedrsquo in the meaningful actions and utte-rances of the coparticipants in joint activity

Before continuing readers might find it interesting to reflect on their owndevelopmental trajectories to who they are today I suspect that they may findthemselves agreeing that Who we become depends on the company we keep and what wedo together

A Brief History of the Development of Joint Activity

Leontrsquoev provides a succinct account of Vygotskyrsquos insight in the followingsummary

The initial ideas that led Vygotsky to investigate the genesis of internal mental activity fromexternal activity are fundamentally different from the theoretical approaches of other modernauthors These ideas came from the analysis of the features unique to human productive laboractivity which is mediated by tools This activity is initially social in nature that is it is deve-loped under the conditions of cooperation and social interaction among people Vygotskyidentified two main interconnected features [of this activity] that are necessarily fundamentalfor psychology its tool-like (lsquoinstrumentalrsquo) structure and its inclusion in a system of interre-lations with other people It is these features that define the nature of human psychologicalprocesses The tool mediates activity and thus connects humans not only with the world ofobjects but also with other people Because of this humanrsquos activity assimilates the experience ofhumankind This means that humansrsquo mental processes (their lsquohigher psychological functionsrsquo)acquire a structure necessarily tied to the sociohistorically formed means and methods trans-mitted to them by others in the process of cooperative labor and social interaction But it isimpossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in any way otherthan a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words higher psycho-logical processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction with others thatis through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried out indepen-dently by the individual (Leontrsquoev 1981 pp 55-56 emphases in the original)

As well as emphasizing the social and cooperative nature of human activity thisquotation is important with respect to the arguments that I want to develop inthis paper as it highlights the central role of semiotic mediation in developmentKnowledge is created as well as appropriated in the discourse among peoplewho are working together in a specific situation in order to create or improve anartefact or to solve a problem of importance to the group However Leontrsquoevalso alludes to another of Vygotskyrsquos key insights namely that in order tounderstand current activity it is necessary to investigate the history of that acti-vity It is to this that I next turn

In analyzing the history of human development at least four different time-scales need to be considered The longest is the history of the cultural evolution of

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

the species (the phylogenetic level) next is the historical development of particu-lar cultures The third level (ontogenetic) traces the developmental trajectory ofindividual humans over the course of the lifespan Finally the microgenetic levelis concerned with the development of an instance of a particular activity

In practice it is the latter that has been explored in most detail for usingcontemporary technology it is relatively easy to observe and record the sequenceof actions through which an activity is enacted and the specific operations inwhich the participants engage making use of the relevant artefacts that are avai-lable in the situation (Leontrsquoev 1981) These artefacts may be either material(knives pencils automobiles) or symbolic (utterances maps theories) ndashthoughas Cole (1996) has pointed out to function as mediators of joint activity all arte-facts must have some form of material embodiment as well as a symbolic mea-ning that is to say they must be ready to hand and also have a cultural signifi-cance relevant to the situation

However the form in which a particular instance of activity is realizeddepends not only on the artefacts that are to hand in the situation but also onthe participantsrsquo past experiences with the practices in which the artefacts areused to mediate achievement of the action goals that contribute to the joint acti-vity Thus the microgenesis of a particular instance of activity is necessarilydependent upon the ontogenetic development of the participants that is to sayupon the opportunities their life trajectories have afforded them to appropriatethe relevant cultural knowledge through participation in instances of similaractions and operations

But on the time-scale of ontogenetic development each individualrsquos trajectoryof development is itself strongly influenced by the culture in which he or she isgrowing up and on the historical development of that culture As Rogoff (2003)illustrates in considerable detail cultures vary considerably both over time andacross ecological niches in what mediating artefacts and practices are available andin the relative value accorded to each Moreover within each culture at any parti-cular historical moment participants in activities both incorporate the ways ofprevious generations and adapt them to the exigencies of current conditions

Stepping up one further level the historical development of a particular cul-tures is itself shaped by development on the even larger timescale of the culturaland biological evolution of the species This is the most difficult timescale todescribe in detail for lack of the necessary evidence But certain broad distinc-tions between human communities can be made in terms of their modes of sub-sistence and of the mediating means available for joint activity (Diamond 1998Donald 1991) As recent research has shown our earliest ancestors some 5million years ago lived in small bands of hunter gatherers often on the edge oflakes and oceans Initially their tools were found in the surroundings but overseveral million years they invented ways of making more sophisticated artefactssuch as knives arrowheads baskets and clothing from flints bones skins andvegetable materials Then as some groups migrated to particularly fertile partsof the world they adopted a more settled agrarian way of life growing cropsand breeding animals The resulting ability to produce more food than imme-diately required led in turn to the emergence of trade and to a diversity of spe-cialist occupations such as potters and tailors who exchanged their products forfood and other necessities This stage also saw the development of much largerpopulation groupings with hierarchical class structures that included prieststax collectors and other religious and political functionaries

While migration had been a common feature of human existence from theearliest times the development of large settled populations and of weapons

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

made of bronze and iron led to the expansion of certain cultural groups throughterritorial conquest and colonization by sea and by land As a result during thelast few thousand years the latest phase of phylogenetic development has beencharacterized by the rise and fall of imperial cultures which have imposed theirtechnologies laws and administrative procedures as well as their religions artsknowledge and values on widely diverse subjugated populations Most recentlythe further development of the inventions that led to the first industrial revolu-tion has simply served to increase the scale and intensity of these imperialisttrends At the same time these inventions as well as those of the current indus-trial revolution have also led to a great increase in humansrsquo understanding oftheir social and material environment both through scientific and social rese-arch and through the dissemination of information about other times and placesresulting from travel and the use of print and electronic technologies

In presenting this very condensed account of phylogenetic development Ihave emphasized the material tools that have mediated the progressively morecomplex and diverse activities in which humans have engaged over the course ofthe speciesrsquo history However bearing in mind that what has been the drivingforce of human development is joint activity an equally ndashif not morendash impor-tant determinant of this history is the development of the modes of representa-tion through which humans have communicated and developed their unders-tanding of the world Table I presents the developmental sequence proposed byDonald (1991) based on archeological neuroanatomical historical and othertypes of evidence The table also includes the stages in the historical develop-ment of ways of knowing that were proposed by Wartofsky (1979)

The first stage in this sequence corresponds to the phase in which proto-humans began to diverge from other primate species In this phase as in thebehavior of contemporary higher primates practical action was the predomi-nant form of communication as ndashnot necessarily deliberatelyndash participants sig-naled their intentions in a shared situation and these intentions were interpre-ted and responded to by their co-participants in the activity In the secondmimetic phase which must have developed gradually over many millenniacommunication became somewhat differentiated from the activity to which itreferred as humans deliberately used gestures mime facial expression andvarious types of phonation to comment on as well as to coordinate action and theobjects to which it was directed Later still with the gradual modification of thevocal tract and of the primate brain there emerged the ability to communicatethrough speech and hence the ability to refer not only to particular objects andactions but also to generalized classes and to express observed and intendedrelationships between objects actions and events thus allowing participants toplan for and reflect on the outcomes of joint activity Finally the invention ofwriting which ushered in the final phase in Donaldrsquos proposed sequence occu-rred extremely recently in the long trajectory of phylogenetic development Yetas with those that preceded it enormously increased the human repertoire ofmeans for making and communicating meaning Essentially what it added wasan ldquoexternal memoryrdquo By creating a (relatively) permanent representation oflinguistic meaning it made possible the compilation and distillation of repor-ted information from many sources including the writerrsquos own verbalizedthoughts It also allowed the writer and those who read his or her written textto review critique and revise the meanings expressed and to make the resultsavailable to people in later times and other places for further constructive debateand improvement

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

However action gesture speech and writing are not simply progressivelymore powerful modes of communication They are also progressively morepowerful mediators of thinking This is most obvious with respect to the lin-guistic modes of communication But even before the emergence of speechaction and ndashto an even greater extentndash mimesis enabled humans to think toget-her and thereby to create a shared interpretation of their joint activities In fact ithas been argued that the emergence of language was not simply the result ofbrain and vocal tract development but rather was part of a more general patternof adaptation that building upon the cognitive achievements of mimetic kno-wing strove to integrate the unconnected bits of information in a more compre-hensive and coherent account of being-in-the-world (Deacon 1997) Neverthe-less it is also true that the availability of language greatly enhanced both com-munication and thinking together for as Halliday observed

the grammar of every natural language is (among other things) a theory of human experienceit is through our acts of meaning that we transform experience into the coherent -though farfrom consistent- patchwork that we learn to project as lsquorealityrsquo (1993 p 46)

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

TABLE IModes Of Knowing Phylogenetic And Cultural Development (from Wells 1999)

Time Mode of Participants Donald(1991) Wartofsky(1979)Years BP Knowing

2 million Instrumental Individual in action Episodic Primary artifactsyears material tools

1 -- 15 million Procedural Between individuals while Mimetic Secondaryyears engaged in action artifacts tools

and practicesmimeticinteraction

50000 Substantive Among members of a (Linguistic) Secondaryyears cultural group reflecting on artifacts

action and as a basis for representations ofplanning further action tools and

practices spokeninteraction

50000 Aesthetic Among members of a Mythic Tertiary artifactsyears cultural group making sense artistic represent-

of the human predicament ations in mythnarrative graphicand musical modes

2500 Theoretical Among members of a Theoretic Tertiary artifactsyears specialist community decontextualized

seeking to explain the natural representationsand human world such as

taxonomiestheories models etc

Meta Among members of a Tertiary artifacts cultural group also representations ofindividuals seeking to mental andunderstand and control their semioticown mental activity processes

In sum what Donald and other scholars argue is that contemporary mentalabilities are the outcome of the development over time of a series of progressi-vely more powerful and flexible modes of representation ndashor in Vygotskyanterms of semiotic mediators of higher mental functions- that have made possi-ble the rational theoretically oriented modes of knowing that underpin theachievements of modern science and its technological applications In the philo-sopher Wartofskyrsquos words

our own perceptual and cognitive understanding of the world is in large part shaped andchanged by the representational artifacts we ourselves create We are in effect the products ofour own activity in this way we transform our own perceptual and cognitive modes our waysof seeing and of understanding by means of the representations we make (1979 p xxiii)

There is however one further important aspect of Donaldrsquos (1991) thesis thatis crucial for the argument that I wish to develop Although the semiotic sys-tems of mimesis speech and writing each powered a new mode of cognitiveactivity they did not replace those that preceded but were additive in theireffects The result is that contemporary humans have a variety of modes of kno-wing at their disposal as they engage in joint activity Furthermore most suchactivities call for more than one mode of knowing and require the complemen-tary and interdependent use of more than one mode of representation

Joint Activity as the Site of Ontogenetic Learning and Development

Two important implications follow from the multi-level historical concep-tion of development just outlined First on any occasion the type of activitythat is undertaken and the specific manner in which it is enacted are necessarilydependent on the particular cultural-historical antecedents of the participantsboth human and artefactual that come together in its realization In particularthe manner in which the situation is interpreted ndashin terms of what action goalsare appropriate and how they can be achievedndash depends on the motives valuesand knowledgeable skills of the human participants and on the affordances ofthe technologies available in the situation And second every instance of an acti-vity provides an occasion for a triple transformation of the situation in whichthe activity is carried out of the artefacts and practices that mediate its enact-ment and most importantly of the knowledge and skills of the human partici-pants Taken together these propositions clarify the way in which cultural andindividual development are both interdependent and rooted in particular situa-ted occasions of joint activity As Rogoff (1994) argues

People of each generation as they engage in sociocultural endeavors with other people makeuse of and extend cultural tools and practices inherited from previous generations As peopledevelop through their shared use of cultural tools and practices they simultaneously contribu-te to the transformation of cultural tools practices and institutions (p 52)

Potentially therefore every occasion of joint activity provides an opportunityfor development on the part of all participants This is a point to which I shallreturn But first I want to consider more carefully the concept of developmentitself

Clearly built into the concept of development is the implication of change andtypically of change in the direction of increasing complexity and effectiveness Inother words development is typically taken to imply improvement or progresstoward some ideal end state or capability However in the light of the previousdiscussion such a progression while it may be meaningful to (some of the) partici-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

pants in any particular situation cannot be understood in any absolute sense butmust be seen as relative to the unfolding historical trajectory of the species of aparticular culture and of the immediate community ndashits values its dominantactivities and the knowledgeable skills that form its resources Furthermore just asthese have changed in the past they will continue to change in the future in res-ponse to the changing demands of the larger environment So while ontogeneticdevelopment does indeed involve increasing complexity and effectiveness of indi-vidualsrsquo participation in the activity systems in which they are involved in theirdaily lives the overall trajectory of development is emergent and its endpoint cannever be specified in advance even in terms of an ideal to be attained

Nevertheless this does not mean that there are not strong regularities in thesequence of ontogenetic development particularly in the early years Indeed asNelson (1996) has suggested during the preschool years children follow a trajec-tory very similar to the sequence of phylogenetic development proposed byDonald (1991) (see Table I above) as they appropriate the semiotic tools of repre-sentation afforded by action mimesis speech and writing Of course this is not asimple recapitulation children growing up in a contemporary literate culture forexample are surrounded from birth by artifacts and practices that result from andembody all the available modes of knowing (Cole 1996) Appropriating existingcultural tools is thus very different from inventing them ex novo as Scribner (1985)points out Nevertheless given the combination of biological and cultural inheri-tance it is not surprising that in most if not all cultures children follow the samesequence as did the species as a whole over the course of history

In the first weeks of life infants act on their immediate surroundings bothanimate and inanimate and begin to develop what Piaget (1970) called sensori-motor intelligence However although this most basic form of activity mayappear to be instinctual it is nevertheless also inherently social First all infantsare born into an environment that is cultural in the sense of having been shapedby countless preceding generations and second the infantrsquos actions are treatedas being intentional and are responded to as such So from the beginning theinfant is caught up in social interaction (Newson 1978) In the second phasewhich typically begins in the first few months the infant also begins to engagein mimetic communication through gaze facial expression and rudimentarygesture (Bruner 1990) Couched in terms of primary and secondary intersubjec-tivity this phase has been described in considerable detail by Trevarthen (19781979) Primary intersubjectivity develops as the infant and parent engage inmutual gaze thereby communicating that they are attending to and respondingto each other In secondary intersubjectivity third parties are brought into jointattention as the parent through gaze directs the infantrsquos attention to an object ofpotential interest or follows the childrsquos direction of gaze and signals that he orshe is also attending to the same object

It is on this basis of joint action and attention that towards the end of thefirst year the child begins to exploit his or her growing command of vocaliza-tion often accompanied by gesture to begin to communicate through speechFrom research predominantly involving children in ldquoWesternrdquo societies it hasbeen established that at first the childrsquos utterances are idiosyncratic drawingonly partially ndashif at allndash on the speech of those around him or her neverthelessparents and other family members have little difficulty in interpreting them incontext and once again they respond in a manner that is contingent on theirinterpretation thereby establishing spoken communication as a joint interactiveactivity By the end of the second year however children appear to abandon thisidiosyncratic ldquoprotolanguagerdquo form of communication and begin to construct a

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

linguistic meaning potential that is systematically related to the language thatis addressed to them in the oft-repeated activities of family life (Bruner 1990Halliday 1975 Wells 1986) Significantly within particular language com-munities the sequence in which children master the basic meanings and thelexicogrammatical forms in which they are realized tends to be very similar fromchild to child (Wells 1985)

The developmental sequence just described ndashaction mimesis speechndash is com-mon to children in all cultures and in all cases takes place in and through jointactivity and interaction with other family and community members Howeveralthough the sequence is universal the manner and pace at which it proceeds varyvery considerably across cultures These differences depend upon many culturally-determined factors such as adult expectations about their childrenrsquos developmentthe position in which the infant is typically held or carried facing the caregiver orturned outwards to face in the same direction as the caregiver the makeup and sizeof the interactional groups in which communication typically occurs and whetherthese events are part of family and community life more generally or are delibera-tely arranged and structured for the presumed benefit of the child (Rogoff 2003)In the later stages of language development the range and extent of the meaningpotential that children construct begins to vary even more widely depending onthe activities in which they engage the linguistic registers that are used in thoseactivities and the stances typically adopted by interlocutors toward the use of lan-guage in their interactions with children (Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

So far the ontogenetic developmental sequence I have described is funda-mentally similar across cultures and follows the phylogenetic sequence in whichhumans have progressively added new semiotic mediational means to theircommunicative repertoires In an important sense therefore the final mode ofrepresentation in Donaldrsquos scheme that of writing is an optional extra sincemany cultures have survived and prospered without a written mode of represen-ting meaning Moreover even in cultures that have a writing system the extentand scope of literacy that individuals attain varies very considerably dependingon the activity systems in which they participate the value that is placed onwritten texts by those communmities the purposes to which they are put andthe genres that are used for those purposes However since literacy and its usesare so strongly associated with schooling I shall leave further discussion of thismode of semiotic mediation to a later part of this paper

Before concluding this section however I want to explore further the con-cept of semiotic mediation In one of the better known passages in Vygotskyrsquoswritings where he argued for the social and cultural origin of higher mentalfunctions he wrote that every function occurs on two planes first in activity andinteraction between people and then within the individual learner (Vygotsky1981) What bridges between these two planes as is clear from his other wri-tings is semiotic mediation To recall Leontrsquoevrsquos formulation of this argument

hellip it is impossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in anyway other than a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words hig-her psychological processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction withothers that is through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried outindependently by the individual (1981 pp 55-56)

In other words when people engage in joint activity their actions gesturesand speech not only mediate the coordination of participation but they alsomake overt the mental activities involved and so render them available forappropriation by novice participants1 Halliday is very clear about this Alt-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

hough the following quotation refers only to language the term lsquolanguagersquocould justifiably be replaced by lsquosemiotic mediationrsquo

In the development of the child as a social being language has the central role Language is themain channel through which the patterns of living are transmitted to him through which helearns to act as a member of lsquosocietyrsquo ndashin and through the various social groups the family theneighbourhood and so onndash and to adopt its lsquoculturersquo its modes of thought and action itsbeliefs and its values (1978 p 9)

However as the child grows older language does become the predominantmode of semiotic mediation and as he wrote in a later paper ldquoLanguage is theessential condition of knowing the process by which experience becomes know-ledge (Halliday 1993 p 94 original emphasis)

Assistance for Learning in Joint Activitie

So far in the discussion of the role of joint activity in human development Ihave concentrated on the tools and particularly the semiotic modes of represen-tation that mediate the achievement of the outcome of activity In this sectionon the other hand I turn to the role of other people in this process both familymembers and the larger community

Until now I have referred to coparticipants in an activity in general termsbut clearly there are further distinctions to be made Particularly helpful in thisrespect is Engestroumlmrsquos model of an activity system which is shown in figure 1

What this model shows is that when we look at an ongoing activity from thepoint of view of an individual participant (t Subject) that individual is involvedin a nexus of other relationships that link him or her to other lsquoparticipantsrsquo theTools and artifacts to mediate action on the Object but also the Community of

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 1The Triangle of Activity

Artifactstools andpractices

Values rulesamp conventions

Community Divisioacutenof labor

Engestrom 1999

Object OutcomeSubject

others engaged in the activity together with the Division of Labor within thatcommunity and also the Rules and Conventions that govern the manner inwhich the activity is carried out (Engestroumlm 1999) What this latter category oflsquoparticipantrsquo underscores is the historical dimension of an activity system sincethese rules and conventions ndashas well as the tools and artifactsndash bring into thepresent the distilled practices of previous generations who have engaged in theactivity as these are interpreted and utilized by the current community

To illustrate the relevance of this model to the development of the youngchild we might compare two versions of a similar activity reported by WertschMinick and Arns (1984) In their study Brazilian children carried out a puzzletask on two occasions first with the mother and secondly with a primary tea-cher What the researchers found was that in general the mothers and teachersengaged in the activity in systematically different ways Whereas the motherstended to direct the childrenrsquos behavior or even carry out parts of the task them-selves in order to complete it in an efficient manner ndashjust as they would havedone if engaged in a household taskndash the teachers tended to encourage thechildrsquos autonomous performance and only provided hints and suggestions whenthey judged them to be necessary to advance the childrenrsquos understandingInterpreting these results the researchers suggested that the two groups ofadults belonged to two different communities (or activity systems) that had dif-ferent rules and conventions about engaging in this joint activity And this inturn led to the different divisions of labor that they observed Similarly Rogoff(2003) cites many examples of substantial differences between cultures inalmost all aspects of child rearing with respect to their ways of engaging chil-dren in the activities that they consider important

What is clear is that ldquobehindrdquo the particular adult ndashor older siblings in someculturesndash who are directly engaged with the child there is a wider communityof family members neighbors and others who have an interest in the upbrin-ging of children and who share beliefs about appropriate ways to involve themin the activities of daily life So whether in Spain Japan or the Peruvian High-lands although the actual practices vary across cultures in each those responsi-ble for childrenrsquos well-being and development act as agents of a wider commu-nity whose beliefs and practices are rooted in a long tradition concerning howactivities should be carried out But equally in all cultures practices also changein response to changes in the world beyond the particular community In manyWestern homes for example computer games or television programs haverecently taken the place of the bedtime story while in many indigenous com-munities crafts that until recently only supplied local needs are now exploitedcommercially for the tourist trade changing the rhythms of daily life and therelationships among family members and the activities in which children areinvolved As suggested earlier therefore in order to understand the activities inwhich children participate today we need to look not only at the immediatesituation but also at the wider community and the changes taking place on allthese time-scales

Microgenesis and the Zone of Proximal Development

It is nevertheless always the immediate microgenetic situation that isthe site of ontogenetic development ndashthe action and interaction between thelearner and those with whom he or she is engaged in the activity in pro-gress When we adopt this microgenetic perspective however we need tomodify the representation of an activity system presented in figure 1 Inthat representation the focus was on the goal-oriented nature of action

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Here we need to focus on the interaction among the participants ndashtheirattempt to attain intersubjectivity with respect to the common object andthe complementarity of the knowledgeable skills they bring to the cocons-truction of the intended outcome (see Figure 2) What figure 2 emphasizesis the fact that although the tools and artefacts that are available to mediatethe jointly undertaken action are the same for each participant each bringsa somewhat different familiarity with their use as a result of their differentlife trajectories and it is this variability in their expertise that makes it pos-sible for each to provide assistance to the others in at least some aspects ofthe joint action Viewed in this light it is clear why Vygotsky emphasizedthe role of joint activity in development and wrote of its potential to enablelearners ldquoto go beyond themselvesrdquo with the assistance of more expertothers

The metaphor Vygotsky used to characterize the potential for learning thatthis sort of activity creates was the ldquozone of proximal developmentrdquo As hewrote when another participant in the activity provides instruction that isappropriately pitched beyond what the learner can manage to do on his or herown it ldquowakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturationlying in the zone of proximal developmentrdquo (1987 p 212) Vygotsky concep-tualized development as the formation of new functional systems (ldquoneoforma-tionsrdquo) and of changes in the relationships among systems which he consideredto occur as a succession of ldquocrises of developmentrdquo that are particularly facilitatedby engagement in the relevant ldquoleading activityrdquo at each stage for example playin childhood and learning to read and write in the early school yearsHowever itwould be a mistake to focus only on the periods of revolutionary change since ashe equally emphasized at any time there are also other more gradual processes ofgrowth

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 2Dialogue in Joint Activity(from Wells2002b)

Outcomematerial ampsemioticartefacts

Toolsartefacts

Subject

Rulesconventions

Community Divisionof labor

Subject

Toolsartefacts

Processes that are central lines of development at one age become peripheral lines of develop-ment at the following age and conversely peripheral lines of development of one age arebrought to the forefront and become central lines since their meaning and relative significancein the total structure of development changes (p 197)2

In developing his important concept of the zone of proximal developmentVygotsky tended to characterize the assistance given by others as ldquoinstructionrdquoand to see its value in ldquothe childrsquos potential to raise himself to a higher intellec-tual level of development through collaboration to move from what he has towhat he does not have through imitationrdquo (1987 p 210) However manyrecent scholars who have built on his work have taken a broader view of thedevelopmental significance of collaboration in joint activities and have characte-rized the assistance that is provided within this relationship in terms such asldquoapprenticeshiprdquo (Lave amp Wenger 1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoguided participationrdquo(Rogoff 1994 2003) and ldquoscaffoldingrdquo (Wood et al 1976) Neverthelesswhile these different metaphors highlight different features of the relationshipwhat they all have in common is the inclusion of the learner in an activity inwhich there is provision of the assistance necessary to help the learner to comple-te an activity in which he or she is interested and to do so in such a way that heor she makes progress toward being able to participate more fully and autono-mously in the future (Maybin Mercer and Stierer 1992)

In many joint activities such as for example traditional forms of craftapprenticeship assistance is only provided when needed and the ldquomasterrdquo doesso with no deliberate didactic intention beyond that of involving the novice inthe completion of the particular task in hand (Lave 1996) Similarly in sociali-zation into activities around the home no explicit instruction is necessary fornovices can learn a great deal by simply watching and listening (cf Rogoff2003) This is what Lave and Wenger (1991) mean when they insist that lear-ning is not an independent activity but an intrinsic aspect of ldquolegitimate perip-heral participationrdquo in a communityrsquos activities From their perspective therefo-re formal education in which learning is the sole purpose of the activity issomething of an anomaly particularly when the only form of assistance providedis the expert teacherrsquos direct instruction and subsequent evaluation of the extentof the studentsrsquo learning

In many recent discussions it has also been recognized that it is not only aldquoteacherrdquo who can provide assistance in the zpd On the one hand in a com-plex activity many participants are more expert than others in some aspectsand therefore on some occasions are able to help those who are less expert(Rogoff 1994) and on the other hand those who provide assistance do nothave to be physically present texts and other artifacts can equally well helpa participant ldquoto go beyond himherselfrdquo as is often the case in intellectualwork such as research and writ ing (Wells 1999) Furthermore asEngestroumlm (1999) and others ndashbuilding on other aspects of Vygotskyrsquos theo-retical writingsndash have noted the material and symbolic tools that have beendeveloped by previous participants in the activity can also provide the samesort of assistance However perhaps the most important point to emphasizeis that there are many situations in which no-one is an expert yet as eachbrings his or her own past experience to the solution of a common problemthe group together is able to achieve more than any single member couldhave done alone Clearly it is such collaboration that has made possible theinventions that have led to the major advances of great civilizations over thecourse of cultural history

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Development in the Pre-School Years

As noted above the responsibility for caring for children in early childhoodvaries very considerably from one society to another Nevertheless in all socie-ties children are involved in joint activities with others in which they receiveassistance with respect to their participation however that may be locally achie-ved For the most part as already mentioned these are activities that are regu-larly repeated in the taken-for-granted routines of daily life The expectation isthat the child will learn to fit in and is simply helped to do so Often referred toas ldquoenculturationrdquo this form of apprenticeship ensures the continuity of the cul-turersquos way of life from one generation to the next and as Donald (1991) arguedit probably occurred even before the emergence of speech

However in all activities there are occasions when problems arise that callfor some level of deliberate decision-making In these situations spoken interac-tion makes possible a degree of reflection and forward planning in which therelations of cause and effect intention action and outcome are made explicitand open to question and discussion The talk that occurs on these occasionsthus plays a particularly important role in helping children to attend to andunderstand the world around them in terms of the culturersquos ways of ldquomakingsenserdquo of it However these occasions can also open up possibilities for changeboth in the form of the activity and in the participantsrsquo understanding of itHow caregivers habitually take up these opportunities is particularly importantfor it plays an important part in shaping the intellectual dispositions withwhich children enter school (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo amp Sterponi2002)

In this section I include some representative examples of kinds of talk thatarise from joint activities in the home These examples are drawn from observa-tions made in settings in England (Wells 1986) and Australia (Hasan 2002) inwhich the young children observed spent most of their time at home with oneparent sometimes with one or more siblings some of the time they entertainedthemselves with occasional adult involvement but they also frequently watchedand ldquohelpedrdquo the parent with household tasks of various kinds

In the first example James (aged 3 12 years) has been playing alone in thegarden and as he reenters the house his mother tries to get him to take off hismuddy shoes However at that moment he sees a bird outside which interestshim more than changing his shoes

Example 1Mother There we are there one slipper onJames I can see a birdMother A what loveJames See a bird Mother (whispering) Is there OutsideJames (pointing and whispering) Yes see

(both continue to speak very softly)Mother Is he eating anythingJames NoMother Where Oh yes hersquos getting- do you know what hersquos doingJames NoMother Hersquos going to the- the paper sack to try to pick out some pieces-

Oh hersquos got some food there and I expect hersquoll pick out somepieces of thread from the sack to go and make his nest under the roofJames Wait a minute and Irsquoll-[James now wants to go out to see more closely but at that moment thebird flies away]

James That birdrsquos gone

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

In the second example Elizabeth (aged 4 years) who is helping with thehouse cleaning watches with interest as her mother shovels wood ash from thefireplace into a bucket

Example 2Elizabeth What are you doing that forMother Irsquom gathering it up and putting it outside so that Daddy can put it on the gardenElizabeth Why does he have to put it on the gardenMother To make the compost rightElizabeth Does that make the grass growMother YesElizabeth Why does itMother You know how I tell you that you need to eat different things like eggs and cab-

bage and rice pudding to make you grow into a big girlElizabeth YesMother Well plants need different foods too and ash is one of the things thatrsquos

good for them

The third example involves James again now eighteen months older Earlierin the afternoon he had been helping his mother with the baking Now hecomes back into the kitchen as his mother is taking the baking trays out of theoven He hears a loud metallic ldquocrackrdquo and asks for an explanation

Example 3James Who did thatMother I expect it was the tin contractingJames Which tinMother The one with your pastry inJames Why did it make that noiseMother Well when it was in the oven it got very hot and stretched a bit Irsquove just taken

it out of the oven and itrsquos cooling down very quickly you see and that noisehappens when it gets smaller again and goes back to its normal shape

James Oh was it a different shape in the ovenMother Oh not very different just a little biggerJames Naughty little tin you might get smacked if you do it again

In all three of these examples the mother willingly responds to the childrsquosinterest and provides information to explain the significance of what the child isseeing or hearing even when in the first this interrupts the motherrsquos plan Allthree cases show how the childrsquos participation in the activity with the adult assu-res that there is intersubjectivity of attention to what interests the child and thisenables the mother to provide relevant information Clearly this is a form ofldquoinstructionrdquo however it is spontaneous and contingent on the childrsquos interestrather than presented as part of a pre-planned curriculum

The third example is particularly interesting from this point of view as thephenomenon of interest to James requires a somewhat technical explanation Atsome point in the future no doubt the expansion of metal when heated and itssubsequent contraction when removed from the heat will figure in the schoolscience curriculum in relation to the systematic study of heat here however itis an interesting side-effect of baking and the motherrsquos explanation while tech-nical in content is couched in everyday language rather than in the abstractterms of scientific generalization As Hasan (2002) has observed

the discourse of quasi specialised knowledge occurs in the lsquomiddle ofrsquo daily activities and bynecessity it calls for a readiness on the motherrsquos part to entertain contextual shifts to bewilling to reclassify the context of the on-going discourse The tendency to move with thechildrsquos moving discourse the readiness to re-classify context is a discourse characteristic of thesame group of mothers who frequently ask questions made precise by qualification and whoattend to their childrenrsquos questions and provide them with well developed answers (p 123)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 13: Actividad y Aprendizaje

gracias a la colaboracioacuten hacia un nivel intelectual mayor de desarrollo despla-zaacutendose mediante la imitacioacuten desde lo que eacutel es hasta lo que eacutel no esrdquo (1987p 210) Sin embargo muchos eruditos contemporaacuteneos que han construidosobre su trabajo han adoptado una visioacuten de conjunto del significado evolutivode la colaboracioacuten en actividades conjuntas y han caracterizado la ayuda propor-cionada en esta relacioacuten con teacuterminos tales como ldquoaprendizajerdquo (Lave y Wenger1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoparticipacioacuten guiadardquo (Rogoff 1994 2003) y ldquoandamia-jerdquo (Wood Bruner y Ross 1976) Sin embargo mientras estas metaacuteforas dife-rentes iluminan caracteriacutesticas diferentes de la relacioacuten lo que tienen todas encomuacuten es la inclusioacuten del aprendizaje en una actividad que ofrezca el nivel deapoyo necesario para ayudar al aprendizaje a completar una actividad en la que eacutelo ella estaacute interesado y a hacer esto de tal manera que eacutel o ella progresen hastapoder participar maacutes plena y autoacutenomamente en el futuro (Maybin Mercer yStierer 1992)

En muchas actividades conjuntas tales como por ejemplo formas tradicio-nales de aprendizaje de oficios la ayuda es proporcionada soacutelo cuando se necesitay de este modo el ldquomaestrordquo la ofrece sin intenciones didaacutecticas deliberadas maacutesallaacute de arropar al principiante para terminar una tarea particular en curso (Lave1996) De manera similar la socializacioacuten en actividades domeacutesticas no necesitauna instruccioacuten expliacutecita ya que los principiantes pueden aprender mucho sim-plemente mirando y escuchando (cf Rogoff 2003) Esto es lo que Lave y Wen-ger (1991) quieren decir cuando insisten en que el aprendizaje no es una activi-dad independiente sino un aspecto intriacutenseco de la ldquoparticipacioacuten perifeacutericalegiacutetimardquo en las actividades de una comunidad Desde su perspectiva por lotanto la educacioacuten formal en la que el aprendizaje es el uacutenico propoacutesito de laactividad tiene algo anoacutemalo particularmente cuando la uacutenica forma de ayudaproporcionada es la instruccioacuten directa del profesor experto y la consiguienteevaluacioacuten del grado de aprendizaje de los alumnos

En muchas discusiones recientes se ha reconocido tambieacuten que no es soacutelo unldquoprofesorrdquo quien puede proporcionar ayuda en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximo Porun lado en una actividad compleja muchos participantes son maacutes expertos queotros en algunos aspectos y por lo tanto en algunas ocasiones estaacuten preparadospara ayudar a aquellos que son menos expertos (Rogoff 1994) Por otro ladoaquellos que proporcionan ayuda no tienen que estar fiacutesicamente presentes lostextos y otros artefactos pueden igualmente ayudar de manera satisfactoria a unparticipante ldquoa ir maacutes allaacute de siacute mismo o siacute mismardquo como ocurre con frecuenciaen el trabajo intelectual como la investigacioacuten y la escritura (Wells 1999) Ade-maacutes como Engestroumlm (1999) y otros ndashbasaacutendose en distintos aspectos de losescritos teoacutericos de Vygotskindash han anotado las herramientas materiales y simboacute-licas que han sido desarrolladas por participantes anteriores en la actividad pue-den tambieacuten proporcionar la misma clase de ayuda Sin embargo el punto maacutesimportante que quizaacutes debe subrayarse es que hay muchas situaciones en las quenadie es un experto incluso como cada uno aporta su propia experiencia pasadaa la solucioacuten de un problema comuacuten el grupo en su conjunto es capaz de alcan-zar maacutes de lo que cualquier miembro singular podriacutea haber hecho de maneraindependiente Evidentemente es esta colaboracioacuten la que ha hecho posible lasinvenciones que han llevado a los mayores avances de las grandes civilizaciones alo largo del curso de la historia cultural

Desarrollo en los antildeos preescolares

La responsabilidad para cuidar a los nintildeos en la nintildeez temprana variacutea conside-rablemente de una sociedad a otra como antes anoteacute Sin embargo en todas las

177El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

sociedades los nintildeos estaacuten inmersos en actividades conjuntas con otros en las quereciben ayuda para participar aunque puedan llevarlas a cabo parcialmente Ensu mayor parte como ya se mencionoacute eacutestas son actividades cotidianas repetidasregularmente en las rutinas establecidas Se espera que el nintildeo aprenderaacute a asu-mirlas y es simplemente ayudado para hacerlo Esta forma de aprendizaje deno-minada habitualmente ldquoenculturacioacutenrdquo asegura la continuidad de las formas devida culturales desde una generacioacuten a la siguiente y como Donald (1991) argu-menta probablemente tuvo lugar incluso antes de la emergencia del habla

Sin embargo en todas las actividades hay ocasiones en las que cuando surgealguacuten problema se requiere alguacuten nivel de toma de decisiones deliberado En estassituaciones la interaccioacuten verbal hace posible un grado de reflexioacuten y planificacioacutenhacia delante en la que las relaciones de causa y efecto intencioacuten accioacuten y resultadose hacen expliacutecitas y abiertas para su anaacutelisis y discusioacuten La conversacioacuten que semantiene en estas ocasiones juega asiacute un papel particularmente importante en laayuda a los nintildeos para atender y comprender el mundo que les rodea de acuerdo conlos modos culturales de ldquodarle sentidordquo Sin embargo estas ocasiones pueden tam-bieacuten abrir posibilidades para el cambio tanto en la forma de la actividad como lacomprensioacuten que de ella alcanzan los participantes Coacutemo los cuidadores tomanhabitualmente estas oportunidades es de gran relevancia aquiacute ya que juega en la for-macioacuten de las disposiciones intelectuales con las que los nintildeos entran en la escuelaun papel importante (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo y Sterponi 2002)

En esta seccioacuten incluyo algunos ejemplos representativos del modo de hablarque surge de las actividades conjuntas en el hogar Estos ejemplos se han extraiacute-do de observaciones realizadas en contextos ingleses (Wells 1986) y australianos(Hasan 2002) donde los nintildeos pequentildeos observados pasaban la mayor parte desu tiempo en el hogar en compantildeiacutea de un progenitor o algunas veces con uno omaacutes hermanos mientras que el resto del tiempo se entreteniacutean ellos solos (conuna participacioacuten esporaacutedica del adulto) o algo que haciacutean con frecuencia mira-ban y ldquoayudabanrdquo a sus progenitores con tareas domeacutesticas de diferente tipo

En el primer ejemplo James (de tres antildeos y medio de edad) ha estado jugandosolo en el jardiacuten y cuando entra de nuevo en casa su madre intenta que se quitelos zapatos embarrados Sin embargo en ese momento ve un paacutejaro fuera que leinteresa maacutes que cambiarse de zapatos

Ejemplo 1Madre Alliacute Vamoshellip Alliacutehellip Una zapatilla enJames Puedo ver un paacutejaroMadre iquestUn queacute amorJames Mira un paacutejaroMadre (Susurrando) iquestEstaacute alliacute iquestFueraJames (Sentildealando y susurrando) Siacute mira

(Ambos continuacutean hablando muy suavemente)Madre iquestEstaacute comiendo algoJames NoMadre iquestDoacutende Oh siacute estaacute consiguiendo iquestSabes queacute estaacute haciendoJames NoMadre Estaacute yendo al saco de papel para intentar escoger algunos pedazos

Oh tiene un poco de alimento alliacute Y espero que escoja algunos pedazos de hilodel saco para ir y hacer su nido bajo la azotea James Espera un minuto y [James ahora quiere salir a ver maacutes cerca pero en ese momento el paacutejaro se escapavolando]

James Se ha ido

En el segundo ejemplo Elizabeth (de cuatro antildeos de edad) que estaacute ayudandoen la limpieza de casa mira con intereacutes coacutemo su madre mete en un cubo la cenizade la lentildea de la chimenea

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187178

Ejemplo 2Elizabeth iquestPara queacute estaacutes haciendo esoMadre Estoy recogieacutendolo y ponieacutendolo fuera para que papaacute pueda ponerlo en el jardiacutenElizabeth iquestPor queacute lo tiene que poner en el jardiacuten Madre Para abonar bienElizabeth iquestEso hace que la hierba crezcaMadre SiacuteElizabeth iquestPor queacuteMadre Sabes que te digo que necesitas comer cosas diferentes como huevos y col y

pudin de arroz para convertirte en una nintildea mayor Elizabeth SiacuteMadre Bien las plantas tambieacuten necesitan comida diferente Y la ceniza es una de las

cosas buenas para ellas

El tercer ejemplo se refiere a James de nuevo ahora 18 meses mayor Por lamantildeana temprano ha estado ayudando a su madre con la elaboracioacuten de unos dul-ces en el horno Ahora vuelve a la cocina cuando su madre estaacute sacando las bande-jas fuera del horno Oye un ruidoso ldquocrackrdquo metaacutelico y solicita una explicacioacuten

Ejemplo 3James iquestQuieacuten hizo esoMadre Espero que fuera la contraccioacuten de la lata James iquestQueacute lataMadre La que estaacute con los pasteles dentro James iquestPor queacute hizo ese ruidoMadre Bien cuando estaba en el horno se calentoacute mucho y se estiroacute un pedacito Ape-

nas la he sacado del horno y se estaacute enfriando muy raacutepido mira y ese ruido ocu-rre cuando se hace maacutes pequentildea otra vez y vuelve a su forma normal

James Oh iquesttiene una forma diferente en el horno Madre Oh no muy diferente Soacutelo un poco mayor James Pequentildea lata traviesa Puede que consigas que te den un azote si lo haces otra vez

En estos tres ejemplos la madre responde con prontitud a los intereses delnintildeo y proporciona informacioacuten para explicar el significado de lo que los nintildeosestaacuten viendo u oyendo incluso cuando inicialmente esto interrumpe los planesde la madre Los tres casos muestran coacutemo la participacioacuten de los nintildeos en la acti-vidad con el adulto garantiza una atencioacuten intersubjetiva hacia los intereses delnintildeo lo que permite a la madre proporcionar informacioacuten relevante Esto es cla-ramente una forma de ldquoinstruccioacutenrdquo sin embargo es espontaacutenea y contingentecon los intereses de los nintildeos en lugar de ser presentada como parte de un curri-culum pre-planificado

El tercer ejemplo es particularmente interesante desde este punto de vista yaque el fenoacutemeno que despierta el intereacutes de James requiere una explicacioacuten algoteacutecnica En alguacuten momento del futuro sin duda la dilatacioacuten del metal cuandose calienta y su consiguiente contraccioacuten cuando es apartado del calor figuraraacuteen el curriculum de ciencias de la escuela en relacioacuten con el estudio sistemaacuteticodel calor aquiacute sin embargo es un efecto secundario de la elaboracioacuten de los pas-teles en el horno y la explicacioacuten de la madre aunque teacutecnica en cuanto al conte-nido se asienta en el lenguaje cotidiano y no en los teacuterminos abstractos de lageneralizacioacuten cientiacutefica Como Hasan (2002) ha observado

el discurso del conocimiento quasi especializado tiene lugar lsquoen medio dersquo las actividades dia-rias y necesariamente exige una buena disposicioacuten por parte de la madre para acoger los cam-bios contextuales para tener la voluntad de reclasificar el contexto del discurso en marcha Latendencia a conectar con el discurso en movimiento del nintildeo la buena disposicioacuten para reclasi-ficar el contexto es una caracteriacutestica discursiva del mismo grupo de madres que con frecuen-cia lanzan preguntas precisas para la calificacioacuten de los objetos que atienden a las preguntas desus hijos y que les proporcionan respuestas bien desarrolladas (p 123)

179El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

No todos los nintildeos experimentan esta clase de respuesta altamente informati-va para sus intereses por supuesto Sobre la base de un corpus sustancial de inte-racciones madre-hijo Hasan (2002) siguiendo a Bernstein (1982) distingueentre mediacioacuten semioacutetica ldquovisiblerdquo e ldquoinvisiblerdquo Mientras que todos los ejem-plos citados anteriormente giran sobre la actividad conjunta y las preguntas delos nintildeos merecen una exploracioacuten adicional en un modo expliacutecito ldquovisiblerdquo lostemas de las contribuciones de muchos otros nintildeos a la actividad y la interaccioacutenson tratados por los padres como ldquoobviosrdquo y por lo tanto como si no requirieranexplicacioacuten En este sentido la mediacioacuten de las creencias culturales y de laspraacutecticas permanece ldquoinvisiblerdquo esto es la forma de ser del mundo y el tema nomerece una discusioacuten adicional El Ejemplo 4 (tomado de Hasan 2002) bajoestaacutes liacuteneas proporciona una buena ilustracioacuten

Ejemplo 4 Madre Ponlo sobre la estufa y deacutejalo alliacuteKaren iquestPor queacuteMadre PorqueKaren iquestAquiacute es doacutende va Madre SiacuteUn poco despueacutesKaren iquestCoacutemo conseguiste esoiquestNo saliste Madre Camineacute encima y lo conseguiacute iquestno me viste Karen HmmMadre Debes estar ciega

Los dos breves extractos del Ejemplo 4 son tiacutepicos de un estilo muy diferentede interaccioacuten comparados con los anteriores Aquiacute el eacutenfasis de los padres enconseguir que el nintildeo se adapte a los modos de la cultura local de actuar y pensarcon eficacia suprime la curiosidad del nintildeo y el deseo de comprender lo quetambieacuten hace menos probable que el nintildeo desarrolle la capacidad para cuestionarel status quo y participar en los esfuerzos por cambiarlo y mejorarlo

Finalmente antes de dejar el tema del aprendizaje a traveacutes de la conversacioacutenen actividades conjuntas es importante considerar la actividad conjunta en elcontexto del juego Vygotski (1978) consideroacute el juego como la actividad princi-pal en los antildeos preescolares ya que anima al nintildeo a explorar las posibilidades dela mediacioacuten semioacutetica mediante el uso de objetos presentes que pueden ser uti-lizados para representar otros objetos no presentes mediante el ldquorole playrdquo en elque el lenguaje crea un mundo imaginario En el Ejemplo 5 James ahora contres antildeos y nueve meses estaacute sentaacutendose en el brazo de un sofaacute conduciendo untren imaginario con su madre como pasajera

Ejemplo 5Madre Aquiacute estamos Me sentareacute al lado Perfecto iquestestaacutes listo iquestTodo a punto

Bien Quita el frenoJames Comenzareacute a levantarloMadre Oh perdoacuten Estaacute bienJames Mamaacute no conduzcas todaviacuteaMadre Oh BienJames [Hace un ruido simulando arrancar el motor]Madre iexclOh Este motor arranca raacutepido Muy bien iquestHay suficiente carboacuten en la parte

posterior iquestHas cargado suficiente carboacuten JamesJames SiacuteMadre Bien Entonces vaacutemonos lejos Despiacutedete de tus amigos James [Suena el ruido del motor que acelera Se riacutee y hace el sonido del silbido del

motor]Madre Ahora vamos muy raacutepido iquestPuedes sentir el traqueteo de los vagones James Siacute

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187180

Madre Oh todo me da vueltas Oh mi desayuno estaacute retumbando en mi barriga iexclOhiexclOh iexclOh

James [Hace el ruido del motor]Madre Creo que deberiacuteamos disminuir la velocidad iquestNo crees James Mm (asintiendo)Madre Creo que estamos yendo un poco raacutepido

Es mejor es maacutes faacutecil ahora iquestno James Mm (asintiendo)Madre [Muje] Mira las vacas en el campo JamesJames MmMadre Y hay un granjero mira El granjero te estaacute saludando

Como contar historias compartidas que es otra actividad conjunta importan-te a esta edad el juego imaginario tambieacuten tiene una funcioacuten importante en lapreparacioacuten del nintildeo para explorar el poder del lenguaje ldquopara crear un mundomediante las palabrasrdquo Como seraacute discutido debajo este uso del lenguaje pararepresentar objetos y eventos no presentes y las relaciones entre ellos adoptagran significado en el contexto de la escolarizacioacuten puacuteblica tiacutepica donde propor-ciona los significados mediacionales principales mediante los que gran parte delcurriculum se materializa (Wells 1986)

En suma con la excepcioacuten del Ejemplo 4 todos los extractos precedentes sonejemplos claros de un adulto ldquotrabajando en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximo delnintildeordquo (Vygotski 1987) ya que se implican en la interaccioacuten en el proceso dedesarrollar la actividad en la que estaacuten conjuntamente inmersos Como Vygotski(1987) enfatizoacute en la actividad conjunta colaborativa el nintildeo puede siemprehacer maacutes de lo que le es posible hacer independientemente La actividad pro-porciona el marco organizacional en el que parte de la conversacioacuten dirige ycomenta la actividad y parte explora los resultados a los que conduce En estecontexto el adulto hace disponible para la apropiacioacuten del nintildeo no soacutelo infor-macioacuten especiacutefica como respuesta a los intereses del nintildeo sino tambieacuten una pos-tura hacia la experiencia que valora la actitud de investigacioacuten Tratando las pre-guntas del nintildeo como dignas de respuesta expliacutecita el adulto apoya el desarrollode una disposicioacuten a plantearse preguntas y a buscarles respuesta mediante lainvestigacioacuten futura (Wells 1999)

El papel de la actividad en la educacioacuten

Aunque el teacutermino ldquoeducacioacutenrdquo se emplea a menudo como sinoacutenimo deldquoescolarizacioacutenrdquo seguacuten una interpretacioacuten maacutes amplia la educacioacuten viene refi-rieacutendose a los primeros antildeos del nintildeo y de hecho como se vio arriba hay muchasocasiones en las que un coparticipante en una actividad en curso proporciona ins-truccioacuten expliacutecita Sin embargo la educacioacuten ndashen el sentido de escolarizacioacutenndashtiende a ser muy diferente de la clase de actividades ilustradas maacutes arriba Maacutesimportante en las escuelas la instruccioacuten es tanto deliberada como sistemaacutetica yes gobernada no por los intereses de los alumnos sino por un curriculum que hasido disentildeado por expertos que no estaacuten familiarizados con los alumnos que van aser instruidos Como resultado a menudo lo que se ensentildea en la escuela no estaacuterelacionado con aquello que a los alumnos maacutes les interesa aprender y es muyprobable que no se obtengan beneficios de las oportunidades que la escuelapodriacutea proporcionar

En las primeras secciones de este trabajo se ha argumentado que el aprendi-zaje no es un fin en siacute mismo sino un aspecto integrado del domino de nuevasformas de actividad que tienen significado y valor para el desarrollo de los apren-dices como miembros de una comunidad y como individuos autoacutenomos uacutenicos

181El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Como Wygotsky insistentemente precisoacute el aprendizaje conduce el desarrollo yla instruccioacuten deberiacutea estar organizada para ayudar a este proceso

La instruccioacuten es soacutelo uacutetil cuando se mueve delante del desarrollo Cuando esto ocurre impulsao despierta toda una serie de funciones que estaacuten en estado de maduracioacuten latente en la zona dedesarrollo proacuteximo (1987 p 212)

La pregunta central para la escolarizacioacuten debe por lo tanto ser coacutemo ofrecerinstruccioacuten que sea relevante para las trayectorias de desarrollo de los alumnos yque de manera adecuada ldquose situacutee dentrordquo de sus zonas de desarrollo proacuteximoJunto a esta una segunda pregunta es coacutemo proporcionar ayuda a los alumnosindividuales para que su aprendizaje les permita de hecho avanzar en su desa-rrollo

Procurando proporcionar respuesta a estas preguntas el concepto de ldquoactivi-dad guiadardquo junto con el de recapitulacioacuten de la secuencia de desarrollo de losmodos de conocimiento puede ofrecer un comienzo uacutetil Los nintildeos cuandoingresan en la escuela han dominado en gran parte los modos de conocimientoasociados con la accioacuten el gesto y el habla (Nelson 1996) Lo que ahora necesi-tan es un aprendizaje de los modos de conocimiento asociado con el lenguajeescrito y de las distintas clases de representacioacuten simboacutelica que derivan de eacutelndashmatemaacutetica cientiacutefica musical etceacuteterandash Es decir necesitan aprenderlos parausar estas formas de representacioacuten como herramienta para la deliberacioacutenmediada la comunicacioacuten reflexiva y el pensamiento y para apropiarse de losdiferentes dominios de conocimiento teoacuterico que han sido construidos acumula-tivamente por las generaciones previas con la ayuda de las ventajas que confierenesos sistemas de ldquomemoria externardquo (Donald 1991)

La recapitulacioacuten del desarrollo histoacuterico cultural orienta la trayectoria a largoplazo para la educacioacuten formal en la escuela y en otras instituciones Pero inclusomaacutes importante para procurar responder la pregunta central presentada arriba esdeterminar los procedimientos efectivos para organizar los pequentildeos pasos queconfiguran las lecciones las unidades curriculares y los programas anuales a lolargo de esta trayectoria Basaacutendonos en las ideas presentadas en la seccioacuten ante-rior dos principios parecen en siacute mismos evidentes En primer lugar los encuen-tros educativos necesitan para estar organizados ser ldquoactividades conjuntasrdquo enlas que todos los participantes contribuyen a las metas convenidas con lo mejorde sus habilidades Y en segundo lugar debe convertirse en norma dar y recibirayuda por parte de cada participante Una de las implicaciones de estos dos prin-cipios es que no puede haber formas universales mejores para participar en alguacutenaspecto del curriculum puesto que cada clase variacutea en las experiencias e interesesque sus miembros aportan y en los valores y praacutecticas aprendidos culturalmenteque motivan y dirigen su implicacioacuten con el nuevo conocimiento y con las habi-lidades que estaacuten esperando dominar

Aunque siempre es importante reconocer valorar y construir sobre las expe-riencias previas de los alumnos ha llegado a ser incluso maacutes necesario a medidaque la migracioacuten tanto inter como intra paiacuteses ha aumentado significativamen-te ya que las diferentes etnias clases y religiones en las comunidades han dadolugar a su vez a comunidades de escuela y aula cada vez maacutes diversas ndashy estadiversidad es incluso mayor donde una proporcioacuten sustancial de alumnos estaacuteaprendiendo la lengua de clase como una segunda lengua (o subsiguiente)ndash Taldiversidad en el bagaje cultural y en la experiencia previa es generalmente vistocomo un problema que necesita ser superado en paiacuteses donde los disentildeadores delcurriculum apuntan a estandarizar la instruccioacuten para alcanzar ideacutenticos resulta-dos para todos los estudiantes como es hoy el caso en Estados Unidos Sin

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187182

embargo cuando las diferencias entre personas en teacuterminos de experiencia valo-res y praacutecticas son reconocidas como normales y deseables esta diversidad puedeconvertirse en una ventaja en la clase ya que las praacutecticas y puntos de vista alter-nativos que afloran pueden enriquecer la comunidad de clase y conducir a discu-siones valiosas en las que las creencias dadas por sentadas sean modificadas y sealcance una comprensioacuten maacutes profunda de los puntos considerados (Wells1999)

En este contexto he encontrado de ayuda pensar en el aprendizaje basado enla escuela en teacuterminos de una espiral del conocimiento donde el resultado espe-rado con cada giro de la espiral es una mayor comprensioacuten (Wells 1999) (verFigura 3) En la primera fase cuando la clase se embarca en un nuevo aspecto delcurriculum es importante animar a los alumnos a compartir sus experienciasprevias ya que como las investigaciones en campos muy diferentes han mostra-do (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotski) esas experiencias proporcionan elpunto de partida para su aprendizaje sean o no reconocidas puacuteblicamente Des-cubriendo lo que los estudiantes ya saben y aquello que les interesa explorar conmaacutes detalle el profesor puede tambieacuten planificar la unidad en cooperacioacuten conlos alumnos (Donoahue 2003) La segunda fase de la espiral conlleva varios acer-camientos a la nueva informacioacuten ndashmediante la explicacioacuten del profesor a traveacutesde materiales impresos o medios audiovusiales o en la forma de feedback de laspropias acciones e investigaciones de los alumnosndash Es importante reconocer sinembargo que la recepcioacuten de la nueva informacioacuten no asegura en siacute misma unaumento de la comprensioacuten Para que esto ocurra la nueva informacioacuten debearticularse con la comprensioacuten existente y con la experiencia previa relevantepara ser despueacutes puesta a prueba mediante la accioacuten en el mundo ndashobteniendofeedback (informacioacuten adicional)ndash yo mediante el diaacutelogo con otros para laconstruccioacuten del conocimiento donde el propoacutesito es llegar a una eleccioacuten con-sensuada entre las teoriacuteas alternativas demandas o interpretaciones sobre la basede una consideracioacuten de las evidencias y argumentos apropiados Finalmentepara consolidar la nuevas comprensiones obtenidas es valioso para la clase com-pleta reflexionar juntos sobre lo que han aprendido y sobre el proceso de cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento en el que han participado sobre las implicaciones quela nueva comprensioacuten tiene para sus propias acciones ndashtanto fuera como dentrode clasendash y sobre las preguntas importantes a las que ellos deben ahora dirigir susinvestigaciones futuras En otras palabras la fase final en el ciclo implica a lacomunidad en un ldquoacercamiento lsquometarsquordquo (Olson y Bruner 1996) es decir en laadopcioacuten de una perspectiva metacognitiva sobre su propio aprendizaje que a lolargo de miles de antildeos probablemente ha jugado un importante papel en eldesarrollo de cada modo de conocimiento presentado en la siacutentesis del desarrollohistoacuterico cultural de Donald (1991)3

Esta espiral necesita varias anotaciones adicionales La primera tiene quever con la naturaleza incompleta y provisional del conocimiento eacuteste estaacutesiempre abierto a la mejora mediante ciclos futuros a traveacutes de la espiral Lasegunda anotacioacuten concierne a la naturaleza esencialmente interactiva ysocial del crecimiento individual y comunitario en la comprensioacuten eacutesta seconsigue gracias a los esfuerzos de los participantes para clarificar sus pro-pios significados a los otros y alternativamente para tener en cuenta y res-ponder a los de los demaacutes (Bajtiacuten 1986) En tercer lugar es necesario enfati-zar que el crecimien to en la comprensioacuten requeriraacute espirales futuras queactiven los diferentes modos de conocimiento ya que la mayoriacutea de los cam-bios y problemas que ocurren en las instituciones maacutes allaacute del aula deman-dan un conocimiento procedimental substantivo y esteacutetico al igual que

183El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

teoacuterico y cada modo de conocimiento tiene una contribucioacuten que hacer aleacutexito de soluciones comprensivas que realcen significativamente la com-prensioacuten Finalmente en la representacioacuten de estas relaciones en la figura 3la espiral tambieacuten resalta la interdependencia de los individuos y la comuni-dad Mientras que la experiencia y la comprensioacuten son esencialmente indivi-duales en su naturaleza crecen fuera de eacutel y adoptan su significado de la par-ticipacioacuten de los individuos en el intercambio de informacioacuten y en su com-promiso en la construccioacuten de conocimiento en la comunidad extensa de laque cada individuo es miembro

Desafortunadamente muchos educadores no comprenden estas relacionesfundamentales y por eso su instruccioacuten no es conceptualizada y planificada demanera que sea oacuteptima para el desarrollo de los estudiantes Como numerososestudios han mostrado (Langer y Applebee 1987 Nystrand y Gamoran 1991)en la mayoriacutea de las clases la que gobierna la praacutectica es la concepcioacuten bancariadel conocimiento (Freire 1970) seguacuten la cual el propoacutesito de la instruccioacuten quetiene lugar en el aula es que un alumno individual esteacute preparado para puntuarbien en los tests y no tanto ampliar su conocimiento Dada esta orientacioacuten lasactividades en las que se pide a los alumnos que participen estaacuten determinadaspor la guiacutea curricular del libro de texto maacutes que por el conocimiento de los pro-fesores sobre los intereses y habilidades de los alumnos particulares de los queson responsables A esto es a lo que Tharp y Gallimore (1988) se refieren con laexpresioacuten ldquoguioacuten recitativordquo unido a la ocupacioacuten de un lugar individual de tra-bajo que domina la rutina diaria Ademaacutes los planes sobre coacutemo proceder sonndashcomo cabiacutea esperarndash unilateralmente impuestos en lugar de ser configuradossobre la base de las decisiones tomadas por la comunidad de clase como un todoy el modus operandi es la competicioacuten en lugar de la colaboracioacuten

Sin embargo como he argumentado en otra parte (Wells 1986 19992002a) eacuteste no es el uacutenico modo en el que la escolarizacioacuten puede ser condu-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187184

FIGURA 3La espiral del conocimiento

ACCIOacuteN Construccioacuten

deconocimiento

ComprensioacutenSubstantivo

Esteacutetico

Teoacuterico

Procedimental

Instrumental

Experiencia Informacioacuten

Modos de conocimiento

cida ndasha pensar de la larga historia de la recitacioacuten que se remonta a maacutes detres mil antildeos a las tempranas instituciones que entrenaban a los escribas yadministradores para leer y escribir (Cole 1996)ndash Pero probablemente elmodo por defecto de la escolarizacioacuten es parecido a una preparacioacuten para ldquolavida adultardquo y no una etapa criacutetica del desarrollo que merece la pena y essignificativa en siacute misma Como Vygotski argumentoacute sobre el dominio de laalfabetizacioacuten ldquola ensentildeanza debe organizarse de tal manera que la lectura yla escritura sean necesarias para algo La escritura debe ser incorporada enuna tarea relevante y necesaria para la vidardquo (1978 pp117-118) Y porldquovidardquo quiere decir no la vida futura sino la totalidad de los intereses y pre-ocupaciones actuales de los aprendices

En los uacuteltimos antildeos se han divulgado proyectos de una variedad de paiacuteses enlos que educadores universitarios han procurado crear condiciones para elldquoaprendizaje auteacutenticordquo en las aulas En todos estos proyectos se ha otorgado unpapel central a las actividades colaborativas que alternando entre los formatos departicipacioacuten individual en pequentildeo grupo y de la clase completa implican alos estudiantes en la exploracioacuten de temas centrales mediante investigacionespraacutecticas y tambieacuten teoacutericas y en la discusioacuten criacutetica y constructiva de sus hallaz-gos y de las implicaciones para futuras acciones El espacio no permite aquiacute unadiscusioacuten individual de estos proyectos pero lo que puede ser dicho sobre todosellos es que en sus diferentes formas valoran tanto los intereses de los alumnoscomo sus experiencias previas y persiguen ayudarles a desarrollar la disposicioacutenpara buscar la comprensioacuten maacutes que la acumulacioacuten simple de informacioacuten ypara valorar la colaboracioacuten maacutes que la competicioacuten como el medio para alcanzaresta menta4

En este contexto es digno atraer la atencioacuten hacia varias instituciones poste-riores a la escuela tales como la Fifth Dimension donde la participacioacuten en activi-dades elegidas personalmente ndasha menudo basadas en ordenadoresndash requiere a losnintildeos dominar habilidades que son tambieacuten necesarias para la escolarizacioacuten y lesproporcionan oportunidades para interactuar con voluntarios universitarios enuna posicioacuten de igualdad (Brown y Cole 2002) De manera similar algunosprogramas basados en museos (Leinhardst Crowley y Kuntson 2002) y variasformas de educacioacuten al aire libre tambieacuten capitalizan los intereses de los estu-diantes para implicarles en actividades desafiantes que demandan para la cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento procesos de diaacutelogo y toma de decisiones comparablesa aquellos encontrados en los contextos escolares previamente descritos

Finalmente si estas praacutecticas pioneras arraigan e influyen en la educacioacutenpuacuteblica con mayor amplitud es esencial que los profesores tengan oportunidadessimilares para desarrollar las disposiciones y pericia necesarias para actuar comoagentes de cambio y liacutederes de una reforma en las instituciones en las que traba-jan Es por lo tanto estimulante ver que a pesar del eacutenfasis de los dirigentes poliacute-ticos en estandarizar los curricula y en los resultados cuantificables algunos pro-gramas de formacioacuten de profesores y desarrollo profesional anima a los profeso-res sobre la base de investigaciones sobre su propia praacutectica a tomar sus propiasdecisiones sobre queacute debe ser ensentildeado y coacutemo y a compartir los resultados desus investigaciones con los compantildeeros Este ha sido el motor de mi propio tra-bajo en los antildeos recientes ya que he participado en la investigacioacuten colaborativacon profesores para crear y mantener comunidades de investigacioacuten tanto en cla-ses como entre los mismos profesores5

185El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Notas1 La secuencia temporal implicada por esta formulacioacuten ha sido ampliamente debatida y especialmente el movimiento desde fueraa dentro que sugiere Mi propia comprensioacuten de lo que la apropiacioacuten supone se capta mejor con el ejemplo de aprender a bailarmediante la inmersioacuten en la actividad con otros (Wells 1999) En muchos casos no hay separacioacuten entre antes y despueacutes o entrefuera y dentro y no hay necesidad de demostracioacuten o ejemplificacioacuten En lugar de esto estando inmerso en la actividad conjuntael principiante es literalmente entrenado fiacutesicamente por los movimiento del coparticipante mientras que al mismo tiempoconstruye su propia organizacioacuten ndashy quizaacute incluso una representacioacuten esquemaacuteticandash de los movimientos corporales A lo largo deltiempo este esquema estaacute tan bien organizado que el principiante se convierte en un experto que estaacute preparado paralelamentepara introducir a otros en la actividad Esto es lo que Lave y Wenger (1991) y Rogoff (2003) quieren decir por desarrollo median-te la participacioacuten en actividades culturales

2 Estoy agradecido a Natalia Gajdamaschko y Steve Gabosch por sus valiosas discusiones de esta distincioacuten durante el XMCA cursoonline sobre la teoriacutea de la actividad histoacuterico cultural Abril 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Aunque estaacute incluido en la Tabla I este modo de conocimiento no ha sido discutido aquiacute ya que el reconocimiento expliacutecito deeste importante modo de conocimiento es muy reciente (Brown 1975) Sin embargo eso no significa que sea en siacute mismo unnuevo fenoacutemeno

4 Para algunos ejemplos representativos veacutease Brown y Campione 1994 Lampert Rittenhouse y Crumbaugh 1996 McMahonRaphael Goatley y Pardo 1997 Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford y Brown 1998 Scardamalia Bereiter y Lamon 1994

5 Juntos formamos un grupo de investigacioacuten colaborativo DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project)(Wells (Ed) 2001)

ReferenciasBAJTIacuteN M M (1986) Speech genres and other late essays Austin University of Texas PressBERNSTEIN B (1982) Codes modalities and the process of cultural reproduction A model En M Apple (Ed) Cultural and econo-

mic reproduction in education (pp 304-355) Londres Routledge amp Kegan PaulBROWN A L (1975) The development of memory Knowing knowing about knowing and knowing how to know En H W

Reese (Ed) Advances in child development and behavior (Vol 10 pp 103-152) Nueva York Academic Press BROWN A L amp CAMPIONE J C (1994) Guided discovery in a community of learners En K McGilly (Ed) Integrating cognitive

theory and classroom practice Classroom lessons (pp 229-270) Cambridge MA MIT PressBradford BooksBROWN K amp COLE M (2002) Cultural historical activity theory and the expansion of opportunities for learning after school En

G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 225-238)Oxford Blackwell

BRUNER J S (1990) Acts of meaning Cambridge MA Harvard University PressCARR M (2002) Emerging learning narratives A perspective from early childhood education En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds)

Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 99-111) Oxford BlackwellCOLE M (1996) Cultural psychology A once and future discipline Cambridge MA The Bellknap Press of Harvard University PressDEACON T W (1997) The symbolic species The co-evolution of language and the brain Nueva York NortonDIAMOND J (1998) Guns germs and steel The fates of human societies Nueva York NortonDONALD M (1991) Origins of the Modern Mind Three Stages in the Evolution of Culture and Cognition Cambridge MA Harvard

University PressDONOAHUE Z (2003) Science teaching and learning Teachers and children plan together Networks 6(1) httpwwwoiseuto-

rontoca~ctdnetworksjournal Vol 6 (1) 2003marchENGESTROumlM Y (1999) Activity theory and individual and social transformation Y En Engestrom R Miettinen amp R-L Puna-

maki (Eds) Perspectives on activity theory (pp 19-38) Cambridge Cambridge University PressFREIRE P (1970) Pedagogy of the oppressed Nueva York Herder and HerderHALLIDAY M A K (1975) Learning how to mean Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1978) Language as social semiotic The social interpretation of language and meaning Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1993) Towards a language-based theory of learning Linguistics and Education 5 93-116HASAN R (2002) Semiotic mediation and mental development in pluralistic societies Some implications for tomorrowrsquos schoo-

ling En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural peerspectives on the future of education (pp112-126) Oxford Blackwell

HEATH S B (1983) Ways with words Cambridge Cambridge University PressLAMPERT M RITTENHOUSE P amp CRUMBAUGH C (1996) Agreeing to disagree Developing sociable mathematical discourse En

D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook of education and human development (pp 731-764) Cambridge MA Blackwell LANGER J A amp APPLEBEE A N (1987) How writing shapes thinking A study of teaching and learning Urbana IL National Council

of Teachers of EnglishLAVE J (1996) Teaching as learning in practice Mind Culture and Activity 3 (3) 149-164LAVE J amp WENGER E (1991) Situated Learning Legitimate peripheral participation Nueva York Cambridge University PressLEINHARDT G CROWLEY K amp KNUTSON K (2002) Learning conversations Explanation and identity in museums Mahwah NJ

Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesLEONTIEV A N (1981) The problem of activity in psychology En J VWertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 37-71) Armonk NY SharpeMAYBIN J MERCER N amp STIERER B (1992) lsquoScaffoldingrsquo learning in the classroom En K Norman (Ed) Thinking voices The

work of the National Oracy Project (pp 186-195) Londres Hodder amp StoughtonMCMAHON S I RAPHAEL T E GOATLEY V J amp PARDO L S (Eds) (1997) The Book Club connection Literacy learning and class-

room talk Nueva York Teachers College PressNELSON K (1996) Language in cognitive development The emergence of the mediated mind Nueva York Cambridge University PressNEWSON J (1978) Dialogue and development En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol The emergence of language (pp 31-42)

New York Academic Press

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187186

NYSTRAND M amp GAMORAN A (1991) Student engagement When recitation becomes conversation En H C Waxman amp H JWalberg (Eds) Effective teaching Current research (pp 257-276)Berkeley CA McCutchan Publishing Corp

OLSON D R amp BRUNER J S (1996) Folk psychology and folk pedagogy En D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook ofeducation and human development (pp 9-27) Cambridge MA Blackwell

PALINCSAR A MAGNUSSON S MARANO N FORD D amp BROWN N (1998) Designing a community of practice Principlesand practices of the GIsML Community Teaching and Teacher Education 14 (1) 5-20

PIAGET J (1970) Piagetrsquos theory En P H Mussen (Ed) Carmichaelrsquos handbook of child development (pp 703-732) Nueva YorkWiley

PONTECORVO C amp STERPONI L (2002) Learning to argue and reason through discourse in educational settings En G Wells ampG Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 127-140) OxfordBlackwell

ROGOFF B (1990) Apprenticeship in thinking Cognitive development in social context Nueva York Oxford University PressROGOFF B (1994) Developing understanding of the idea of Communities of Learners Mind Culture and Activity 1 (4) 209-

229ROGOFF B (2003) The cultural nature of human development Nueva York Oxford University PressROSENBLATT L (1978) The reader the text the poem The transactional theory of the literary work Carbondale IL Southern Illinois

University PressSCARDAMALIA M C BEREITER amp LAMON M (1994) The CSILE project Trying to bring the classroom into World 3 En K

McGilley (Ed) Classroom lessons Integrating cognitive theory and classroom practice (pp 201-228) Cambridge MA MITPress

SCRIBNER S (1985) Vygotskyrsquos uses of history En J V Wertsch (Ed) Culture communication and cognition Vygotskian perspectives(pp 119-145) Cambridge Cambridge University Press

THARP R amp GALLIMORE R (1988) Rousing minds to life Nueva York Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C (1979) Communication and cooperation in early infancy a description of primary intersubjectivity En M

Bullowa (Ed) Before speech The beginning of interpersonal communication (pp 321-348) Cambridge Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C amp HUBLEY P (1978) Secondary intersubjectivity Confidence confiding and acts of meaning in the first year

En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol the emergence of language (pp 183-230) Nueva York Academic PressVYGOTSKI L S (1978)Mind in society The development of higher psychological processes Cambridge MA Harvard University PressVYGOTSKI L S (1981) The genesis of higher mental functions En J V Wertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 144-188) Armonk NY SharpeVYGOTSKI L S (1987) Thinking and speech En R W Rieber amp A S Carton (Eds) The collected works of L S Vygotsky Volumen

1 Problems of general psychology (pp 39-285) Nueva York PlenumWARTOFSKY M (1979) Models representation and scientific understanding Boston ReidelWELLS G (1985) Language development in the pre-school years Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (1986) The meaning makers Children learning language and using language to learn Portsmouth NH HeinemannWELLS G (1999) Dialogic inquiry Towards a sociocultural practice and theory of education Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (Ed) (2001) Action talk and text Learning and teaching through inquiry Nueva York Teachers College PressWELLS G (2002a) Learning and teaching for understanding The key role of collaborative knowledge building En J Brophy

(Ed) Social constructivist teaching Affordances and constraints (pp 1-41) Osford Elsevier ScienceJAIWELLS G (2002b) The role of dialogue in activity theory Mind Culture and Activity 9 (1) 43-66WERTSCH J V MINICK N amp ARNS F J (1984) The creation of context in joint problem solving En B Rogoff amp J Lave (Eds)

Everyday cognition Its development in social context (pp 151-171) Cambridge Cambridge University PressWOOD D BRUNER J S amp ROSS G (1976) The role of tutoring in problem-solving Journal of Child Psychology and Child Psy-

chiatry 17 89-100

187El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Original text

Introduction

Compared with other species the characteristic that distinguishes humans isthe ability and proclivity to engage in tool-mediated joint activity with otherhumans It is this characteristic that accounts for the development of human cul-tures over the course of history as they invented artefacts of various kinds inorder to adapt to and exploit the ecological niches in which they found themsel-ves It also accounts for the diversity of individual personsrsquo development whichdepend on the particular activities in which they participate As Vygotsky(1978 1981) was one of the first to point out the lsquohigherrsquo mental functions thatmake us human are not biologically given but are developmentally constructedthrough the appropriation of historically developed tools and practices that aremade manifest to the child and lsquoscaffoldedrsquo in the meaningful actions and utte-rances of the coparticipants in joint activity

Before continuing readers might find it interesting to reflect on their owndevelopmental trajectories to who they are today I suspect that they may findthemselves agreeing that Who we become depends on the company we keep and what wedo together

A Brief History of the Development of Joint Activity

Leontrsquoev provides a succinct account of Vygotskyrsquos insight in the followingsummary

The initial ideas that led Vygotsky to investigate the genesis of internal mental activity fromexternal activity are fundamentally different from the theoretical approaches of other modernauthors These ideas came from the analysis of the features unique to human productive laboractivity which is mediated by tools This activity is initially social in nature that is it is deve-loped under the conditions of cooperation and social interaction among people Vygotskyidentified two main interconnected features [of this activity] that are necessarily fundamentalfor psychology its tool-like (lsquoinstrumentalrsquo) structure and its inclusion in a system of interre-lations with other people It is these features that define the nature of human psychologicalprocesses The tool mediates activity and thus connects humans not only with the world ofobjects but also with other people Because of this humanrsquos activity assimilates the experience ofhumankind This means that humansrsquo mental processes (their lsquohigher psychological functionsrsquo)acquire a structure necessarily tied to the sociohistorically formed means and methods trans-mitted to them by others in the process of cooperative labor and social interaction But it isimpossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in any way otherthan a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words higher psycho-logical processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction with others thatis through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried out indepen-dently by the individual (Leontrsquoev 1981 pp 55-56 emphases in the original)

As well as emphasizing the social and cooperative nature of human activity thisquotation is important with respect to the arguments that I want to develop inthis paper as it highlights the central role of semiotic mediation in developmentKnowledge is created as well as appropriated in the discourse among peoplewho are working together in a specific situation in order to create or improve anartefact or to solve a problem of importance to the group However Leontrsquoevalso alludes to another of Vygotskyrsquos key insights namely that in order tounderstand current activity it is necessary to investigate the history of that acti-vity It is to this that I next turn

In analyzing the history of human development at least four different time-scales need to be considered The longest is the history of the cultural evolution of

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

the species (the phylogenetic level) next is the historical development of particu-lar cultures The third level (ontogenetic) traces the developmental trajectory ofindividual humans over the course of the lifespan Finally the microgenetic levelis concerned with the development of an instance of a particular activity

In practice it is the latter that has been explored in most detail for usingcontemporary technology it is relatively easy to observe and record the sequenceof actions through which an activity is enacted and the specific operations inwhich the participants engage making use of the relevant artefacts that are avai-lable in the situation (Leontrsquoev 1981) These artefacts may be either material(knives pencils automobiles) or symbolic (utterances maps theories) ndashthoughas Cole (1996) has pointed out to function as mediators of joint activity all arte-facts must have some form of material embodiment as well as a symbolic mea-ning that is to say they must be ready to hand and also have a cultural signifi-cance relevant to the situation

However the form in which a particular instance of activity is realizeddepends not only on the artefacts that are to hand in the situation but also onthe participantsrsquo past experiences with the practices in which the artefacts areused to mediate achievement of the action goals that contribute to the joint acti-vity Thus the microgenesis of a particular instance of activity is necessarilydependent upon the ontogenetic development of the participants that is to sayupon the opportunities their life trajectories have afforded them to appropriatethe relevant cultural knowledge through participation in instances of similaractions and operations

But on the time-scale of ontogenetic development each individualrsquos trajectoryof development is itself strongly influenced by the culture in which he or she isgrowing up and on the historical development of that culture As Rogoff (2003)illustrates in considerable detail cultures vary considerably both over time andacross ecological niches in what mediating artefacts and practices are available andin the relative value accorded to each Moreover within each culture at any parti-cular historical moment participants in activities both incorporate the ways ofprevious generations and adapt them to the exigencies of current conditions

Stepping up one further level the historical development of a particular cul-tures is itself shaped by development on the even larger timescale of the culturaland biological evolution of the species This is the most difficult timescale todescribe in detail for lack of the necessary evidence But certain broad distinc-tions between human communities can be made in terms of their modes of sub-sistence and of the mediating means available for joint activity (Diamond 1998Donald 1991) As recent research has shown our earliest ancestors some 5million years ago lived in small bands of hunter gatherers often on the edge oflakes and oceans Initially their tools were found in the surroundings but overseveral million years they invented ways of making more sophisticated artefactssuch as knives arrowheads baskets and clothing from flints bones skins andvegetable materials Then as some groups migrated to particularly fertile partsof the world they adopted a more settled agrarian way of life growing cropsand breeding animals The resulting ability to produce more food than imme-diately required led in turn to the emergence of trade and to a diversity of spe-cialist occupations such as potters and tailors who exchanged their products forfood and other necessities This stage also saw the development of much largerpopulation groupings with hierarchical class structures that included prieststax collectors and other religious and political functionaries

While migration had been a common feature of human existence from theearliest times the development of large settled populations and of weapons

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

made of bronze and iron led to the expansion of certain cultural groups throughterritorial conquest and colonization by sea and by land As a result during thelast few thousand years the latest phase of phylogenetic development has beencharacterized by the rise and fall of imperial cultures which have imposed theirtechnologies laws and administrative procedures as well as their religions artsknowledge and values on widely diverse subjugated populations Most recentlythe further development of the inventions that led to the first industrial revolu-tion has simply served to increase the scale and intensity of these imperialisttrends At the same time these inventions as well as those of the current indus-trial revolution have also led to a great increase in humansrsquo understanding oftheir social and material environment both through scientific and social rese-arch and through the dissemination of information about other times and placesresulting from travel and the use of print and electronic technologies

In presenting this very condensed account of phylogenetic development Ihave emphasized the material tools that have mediated the progressively morecomplex and diverse activities in which humans have engaged over the course ofthe speciesrsquo history However bearing in mind that what has been the drivingforce of human development is joint activity an equally ndashif not morendash impor-tant determinant of this history is the development of the modes of representa-tion through which humans have communicated and developed their unders-tanding of the world Table I presents the developmental sequence proposed byDonald (1991) based on archeological neuroanatomical historical and othertypes of evidence The table also includes the stages in the historical develop-ment of ways of knowing that were proposed by Wartofsky (1979)

The first stage in this sequence corresponds to the phase in which proto-humans began to diverge from other primate species In this phase as in thebehavior of contemporary higher primates practical action was the predomi-nant form of communication as ndashnot necessarily deliberatelyndash participants sig-naled their intentions in a shared situation and these intentions were interpre-ted and responded to by their co-participants in the activity In the secondmimetic phase which must have developed gradually over many millenniacommunication became somewhat differentiated from the activity to which itreferred as humans deliberately used gestures mime facial expression andvarious types of phonation to comment on as well as to coordinate action and theobjects to which it was directed Later still with the gradual modification of thevocal tract and of the primate brain there emerged the ability to communicatethrough speech and hence the ability to refer not only to particular objects andactions but also to generalized classes and to express observed and intendedrelationships between objects actions and events thus allowing participants toplan for and reflect on the outcomes of joint activity Finally the invention ofwriting which ushered in the final phase in Donaldrsquos proposed sequence occu-rred extremely recently in the long trajectory of phylogenetic development Yetas with those that preceded it enormously increased the human repertoire ofmeans for making and communicating meaning Essentially what it added wasan ldquoexternal memoryrdquo By creating a (relatively) permanent representation oflinguistic meaning it made possible the compilation and distillation of repor-ted information from many sources including the writerrsquos own verbalizedthoughts It also allowed the writer and those who read his or her written textto review critique and revise the meanings expressed and to make the resultsavailable to people in later times and other places for further constructive debateand improvement

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

However action gesture speech and writing are not simply progressivelymore powerful modes of communication They are also progressively morepowerful mediators of thinking This is most obvious with respect to the lin-guistic modes of communication But even before the emergence of speechaction and ndashto an even greater extentndash mimesis enabled humans to think toget-her and thereby to create a shared interpretation of their joint activities In fact ithas been argued that the emergence of language was not simply the result ofbrain and vocal tract development but rather was part of a more general patternof adaptation that building upon the cognitive achievements of mimetic kno-wing strove to integrate the unconnected bits of information in a more compre-hensive and coherent account of being-in-the-world (Deacon 1997) Neverthe-less it is also true that the availability of language greatly enhanced both com-munication and thinking together for as Halliday observed

the grammar of every natural language is (among other things) a theory of human experienceit is through our acts of meaning that we transform experience into the coherent -though farfrom consistent- patchwork that we learn to project as lsquorealityrsquo (1993 p 46)

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

TABLE IModes Of Knowing Phylogenetic And Cultural Development (from Wells 1999)

Time Mode of Participants Donald(1991) Wartofsky(1979)Years BP Knowing

2 million Instrumental Individual in action Episodic Primary artifactsyears material tools

1 -- 15 million Procedural Between individuals while Mimetic Secondaryyears engaged in action artifacts tools

and practicesmimeticinteraction

50000 Substantive Among members of a (Linguistic) Secondaryyears cultural group reflecting on artifacts

action and as a basis for representations ofplanning further action tools and

practices spokeninteraction

50000 Aesthetic Among members of a Mythic Tertiary artifactsyears cultural group making sense artistic represent-

of the human predicament ations in mythnarrative graphicand musical modes

2500 Theoretical Among members of a Theoretic Tertiary artifactsyears specialist community decontextualized

seeking to explain the natural representationsand human world such as

taxonomiestheories models etc

Meta Among members of a Tertiary artifacts cultural group also representations ofindividuals seeking to mental andunderstand and control their semioticown mental activity processes

In sum what Donald and other scholars argue is that contemporary mentalabilities are the outcome of the development over time of a series of progressi-vely more powerful and flexible modes of representation ndashor in Vygotskyanterms of semiotic mediators of higher mental functions- that have made possi-ble the rational theoretically oriented modes of knowing that underpin theachievements of modern science and its technological applications In the philo-sopher Wartofskyrsquos words

our own perceptual and cognitive understanding of the world is in large part shaped andchanged by the representational artifacts we ourselves create We are in effect the products ofour own activity in this way we transform our own perceptual and cognitive modes our waysof seeing and of understanding by means of the representations we make (1979 p xxiii)

There is however one further important aspect of Donaldrsquos (1991) thesis thatis crucial for the argument that I wish to develop Although the semiotic sys-tems of mimesis speech and writing each powered a new mode of cognitiveactivity they did not replace those that preceded but were additive in theireffects The result is that contemporary humans have a variety of modes of kno-wing at their disposal as they engage in joint activity Furthermore most suchactivities call for more than one mode of knowing and require the complemen-tary and interdependent use of more than one mode of representation

Joint Activity as the Site of Ontogenetic Learning and Development

Two important implications follow from the multi-level historical concep-tion of development just outlined First on any occasion the type of activitythat is undertaken and the specific manner in which it is enacted are necessarilydependent on the particular cultural-historical antecedents of the participantsboth human and artefactual that come together in its realization In particularthe manner in which the situation is interpreted ndashin terms of what action goalsare appropriate and how they can be achievedndash depends on the motives valuesand knowledgeable skills of the human participants and on the affordances ofthe technologies available in the situation And second every instance of an acti-vity provides an occasion for a triple transformation of the situation in whichthe activity is carried out of the artefacts and practices that mediate its enact-ment and most importantly of the knowledge and skills of the human partici-pants Taken together these propositions clarify the way in which cultural andindividual development are both interdependent and rooted in particular situa-ted occasions of joint activity As Rogoff (1994) argues

People of each generation as they engage in sociocultural endeavors with other people makeuse of and extend cultural tools and practices inherited from previous generations As peopledevelop through their shared use of cultural tools and practices they simultaneously contribu-te to the transformation of cultural tools practices and institutions (p 52)

Potentially therefore every occasion of joint activity provides an opportunityfor development on the part of all participants This is a point to which I shallreturn But first I want to consider more carefully the concept of developmentitself

Clearly built into the concept of development is the implication of change andtypically of change in the direction of increasing complexity and effectiveness Inother words development is typically taken to imply improvement or progresstoward some ideal end state or capability However in the light of the previousdiscussion such a progression while it may be meaningful to (some of the) partici-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

pants in any particular situation cannot be understood in any absolute sense butmust be seen as relative to the unfolding historical trajectory of the species of aparticular culture and of the immediate community ndashits values its dominantactivities and the knowledgeable skills that form its resources Furthermore just asthese have changed in the past they will continue to change in the future in res-ponse to the changing demands of the larger environment So while ontogeneticdevelopment does indeed involve increasing complexity and effectiveness of indi-vidualsrsquo participation in the activity systems in which they are involved in theirdaily lives the overall trajectory of development is emergent and its endpoint cannever be specified in advance even in terms of an ideal to be attained

Nevertheless this does not mean that there are not strong regularities in thesequence of ontogenetic development particularly in the early years Indeed asNelson (1996) has suggested during the preschool years children follow a trajec-tory very similar to the sequence of phylogenetic development proposed byDonald (1991) (see Table I above) as they appropriate the semiotic tools of repre-sentation afforded by action mimesis speech and writing Of course this is not asimple recapitulation children growing up in a contemporary literate culture forexample are surrounded from birth by artifacts and practices that result from andembody all the available modes of knowing (Cole 1996) Appropriating existingcultural tools is thus very different from inventing them ex novo as Scribner (1985)points out Nevertheless given the combination of biological and cultural inheri-tance it is not surprising that in most if not all cultures children follow the samesequence as did the species as a whole over the course of history

In the first weeks of life infants act on their immediate surroundings bothanimate and inanimate and begin to develop what Piaget (1970) called sensori-motor intelligence However although this most basic form of activity mayappear to be instinctual it is nevertheless also inherently social First all infantsare born into an environment that is cultural in the sense of having been shapedby countless preceding generations and second the infantrsquos actions are treatedas being intentional and are responded to as such So from the beginning theinfant is caught up in social interaction (Newson 1978) In the second phasewhich typically begins in the first few months the infant also begins to engagein mimetic communication through gaze facial expression and rudimentarygesture (Bruner 1990) Couched in terms of primary and secondary intersubjec-tivity this phase has been described in considerable detail by Trevarthen (19781979) Primary intersubjectivity develops as the infant and parent engage inmutual gaze thereby communicating that they are attending to and respondingto each other In secondary intersubjectivity third parties are brought into jointattention as the parent through gaze directs the infantrsquos attention to an object ofpotential interest or follows the childrsquos direction of gaze and signals that he orshe is also attending to the same object

It is on this basis of joint action and attention that towards the end of thefirst year the child begins to exploit his or her growing command of vocaliza-tion often accompanied by gesture to begin to communicate through speechFrom research predominantly involving children in ldquoWesternrdquo societies it hasbeen established that at first the childrsquos utterances are idiosyncratic drawingonly partially ndashif at allndash on the speech of those around him or her neverthelessparents and other family members have little difficulty in interpreting them incontext and once again they respond in a manner that is contingent on theirinterpretation thereby establishing spoken communication as a joint interactiveactivity By the end of the second year however children appear to abandon thisidiosyncratic ldquoprotolanguagerdquo form of communication and begin to construct a

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

linguistic meaning potential that is systematically related to the language thatis addressed to them in the oft-repeated activities of family life (Bruner 1990Halliday 1975 Wells 1986) Significantly within particular language com-munities the sequence in which children master the basic meanings and thelexicogrammatical forms in which they are realized tends to be very similar fromchild to child (Wells 1985)

The developmental sequence just described ndashaction mimesis speechndash is com-mon to children in all cultures and in all cases takes place in and through jointactivity and interaction with other family and community members Howeveralthough the sequence is universal the manner and pace at which it proceeds varyvery considerably across cultures These differences depend upon many culturally-determined factors such as adult expectations about their childrenrsquos developmentthe position in which the infant is typically held or carried facing the caregiver orturned outwards to face in the same direction as the caregiver the makeup and sizeof the interactional groups in which communication typically occurs and whetherthese events are part of family and community life more generally or are delibera-tely arranged and structured for the presumed benefit of the child (Rogoff 2003)In the later stages of language development the range and extent of the meaningpotential that children construct begins to vary even more widely depending onthe activities in which they engage the linguistic registers that are used in thoseactivities and the stances typically adopted by interlocutors toward the use of lan-guage in their interactions with children (Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

So far the ontogenetic developmental sequence I have described is funda-mentally similar across cultures and follows the phylogenetic sequence in whichhumans have progressively added new semiotic mediational means to theircommunicative repertoires In an important sense therefore the final mode ofrepresentation in Donaldrsquos scheme that of writing is an optional extra sincemany cultures have survived and prospered without a written mode of represen-ting meaning Moreover even in cultures that have a writing system the extentand scope of literacy that individuals attain varies very considerably dependingon the activity systems in which they participate the value that is placed onwritten texts by those communmities the purposes to which they are put andthe genres that are used for those purposes However since literacy and its usesare so strongly associated with schooling I shall leave further discussion of thismode of semiotic mediation to a later part of this paper

Before concluding this section however I want to explore further the con-cept of semiotic mediation In one of the better known passages in Vygotskyrsquoswritings where he argued for the social and cultural origin of higher mentalfunctions he wrote that every function occurs on two planes first in activity andinteraction between people and then within the individual learner (Vygotsky1981) What bridges between these two planes as is clear from his other wri-tings is semiotic mediation To recall Leontrsquoevrsquos formulation of this argument

hellip it is impossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in anyway other than a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words hig-her psychological processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction withothers that is through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried outindependently by the individual (1981 pp 55-56)

In other words when people engage in joint activity their actions gesturesand speech not only mediate the coordination of participation but they alsomake overt the mental activities involved and so render them available forappropriation by novice participants1 Halliday is very clear about this Alt-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

hough the following quotation refers only to language the term lsquolanguagersquocould justifiably be replaced by lsquosemiotic mediationrsquo

In the development of the child as a social being language has the central role Language is themain channel through which the patterns of living are transmitted to him through which helearns to act as a member of lsquosocietyrsquo ndashin and through the various social groups the family theneighbourhood and so onndash and to adopt its lsquoculturersquo its modes of thought and action itsbeliefs and its values (1978 p 9)

However as the child grows older language does become the predominantmode of semiotic mediation and as he wrote in a later paper ldquoLanguage is theessential condition of knowing the process by which experience becomes know-ledge (Halliday 1993 p 94 original emphasis)

Assistance for Learning in Joint Activitie

So far in the discussion of the role of joint activity in human development Ihave concentrated on the tools and particularly the semiotic modes of represen-tation that mediate the achievement of the outcome of activity In this sectionon the other hand I turn to the role of other people in this process both familymembers and the larger community

Until now I have referred to coparticipants in an activity in general termsbut clearly there are further distinctions to be made Particularly helpful in thisrespect is Engestroumlmrsquos model of an activity system which is shown in figure 1

What this model shows is that when we look at an ongoing activity from thepoint of view of an individual participant (t Subject) that individual is involvedin a nexus of other relationships that link him or her to other lsquoparticipantsrsquo theTools and artifacts to mediate action on the Object but also the Community of

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 1The Triangle of Activity

Artifactstools andpractices

Values rulesamp conventions

Community Divisioacutenof labor

Engestrom 1999

Object OutcomeSubject

others engaged in the activity together with the Division of Labor within thatcommunity and also the Rules and Conventions that govern the manner inwhich the activity is carried out (Engestroumlm 1999) What this latter category oflsquoparticipantrsquo underscores is the historical dimension of an activity system sincethese rules and conventions ndashas well as the tools and artifactsndash bring into thepresent the distilled practices of previous generations who have engaged in theactivity as these are interpreted and utilized by the current community

To illustrate the relevance of this model to the development of the youngchild we might compare two versions of a similar activity reported by WertschMinick and Arns (1984) In their study Brazilian children carried out a puzzletask on two occasions first with the mother and secondly with a primary tea-cher What the researchers found was that in general the mothers and teachersengaged in the activity in systematically different ways Whereas the motherstended to direct the childrenrsquos behavior or even carry out parts of the task them-selves in order to complete it in an efficient manner ndashjust as they would havedone if engaged in a household taskndash the teachers tended to encourage thechildrsquos autonomous performance and only provided hints and suggestions whenthey judged them to be necessary to advance the childrenrsquos understandingInterpreting these results the researchers suggested that the two groups ofadults belonged to two different communities (or activity systems) that had dif-ferent rules and conventions about engaging in this joint activity And this inturn led to the different divisions of labor that they observed Similarly Rogoff(2003) cites many examples of substantial differences between cultures inalmost all aspects of child rearing with respect to their ways of engaging chil-dren in the activities that they consider important

What is clear is that ldquobehindrdquo the particular adult ndashor older siblings in someculturesndash who are directly engaged with the child there is a wider communityof family members neighbors and others who have an interest in the upbrin-ging of children and who share beliefs about appropriate ways to involve themin the activities of daily life So whether in Spain Japan or the Peruvian High-lands although the actual practices vary across cultures in each those responsi-ble for childrenrsquos well-being and development act as agents of a wider commu-nity whose beliefs and practices are rooted in a long tradition concerning howactivities should be carried out But equally in all cultures practices also changein response to changes in the world beyond the particular community In manyWestern homes for example computer games or television programs haverecently taken the place of the bedtime story while in many indigenous com-munities crafts that until recently only supplied local needs are now exploitedcommercially for the tourist trade changing the rhythms of daily life and therelationships among family members and the activities in which children areinvolved As suggested earlier therefore in order to understand the activities inwhich children participate today we need to look not only at the immediatesituation but also at the wider community and the changes taking place on allthese time-scales

Microgenesis and the Zone of Proximal Development

It is nevertheless always the immediate microgenetic situation that isthe site of ontogenetic development ndashthe action and interaction between thelearner and those with whom he or she is engaged in the activity in pro-gress When we adopt this microgenetic perspective however we need tomodify the representation of an activity system presented in figure 1 Inthat representation the focus was on the goal-oriented nature of action

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Here we need to focus on the interaction among the participants ndashtheirattempt to attain intersubjectivity with respect to the common object andthe complementarity of the knowledgeable skills they bring to the cocons-truction of the intended outcome (see Figure 2) What figure 2 emphasizesis the fact that although the tools and artefacts that are available to mediatethe jointly undertaken action are the same for each participant each bringsa somewhat different familiarity with their use as a result of their differentlife trajectories and it is this variability in their expertise that makes it pos-sible for each to provide assistance to the others in at least some aspects ofthe joint action Viewed in this light it is clear why Vygotsky emphasizedthe role of joint activity in development and wrote of its potential to enablelearners ldquoto go beyond themselvesrdquo with the assistance of more expertothers

The metaphor Vygotsky used to characterize the potential for learning thatthis sort of activity creates was the ldquozone of proximal developmentrdquo As hewrote when another participant in the activity provides instruction that isappropriately pitched beyond what the learner can manage to do on his or herown it ldquowakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturationlying in the zone of proximal developmentrdquo (1987 p 212) Vygotsky concep-tualized development as the formation of new functional systems (ldquoneoforma-tionsrdquo) and of changes in the relationships among systems which he consideredto occur as a succession of ldquocrises of developmentrdquo that are particularly facilitatedby engagement in the relevant ldquoleading activityrdquo at each stage for example playin childhood and learning to read and write in the early school yearsHowever itwould be a mistake to focus only on the periods of revolutionary change since ashe equally emphasized at any time there are also other more gradual processes ofgrowth

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 2Dialogue in Joint Activity(from Wells2002b)

Outcomematerial ampsemioticartefacts

Toolsartefacts

Subject

Rulesconventions

Community Divisionof labor

Subject

Toolsartefacts

Processes that are central lines of development at one age become peripheral lines of develop-ment at the following age and conversely peripheral lines of development of one age arebrought to the forefront and become central lines since their meaning and relative significancein the total structure of development changes (p 197)2

In developing his important concept of the zone of proximal developmentVygotsky tended to characterize the assistance given by others as ldquoinstructionrdquoand to see its value in ldquothe childrsquos potential to raise himself to a higher intellec-tual level of development through collaboration to move from what he has towhat he does not have through imitationrdquo (1987 p 210) However manyrecent scholars who have built on his work have taken a broader view of thedevelopmental significance of collaboration in joint activities and have characte-rized the assistance that is provided within this relationship in terms such asldquoapprenticeshiprdquo (Lave amp Wenger 1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoguided participationrdquo(Rogoff 1994 2003) and ldquoscaffoldingrdquo (Wood et al 1976) Neverthelesswhile these different metaphors highlight different features of the relationshipwhat they all have in common is the inclusion of the learner in an activity inwhich there is provision of the assistance necessary to help the learner to comple-te an activity in which he or she is interested and to do so in such a way that heor she makes progress toward being able to participate more fully and autono-mously in the future (Maybin Mercer and Stierer 1992)

In many joint activities such as for example traditional forms of craftapprenticeship assistance is only provided when needed and the ldquomasterrdquo doesso with no deliberate didactic intention beyond that of involving the novice inthe completion of the particular task in hand (Lave 1996) Similarly in sociali-zation into activities around the home no explicit instruction is necessary fornovices can learn a great deal by simply watching and listening (cf Rogoff2003) This is what Lave and Wenger (1991) mean when they insist that lear-ning is not an independent activity but an intrinsic aspect of ldquolegitimate perip-heral participationrdquo in a communityrsquos activities From their perspective therefo-re formal education in which learning is the sole purpose of the activity issomething of an anomaly particularly when the only form of assistance providedis the expert teacherrsquos direct instruction and subsequent evaluation of the extentof the studentsrsquo learning

In many recent discussions it has also been recognized that it is not only aldquoteacherrdquo who can provide assistance in the zpd On the one hand in a com-plex activity many participants are more expert than others in some aspectsand therefore on some occasions are able to help those who are less expert(Rogoff 1994) and on the other hand those who provide assistance do nothave to be physically present texts and other artifacts can equally well helpa participant ldquoto go beyond himherselfrdquo as is often the case in intellectualwork such as research and writ ing (Wells 1999) Furthermore asEngestroumlm (1999) and others ndashbuilding on other aspects of Vygotskyrsquos theo-retical writingsndash have noted the material and symbolic tools that have beendeveloped by previous participants in the activity can also provide the samesort of assistance However perhaps the most important point to emphasizeis that there are many situations in which no-one is an expert yet as eachbrings his or her own past experience to the solution of a common problemthe group together is able to achieve more than any single member couldhave done alone Clearly it is such collaboration that has made possible theinventions that have led to the major advances of great civilizations over thecourse of cultural history

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Development in the Pre-School Years

As noted above the responsibility for caring for children in early childhoodvaries very considerably from one society to another Nevertheless in all socie-ties children are involved in joint activities with others in which they receiveassistance with respect to their participation however that may be locally achie-ved For the most part as already mentioned these are activities that are regu-larly repeated in the taken-for-granted routines of daily life The expectation isthat the child will learn to fit in and is simply helped to do so Often referred toas ldquoenculturationrdquo this form of apprenticeship ensures the continuity of the cul-turersquos way of life from one generation to the next and as Donald (1991) arguedit probably occurred even before the emergence of speech

However in all activities there are occasions when problems arise that callfor some level of deliberate decision-making In these situations spoken interac-tion makes possible a degree of reflection and forward planning in which therelations of cause and effect intention action and outcome are made explicitand open to question and discussion The talk that occurs on these occasionsthus plays a particularly important role in helping children to attend to andunderstand the world around them in terms of the culturersquos ways of ldquomakingsenserdquo of it However these occasions can also open up possibilities for changeboth in the form of the activity and in the participantsrsquo understanding of itHow caregivers habitually take up these opportunities is particularly importantfor it plays an important part in shaping the intellectual dispositions withwhich children enter school (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo amp Sterponi2002)

In this section I include some representative examples of kinds of talk thatarise from joint activities in the home These examples are drawn from observa-tions made in settings in England (Wells 1986) and Australia (Hasan 2002) inwhich the young children observed spent most of their time at home with oneparent sometimes with one or more siblings some of the time they entertainedthemselves with occasional adult involvement but they also frequently watchedand ldquohelpedrdquo the parent with household tasks of various kinds

In the first example James (aged 3 12 years) has been playing alone in thegarden and as he reenters the house his mother tries to get him to take off hismuddy shoes However at that moment he sees a bird outside which interestshim more than changing his shoes

Example 1Mother There we are there one slipper onJames I can see a birdMother A what loveJames See a bird Mother (whispering) Is there OutsideJames (pointing and whispering) Yes see

(both continue to speak very softly)Mother Is he eating anythingJames NoMother Where Oh yes hersquos getting- do you know what hersquos doingJames NoMother Hersquos going to the- the paper sack to try to pick out some pieces-

Oh hersquos got some food there and I expect hersquoll pick out somepieces of thread from the sack to go and make his nest under the roofJames Wait a minute and Irsquoll-[James now wants to go out to see more closely but at that moment thebird flies away]

James That birdrsquos gone

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

In the second example Elizabeth (aged 4 years) who is helping with thehouse cleaning watches with interest as her mother shovels wood ash from thefireplace into a bucket

Example 2Elizabeth What are you doing that forMother Irsquom gathering it up and putting it outside so that Daddy can put it on the gardenElizabeth Why does he have to put it on the gardenMother To make the compost rightElizabeth Does that make the grass growMother YesElizabeth Why does itMother You know how I tell you that you need to eat different things like eggs and cab-

bage and rice pudding to make you grow into a big girlElizabeth YesMother Well plants need different foods too and ash is one of the things thatrsquos

good for them

The third example involves James again now eighteen months older Earlierin the afternoon he had been helping his mother with the baking Now hecomes back into the kitchen as his mother is taking the baking trays out of theoven He hears a loud metallic ldquocrackrdquo and asks for an explanation

Example 3James Who did thatMother I expect it was the tin contractingJames Which tinMother The one with your pastry inJames Why did it make that noiseMother Well when it was in the oven it got very hot and stretched a bit Irsquove just taken

it out of the oven and itrsquos cooling down very quickly you see and that noisehappens when it gets smaller again and goes back to its normal shape

James Oh was it a different shape in the ovenMother Oh not very different just a little biggerJames Naughty little tin you might get smacked if you do it again

In all three of these examples the mother willingly responds to the childrsquosinterest and provides information to explain the significance of what the child isseeing or hearing even when in the first this interrupts the motherrsquos plan Allthree cases show how the childrsquos participation in the activity with the adult assu-res that there is intersubjectivity of attention to what interests the child and thisenables the mother to provide relevant information Clearly this is a form ofldquoinstructionrdquo however it is spontaneous and contingent on the childrsquos interestrather than presented as part of a pre-planned curriculum

The third example is particularly interesting from this point of view as thephenomenon of interest to James requires a somewhat technical explanation Atsome point in the future no doubt the expansion of metal when heated and itssubsequent contraction when removed from the heat will figure in the schoolscience curriculum in relation to the systematic study of heat here however itis an interesting side-effect of baking and the motherrsquos explanation while tech-nical in content is couched in everyday language rather than in the abstractterms of scientific generalization As Hasan (2002) has observed

the discourse of quasi specialised knowledge occurs in the lsquomiddle ofrsquo daily activities and bynecessity it calls for a readiness on the motherrsquos part to entertain contextual shifts to bewilling to reclassify the context of the on-going discourse The tendency to move with thechildrsquos moving discourse the readiness to re-classify context is a discourse characteristic of thesame group of mothers who frequently ask questions made precise by qualification and whoattend to their childrenrsquos questions and provide them with well developed answers (p 123)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 14: Actividad y Aprendizaje

sociedades los nintildeos estaacuten inmersos en actividades conjuntas con otros en las quereciben ayuda para participar aunque puedan llevarlas a cabo parcialmente Ensu mayor parte como ya se mencionoacute eacutestas son actividades cotidianas repetidasregularmente en las rutinas establecidas Se espera que el nintildeo aprenderaacute a asu-mirlas y es simplemente ayudado para hacerlo Esta forma de aprendizaje deno-minada habitualmente ldquoenculturacioacutenrdquo asegura la continuidad de las formas devida culturales desde una generacioacuten a la siguiente y como Donald (1991) argu-menta probablemente tuvo lugar incluso antes de la emergencia del habla

Sin embargo en todas las actividades hay ocasiones en las que cuando surgealguacuten problema se requiere alguacuten nivel de toma de decisiones deliberado En estassituaciones la interaccioacuten verbal hace posible un grado de reflexioacuten y planificacioacutenhacia delante en la que las relaciones de causa y efecto intencioacuten accioacuten y resultadose hacen expliacutecitas y abiertas para su anaacutelisis y discusioacuten La conversacioacuten que semantiene en estas ocasiones juega asiacute un papel particularmente importante en laayuda a los nintildeos para atender y comprender el mundo que les rodea de acuerdo conlos modos culturales de ldquodarle sentidordquo Sin embargo estas ocasiones pueden tam-bieacuten abrir posibilidades para el cambio tanto en la forma de la actividad como lacomprensioacuten que de ella alcanzan los participantes Coacutemo los cuidadores tomanhabitualmente estas oportunidades es de gran relevancia aquiacute ya que juega en la for-macioacuten de las disposiciones intelectuales con las que los nintildeos entran en la escuelaun papel importante (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo y Sterponi 2002)

En esta seccioacuten incluyo algunos ejemplos representativos del modo de hablarque surge de las actividades conjuntas en el hogar Estos ejemplos se han extraiacute-do de observaciones realizadas en contextos ingleses (Wells 1986) y australianos(Hasan 2002) donde los nintildeos pequentildeos observados pasaban la mayor parte desu tiempo en el hogar en compantildeiacutea de un progenitor o algunas veces con uno omaacutes hermanos mientras que el resto del tiempo se entreteniacutean ellos solos (conuna participacioacuten esporaacutedica del adulto) o algo que haciacutean con frecuencia mira-ban y ldquoayudabanrdquo a sus progenitores con tareas domeacutesticas de diferente tipo

En el primer ejemplo James (de tres antildeos y medio de edad) ha estado jugandosolo en el jardiacuten y cuando entra de nuevo en casa su madre intenta que se quitelos zapatos embarrados Sin embargo en ese momento ve un paacutejaro fuera que leinteresa maacutes que cambiarse de zapatos

Ejemplo 1Madre Alliacute Vamoshellip Alliacutehellip Una zapatilla enJames Puedo ver un paacutejaroMadre iquestUn queacute amorJames Mira un paacutejaroMadre (Susurrando) iquestEstaacute alliacute iquestFueraJames (Sentildealando y susurrando) Siacute mira

(Ambos continuacutean hablando muy suavemente)Madre iquestEstaacute comiendo algoJames NoMadre iquestDoacutende Oh siacute estaacute consiguiendo iquestSabes queacute estaacute haciendoJames NoMadre Estaacute yendo al saco de papel para intentar escoger algunos pedazos

Oh tiene un poco de alimento alliacute Y espero que escoja algunos pedazos de hilodel saco para ir y hacer su nido bajo la azotea James Espera un minuto y [James ahora quiere salir a ver maacutes cerca pero en ese momento el paacutejaro se escapavolando]

James Se ha ido

En el segundo ejemplo Elizabeth (de cuatro antildeos de edad) que estaacute ayudandoen la limpieza de casa mira con intereacutes coacutemo su madre mete en un cubo la cenizade la lentildea de la chimenea

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187178

Ejemplo 2Elizabeth iquestPara queacute estaacutes haciendo esoMadre Estoy recogieacutendolo y ponieacutendolo fuera para que papaacute pueda ponerlo en el jardiacutenElizabeth iquestPor queacute lo tiene que poner en el jardiacuten Madre Para abonar bienElizabeth iquestEso hace que la hierba crezcaMadre SiacuteElizabeth iquestPor queacuteMadre Sabes que te digo que necesitas comer cosas diferentes como huevos y col y

pudin de arroz para convertirte en una nintildea mayor Elizabeth SiacuteMadre Bien las plantas tambieacuten necesitan comida diferente Y la ceniza es una de las

cosas buenas para ellas

El tercer ejemplo se refiere a James de nuevo ahora 18 meses mayor Por lamantildeana temprano ha estado ayudando a su madre con la elaboracioacuten de unos dul-ces en el horno Ahora vuelve a la cocina cuando su madre estaacute sacando las bande-jas fuera del horno Oye un ruidoso ldquocrackrdquo metaacutelico y solicita una explicacioacuten

Ejemplo 3James iquestQuieacuten hizo esoMadre Espero que fuera la contraccioacuten de la lata James iquestQueacute lataMadre La que estaacute con los pasteles dentro James iquestPor queacute hizo ese ruidoMadre Bien cuando estaba en el horno se calentoacute mucho y se estiroacute un pedacito Ape-

nas la he sacado del horno y se estaacute enfriando muy raacutepido mira y ese ruido ocu-rre cuando se hace maacutes pequentildea otra vez y vuelve a su forma normal

James Oh iquesttiene una forma diferente en el horno Madre Oh no muy diferente Soacutelo un poco mayor James Pequentildea lata traviesa Puede que consigas que te den un azote si lo haces otra vez

En estos tres ejemplos la madre responde con prontitud a los intereses delnintildeo y proporciona informacioacuten para explicar el significado de lo que los nintildeosestaacuten viendo u oyendo incluso cuando inicialmente esto interrumpe los planesde la madre Los tres casos muestran coacutemo la participacioacuten de los nintildeos en la acti-vidad con el adulto garantiza una atencioacuten intersubjetiva hacia los intereses delnintildeo lo que permite a la madre proporcionar informacioacuten relevante Esto es cla-ramente una forma de ldquoinstruccioacutenrdquo sin embargo es espontaacutenea y contingentecon los intereses de los nintildeos en lugar de ser presentada como parte de un curri-culum pre-planificado

El tercer ejemplo es particularmente interesante desde este punto de vista yaque el fenoacutemeno que despierta el intereacutes de James requiere una explicacioacuten algoteacutecnica En alguacuten momento del futuro sin duda la dilatacioacuten del metal cuandose calienta y su consiguiente contraccioacuten cuando es apartado del calor figuraraacuteen el curriculum de ciencias de la escuela en relacioacuten con el estudio sistemaacuteticodel calor aquiacute sin embargo es un efecto secundario de la elaboracioacuten de los pas-teles en el horno y la explicacioacuten de la madre aunque teacutecnica en cuanto al conte-nido se asienta en el lenguaje cotidiano y no en los teacuterminos abstractos de lageneralizacioacuten cientiacutefica Como Hasan (2002) ha observado

el discurso del conocimiento quasi especializado tiene lugar lsquoen medio dersquo las actividades dia-rias y necesariamente exige una buena disposicioacuten por parte de la madre para acoger los cam-bios contextuales para tener la voluntad de reclasificar el contexto del discurso en marcha Latendencia a conectar con el discurso en movimiento del nintildeo la buena disposicioacuten para reclasi-ficar el contexto es una caracteriacutestica discursiva del mismo grupo de madres que con frecuen-cia lanzan preguntas precisas para la calificacioacuten de los objetos que atienden a las preguntas desus hijos y que les proporcionan respuestas bien desarrolladas (p 123)

179El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

No todos los nintildeos experimentan esta clase de respuesta altamente informati-va para sus intereses por supuesto Sobre la base de un corpus sustancial de inte-racciones madre-hijo Hasan (2002) siguiendo a Bernstein (1982) distingueentre mediacioacuten semioacutetica ldquovisiblerdquo e ldquoinvisiblerdquo Mientras que todos los ejem-plos citados anteriormente giran sobre la actividad conjunta y las preguntas delos nintildeos merecen una exploracioacuten adicional en un modo expliacutecito ldquovisiblerdquo lostemas de las contribuciones de muchos otros nintildeos a la actividad y la interaccioacutenson tratados por los padres como ldquoobviosrdquo y por lo tanto como si no requirieranexplicacioacuten En este sentido la mediacioacuten de las creencias culturales y de laspraacutecticas permanece ldquoinvisiblerdquo esto es la forma de ser del mundo y el tema nomerece una discusioacuten adicional El Ejemplo 4 (tomado de Hasan 2002) bajoestaacutes liacuteneas proporciona una buena ilustracioacuten

Ejemplo 4 Madre Ponlo sobre la estufa y deacutejalo alliacuteKaren iquestPor queacuteMadre PorqueKaren iquestAquiacute es doacutende va Madre SiacuteUn poco despueacutesKaren iquestCoacutemo conseguiste esoiquestNo saliste Madre Camineacute encima y lo conseguiacute iquestno me viste Karen HmmMadre Debes estar ciega

Los dos breves extractos del Ejemplo 4 son tiacutepicos de un estilo muy diferentede interaccioacuten comparados con los anteriores Aquiacute el eacutenfasis de los padres enconseguir que el nintildeo se adapte a los modos de la cultura local de actuar y pensarcon eficacia suprime la curiosidad del nintildeo y el deseo de comprender lo quetambieacuten hace menos probable que el nintildeo desarrolle la capacidad para cuestionarel status quo y participar en los esfuerzos por cambiarlo y mejorarlo

Finalmente antes de dejar el tema del aprendizaje a traveacutes de la conversacioacutenen actividades conjuntas es importante considerar la actividad conjunta en elcontexto del juego Vygotski (1978) consideroacute el juego como la actividad princi-pal en los antildeos preescolares ya que anima al nintildeo a explorar las posibilidades dela mediacioacuten semioacutetica mediante el uso de objetos presentes que pueden ser uti-lizados para representar otros objetos no presentes mediante el ldquorole playrdquo en elque el lenguaje crea un mundo imaginario En el Ejemplo 5 James ahora contres antildeos y nueve meses estaacute sentaacutendose en el brazo de un sofaacute conduciendo untren imaginario con su madre como pasajera

Ejemplo 5Madre Aquiacute estamos Me sentareacute al lado Perfecto iquestestaacutes listo iquestTodo a punto

Bien Quita el frenoJames Comenzareacute a levantarloMadre Oh perdoacuten Estaacute bienJames Mamaacute no conduzcas todaviacuteaMadre Oh BienJames [Hace un ruido simulando arrancar el motor]Madre iexclOh Este motor arranca raacutepido Muy bien iquestHay suficiente carboacuten en la parte

posterior iquestHas cargado suficiente carboacuten JamesJames SiacuteMadre Bien Entonces vaacutemonos lejos Despiacutedete de tus amigos James [Suena el ruido del motor que acelera Se riacutee y hace el sonido del silbido del

motor]Madre Ahora vamos muy raacutepido iquestPuedes sentir el traqueteo de los vagones James Siacute

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187180

Madre Oh todo me da vueltas Oh mi desayuno estaacute retumbando en mi barriga iexclOhiexclOh iexclOh

James [Hace el ruido del motor]Madre Creo que deberiacuteamos disminuir la velocidad iquestNo crees James Mm (asintiendo)Madre Creo que estamos yendo un poco raacutepido

Es mejor es maacutes faacutecil ahora iquestno James Mm (asintiendo)Madre [Muje] Mira las vacas en el campo JamesJames MmMadre Y hay un granjero mira El granjero te estaacute saludando

Como contar historias compartidas que es otra actividad conjunta importan-te a esta edad el juego imaginario tambieacuten tiene una funcioacuten importante en lapreparacioacuten del nintildeo para explorar el poder del lenguaje ldquopara crear un mundomediante las palabrasrdquo Como seraacute discutido debajo este uso del lenguaje pararepresentar objetos y eventos no presentes y las relaciones entre ellos adoptagran significado en el contexto de la escolarizacioacuten puacuteblica tiacutepica donde propor-ciona los significados mediacionales principales mediante los que gran parte delcurriculum se materializa (Wells 1986)

En suma con la excepcioacuten del Ejemplo 4 todos los extractos precedentes sonejemplos claros de un adulto ldquotrabajando en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximo delnintildeordquo (Vygotski 1987) ya que se implican en la interaccioacuten en el proceso dedesarrollar la actividad en la que estaacuten conjuntamente inmersos Como Vygotski(1987) enfatizoacute en la actividad conjunta colaborativa el nintildeo puede siemprehacer maacutes de lo que le es posible hacer independientemente La actividad pro-porciona el marco organizacional en el que parte de la conversacioacuten dirige ycomenta la actividad y parte explora los resultados a los que conduce En estecontexto el adulto hace disponible para la apropiacioacuten del nintildeo no soacutelo infor-macioacuten especiacutefica como respuesta a los intereses del nintildeo sino tambieacuten una pos-tura hacia la experiencia que valora la actitud de investigacioacuten Tratando las pre-guntas del nintildeo como dignas de respuesta expliacutecita el adulto apoya el desarrollode una disposicioacuten a plantearse preguntas y a buscarles respuesta mediante lainvestigacioacuten futura (Wells 1999)

El papel de la actividad en la educacioacuten

Aunque el teacutermino ldquoeducacioacutenrdquo se emplea a menudo como sinoacutenimo deldquoescolarizacioacutenrdquo seguacuten una interpretacioacuten maacutes amplia la educacioacuten viene refi-rieacutendose a los primeros antildeos del nintildeo y de hecho como se vio arriba hay muchasocasiones en las que un coparticipante en una actividad en curso proporciona ins-truccioacuten expliacutecita Sin embargo la educacioacuten ndashen el sentido de escolarizacioacutenndashtiende a ser muy diferente de la clase de actividades ilustradas maacutes arriba Maacutesimportante en las escuelas la instruccioacuten es tanto deliberada como sistemaacutetica yes gobernada no por los intereses de los alumnos sino por un curriculum que hasido disentildeado por expertos que no estaacuten familiarizados con los alumnos que van aser instruidos Como resultado a menudo lo que se ensentildea en la escuela no estaacuterelacionado con aquello que a los alumnos maacutes les interesa aprender y es muyprobable que no se obtengan beneficios de las oportunidades que la escuelapodriacutea proporcionar

En las primeras secciones de este trabajo se ha argumentado que el aprendi-zaje no es un fin en siacute mismo sino un aspecto integrado del domino de nuevasformas de actividad que tienen significado y valor para el desarrollo de los apren-dices como miembros de una comunidad y como individuos autoacutenomos uacutenicos

181El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Como Wygotsky insistentemente precisoacute el aprendizaje conduce el desarrollo yla instruccioacuten deberiacutea estar organizada para ayudar a este proceso

La instruccioacuten es soacutelo uacutetil cuando se mueve delante del desarrollo Cuando esto ocurre impulsao despierta toda una serie de funciones que estaacuten en estado de maduracioacuten latente en la zona dedesarrollo proacuteximo (1987 p 212)

La pregunta central para la escolarizacioacuten debe por lo tanto ser coacutemo ofrecerinstruccioacuten que sea relevante para las trayectorias de desarrollo de los alumnos yque de manera adecuada ldquose situacutee dentrordquo de sus zonas de desarrollo proacuteximoJunto a esta una segunda pregunta es coacutemo proporcionar ayuda a los alumnosindividuales para que su aprendizaje les permita de hecho avanzar en su desa-rrollo

Procurando proporcionar respuesta a estas preguntas el concepto de ldquoactivi-dad guiadardquo junto con el de recapitulacioacuten de la secuencia de desarrollo de losmodos de conocimiento puede ofrecer un comienzo uacutetil Los nintildeos cuandoingresan en la escuela han dominado en gran parte los modos de conocimientoasociados con la accioacuten el gesto y el habla (Nelson 1996) Lo que ahora necesi-tan es un aprendizaje de los modos de conocimiento asociado con el lenguajeescrito y de las distintas clases de representacioacuten simboacutelica que derivan de eacutelndashmatemaacutetica cientiacutefica musical etceacuteterandash Es decir necesitan aprenderlos parausar estas formas de representacioacuten como herramienta para la deliberacioacutenmediada la comunicacioacuten reflexiva y el pensamiento y para apropiarse de losdiferentes dominios de conocimiento teoacuterico que han sido construidos acumula-tivamente por las generaciones previas con la ayuda de las ventajas que confierenesos sistemas de ldquomemoria externardquo (Donald 1991)

La recapitulacioacuten del desarrollo histoacuterico cultural orienta la trayectoria a largoplazo para la educacioacuten formal en la escuela y en otras instituciones Pero inclusomaacutes importante para procurar responder la pregunta central presentada arriba esdeterminar los procedimientos efectivos para organizar los pequentildeos pasos queconfiguran las lecciones las unidades curriculares y los programas anuales a lolargo de esta trayectoria Basaacutendonos en las ideas presentadas en la seccioacuten ante-rior dos principios parecen en siacute mismos evidentes En primer lugar los encuen-tros educativos necesitan para estar organizados ser ldquoactividades conjuntasrdquo enlas que todos los participantes contribuyen a las metas convenidas con lo mejorde sus habilidades Y en segundo lugar debe convertirse en norma dar y recibirayuda por parte de cada participante Una de las implicaciones de estos dos prin-cipios es que no puede haber formas universales mejores para participar en alguacutenaspecto del curriculum puesto que cada clase variacutea en las experiencias e interesesque sus miembros aportan y en los valores y praacutecticas aprendidos culturalmenteque motivan y dirigen su implicacioacuten con el nuevo conocimiento y con las habi-lidades que estaacuten esperando dominar

Aunque siempre es importante reconocer valorar y construir sobre las expe-riencias previas de los alumnos ha llegado a ser incluso maacutes necesario a medidaque la migracioacuten tanto inter como intra paiacuteses ha aumentado significativamen-te ya que las diferentes etnias clases y religiones en las comunidades han dadolugar a su vez a comunidades de escuela y aula cada vez maacutes diversas ndashy estadiversidad es incluso mayor donde una proporcioacuten sustancial de alumnos estaacuteaprendiendo la lengua de clase como una segunda lengua (o subsiguiente)ndash Taldiversidad en el bagaje cultural y en la experiencia previa es generalmente vistocomo un problema que necesita ser superado en paiacuteses donde los disentildeadores delcurriculum apuntan a estandarizar la instruccioacuten para alcanzar ideacutenticos resulta-dos para todos los estudiantes como es hoy el caso en Estados Unidos Sin

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187182

embargo cuando las diferencias entre personas en teacuterminos de experiencia valo-res y praacutecticas son reconocidas como normales y deseables esta diversidad puedeconvertirse en una ventaja en la clase ya que las praacutecticas y puntos de vista alter-nativos que afloran pueden enriquecer la comunidad de clase y conducir a discu-siones valiosas en las que las creencias dadas por sentadas sean modificadas y sealcance una comprensioacuten maacutes profunda de los puntos considerados (Wells1999)

En este contexto he encontrado de ayuda pensar en el aprendizaje basado enla escuela en teacuterminos de una espiral del conocimiento donde el resultado espe-rado con cada giro de la espiral es una mayor comprensioacuten (Wells 1999) (verFigura 3) En la primera fase cuando la clase se embarca en un nuevo aspecto delcurriculum es importante animar a los alumnos a compartir sus experienciasprevias ya que como las investigaciones en campos muy diferentes han mostra-do (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotski) esas experiencias proporcionan elpunto de partida para su aprendizaje sean o no reconocidas puacuteblicamente Des-cubriendo lo que los estudiantes ya saben y aquello que les interesa explorar conmaacutes detalle el profesor puede tambieacuten planificar la unidad en cooperacioacuten conlos alumnos (Donoahue 2003) La segunda fase de la espiral conlleva varios acer-camientos a la nueva informacioacuten ndashmediante la explicacioacuten del profesor a traveacutesde materiales impresos o medios audiovusiales o en la forma de feedback de laspropias acciones e investigaciones de los alumnosndash Es importante reconocer sinembargo que la recepcioacuten de la nueva informacioacuten no asegura en siacute misma unaumento de la comprensioacuten Para que esto ocurra la nueva informacioacuten debearticularse con la comprensioacuten existente y con la experiencia previa relevantepara ser despueacutes puesta a prueba mediante la accioacuten en el mundo ndashobteniendofeedback (informacioacuten adicional)ndash yo mediante el diaacutelogo con otros para laconstruccioacuten del conocimiento donde el propoacutesito es llegar a una eleccioacuten con-sensuada entre las teoriacuteas alternativas demandas o interpretaciones sobre la basede una consideracioacuten de las evidencias y argumentos apropiados Finalmentepara consolidar la nuevas comprensiones obtenidas es valioso para la clase com-pleta reflexionar juntos sobre lo que han aprendido y sobre el proceso de cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento en el que han participado sobre las implicaciones quela nueva comprensioacuten tiene para sus propias acciones ndashtanto fuera como dentrode clasendash y sobre las preguntas importantes a las que ellos deben ahora dirigir susinvestigaciones futuras En otras palabras la fase final en el ciclo implica a lacomunidad en un ldquoacercamiento lsquometarsquordquo (Olson y Bruner 1996) es decir en laadopcioacuten de una perspectiva metacognitiva sobre su propio aprendizaje que a lolargo de miles de antildeos probablemente ha jugado un importante papel en eldesarrollo de cada modo de conocimiento presentado en la siacutentesis del desarrollohistoacuterico cultural de Donald (1991)3

Esta espiral necesita varias anotaciones adicionales La primera tiene quever con la naturaleza incompleta y provisional del conocimiento eacuteste estaacutesiempre abierto a la mejora mediante ciclos futuros a traveacutes de la espiral Lasegunda anotacioacuten concierne a la naturaleza esencialmente interactiva ysocial del crecimiento individual y comunitario en la comprensioacuten eacutesta seconsigue gracias a los esfuerzos de los participantes para clarificar sus pro-pios significados a los otros y alternativamente para tener en cuenta y res-ponder a los de los demaacutes (Bajtiacuten 1986) En tercer lugar es necesario enfati-zar que el crecimien to en la comprensioacuten requeriraacute espirales futuras queactiven los diferentes modos de conocimiento ya que la mayoriacutea de los cam-bios y problemas que ocurren en las instituciones maacutes allaacute del aula deman-dan un conocimiento procedimental substantivo y esteacutetico al igual que

183El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

teoacuterico y cada modo de conocimiento tiene una contribucioacuten que hacer aleacutexito de soluciones comprensivas que realcen significativamente la com-prensioacuten Finalmente en la representacioacuten de estas relaciones en la figura 3la espiral tambieacuten resalta la interdependencia de los individuos y la comuni-dad Mientras que la experiencia y la comprensioacuten son esencialmente indivi-duales en su naturaleza crecen fuera de eacutel y adoptan su significado de la par-ticipacioacuten de los individuos en el intercambio de informacioacuten y en su com-promiso en la construccioacuten de conocimiento en la comunidad extensa de laque cada individuo es miembro

Desafortunadamente muchos educadores no comprenden estas relacionesfundamentales y por eso su instruccioacuten no es conceptualizada y planificada demanera que sea oacuteptima para el desarrollo de los estudiantes Como numerososestudios han mostrado (Langer y Applebee 1987 Nystrand y Gamoran 1991)en la mayoriacutea de las clases la que gobierna la praacutectica es la concepcioacuten bancariadel conocimiento (Freire 1970) seguacuten la cual el propoacutesito de la instruccioacuten quetiene lugar en el aula es que un alumno individual esteacute preparado para puntuarbien en los tests y no tanto ampliar su conocimiento Dada esta orientacioacuten lasactividades en las que se pide a los alumnos que participen estaacuten determinadaspor la guiacutea curricular del libro de texto maacutes que por el conocimiento de los pro-fesores sobre los intereses y habilidades de los alumnos particulares de los queson responsables A esto es a lo que Tharp y Gallimore (1988) se refieren con laexpresioacuten ldquoguioacuten recitativordquo unido a la ocupacioacuten de un lugar individual de tra-bajo que domina la rutina diaria Ademaacutes los planes sobre coacutemo proceder sonndashcomo cabiacutea esperarndash unilateralmente impuestos en lugar de ser configuradossobre la base de las decisiones tomadas por la comunidad de clase como un todoy el modus operandi es la competicioacuten en lugar de la colaboracioacuten

Sin embargo como he argumentado en otra parte (Wells 1986 19992002a) eacuteste no es el uacutenico modo en el que la escolarizacioacuten puede ser condu-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187184

FIGURA 3La espiral del conocimiento

ACCIOacuteN Construccioacuten

deconocimiento

ComprensioacutenSubstantivo

Esteacutetico

Teoacuterico

Procedimental

Instrumental

Experiencia Informacioacuten

Modos de conocimiento

cida ndasha pensar de la larga historia de la recitacioacuten que se remonta a maacutes detres mil antildeos a las tempranas instituciones que entrenaban a los escribas yadministradores para leer y escribir (Cole 1996)ndash Pero probablemente elmodo por defecto de la escolarizacioacuten es parecido a una preparacioacuten para ldquolavida adultardquo y no una etapa criacutetica del desarrollo que merece la pena y essignificativa en siacute misma Como Vygotski argumentoacute sobre el dominio de laalfabetizacioacuten ldquola ensentildeanza debe organizarse de tal manera que la lectura yla escritura sean necesarias para algo La escritura debe ser incorporada enuna tarea relevante y necesaria para la vidardquo (1978 pp117-118) Y porldquovidardquo quiere decir no la vida futura sino la totalidad de los intereses y pre-ocupaciones actuales de los aprendices

En los uacuteltimos antildeos se han divulgado proyectos de una variedad de paiacuteses enlos que educadores universitarios han procurado crear condiciones para elldquoaprendizaje auteacutenticordquo en las aulas En todos estos proyectos se ha otorgado unpapel central a las actividades colaborativas que alternando entre los formatos departicipacioacuten individual en pequentildeo grupo y de la clase completa implican alos estudiantes en la exploracioacuten de temas centrales mediante investigacionespraacutecticas y tambieacuten teoacutericas y en la discusioacuten criacutetica y constructiva de sus hallaz-gos y de las implicaciones para futuras acciones El espacio no permite aquiacute unadiscusioacuten individual de estos proyectos pero lo que puede ser dicho sobre todosellos es que en sus diferentes formas valoran tanto los intereses de los alumnoscomo sus experiencias previas y persiguen ayudarles a desarrollar la disposicioacutenpara buscar la comprensioacuten maacutes que la acumulacioacuten simple de informacioacuten ypara valorar la colaboracioacuten maacutes que la competicioacuten como el medio para alcanzaresta menta4

En este contexto es digno atraer la atencioacuten hacia varias instituciones poste-riores a la escuela tales como la Fifth Dimension donde la participacioacuten en activi-dades elegidas personalmente ndasha menudo basadas en ordenadoresndash requiere a losnintildeos dominar habilidades que son tambieacuten necesarias para la escolarizacioacuten y lesproporcionan oportunidades para interactuar con voluntarios universitarios enuna posicioacuten de igualdad (Brown y Cole 2002) De manera similar algunosprogramas basados en museos (Leinhardst Crowley y Kuntson 2002) y variasformas de educacioacuten al aire libre tambieacuten capitalizan los intereses de los estu-diantes para implicarles en actividades desafiantes que demandan para la cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento procesos de diaacutelogo y toma de decisiones comparablesa aquellos encontrados en los contextos escolares previamente descritos

Finalmente si estas praacutecticas pioneras arraigan e influyen en la educacioacutenpuacuteblica con mayor amplitud es esencial que los profesores tengan oportunidadessimilares para desarrollar las disposiciones y pericia necesarias para actuar comoagentes de cambio y liacutederes de una reforma en las instituciones en las que traba-jan Es por lo tanto estimulante ver que a pesar del eacutenfasis de los dirigentes poliacute-ticos en estandarizar los curricula y en los resultados cuantificables algunos pro-gramas de formacioacuten de profesores y desarrollo profesional anima a los profeso-res sobre la base de investigaciones sobre su propia praacutectica a tomar sus propiasdecisiones sobre queacute debe ser ensentildeado y coacutemo y a compartir los resultados desus investigaciones con los compantildeeros Este ha sido el motor de mi propio tra-bajo en los antildeos recientes ya que he participado en la investigacioacuten colaborativacon profesores para crear y mantener comunidades de investigacioacuten tanto en cla-ses como entre los mismos profesores5

185El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Notas1 La secuencia temporal implicada por esta formulacioacuten ha sido ampliamente debatida y especialmente el movimiento desde fueraa dentro que sugiere Mi propia comprensioacuten de lo que la apropiacioacuten supone se capta mejor con el ejemplo de aprender a bailarmediante la inmersioacuten en la actividad con otros (Wells 1999) En muchos casos no hay separacioacuten entre antes y despueacutes o entrefuera y dentro y no hay necesidad de demostracioacuten o ejemplificacioacuten En lugar de esto estando inmerso en la actividad conjuntael principiante es literalmente entrenado fiacutesicamente por los movimiento del coparticipante mientras que al mismo tiempoconstruye su propia organizacioacuten ndashy quizaacute incluso una representacioacuten esquemaacuteticandash de los movimientos corporales A lo largo deltiempo este esquema estaacute tan bien organizado que el principiante se convierte en un experto que estaacute preparado paralelamentepara introducir a otros en la actividad Esto es lo que Lave y Wenger (1991) y Rogoff (2003) quieren decir por desarrollo median-te la participacioacuten en actividades culturales

2 Estoy agradecido a Natalia Gajdamaschko y Steve Gabosch por sus valiosas discusiones de esta distincioacuten durante el XMCA cursoonline sobre la teoriacutea de la actividad histoacuterico cultural Abril 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Aunque estaacute incluido en la Tabla I este modo de conocimiento no ha sido discutido aquiacute ya que el reconocimiento expliacutecito deeste importante modo de conocimiento es muy reciente (Brown 1975) Sin embargo eso no significa que sea en siacute mismo unnuevo fenoacutemeno

4 Para algunos ejemplos representativos veacutease Brown y Campione 1994 Lampert Rittenhouse y Crumbaugh 1996 McMahonRaphael Goatley y Pardo 1997 Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford y Brown 1998 Scardamalia Bereiter y Lamon 1994

5 Juntos formamos un grupo de investigacioacuten colaborativo DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project)(Wells (Ed) 2001)

ReferenciasBAJTIacuteN M M (1986) Speech genres and other late essays Austin University of Texas PressBERNSTEIN B (1982) Codes modalities and the process of cultural reproduction A model En M Apple (Ed) Cultural and econo-

mic reproduction in education (pp 304-355) Londres Routledge amp Kegan PaulBROWN A L (1975) The development of memory Knowing knowing about knowing and knowing how to know En H W

Reese (Ed) Advances in child development and behavior (Vol 10 pp 103-152) Nueva York Academic Press BROWN A L amp CAMPIONE J C (1994) Guided discovery in a community of learners En K McGilly (Ed) Integrating cognitive

theory and classroom practice Classroom lessons (pp 229-270) Cambridge MA MIT PressBradford BooksBROWN K amp COLE M (2002) Cultural historical activity theory and the expansion of opportunities for learning after school En

G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 225-238)Oxford Blackwell

BRUNER J S (1990) Acts of meaning Cambridge MA Harvard University PressCARR M (2002) Emerging learning narratives A perspective from early childhood education En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds)

Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 99-111) Oxford BlackwellCOLE M (1996) Cultural psychology A once and future discipline Cambridge MA The Bellknap Press of Harvard University PressDEACON T W (1997) The symbolic species The co-evolution of language and the brain Nueva York NortonDIAMOND J (1998) Guns germs and steel The fates of human societies Nueva York NortonDONALD M (1991) Origins of the Modern Mind Three Stages in the Evolution of Culture and Cognition Cambridge MA Harvard

University PressDONOAHUE Z (2003) Science teaching and learning Teachers and children plan together Networks 6(1) httpwwwoiseuto-

rontoca~ctdnetworksjournal Vol 6 (1) 2003marchENGESTROumlM Y (1999) Activity theory and individual and social transformation Y En Engestrom R Miettinen amp R-L Puna-

maki (Eds) Perspectives on activity theory (pp 19-38) Cambridge Cambridge University PressFREIRE P (1970) Pedagogy of the oppressed Nueva York Herder and HerderHALLIDAY M A K (1975) Learning how to mean Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1978) Language as social semiotic The social interpretation of language and meaning Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1993) Towards a language-based theory of learning Linguistics and Education 5 93-116HASAN R (2002) Semiotic mediation and mental development in pluralistic societies Some implications for tomorrowrsquos schoo-

ling En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural peerspectives on the future of education (pp112-126) Oxford Blackwell

HEATH S B (1983) Ways with words Cambridge Cambridge University PressLAMPERT M RITTENHOUSE P amp CRUMBAUGH C (1996) Agreeing to disagree Developing sociable mathematical discourse En

D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook of education and human development (pp 731-764) Cambridge MA Blackwell LANGER J A amp APPLEBEE A N (1987) How writing shapes thinking A study of teaching and learning Urbana IL National Council

of Teachers of EnglishLAVE J (1996) Teaching as learning in practice Mind Culture and Activity 3 (3) 149-164LAVE J amp WENGER E (1991) Situated Learning Legitimate peripheral participation Nueva York Cambridge University PressLEINHARDT G CROWLEY K amp KNUTSON K (2002) Learning conversations Explanation and identity in museums Mahwah NJ

Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesLEONTIEV A N (1981) The problem of activity in psychology En J VWertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 37-71) Armonk NY SharpeMAYBIN J MERCER N amp STIERER B (1992) lsquoScaffoldingrsquo learning in the classroom En K Norman (Ed) Thinking voices The

work of the National Oracy Project (pp 186-195) Londres Hodder amp StoughtonMCMAHON S I RAPHAEL T E GOATLEY V J amp PARDO L S (Eds) (1997) The Book Club connection Literacy learning and class-

room talk Nueva York Teachers College PressNELSON K (1996) Language in cognitive development The emergence of the mediated mind Nueva York Cambridge University PressNEWSON J (1978) Dialogue and development En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol The emergence of language (pp 31-42)

New York Academic Press

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187186

NYSTRAND M amp GAMORAN A (1991) Student engagement When recitation becomes conversation En H C Waxman amp H JWalberg (Eds) Effective teaching Current research (pp 257-276)Berkeley CA McCutchan Publishing Corp

OLSON D R amp BRUNER J S (1996) Folk psychology and folk pedagogy En D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook ofeducation and human development (pp 9-27) Cambridge MA Blackwell

PALINCSAR A MAGNUSSON S MARANO N FORD D amp BROWN N (1998) Designing a community of practice Principlesand practices of the GIsML Community Teaching and Teacher Education 14 (1) 5-20

PIAGET J (1970) Piagetrsquos theory En P H Mussen (Ed) Carmichaelrsquos handbook of child development (pp 703-732) Nueva YorkWiley

PONTECORVO C amp STERPONI L (2002) Learning to argue and reason through discourse in educational settings En G Wells ampG Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 127-140) OxfordBlackwell

ROGOFF B (1990) Apprenticeship in thinking Cognitive development in social context Nueva York Oxford University PressROGOFF B (1994) Developing understanding of the idea of Communities of Learners Mind Culture and Activity 1 (4) 209-

229ROGOFF B (2003) The cultural nature of human development Nueva York Oxford University PressROSENBLATT L (1978) The reader the text the poem The transactional theory of the literary work Carbondale IL Southern Illinois

University PressSCARDAMALIA M C BEREITER amp LAMON M (1994) The CSILE project Trying to bring the classroom into World 3 En K

McGilley (Ed) Classroom lessons Integrating cognitive theory and classroom practice (pp 201-228) Cambridge MA MITPress

SCRIBNER S (1985) Vygotskyrsquos uses of history En J V Wertsch (Ed) Culture communication and cognition Vygotskian perspectives(pp 119-145) Cambridge Cambridge University Press

THARP R amp GALLIMORE R (1988) Rousing minds to life Nueva York Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C (1979) Communication and cooperation in early infancy a description of primary intersubjectivity En M

Bullowa (Ed) Before speech The beginning of interpersonal communication (pp 321-348) Cambridge Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C amp HUBLEY P (1978) Secondary intersubjectivity Confidence confiding and acts of meaning in the first year

En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol the emergence of language (pp 183-230) Nueva York Academic PressVYGOTSKI L S (1978)Mind in society The development of higher psychological processes Cambridge MA Harvard University PressVYGOTSKI L S (1981) The genesis of higher mental functions En J V Wertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 144-188) Armonk NY SharpeVYGOTSKI L S (1987) Thinking and speech En R W Rieber amp A S Carton (Eds) The collected works of L S Vygotsky Volumen

1 Problems of general psychology (pp 39-285) Nueva York PlenumWARTOFSKY M (1979) Models representation and scientific understanding Boston ReidelWELLS G (1985) Language development in the pre-school years Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (1986) The meaning makers Children learning language and using language to learn Portsmouth NH HeinemannWELLS G (1999) Dialogic inquiry Towards a sociocultural practice and theory of education Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (Ed) (2001) Action talk and text Learning and teaching through inquiry Nueva York Teachers College PressWELLS G (2002a) Learning and teaching for understanding The key role of collaborative knowledge building En J Brophy

(Ed) Social constructivist teaching Affordances and constraints (pp 1-41) Osford Elsevier ScienceJAIWELLS G (2002b) The role of dialogue in activity theory Mind Culture and Activity 9 (1) 43-66WERTSCH J V MINICK N amp ARNS F J (1984) The creation of context in joint problem solving En B Rogoff amp J Lave (Eds)

Everyday cognition Its development in social context (pp 151-171) Cambridge Cambridge University PressWOOD D BRUNER J S amp ROSS G (1976) The role of tutoring in problem-solving Journal of Child Psychology and Child Psy-

chiatry 17 89-100

187El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Original text

Introduction

Compared with other species the characteristic that distinguishes humans isthe ability and proclivity to engage in tool-mediated joint activity with otherhumans It is this characteristic that accounts for the development of human cul-tures over the course of history as they invented artefacts of various kinds inorder to adapt to and exploit the ecological niches in which they found themsel-ves It also accounts for the diversity of individual personsrsquo development whichdepend on the particular activities in which they participate As Vygotsky(1978 1981) was one of the first to point out the lsquohigherrsquo mental functions thatmake us human are not biologically given but are developmentally constructedthrough the appropriation of historically developed tools and practices that aremade manifest to the child and lsquoscaffoldedrsquo in the meaningful actions and utte-rances of the coparticipants in joint activity

Before continuing readers might find it interesting to reflect on their owndevelopmental trajectories to who they are today I suspect that they may findthemselves agreeing that Who we become depends on the company we keep and what wedo together

A Brief History of the Development of Joint Activity

Leontrsquoev provides a succinct account of Vygotskyrsquos insight in the followingsummary

The initial ideas that led Vygotsky to investigate the genesis of internal mental activity fromexternal activity are fundamentally different from the theoretical approaches of other modernauthors These ideas came from the analysis of the features unique to human productive laboractivity which is mediated by tools This activity is initially social in nature that is it is deve-loped under the conditions of cooperation and social interaction among people Vygotskyidentified two main interconnected features [of this activity] that are necessarily fundamentalfor psychology its tool-like (lsquoinstrumentalrsquo) structure and its inclusion in a system of interre-lations with other people It is these features that define the nature of human psychologicalprocesses The tool mediates activity and thus connects humans not only with the world ofobjects but also with other people Because of this humanrsquos activity assimilates the experience ofhumankind This means that humansrsquo mental processes (their lsquohigher psychological functionsrsquo)acquire a structure necessarily tied to the sociohistorically formed means and methods trans-mitted to them by others in the process of cooperative labor and social interaction But it isimpossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in any way otherthan a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words higher psycho-logical processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction with others thatis through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried out indepen-dently by the individual (Leontrsquoev 1981 pp 55-56 emphases in the original)

As well as emphasizing the social and cooperative nature of human activity thisquotation is important with respect to the arguments that I want to develop inthis paper as it highlights the central role of semiotic mediation in developmentKnowledge is created as well as appropriated in the discourse among peoplewho are working together in a specific situation in order to create or improve anartefact or to solve a problem of importance to the group However Leontrsquoevalso alludes to another of Vygotskyrsquos key insights namely that in order tounderstand current activity it is necessary to investigate the history of that acti-vity It is to this that I next turn

In analyzing the history of human development at least four different time-scales need to be considered The longest is the history of the cultural evolution of

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

the species (the phylogenetic level) next is the historical development of particu-lar cultures The third level (ontogenetic) traces the developmental trajectory ofindividual humans over the course of the lifespan Finally the microgenetic levelis concerned with the development of an instance of a particular activity

In practice it is the latter that has been explored in most detail for usingcontemporary technology it is relatively easy to observe and record the sequenceof actions through which an activity is enacted and the specific operations inwhich the participants engage making use of the relevant artefacts that are avai-lable in the situation (Leontrsquoev 1981) These artefacts may be either material(knives pencils automobiles) or symbolic (utterances maps theories) ndashthoughas Cole (1996) has pointed out to function as mediators of joint activity all arte-facts must have some form of material embodiment as well as a symbolic mea-ning that is to say they must be ready to hand and also have a cultural signifi-cance relevant to the situation

However the form in which a particular instance of activity is realizeddepends not only on the artefacts that are to hand in the situation but also onthe participantsrsquo past experiences with the practices in which the artefacts areused to mediate achievement of the action goals that contribute to the joint acti-vity Thus the microgenesis of a particular instance of activity is necessarilydependent upon the ontogenetic development of the participants that is to sayupon the opportunities their life trajectories have afforded them to appropriatethe relevant cultural knowledge through participation in instances of similaractions and operations

But on the time-scale of ontogenetic development each individualrsquos trajectoryof development is itself strongly influenced by the culture in which he or she isgrowing up and on the historical development of that culture As Rogoff (2003)illustrates in considerable detail cultures vary considerably both over time andacross ecological niches in what mediating artefacts and practices are available andin the relative value accorded to each Moreover within each culture at any parti-cular historical moment participants in activities both incorporate the ways ofprevious generations and adapt them to the exigencies of current conditions

Stepping up one further level the historical development of a particular cul-tures is itself shaped by development on the even larger timescale of the culturaland biological evolution of the species This is the most difficult timescale todescribe in detail for lack of the necessary evidence But certain broad distinc-tions between human communities can be made in terms of their modes of sub-sistence and of the mediating means available for joint activity (Diamond 1998Donald 1991) As recent research has shown our earliest ancestors some 5million years ago lived in small bands of hunter gatherers often on the edge oflakes and oceans Initially their tools were found in the surroundings but overseveral million years they invented ways of making more sophisticated artefactssuch as knives arrowheads baskets and clothing from flints bones skins andvegetable materials Then as some groups migrated to particularly fertile partsof the world they adopted a more settled agrarian way of life growing cropsand breeding animals The resulting ability to produce more food than imme-diately required led in turn to the emergence of trade and to a diversity of spe-cialist occupations such as potters and tailors who exchanged their products forfood and other necessities This stage also saw the development of much largerpopulation groupings with hierarchical class structures that included prieststax collectors and other religious and political functionaries

While migration had been a common feature of human existence from theearliest times the development of large settled populations and of weapons

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

made of bronze and iron led to the expansion of certain cultural groups throughterritorial conquest and colonization by sea and by land As a result during thelast few thousand years the latest phase of phylogenetic development has beencharacterized by the rise and fall of imperial cultures which have imposed theirtechnologies laws and administrative procedures as well as their religions artsknowledge and values on widely diverse subjugated populations Most recentlythe further development of the inventions that led to the first industrial revolu-tion has simply served to increase the scale and intensity of these imperialisttrends At the same time these inventions as well as those of the current indus-trial revolution have also led to a great increase in humansrsquo understanding oftheir social and material environment both through scientific and social rese-arch and through the dissemination of information about other times and placesresulting from travel and the use of print and electronic technologies

In presenting this very condensed account of phylogenetic development Ihave emphasized the material tools that have mediated the progressively morecomplex and diverse activities in which humans have engaged over the course ofthe speciesrsquo history However bearing in mind that what has been the drivingforce of human development is joint activity an equally ndashif not morendash impor-tant determinant of this history is the development of the modes of representa-tion through which humans have communicated and developed their unders-tanding of the world Table I presents the developmental sequence proposed byDonald (1991) based on archeological neuroanatomical historical and othertypes of evidence The table also includes the stages in the historical develop-ment of ways of knowing that were proposed by Wartofsky (1979)

The first stage in this sequence corresponds to the phase in which proto-humans began to diverge from other primate species In this phase as in thebehavior of contemporary higher primates practical action was the predomi-nant form of communication as ndashnot necessarily deliberatelyndash participants sig-naled their intentions in a shared situation and these intentions were interpre-ted and responded to by their co-participants in the activity In the secondmimetic phase which must have developed gradually over many millenniacommunication became somewhat differentiated from the activity to which itreferred as humans deliberately used gestures mime facial expression andvarious types of phonation to comment on as well as to coordinate action and theobjects to which it was directed Later still with the gradual modification of thevocal tract and of the primate brain there emerged the ability to communicatethrough speech and hence the ability to refer not only to particular objects andactions but also to generalized classes and to express observed and intendedrelationships between objects actions and events thus allowing participants toplan for and reflect on the outcomes of joint activity Finally the invention ofwriting which ushered in the final phase in Donaldrsquos proposed sequence occu-rred extremely recently in the long trajectory of phylogenetic development Yetas with those that preceded it enormously increased the human repertoire ofmeans for making and communicating meaning Essentially what it added wasan ldquoexternal memoryrdquo By creating a (relatively) permanent representation oflinguistic meaning it made possible the compilation and distillation of repor-ted information from many sources including the writerrsquos own verbalizedthoughts It also allowed the writer and those who read his or her written textto review critique and revise the meanings expressed and to make the resultsavailable to people in later times and other places for further constructive debateand improvement

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

However action gesture speech and writing are not simply progressivelymore powerful modes of communication They are also progressively morepowerful mediators of thinking This is most obvious with respect to the lin-guistic modes of communication But even before the emergence of speechaction and ndashto an even greater extentndash mimesis enabled humans to think toget-her and thereby to create a shared interpretation of their joint activities In fact ithas been argued that the emergence of language was not simply the result ofbrain and vocal tract development but rather was part of a more general patternof adaptation that building upon the cognitive achievements of mimetic kno-wing strove to integrate the unconnected bits of information in a more compre-hensive and coherent account of being-in-the-world (Deacon 1997) Neverthe-less it is also true that the availability of language greatly enhanced both com-munication and thinking together for as Halliday observed

the grammar of every natural language is (among other things) a theory of human experienceit is through our acts of meaning that we transform experience into the coherent -though farfrom consistent- patchwork that we learn to project as lsquorealityrsquo (1993 p 46)

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

TABLE IModes Of Knowing Phylogenetic And Cultural Development (from Wells 1999)

Time Mode of Participants Donald(1991) Wartofsky(1979)Years BP Knowing

2 million Instrumental Individual in action Episodic Primary artifactsyears material tools

1 -- 15 million Procedural Between individuals while Mimetic Secondaryyears engaged in action artifacts tools

and practicesmimeticinteraction

50000 Substantive Among members of a (Linguistic) Secondaryyears cultural group reflecting on artifacts

action and as a basis for representations ofplanning further action tools and

practices spokeninteraction

50000 Aesthetic Among members of a Mythic Tertiary artifactsyears cultural group making sense artistic represent-

of the human predicament ations in mythnarrative graphicand musical modes

2500 Theoretical Among members of a Theoretic Tertiary artifactsyears specialist community decontextualized

seeking to explain the natural representationsand human world such as

taxonomiestheories models etc

Meta Among members of a Tertiary artifacts cultural group also representations ofindividuals seeking to mental andunderstand and control their semioticown mental activity processes

In sum what Donald and other scholars argue is that contemporary mentalabilities are the outcome of the development over time of a series of progressi-vely more powerful and flexible modes of representation ndashor in Vygotskyanterms of semiotic mediators of higher mental functions- that have made possi-ble the rational theoretically oriented modes of knowing that underpin theachievements of modern science and its technological applications In the philo-sopher Wartofskyrsquos words

our own perceptual and cognitive understanding of the world is in large part shaped andchanged by the representational artifacts we ourselves create We are in effect the products ofour own activity in this way we transform our own perceptual and cognitive modes our waysof seeing and of understanding by means of the representations we make (1979 p xxiii)

There is however one further important aspect of Donaldrsquos (1991) thesis thatis crucial for the argument that I wish to develop Although the semiotic sys-tems of mimesis speech and writing each powered a new mode of cognitiveactivity they did not replace those that preceded but were additive in theireffects The result is that contemporary humans have a variety of modes of kno-wing at their disposal as they engage in joint activity Furthermore most suchactivities call for more than one mode of knowing and require the complemen-tary and interdependent use of more than one mode of representation

Joint Activity as the Site of Ontogenetic Learning and Development

Two important implications follow from the multi-level historical concep-tion of development just outlined First on any occasion the type of activitythat is undertaken and the specific manner in which it is enacted are necessarilydependent on the particular cultural-historical antecedents of the participantsboth human and artefactual that come together in its realization In particularthe manner in which the situation is interpreted ndashin terms of what action goalsare appropriate and how they can be achievedndash depends on the motives valuesand knowledgeable skills of the human participants and on the affordances ofthe technologies available in the situation And second every instance of an acti-vity provides an occasion for a triple transformation of the situation in whichthe activity is carried out of the artefacts and practices that mediate its enact-ment and most importantly of the knowledge and skills of the human partici-pants Taken together these propositions clarify the way in which cultural andindividual development are both interdependent and rooted in particular situa-ted occasions of joint activity As Rogoff (1994) argues

People of each generation as they engage in sociocultural endeavors with other people makeuse of and extend cultural tools and practices inherited from previous generations As peopledevelop through their shared use of cultural tools and practices they simultaneously contribu-te to the transformation of cultural tools practices and institutions (p 52)

Potentially therefore every occasion of joint activity provides an opportunityfor development on the part of all participants This is a point to which I shallreturn But first I want to consider more carefully the concept of developmentitself

Clearly built into the concept of development is the implication of change andtypically of change in the direction of increasing complexity and effectiveness Inother words development is typically taken to imply improvement or progresstoward some ideal end state or capability However in the light of the previousdiscussion such a progression while it may be meaningful to (some of the) partici-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

pants in any particular situation cannot be understood in any absolute sense butmust be seen as relative to the unfolding historical trajectory of the species of aparticular culture and of the immediate community ndashits values its dominantactivities and the knowledgeable skills that form its resources Furthermore just asthese have changed in the past they will continue to change in the future in res-ponse to the changing demands of the larger environment So while ontogeneticdevelopment does indeed involve increasing complexity and effectiveness of indi-vidualsrsquo participation in the activity systems in which they are involved in theirdaily lives the overall trajectory of development is emergent and its endpoint cannever be specified in advance even in terms of an ideal to be attained

Nevertheless this does not mean that there are not strong regularities in thesequence of ontogenetic development particularly in the early years Indeed asNelson (1996) has suggested during the preschool years children follow a trajec-tory very similar to the sequence of phylogenetic development proposed byDonald (1991) (see Table I above) as they appropriate the semiotic tools of repre-sentation afforded by action mimesis speech and writing Of course this is not asimple recapitulation children growing up in a contemporary literate culture forexample are surrounded from birth by artifacts and practices that result from andembody all the available modes of knowing (Cole 1996) Appropriating existingcultural tools is thus very different from inventing them ex novo as Scribner (1985)points out Nevertheless given the combination of biological and cultural inheri-tance it is not surprising that in most if not all cultures children follow the samesequence as did the species as a whole over the course of history

In the first weeks of life infants act on their immediate surroundings bothanimate and inanimate and begin to develop what Piaget (1970) called sensori-motor intelligence However although this most basic form of activity mayappear to be instinctual it is nevertheless also inherently social First all infantsare born into an environment that is cultural in the sense of having been shapedby countless preceding generations and second the infantrsquos actions are treatedas being intentional and are responded to as such So from the beginning theinfant is caught up in social interaction (Newson 1978) In the second phasewhich typically begins in the first few months the infant also begins to engagein mimetic communication through gaze facial expression and rudimentarygesture (Bruner 1990) Couched in terms of primary and secondary intersubjec-tivity this phase has been described in considerable detail by Trevarthen (19781979) Primary intersubjectivity develops as the infant and parent engage inmutual gaze thereby communicating that they are attending to and respondingto each other In secondary intersubjectivity third parties are brought into jointattention as the parent through gaze directs the infantrsquos attention to an object ofpotential interest or follows the childrsquos direction of gaze and signals that he orshe is also attending to the same object

It is on this basis of joint action and attention that towards the end of thefirst year the child begins to exploit his or her growing command of vocaliza-tion often accompanied by gesture to begin to communicate through speechFrom research predominantly involving children in ldquoWesternrdquo societies it hasbeen established that at first the childrsquos utterances are idiosyncratic drawingonly partially ndashif at allndash on the speech of those around him or her neverthelessparents and other family members have little difficulty in interpreting them incontext and once again they respond in a manner that is contingent on theirinterpretation thereby establishing spoken communication as a joint interactiveactivity By the end of the second year however children appear to abandon thisidiosyncratic ldquoprotolanguagerdquo form of communication and begin to construct a

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

linguistic meaning potential that is systematically related to the language thatis addressed to them in the oft-repeated activities of family life (Bruner 1990Halliday 1975 Wells 1986) Significantly within particular language com-munities the sequence in which children master the basic meanings and thelexicogrammatical forms in which they are realized tends to be very similar fromchild to child (Wells 1985)

The developmental sequence just described ndashaction mimesis speechndash is com-mon to children in all cultures and in all cases takes place in and through jointactivity and interaction with other family and community members Howeveralthough the sequence is universal the manner and pace at which it proceeds varyvery considerably across cultures These differences depend upon many culturally-determined factors such as adult expectations about their childrenrsquos developmentthe position in which the infant is typically held or carried facing the caregiver orturned outwards to face in the same direction as the caregiver the makeup and sizeof the interactional groups in which communication typically occurs and whetherthese events are part of family and community life more generally or are delibera-tely arranged and structured for the presumed benefit of the child (Rogoff 2003)In the later stages of language development the range and extent of the meaningpotential that children construct begins to vary even more widely depending onthe activities in which they engage the linguistic registers that are used in thoseactivities and the stances typically adopted by interlocutors toward the use of lan-guage in their interactions with children (Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

So far the ontogenetic developmental sequence I have described is funda-mentally similar across cultures and follows the phylogenetic sequence in whichhumans have progressively added new semiotic mediational means to theircommunicative repertoires In an important sense therefore the final mode ofrepresentation in Donaldrsquos scheme that of writing is an optional extra sincemany cultures have survived and prospered without a written mode of represen-ting meaning Moreover even in cultures that have a writing system the extentand scope of literacy that individuals attain varies very considerably dependingon the activity systems in which they participate the value that is placed onwritten texts by those communmities the purposes to which they are put andthe genres that are used for those purposes However since literacy and its usesare so strongly associated with schooling I shall leave further discussion of thismode of semiotic mediation to a later part of this paper

Before concluding this section however I want to explore further the con-cept of semiotic mediation In one of the better known passages in Vygotskyrsquoswritings where he argued for the social and cultural origin of higher mentalfunctions he wrote that every function occurs on two planes first in activity andinteraction between people and then within the individual learner (Vygotsky1981) What bridges between these two planes as is clear from his other wri-tings is semiotic mediation To recall Leontrsquoevrsquos formulation of this argument

hellip it is impossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in anyway other than a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words hig-her psychological processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction withothers that is through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried outindependently by the individual (1981 pp 55-56)

In other words when people engage in joint activity their actions gesturesand speech not only mediate the coordination of participation but they alsomake overt the mental activities involved and so render them available forappropriation by novice participants1 Halliday is very clear about this Alt-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

hough the following quotation refers only to language the term lsquolanguagersquocould justifiably be replaced by lsquosemiotic mediationrsquo

In the development of the child as a social being language has the central role Language is themain channel through which the patterns of living are transmitted to him through which helearns to act as a member of lsquosocietyrsquo ndashin and through the various social groups the family theneighbourhood and so onndash and to adopt its lsquoculturersquo its modes of thought and action itsbeliefs and its values (1978 p 9)

However as the child grows older language does become the predominantmode of semiotic mediation and as he wrote in a later paper ldquoLanguage is theessential condition of knowing the process by which experience becomes know-ledge (Halliday 1993 p 94 original emphasis)

Assistance for Learning in Joint Activitie

So far in the discussion of the role of joint activity in human development Ihave concentrated on the tools and particularly the semiotic modes of represen-tation that mediate the achievement of the outcome of activity In this sectionon the other hand I turn to the role of other people in this process both familymembers and the larger community

Until now I have referred to coparticipants in an activity in general termsbut clearly there are further distinctions to be made Particularly helpful in thisrespect is Engestroumlmrsquos model of an activity system which is shown in figure 1

What this model shows is that when we look at an ongoing activity from thepoint of view of an individual participant (t Subject) that individual is involvedin a nexus of other relationships that link him or her to other lsquoparticipantsrsquo theTools and artifacts to mediate action on the Object but also the Community of

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 1The Triangle of Activity

Artifactstools andpractices

Values rulesamp conventions

Community Divisioacutenof labor

Engestrom 1999

Object OutcomeSubject

others engaged in the activity together with the Division of Labor within thatcommunity and also the Rules and Conventions that govern the manner inwhich the activity is carried out (Engestroumlm 1999) What this latter category oflsquoparticipantrsquo underscores is the historical dimension of an activity system sincethese rules and conventions ndashas well as the tools and artifactsndash bring into thepresent the distilled practices of previous generations who have engaged in theactivity as these are interpreted and utilized by the current community

To illustrate the relevance of this model to the development of the youngchild we might compare two versions of a similar activity reported by WertschMinick and Arns (1984) In their study Brazilian children carried out a puzzletask on two occasions first with the mother and secondly with a primary tea-cher What the researchers found was that in general the mothers and teachersengaged in the activity in systematically different ways Whereas the motherstended to direct the childrenrsquos behavior or even carry out parts of the task them-selves in order to complete it in an efficient manner ndashjust as they would havedone if engaged in a household taskndash the teachers tended to encourage thechildrsquos autonomous performance and only provided hints and suggestions whenthey judged them to be necessary to advance the childrenrsquos understandingInterpreting these results the researchers suggested that the two groups ofadults belonged to two different communities (or activity systems) that had dif-ferent rules and conventions about engaging in this joint activity And this inturn led to the different divisions of labor that they observed Similarly Rogoff(2003) cites many examples of substantial differences between cultures inalmost all aspects of child rearing with respect to their ways of engaging chil-dren in the activities that they consider important

What is clear is that ldquobehindrdquo the particular adult ndashor older siblings in someculturesndash who are directly engaged with the child there is a wider communityof family members neighbors and others who have an interest in the upbrin-ging of children and who share beliefs about appropriate ways to involve themin the activities of daily life So whether in Spain Japan or the Peruvian High-lands although the actual practices vary across cultures in each those responsi-ble for childrenrsquos well-being and development act as agents of a wider commu-nity whose beliefs and practices are rooted in a long tradition concerning howactivities should be carried out But equally in all cultures practices also changein response to changes in the world beyond the particular community In manyWestern homes for example computer games or television programs haverecently taken the place of the bedtime story while in many indigenous com-munities crafts that until recently only supplied local needs are now exploitedcommercially for the tourist trade changing the rhythms of daily life and therelationships among family members and the activities in which children areinvolved As suggested earlier therefore in order to understand the activities inwhich children participate today we need to look not only at the immediatesituation but also at the wider community and the changes taking place on allthese time-scales

Microgenesis and the Zone of Proximal Development

It is nevertheless always the immediate microgenetic situation that isthe site of ontogenetic development ndashthe action and interaction between thelearner and those with whom he or she is engaged in the activity in pro-gress When we adopt this microgenetic perspective however we need tomodify the representation of an activity system presented in figure 1 Inthat representation the focus was on the goal-oriented nature of action

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Here we need to focus on the interaction among the participants ndashtheirattempt to attain intersubjectivity with respect to the common object andthe complementarity of the knowledgeable skills they bring to the cocons-truction of the intended outcome (see Figure 2) What figure 2 emphasizesis the fact that although the tools and artefacts that are available to mediatethe jointly undertaken action are the same for each participant each bringsa somewhat different familiarity with their use as a result of their differentlife trajectories and it is this variability in their expertise that makes it pos-sible for each to provide assistance to the others in at least some aspects ofthe joint action Viewed in this light it is clear why Vygotsky emphasizedthe role of joint activity in development and wrote of its potential to enablelearners ldquoto go beyond themselvesrdquo with the assistance of more expertothers

The metaphor Vygotsky used to characterize the potential for learning thatthis sort of activity creates was the ldquozone of proximal developmentrdquo As hewrote when another participant in the activity provides instruction that isappropriately pitched beyond what the learner can manage to do on his or herown it ldquowakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturationlying in the zone of proximal developmentrdquo (1987 p 212) Vygotsky concep-tualized development as the formation of new functional systems (ldquoneoforma-tionsrdquo) and of changes in the relationships among systems which he consideredto occur as a succession of ldquocrises of developmentrdquo that are particularly facilitatedby engagement in the relevant ldquoleading activityrdquo at each stage for example playin childhood and learning to read and write in the early school yearsHowever itwould be a mistake to focus only on the periods of revolutionary change since ashe equally emphasized at any time there are also other more gradual processes ofgrowth

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 2Dialogue in Joint Activity(from Wells2002b)

Outcomematerial ampsemioticartefacts

Toolsartefacts

Subject

Rulesconventions

Community Divisionof labor

Subject

Toolsartefacts

Processes that are central lines of development at one age become peripheral lines of develop-ment at the following age and conversely peripheral lines of development of one age arebrought to the forefront and become central lines since their meaning and relative significancein the total structure of development changes (p 197)2

In developing his important concept of the zone of proximal developmentVygotsky tended to characterize the assistance given by others as ldquoinstructionrdquoand to see its value in ldquothe childrsquos potential to raise himself to a higher intellec-tual level of development through collaboration to move from what he has towhat he does not have through imitationrdquo (1987 p 210) However manyrecent scholars who have built on his work have taken a broader view of thedevelopmental significance of collaboration in joint activities and have characte-rized the assistance that is provided within this relationship in terms such asldquoapprenticeshiprdquo (Lave amp Wenger 1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoguided participationrdquo(Rogoff 1994 2003) and ldquoscaffoldingrdquo (Wood et al 1976) Neverthelesswhile these different metaphors highlight different features of the relationshipwhat they all have in common is the inclusion of the learner in an activity inwhich there is provision of the assistance necessary to help the learner to comple-te an activity in which he or she is interested and to do so in such a way that heor she makes progress toward being able to participate more fully and autono-mously in the future (Maybin Mercer and Stierer 1992)

In many joint activities such as for example traditional forms of craftapprenticeship assistance is only provided when needed and the ldquomasterrdquo doesso with no deliberate didactic intention beyond that of involving the novice inthe completion of the particular task in hand (Lave 1996) Similarly in sociali-zation into activities around the home no explicit instruction is necessary fornovices can learn a great deal by simply watching and listening (cf Rogoff2003) This is what Lave and Wenger (1991) mean when they insist that lear-ning is not an independent activity but an intrinsic aspect of ldquolegitimate perip-heral participationrdquo in a communityrsquos activities From their perspective therefo-re formal education in which learning is the sole purpose of the activity issomething of an anomaly particularly when the only form of assistance providedis the expert teacherrsquos direct instruction and subsequent evaluation of the extentof the studentsrsquo learning

In many recent discussions it has also been recognized that it is not only aldquoteacherrdquo who can provide assistance in the zpd On the one hand in a com-plex activity many participants are more expert than others in some aspectsand therefore on some occasions are able to help those who are less expert(Rogoff 1994) and on the other hand those who provide assistance do nothave to be physically present texts and other artifacts can equally well helpa participant ldquoto go beyond himherselfrdquo as is often the case in intellectualwork such as research and writ ing (Wells 1999) Furthermore asEngestroumlm (1999) and others ndashbuilding on other aspects of Vygotskyrsquos theo-retical writingsndash have noted the material and symbolic tools that have beendeveloped by previous participants in the activity can also provide the samesort of assistance However perhaps the most important point to emphasizeis that there are many situations in which no-one is an expert yet as eachbrings his or her own past experience to the solution of a common problemthe group together is able to achieve more than any single member couldhave done alone Clearly it is such collaboration that has made possible theinventions that have led to the major advances of great civilizations over thecourse of cultural history

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Development in the Pre-School Years

As noted above the responsibility for caring for children in early childhoodvaries very considerably from one society to another Nevertheless in all socie-ties children are involved in joint activities with others in which they receiveassistance with respect to their participation however that may be locally achie-ved For the most part as already mentioned these are activities that are regu-larly repeated in the taken-for-granted routines of daily life The expectation isthat the child will learn to fit in and is simply helped to do so Often referred toas ldquoenculturationrdquo this form of apprenticeship ensures the continuity of the cul-turersquos way of life from one generation to the next and as Donald (1991) arguedit probably occurred even before the emergence of speech

However in all activities there are occasions when problems arise that callfor some level of deliberate decision-making In these situations spoken interac-tion makes possible a degree of reflection and forward planning in which therelations of cause and effect intention action and outcome are made explicitand open to question and discussion The talk that occurs on these occasionsthus plays a particularly important role in helping children to attend to andunderstand the world around them in terms of the culturersquos ways of ldquomakingsenserdquo of it However these occasions can also open up possibilities for changeboth in the form of the activity and in the participantsrsquo understanding of itHow caregivers habitually take up these opportunities is particularly importantfor it plays an important part in shaping the intellectual dispositions withwhich children enter school (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo amp Sterponi2002)

In this section I include some representative examples of kinds of talk thatarise from joint activities in the home These examples are drawn from observa-tions made in settings in England (Wells 1986) and Australia (Hasan 2002) inwhich the young children observed spent most of their time at home with oneparent sometimes with one or more siblings some of the time they entertainedthemselves with occasional adult involvement but they also frequently watchedand ldquohelpedrdquo the parent with household tasks of various kinds

In the first example James (aged 3 12 years) has been playing alone in thegarden and as he reenters the house his mother tries to get him to take off hismuddy shoes However at that moment he sees a bird outside which interestshim more than changing his shoes

Example 1Mother There we are there one slipper onJames I can see a birdMother A what loveJames See a bird Mother (whispering) Is there OutsideJames (pointing and whispering) Yes see

(both continue to speak very softly)Mother Is he eating anythingJames NoMother Where Oh yes hersquos getting- do you know what hersquos doingJames NoMother Hersquos going to the- the paper sack to try to pick out some pieces-

Oh hersquos got some food there and I expect hersquoll pick out somepieces of thread from the sack to go and make his nest under the roofJames Wait a minute and Irsquoll-[James now wants to go out to see more closely but at that moment thebird flies away]

James That birdrsquos gone

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

In the second example Elizabeth (aged 4 years) who is helping with thehouse cleaning watches with interest as her mother shovels wood ash from thefireplace into a bucket

Example 2Elizabeth What are you doing that forMother Irsquom gathering it up and putting it outside so that Daddy can put it on the gardenElizabeth Why does he have to put it on the gardenMother To make the compost rightElizabeth Does that make the grass growMother YesElizabeth Why does itMother You know how I tell you that you need to eat different things like eggs and cab-

bage and rice pudding to make you grow into a big girlElizabeth YesMother Well plants need different foods too and ash is one of the things thatrsquos

good for them

The third example involves James again now eighteen months older Earlierin the afternoon he had been helping his mother with the baking Now hecomes back into the kitchen as his mother is taking the baking trays out of theoven He hears a loud metallic ldquocrackrdquo and asks for an explanation

Example 3James Who did thatMother I expect it was the tin contractingJames Which tinMother The one with your pastry inJames Why did it make that noiseMother Well when it was in the oven it got very hot and stretched a bit Irsquove just taken

it out of the oven and itrsquos cooling down very quickly you see and that noisehappens when it gets smaller again and goes back to its normal shape

James Oh was it a different shape in the ovenMother Oh not very different just a little biggerJames Naughty little tin you might get smacked if you do it again

In all three of these examples the mother willingly responds to the childrsquosinterest and provides information to explain the significance of what the child isseeing or hearing even when in the first this interrupts the motherrsquos plan Allthree cases show how the childrsquos participation in the activity with the adult assu-res that there is intersubjectivity of attention to what interests the child and thisenables the mother to provide relevant information Clearly this is a form ofldquoinstructionrdquo however it is spontaneous and contingent on the childrsquos interestrather than presented as part of a pre-planned curriculum

The third example is particularly interesting from this point of view as thephenomenon of interest to James requires a somewhat technical explanation Atsome point in the future no doubt the expansion of metal when heated and itssubsequent contraction when removed from the heat will figure in the schoolscience curriculum in relation to the systematic study of heat here however itis an interesting side-effect of baking and the motherrsquos explanation while tech-nical in content is couched in everyday language rather than in the abstractterms of scientific generalization As Hasan (2002) has observed

the discourse of quasi specialised knowledge occurs in the lsquomiddle ofrsquo daily activities and bynecessity it calls for a readiness on the motherrsquos part to entertain contextual shifts to bewilling to reclassify the context of the on-going discourse The tendency to move with thechildrsquos moving discourse the readiness to re-classify context is a discourse characteristic of thesame group of mothers who frequently ask questions made precise by qualification and whoattend to their childrenrsquos questions and provide them with well developed answers (p 123)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 15: Actividad y Aprendizaje

Ejemplo 2Elizabeth iquestPara queacute estaacutes haciendo esoMadre Estoy recogieacutendolo y ponieacutendolo fuera para que papaacute pueda ponerlo en el jardiacutenElizabeth iquestPor queacute lo tiene que poner en el jardiacuten Madre Para abonar bienElizabeth iquestEso hace que la hierba crezcaMadre SiacuteElizabeth iquestPor queacuteMadre Sabes que te digo que necesitas comer cosas diferentes como huevos y col y

pudin de arroz para convertirte en una nintildea mayor Elizabeth SiacuteMadre Bien las plantas tambieacuten necesitan comida diferente Y la ceniza es una de las

cosas buenas para ellas

El tercer ejemplo se refiere a James de nuevo ahora 18 meses mayor Por lamantildeana temprano ha estado ayudando a su madre con la elaboracioacuten de unos dul-ces en el horno Ahora vuelve a la cocina cuando su madre estaacute sacando las bande-jas fuera del horno Oye un ruidoso ldquocrackrdquo metaacutelico y solicita una explicacioacuten

Ejemplo 3James iquestQuieacuten hizo esoMadre Espero que fuera la contraccioacuten de la lata James iquestQueacute lataMadre La que estaacute con los pasteles dentro James iquestPor queacute hizo ese ruidoMadre Bien cuando estaba en el horno se calentoacute mucho y se estiroacute un pedacito Ape-

nas la he sacado del horno y se estaacute enfriando muy raacutepido mira y ese ruido ocu-rre cuando se hace maacutes pequentildea otra vez y vuelve a su forma normal

James Oh iquesttiene una forma diferente en el horno Madre Oh no muy diferente Soacutelo un poco mayor James Pequentildea lata traviesa Puede que consigas que te den un azote si lo haces otra vez

En estos tres ejemplos la madre responde con prontitud a los intereses delnintildeo y proporciona informacioacuten para explicar el significado de lo que los nintildeosestaacuten viendo u oyendo incluso cuando inicialmente esto interrumpe los planesde la madre Los tres casos muestran coacutemo la participacioacuten de los nintildeos en la acti-vidad con el adulto garantiza una atencioacuten intersubjetiva hacia los intereses delnintildeo lo que permite a la madre proporcionar informacioacuten relevante Esto es cla-ramente una forma de ldquoinstruccioacutenrdquo sin embargo es espontaacutenea y contingentecon los intereses de los nintildeos en lugar de ser presentada como parte de un curri-culum pre-planificado

El tercer ejemplo es particularmente interesante desde este punto de vista yaque el fenoacutemeno que despierta el intereacutes de James requiere una explicacioacuten algoteacutecnica En alguacuten momento del futuro sin duda la dilatacioacuten del metal cuandose calienta y su consiguiente contraccioacuten cuando es apartado del calor figuraraacuteen el curriculum de ciencias de la escuela en relacioacuten con el estudio sistemaacuteticodel calor aquiacute sin embargo es un efecto secundario de la elaboracioacuten de los pas-teles en el horno y la explicacioacuten de la madre aunque teacutecnica en cuanto al conte-nido se asienta en el lenguaje cotidiano y no en los teacuterminos abstractos de lageneralizacioacuten cientiacutefica Como Hasan (2002) ha observado

el discurso del conocimiento quasi especializado tiene lugar lsquoen medio dersquo las actividades dia-rias y necesariamente exige una buena disposicioacuten por parte de la madre para acoger los cam-bios contextuales para tener la voluntad de reclasificar el contexto del discurso en marcha Latendencia a conectar con el discurso en movimiento del nintildeo la buena disposicioacuten para reclasi-ficar el contexto es una caracteriacutestica discursiva del mismo grupo de madres que con frecuen-cia lanzan preguntas precisas para la calificacioacuten de los objetos que atienden a las preguntas desus hijos y que les proporcionan respuestas bien desarrolladas (p 123)

179El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

No todos los nintildeos experimentan esta clase de respuesta altamente informati-va para sus intereses por supuesto Sobre la base de un corpus sustancial de inte-racciones madre-hijo Hasan (2002) siguiendo a Bernstein (1982) distingueentre mediacioacuten semioacutetica ldquovisiblerdquo e ldquoinvisiblerdquo Mientras que todos los ejem-plos citados anteriormente giran sobre la actividad conjunta y las preguntas delos nintildeos merecen una exploracioacuten adicional en un modo expliacutecito ldquovisiblerdquo lostemas de las contribuciones de muchos otros nintildeos a la actividad y la interaccioacutenson tratados por los padres como ldquoobviosrdquo y por lo tanto como si no requirieranexplicacioacuten En este sentido la mediacioacuten de las creencias culturales y de laspraacutecticas permanece ldquoinvisiblerdquo esto es la forma de ser del mundo y el tema nomerece una discusioacuten adicional El Ejemplo 4 (tomado de Hasan 2002) bajoestaacutes liacuteneas proporciona una buena ilustracioacuten

Ejemplo 4 Madre Ponlo sobre la estufa y deacutejalo alliacuteKaren iquestPor queacuteMadre PorqueKaren iquestAquiacute es doacutende va Madre SiacuteUn poco despueacutesKaren iquestCoacutemo conseguiste esoiquestNo saliste Madre Camineacute encima y lo conseguiacute iquestno me viste Karen HmmMadre Debes estar ciega

Los dos breves extractos del Ejemplo 4 son tiacutepicos de un estilo muy diferentede interaccioacuten comparados con los anteriores Aquiacute el eacutenfasis de los padres enconseguir que el nintildeo se adapte a los modos de la cultura local de actuar y pensarcon eficacia suprime la curiosidad del nintildeo y el deseo de comprender lo quetambieacuten hace menos probable que el nintildeo desarrolle la capacidad para cuestionarel status quo y participar en los esfuerzos por cambiarlo y mejorarlo

Finalmente antes de dejar el tema del aprendizaje a traveacutes de la conversacioacutenen actividades conjuntas es importante considerar la actividad conjunta en elcontexto del juego Vygotski (1978) consideroacute el juego como la actividad princi-pal en los antildeos preescolares ya que anima al nintildeo a explorar las posibilidades dela mediacioacuten semioacutetica mediante el uso de objetos presentes que pueden ser uti-lizados para representar otros objetos no presentes mediante el ldquorole playrdquo en elque el lenguaje crea un mundo imaginario En el Ejemplo 5 James ahora contres antildeos y nueve meses estaacute sentaacutendose en el brazo de un sofaacute conduciendo untren imaginario con su madre como pasajera

Ejemplo 5Madre Aquiacute estamos Me sentareacute al lado Perfecto iquestestaacutes listo iquestTodo a punto

Bien Quita el frenoJames Comenzareacute a levantarloMadre Oh perdoacuten Estaacute bienJames Mamaacute no conduzcas todaviacuteaMadre Oh BienJames [Hace un ruido simulando arrancar el motor]Madre iexclOh Este motor arranca raacutepido Muy bien iquestHay suficiente carboacuten en la parte

posterior iquestHas cargado suficiente carboacuten JamesJames SiacuteMadre Bien Entonces vaacutemonos lejos Despiacutedete de tus amigos James [Suena el ruido del motor que acelera Se riacutee y hace el sonido del silbido del

motor]Madre Ahora vamos muy raacutepido iquestPuedes sentir el traqueteo de los vagones James Siacute

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187180

Madre Oh todo me da vueltas Oh mi desayuno estaacute retumbando en mi barriga iexclOhiexclOh iexclOh

James [Hace el ruido del motor]Madre Creo que deberiacuteamos disminuir la velocidad iquestNo crees James Mm (asintiendo)Madre Creo que estamos yendo un poco raacutepido

Es mejor es maacutes faacutecil ahora iquestno James Mm (asintiendo)Madre [Muje] Mira las vacas en el campo JamesJames MmMadre Y hay un granjero mira El granjero te estaacute saludando

Como contar historias compartidas que es otra actividad conjunta importan-te a esta edad el juego imaginario tambieacuten tiene una funcioacuten importante en lapreparacioacuten del nintildeo para explorar el poder del lenguaje ldquopara crear un mundomediante las palabrasrdquo Como seraacute discutido debajo este uso del lenguaje pararepresentar objetos y eventos no presentes y las relaciones entre ellos adoptagran significado en el contexto de la escolarizacioacuten puacuteblica tiacutepica donde propor-ciona los significados mediacionales principales mediante los que gran parte delcurriculum se materializa (Wells 1986)

En suma con la excepcioacuten del Ejemplo 4 todos los extractos precedentes sonejemplos claros de un adulto ldquotrabajando en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximo delnintildeordquo (Vygotski 1987) ya que se implican en la interaccioacuten en el proceso dedesarrollar la actividad en la que estaacuten conjuntamente inmersos Como Vygotski(1987) enfatizoacute en la actividad conjunta colaborativa el nintildeo puede siemprehacer maacutes de lo que le es posible hacer independientemente La actividad pro-porciona el marco organizacional en el que parte de la conversacioacuten dirige ycomenta la actividad y parte explora los resultados a los que conduce En estecontexto el adulto hace disponible para la apropiacioacuten del nintildeo no soacutelo infor-macioacuten especiacutefica como respuesta a los intereses del nintildeo sino tambieacuten una pos-tura hacia la experiencia que valora la actitud de investigacioacuten Tratando las pre-guntas del nintildeo como dignas de respuesta expliacutecita el adulto apoya el desarrollode una disposicioacuten a plantearse preguntas y a buscarles respuesta mediante lainvestigacioacuten futura (Wells 1999)

El papel de la actividad en la educacioacuten

Aunque el teacutermino ldquoeducacioacutenrdquo se emplea a menudo como sinoacutenimo deldquoescolarizacioacutenrdquo seguacuten una interpretacioacuten maacutes amplia la educacioacuten viene refi-rieacutendose a los primeros antildeos del nintildeo y de hecho como se vio arriba hay muchasocasiones en las que un coparticipante en una actividad en curso proporciona ins-truccioacuten expliacutecita Sin embargo la educacioacuten ndashen el sentido de escolarizacioacutenndashtiende a ser muy diferente de la clase de actividades ilustradas maacutes arriba Maacutesimportante en las escuelas la instruccioacuten es tanto deliberada como sistemaacutetica yes gobernada no por los intereses de los alumnos sino por un curriculum que hasido disentildeado por expertos que no estaacuten familiarizados con los alumnos que van aser instruidos Como resultado a menudo lo que se ensentildea en la escuela no estaacuterelacionado con aquello que a los alumnos maacutes les interesa aprender y es muyprobable que no se obtengan beneficios de las oportunidades que la escuelapodriacutea proporcionar

En las primeras secciones de este trabajo se ha argumentado que el aprendi-zaje no es un fin en siacute mismo sino un aspecto integrado del domino de nuevasformas de actividad que tienen significado y valor para el desarrollo de los apren-dices como miembros de una comunidad y como individuos autoacutenomos uacutenicos

181El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Como Wygotsky insistentemente precisoacute el aprendizaje conduce el desarrollo yla instruccioacuten deberiacutea estar organizada para ayudar a este proceso

La instruccioacuten es soacutelo uacutetil cuando se mueve delante del desarrollo Cuando esto ocurre impulsao despierta toda una serie de funciones que estaacuten en estado de maduracioacuten latente en la zona dedesarrollo proacuteximo (1987 p 212)

La pregunta central para la escolarizacioacuten debe por lo tanto ser coacutemo ofrecerinstruccioacuten que sea relevante para las trayectorias de desarrollo de los alumnos yque de manera adecuada ldquose situacutee dentrordquo de sus zonas de desarrollo proacuteximoJunto a esta una segunda pregunta es coacutemo proporcionar ayuda a los alumnosindividuales para que su aprendizaje les permita de hecho avanzar en su desa-rrollo

Procurando proporcionar respuesta a estas preguntas el concepto de ldquoactivi-dad guiadardquo junto con el de recapitulacioacuten de la secuencia de desarrollo de losmodos de conocimiento puede ofrecer un comienzo uacutetil Los nintildeos cuandoingresan en la escuela han dominado en gran parte los modos de conocimientoasociados con la accioacuten el gesto y el habla (Nelson 1996) Lo que ahora necesi-tan es un aprendizaje de los modos de conocimiento asociado con el lenguajeescrito y de las distintas clases de representacioacuten simboacutelica que derivan de eacutelndashmatemaacutetica cientiacutefica musical etceacuteterandash Es decir necesitan aprenderlos parausar estas formas de representacioacuten como herramienta para la deliberacioacutenmediada la comunicacioacuten reflexiva y el pensamiento y para apropiarse de losdiferentes dominios de conocimiento teoacuterico que han sido construidos acumula-tivamente por las generaciones previas con la ayuda de las ventajas que confierenesos sistemas de ldquomemoria externardquo (Donald 1991)

La recapitulacioacuten del desarrollo histoacuterico cultural orienta la trayectoria a largoplazo para la educacioacuten formal en la escuela y en otras instituciones Pero inclusomaacutes importante para procurar responder la pregunta central presentada arriba esdeterminar los procedimientos efectivos para organizar los pequentildeos pasos queconfiguran las lecciones las unidades curriculares y los programas anuales a lolargo de esta trayectoria Basaacutendonos en las ideas presentadas en la seccioacuten ante-rior dos principios parecen en siacute mismos evidentes En primer lugar los encuen-tros educativos necesitan para estar organizados ser ldquoactividades conjuntasrdquo enlas que todos los participantes contribuyen a las metas convenidas con lo mejorde sus habilidades Y en segundo lugar debe convertirse en norma dar y recibirayuda por parte de cada participante Una de las implicaciones de estos dos prin-cipios es que no puede haber formas universales mejores para participar en alguacutenaspecto del curriculum puesto que cada clase variacutea en las experiencias e interesesque sus miembros aportan y en los valores y praacutecticas aprendidos culturalmenteque motivan y dirigen su implicacioacuten con el nuevo conocimiento y con las habi-lidades que estaacuten esperando dominar

Aunque siempre es importante reconocer valorar y construir sobre las expe-riencias previas de los alumnos ha llegado a ser incluso maacutes necesario a medidaque la migracioacuten tanto inter como intra paiacuteses ha aumentado significativamen-te ya que las diferentes etnias clases y religiones en las comunidades han dadolugar a su vez a comunidades de escuela y aula cada vez maacutes diversas ndashy estadiversidad es incluso mayor donde una proporcioacuten sustancial de alumnos estaacuteaprendiendo la lengua de clase como una segunda lengua (o subsiguiente)ndash Taldiversidad en el bagaje cultural y en la experiencia previa es generalmente vistocomo un problema que necesita ser superado en paiacuteses donde los disentildeadores delcurriculum apuntan a estandarizar la instruccioacuten para alcanzar ideacutenticos resulta-dos para todos los estudiantes como es hoy el caso en Estados Unidos Sin

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187182

embargo cuando las diferencias entre personas en teacuterminos de experiencia valo-res y praacutecticas son reconocidas como normales y deseables esta diversidad puedeconvertirse en una ventaja en la clase ya que las praacutecticas y puntos de vista alter-nativos que afloran pueden enriquecer la comunidad de clase y conducir a discu-siones valiosas en las que las creencias dadas por sentadas sean modificadas y sealcance una comprensioacuten maacutes profunda de los puntos considerados (Wells1999)

En este contexto he encontrado de ayuda pensar en el aprendizaje basado enla escuela en teacuterminos de una espiral del conocimiento donde el resultado espe-rado con cada giro de la espiral es una mayor comprensioacuten (Wells 1999) (verFigura 3) En la primera fase cuando la clase se embarca en un nuevo aspecto delcurriculum es importante animar a los alumnos a compartir sus experienciasprevias ya que como las investigaciones en campos muy diferentes han mostra-do (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotski) esas experiencias proporcionan elpunto de partida para su aprendizaje sean o no reconocidas puacuteblicamente Des-cubriendo lo que los estudiantes ya saben y aquello que les interesa explorar conmaacutes detalle el profesor puede tambieacuten planificar la unidad en cooperacioacuten conlos alumnos (Donoahue 2003) La segunda fase de la espiral conlleva varios acer-camientos a la nueva informacioacuten ndashmediante la explicacioacuten del profesor a traveacutesde materiales impresos o medios audiovusiales o en la forma de feedback de laspropias acciones e investigaciones de los alumnosndash Es importante reconocer sinembargo que la recepcioacuten de la nueva informacioacuten no asegura en siacute misma unaumento de la comprensioacuten Para que esto ocurra la nueva informacioacuten debearticularse con la comprensioacuten existente y con la experiencia previa relevantepara ser despueacutes puesta a prueba mediante la accioacuten en el mundo ndashobteniendofeedback (informacioacuten adicional)ndash yo mediante el diaacutelogo con otros para laconstruccioacuten del conocimiento donde el propoacutesito es llegar a una eleccioacuten con-sensuada entre las teoriacuteas alternativas demandas o interpretaciones sobre la basede una consideracioacuten de las evidencias y argumentos apropiados Finalmentepara consolidar la nuevas comprensiones obtenidas es valioso para la clase com-pleta reflexionar juntos sobre lo que han aprendido y sobre el proceso de cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento en el que han participado sobre las implicaciones quela nueva comprensioacuten tiene para sus propias acciones ndashtanto fuera como dentrode clasendash y sobre las preguntas importantes a las que ellos deben ahora dirigir susinvestigaciones futuras En otras palabras la fase final en el ciclo implica a lacomunidad en un ldquoacercamiento lsquometarsquordquo (Olson y Bruner 1996) es decir en laadopcioacuten de una perspectiva metacognitiva sobre su propio aprendizaje que a lolargo de miles de antildeos probablemente ha jugado un importante papel en eldesarrollo de cada modo de conocimiento presentado en la siacutentesis del desarrollohistoacuterico cultural de Donald (1991)3

Esta espiral necesita varias anotaciones adicionales La primera tiene quever con la naturaleza incompleta y provisional del conocimiento eacuteste estaacutesiempre abierto a la mejora mediante ciclos futuros a traveacutes de la espiral Lasegunda anotacioacuten concierne a la naturaleza esencialmente interactiva ysocial del crecimiento individual y comunitario en la comprensioacuten eacutesta seconsigue gracias a los esfuerzos de los participantes para clarificar sus pro-pios significados a los otros y alternativamente para tener en cuenta y res-ponder a los de los demaacutes (Bajtiacuten 1986) En tercer lugar es necesario enfati-zar que el crecimien to en la comprensioacuten requeriraacute espirales futuras queactiven los diferentes modos de conocimiento ya que la mayoriacutea de los cam-bios y problemas que ocurren en las instituciones maacutes allaacute del aula deman-dan un conocimiento procedimental substantivo y esteacutetico al igual que

183El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

teoacuterico y cada modo de conocimiento tiene una contribucioacuten que hacer aleacutexito de soluciones comprensivas que realcen significativamente la com-prensioacuten Finalmente en la representacioacuten de estas relaciones en la figura 3la espiral tambieacuten resalta la interdependencia de los individuos y la comuni-dad Mientras que la experiencia y la comprensioacuten son esencialmente indivi-duales en su naturaleza crecen fuera de eacutel y adoptan su significado de la par-ticipacioacuten de los individuos en el intercambio de informacioacuten y en su com-promiso en la construccioacuten de conocimiento en la comunidad extensa de laque cada individuo es miembro

Desafortunadamente muchos educadores no comprenden estas relacionesfundamentales y por eso su instruccioacuten no es conceptualizada y planificada demanera que sea oacuteptima para el desarrollo de los estudiantes Como numerososestudios han mostrado (Langer y Applebee 1987 Nystrand y Gamoran 1991)en la mayoriacutea de las clases la que gobierna la praacutectica es la concepcioacuten bancariadel conocimiento (Freire 1970) seguacuten la cual el propoacutesito de la instruccioacuten quetiene lugar en el aula es que un alumno individual esteacute preparado para puntuarbien en los tests y no tanto ampliar su conocimiento Dada esta orientacioacuten lasactividades en las que se pide a los alumnos que participen estaacuten determinadaspor la guiacutea curricular del libro de texto maacutes que por el conocimiento de los pro-fesores sobre los intereses y habilidades de los alumnos particulares de los queson responsables A esto es a lo que Tharp y Gallimore (1988) se refieren con laexpresioacuten ldquoguioacuten recitativordquo unido a la ocupacioacuten de un lugar individual de tra-bajo que domina la rutina diaria Ademaacutes los planes sobre coacutemo proceder sonndashcomo cabiacutea esperarndash unilateralmente impuestos en lugar de ser configuradossobre la base de las decisiones tomadas por la comunidad de clase como un todoy el modus operandi es la competicioacuten en lugar de la colaboracioacuten

Sin embargo como he argumentado en otra parte (Wells 1986 19992002a) eacuteste no es el uacutenico modo en el que la escolarizacioacuten puede ser condu-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187184

FIGURA 3La espiral del conocimiento

ACCIOacuteN Construccioacuten

deconocimiento

ComprensioacutenSubstantivo

Esteacutetico

Teoacuterico

Procedimental

Instrumental

Experiencia Informacioacuten

Modos de conocimiento

cida ndasha pensar de la larga historia de la recitacioacuten que se remonta a maacutes detres mil antildeos a las tempranas instituciones que entrenaban a los escribas yadministradores para leer y escribir (Cole 1996)ndash Pero probablemente elmodo por defecto de la escolarizacioacuten es parecido a una preparacioacuten para ldquolavida adultardquo y no una etapa criacutetica del desarrollo que merece la pena y essignificativa en siacute misma Como Vygotski argumentoacute sobre el dominio de laalfabetizacioacuten ldquola ensentildeanza debe organizarse de tal manera que la lectura yla escritura sean necesarias para algo La escritura debe ser incorporada enuna tarea relevante y necesaria para la vidardquo (1978 pp117-118) Y porldquovidardquo quiere decir no la vida futura sino la totalidad de los intereses y pre-ocupaciones actuales de los aprendices

En los uacuteltimos antildeos se han divulgado proyectos de una variedad de paiacuteses enlos que educadores universitarios han procurado crear condiciones para elldquoaprendizaje auteacutenticordquo en las aulas En todos estos proyectos se ha otorgado unpapel central a las actividades colaborativas que alternando entre los formatos departicipacioacuten individual en pequentildeo grupo y de la clase completa implican alos estudiantes en la exploracioacuten de temas centrales mediante investigacionespraacutecticas y tambieacuten teoacutericas y en la discusioacuten criacutetica y constructiva de sus hallaz-gos y de las implicaciones para futuras acciones El espacio no permite aquiacute unadiscusioacuten individual de estos proyectos pero lo que puede ser dicho sobre todosellos es que en sus diferentes formas valoran tanto los intereses de los alumnoscomo sus experiencias previas y persiguen ayudarles a desarrollar la disposicioacutenpara buscar la comprensioacuten maacutes que la acumulacioacuten simple de informacioacuten ypara valorar la colaboracioacuten maacutes que la competicioacuten como el medio para alcanzaresta menta4

En este contexto es digno atraer la atencioacuten hacia varias instituciones poste-riores a la escuela tales como la Fifth Dimension donde la participacioacuten en activi-dades elegidas personalmente ndasha menudo basadas en ordenadoresndash requiere a losnintildeos dominar habilidades que son tambieacuten necesarias para la escolarizacioacuten y lesproporcionan oportunidades para interactuar con voluntarios universitarios enuna posicioacuten de igualdad (Brown y Cole 2002) De manera similar algunosprogramas basados en museos (Leinhardst Crowley y Kuntson 2002) y variasformas de educacioacuten al aire libre tambieacuten capitalizan los intereses de los estu-diantes para implicarles en actividades desafiantes que demandan para la cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento procesos de diaacutelogo y toma de decisiones comparablesa aquellos encontrados en los contextos escolares previamente descritos

Finalmente si estas praacutecticas pioneras arraigan e influyen en la educacioacutenpuacuteblica con mayor amplitud es esencial que los profesores tengan oportunidadessimilares para desarrollar las disposiciones y pericia necesarias para actuar comoagentes de cambio y liacutederes de una reforma en las instituciones en las que traba-jan Es por lo tanto estimulante ver que a pesar del eacutenfasis de los dirigentes poliacute-ticos en estandarizar los curricula y en los resultados cuantificables algunos pro-gramas de formacioacuten de profesores y desarrollo profesional anima a los profeso-res sobre la base de investigaciones sobre su propia praacutectica a tomar sus propiasdecisiones sobre queacute debe ser ensentildeado y coacutemo y a compartir los resultados desus investigaciones con los compantildeeros Este ha sido el motor de mi propio tra-bajo en los antildeos recientes ya que he participado en la investigacioacuten colaborativacon profesores para crear y mantener comunidades de investigacioacuten tanto en cla-ses como entre los mismos profesores5

185El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Notas1 La secuencia temporal implicada por esta formulacioacuten ha sido ampliamente debatida y especialmente el movimiento desde fueraa dentro que sugiere Mi propia comprensioacuten de lo que la apropiacioacuten supone se capta mejor con el ejemplo de aprender a bailarmediante la inmersioacuten en la actividad con otros (Wells 1999) En muchos casos no hay separacioacuten entre antes y despueacutes o entrefuera y dentro y no hay necesidad de demostracioacuten o ejemplificacioacuten En lugar de esto estando inmerso en la actividad conjuntael principiante es literalmente entrenado fiacutesicamente por los movimiento del coparticipante mientras que al mismo tiempoconstruye su propia organizacioacuten ndashy quizaacute incluso una representacioacuten esquemaacuteticandash de los movimientos corporales A lo largo deltiempo este esquema estaacute tan bien organizado que el principiante se convierte en un experto que estaacute preparado paralelamentepara introducir a otros en la actividad Esto es lo que Lave y Wenger (1991) y Rogoff (2003) quieren decir por desarrollo median-te la participacioacuten en actividades culturales

2 Estoy agradecido a Natalia Gajdamaschko y Steve Gabosch por sus valiosas discusiones de esta distincioacuten durante el XMCA cursoonline sobre la teoriacutea de la actividad histoacuterico cultural Abril 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Aunque estaacute incluido en la Tabla I este modo de conocimiento no ha sido discutido aquiacute ya que el reconocimiento expliacutecito deeste importante modo de conocimiento es muy reciente (Brown 1975) Sin embargo eso no significa que sea en siacute mismo unnuevo fenoacutemeno

4 Para algunos ejemplos representativos veacutease Brown y Campione 1994 Lampert Rittenhouse y Crumbaugh 1996 McMahonRaphael Goatley y Pardo 1997 Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford y Brown 1998 Scardamalia Bereiter y Lamon 1994

5 Juntos formamos un grupo de investigacioacuten colaborativo DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project)(Wells (Ed) 2001)

ReferenciasBAJTIacuteN M M (1986) Speech genres and other late essays Austin University of Texas PressBERNSTEIN B (1982) Codes modalities and the process of cultural reproduction A model En M Apple (Ed) Cultural and econo-

mic reproduction in education (pp 304-355) Londres Routledge amp Kegan PaulBROWN A L (1975) The development of memory Knowing knowing about knowing and knowing how to know En H W

Reese (Ed) Advances in child development and behavior (Vol 10 pp 103-152) Nueva York Academic Press BROWN A L amp CAMPIONE J C (1994) Guided discovery in a community of learners En K McGilly (Ed) Integrating cognitive

theory and classroom practice Classroom lessons (pp 229-270) Cambridge MA MIT PressBradford BooksBROWN K amp COLE M (2002) Cultural historical activity theory and the expansion of opportunities for learning after school En

G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 225-238)Oxford Blackwell

BRUNER J S (1990) Acts of meaning Cambridge MA Harvard University PressCARR M (2002) Emerging learning narratives A perspective from early childhood education En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds)

Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 99-111) Oxford BlackwellCOLE M (1996) Cultural psychology A once and future discipline Cambridge MA The Bellknap Press of Harvard University PressDEACON T W (1997) The symbolic species The co-evolution of language and the brain Nueva York NortonDIAMOND J (1998) Guns germs and steel The fates of human societies Nueva York NortonDONALD M (1991) Origins of the Modern Mind Three Stages in the Evolution of Culture and Cognition Cambridge MA Harvard

University PressDONOAHUE Z (2003) Science teaching and learning Teachers and children plan together Networks 6(1) httpwwwoiseuto-

rontoca~ctdnetworksjournal Vol 6 (1) 2003marchENGESTROumlM Y (1999) Activity theory and individual and social transformation Y En Engestrom R Miettinen amp R-L Puna-

maki (Eds) Perspectives on activity theory (pp 19-38) Cambridge Cambridge University PressFREIRE P (1970) Pedagogy of the oppressed Nueva York Herder and HerderHALLIDAY M A K (1975) Learning how to mean Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1978) Language as social semiotic The social interpretation of language and meaning Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1993) Towards a language-based theory of learning Linguistics and Education 5 93-116HASAN R (2002) Semiotic mediation and mental development in pluralistic societies Some implications for tomorrowrsquos schoo-

ling En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural peerspectives on the future of education (pp112-126) Oxford Blackwell

HEATH S B (1983) Ways with words Cambridge Cambridge University PressLAMPERT M RITTENHOUSE P amp CRUMBAUGH C (1996) Agreeing to disagree Developing sociable mathematical discourse En

D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook of education and human development (pp 731-764) Cambridge MA Blackwell LANGER J A amp APPLEBEE A N (1987) How writing shapes thinking A study of teaching and learning Urbana IL National Council

of Teachers of EnglishLAVE J (1996) Teaching as learning in practice Mind Culture and Activity 3 (3) 149-164LAVE J amp WENGER E (1991) Situated Learning Legitimate peripheral participation Nueva York Cambridge University PressLEINHARDT G CROWLEY K amp KNUTSON K (2002) Learning conversations Explanation and identity in museums Mahwah NJ

Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesLEONTIEV A N (1981) The problem of activity in psychology En J VWertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 37-71) Armonk NY SharpeMAYBIN J MERCER N amp STIERER B (1992) lsquoScaffoldingrsquo learning in the classroom En K Norman (Ed) Thinking voices The

work of the National Oracy Project (pp 186-195) Londres Hodder amp StoughtonMCMAHON S I RAPHAEL T E GOATLEY V J amp PARDO L S (Eds) (1997) The Book Club connection Literacy learning and class-

room talk Nueva York Teachers College PressNELSON K (1996) Language in cognitive development The emergence of the mediated mind Nueva York Cambridge University PressNEWSON J (1978) Dialogue and development En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol The emergence of language (pp 31-42)

New York Academic Press

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187186

NYSTRAND M amp GAMORAN A (1991) Student engagement When recitation becomes conversation En H C Waxman amp H JWalberg (Eds) Effective teaching Current research (pp 257-276)Berkeley CA McCutchan Publishing Corp

OLSON D R amp BRUNER J S (1996) Folk psychology and folk pedagogy En D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook ofeducation and human development (pp 9-27) Cambridge MA Blackwell

PALINCSAR A MAGNUSSON S MARANO N FORD D amp BROWN N (1998) Designing a community of practice Principlesand practices of the GIsML Community Teaching and Teacher Education 14 (1) 5-20

PIAGET J (1970) Piagetrsquos theory En P H Mussen (Ed) Carmichaelrsquos handbook of child development (pp 703-732) Nueva YorkWiley

PONTECORVO C amp STERPONI L (2002) Learning to argue and reason through discourse in educational settings En G Wells ampG Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 127-140) OxfordBlackwell

ROGOFF B (1990) Apprenticeship in thinking Cognitive development in social context Nueva York Oxford University PressROGOFF B (1994) Developing understanding of the idea of Communities of Learners Mind Culture and Activity 1 (4) 209-

229ROGOFF B (2003) The cultural nature of human development Nueva York Oxford University PressROSENBLATT L (1978) The reader the text the poem The transactional theory of the literary work Carbondale IL Southern Illinois

University PressSCARDAMALIA M C BEREITER amp LAMON M (1994) The CSILE project Trying to bring the classroom into World 3 En K

McGilley (Ed) Classroom lessons Integrating cognitive theory and classroom practice (pp 201-228) Cambridge MA MITPress

SCRIBNER S (1985) Vygotskyrsquos uses of history En J V Wertsch (Ed) Culture communication and cognition Vygotskian perspectives(pp 119-145) Cambridge Cambridge University Press

THARP R amp GALLIMORE R (1988) Rousing minds to life Nueva York Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C (1979) Communication and cooperation in early infancy a description of primary intersubjectivity En M

Bullowa (Ed) Before speech The beginning of interpersonal communication (pp 321-348) Cambridge Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C amp HUBLEY P (1978) Secondary intersubjectivity Confidence confiding and acts of meaning in the first year

En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol the emergence of language (pp 183-230) Nueva York Academic PressVYGOTSKI L S (1978)Mind in society The development of higher psychological processes Cambridge MA Harvard University PressVYGOTSKI L S (1981) The genesis of higher mental functions En J V Wertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 144-188) Armonk NY SharpeVYGOTSKI L S (1987) Thinking and speech En R W Rieber amp A S Carton (Eds) The collected works of L S Vygotsky Volumen

1 Problems of general psychology (pp 39-285) Nueva York PlenumWARTOFSKY M (1979) Models representation and scientific understanding Boston ReidelWELLS G (1985) Language development in the pre-school years Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (1986) The meaning makers Children learning language and using language to learn Portsmouth NH HeinemannWELLS G (1999) Dialogic inquiry Towards a sociocultural practice and theory of education Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (Ed) (2001) Action talk and text Learning and teaching through inquiry Nueva York Teachers College PressWELLS G (2002a) Learning and teaching for understanding The key role of collaborative knowledge building En J Brophy

(Ed) Social constructivist teaching Affordances and constraints (pp 1-41) Osford Elsevier ScienceJAIWELLS G (2002b) The role of dialogue in activity theory Mind Culture and Activity 9 (1) 43-66WERTSCH J V MINICK N amp ARNS F J (1984) The creation of context in joint problem solving En B Rogoff amp J Lave (Eds)

Everyday cognition Its development in social context (pp 151-171) Cambridge Cambridge University PressWOOD D BRUNER J S amp ROSS G (1976) The role of tutoring in problem-solving Journal of Child Psychology and Child Psy-

chiatry 17 89-100

187El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Original text

Introduction

Compared with other species the characteristic that distinguishes humans isthe ability and proclivity to engage in tool-mediated joint activity with otherhumans It is this characteristic that accounts for the development of human cul-tures over the course of history as they invented artefacts of various kinds inorder to adapt to and exploit the ecological niches in which they found themsel-ves It also accounts for the diversity of individual personsrsquo development whichdepend on the particular activities in which they participate As Vygotsky(1978 1981) was one of the first to point out the lsquohigherrsquo mental functions thatmake us human are not biologically given but are developmentally constructedthrough the appropriation of historically developed tools and practices that aremade manifest to the child and lsquoscaffoldedrsquo in the meaningful actions and utte-rances of the coparticipants in joint activity

Before continuing readers might find it interesting to reflect on their owndevelopmental trajectories to who they are today I suspect that they may findthemselves agreeing that Who we become depends on the company we keep and what wedo together

A Brief History of the Development of Joint Activity

Leontrsquoev provides a succinct account of Vygotskyrsquos insight in the followingsummary

The initial ideas that led Vygotsky to investigate the genesis of internal mental activity fromexternal activity are fundamentally different from the theoretical approaches of other modernauthors These ideas came from the analysis of the features unique to human productive laboractivity which is mediated by tools This activity is initially social in nature that is it is deve-loped under the conditions of cooperation and social interaction among people Vygotskyidentified two main interconnected features [of this activity] that are necessarily fundamentalfor psychology its tool-like (lsquoinstrumentalrsquo) structure and its inclusion in a system of interre-lations with other people It is these features that define the nature of human psychologicalprocesses The tool mediates activity and thus connects humans not only with the world ofobjects but also with other people Because of this humanrsquos activity assimilates the experience ofhumankind This means that humansrsquo mental processes (their lsquohigher psychological functionsrsquo)acquire a structure necessarily tied to the sociohistorically formed means and methods trans-mitted to them by others in the process of cooperative labor and social interaction But it isimpossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in any way otherthan a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words higher psycho-logical processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction with others thatis through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried out indepen-dently by the individual (Leontrsquoev 1981 pp 55-56 emphases in the original)

As well as emphasizing the social and cooperative nature of human activity thisquotation is important with respect to the arguments that I want to develop inthis paper as it highlights the central role of semiotic mediation in developmentKnowledge is created as well as appropriated in the discourse among peoplewho are working together in a specific situation in order to create or improve anartefact or to solve a problem of importance to the group However Leontrsquoevalso alludes to another of Vygotskyrsquos key insights namely that in order tounderstand current activity it is necessary to investigate the history of that acti-vity It is to this that I next turn

In analyzing the history of human development at least four different time-scales need to be considered The longest is the history of the cultural evolution of

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

the species (the phylogenetic level) next is the historical development of particu-lar cultures The third level (ontogenetic) traces the developmental trajectory ofindividual humans over the course of the lifespan Finally the microgenetic levelis concerned with the development of an instance of a particular activity

In practice it is the latter that has been explored in most detail for usingcontemporary technology it is relatively easy to observe and record the sequenceof actions through which an activity is enacted and the specific operations inwhich the participants engage making use of the relevant artefacts that are avai-lable in the situation (Leontrsquoev 1981) These artefacts may be either material(knives pencils automobiles) or symbolic (utterances maps theories) ndashthoughas Cole (1996) has pointed out to function as mediators of joint activity all arte-facts must have some form of material embodiment as well as a symbolic mea-ning that is to say they must be ready to hand and also have a cultural signifi-cance relevant to the situation

However the form in which a particular instance of activity is realizeddepends not only on the artefacts that are to hand in the situation but also onthe participantsrsquo past experiences with the practices in which the artefacts areused to mediate achievement of the action goals that contribute to the joint acti-vity Thus the microgenesis of a particular instance of activity is necessarilydependent upon the ontogenetic development of the participants that is to sayupon the opportunities their life trajectories have afforded them to appropriatethe relevant cultural knowledge through participation in instances of similaractions and operations

But on the time-scale of ontogenetic development each individualrsquos trajectoryof development is itself strongly influenced by the culture in which he or she isgrowing up and on the historical development of that culture As Rogoff (2003)illustrates in considerable detail cultures vary considerably both over time andacross ecological niches in what mediating artefacts and practices are available andin the relative value accorded to each Moreover within each culture at any parti-cular historical moment participants in activities both incorporate the ways ofprevious generations and adapt them to the exigencies of current conditions

Stepping up one further level the historical development of a particular cul-tures is itself shaped by development on the even larger timescale of the culturaland biological evolution of the species This is the most difficult timescale todescribe in detail for lack of the necessary evidence But certain broad distinc-tions between human communities can be made in terms of their modes of sub-sistence and of the mediating means available for joint activity (Diamond 1998Donald 1991) As recent research has shown our earliest ancestors some 5million years ago lived in small bands of hunter gatherers often on the edge oflakes and oceans Initially their tools were found in the surroundings but overseveral million years they invented ways of making more sophisticated artefactssuch as knives arrowheads baskets and clothing from flints bones skins andvegetable materials Then as some groups migrated to particularly fertile partsof the world they adopted a more settled agrarian way of life growing cropsand breeding animals The resulting ability to produce more food than imme-diately required led in turn to the emergence of trade and to a diversity of spe-cialist occupations such as potters and tailors who exchanged their products forfood and other necessities This stage also saw the development of much largerpopulation groupings with hierarchical class structures that included prieststax collectors and other religious and political functionaries

While migration had been a common feature of human existence from theearliest times the development of large settled populations and of weapons

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

made of bronze and iron led to the expansion of certain cultural groups throughterritorial conquest and colonization by sea and by land As a result during thelast few thousand years the latest phase of phylogenetic development has beencharacterized by the rise and fall of imperial cultures which have imposed theirtechnologies laws and administrative procedures as well as their religions artsknowledge and values on widely diverse subjugated populations Most recentlythe further development of the inventions that led to the first industrial revolu-tion has simply served to increase the scale and intensity of these imperialisttrends At the same time these inventions as well as those of the current indus-trial revolution have also led to a great increase in humansrsquo understanding oftheir social and material environment both through scientific and social rese-arch and through the dissemination of information about other times and placesresulting from travel and the use of print and electronic technologies

In presenting this very condensed account of phylogenetic development Ihave emphasized the material tools that have mediated the progressively morecomplex and diverse activities in which humans have engaged over the course ofthe speciesrsquo history However bearing in mind that what has been the drivingforce of human development is joint activity an equally ndashif not morendash impor-tant determinant of this history is the development of the modes of representa-tion through which humans have communicated and developed their unders-tanding of the world Table I presents the developmental sequence proposed byDonald (1991) based on archeological neuroanatomical historical and othertypes of evidence The table also includes the stages in the historical develop-ment of ways of knowing that were proposed by Wartofsky (1979)

The first stage in this sequence corresponds to the phase in which proto-humans began to diverge from other primate species In this phase as in thebehavior of contemporary higher primates practical action was the predomi-nant form of communication as ndashnot necessarily deliberatelyndash participants sig-naled their intentions in a shared situation and these intentions were interpre-ted and responded to by their co-participants in the activity In the secondmimetic phase which must have developed gradually over many millenniacommunication became somewhat differentiated from the activity to which itreferred as humans deliberately used gestures mime facial expression andvarious types of phonation to comment on as well as to coordinate action and theobjects to which it was directed Later still with the gradual modification of thevocal tract and of the primate brain there emerged the ability to communicatethrough speech and hence the ability to refer not only to particular objects andactions but also to generalized classes and to express observed and intendedrelationships between objects actions and events thus allowing participants toplan for and reflect on the outcomes of joint activity Finally the invention ofwriting which ushered in the final phase in Donaldrsquos proposed sequence occu-rred extremely recently in the long trajectory of phylogenetic development Yetas with those that preceded it enormously increased the human repertoire ofmeans for making and communicating meaning Essentially what it added wasan ldquoexternal memoryrdquo By creating a (relatively) permanent representation oflinguistic meaning it made possible the compilation and distillation of repor-ted information from many sources including the writerrsquos own verbalizedthoughts It also allowed the writer and those who read his or her written textto review critique and revise the meanings expressed and to make the resultsavailable to people in later times and other places for further constructive debateand improvement

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

However action gesture speech and writing are not simply progressivelymore powerful modes of communication They are also progressively morepowerful mediators of thinking This is most obvious with respect to the lin-guistic modes of communication But even before the emergence of speechaction and ndashto an even greater extentndash mimesis enabled humans to think toget-her and thereby to create a shared interpretation of their joint activities In fact ithas been argued that the emergence of language was not simply the result ofbrain and vocal tract development but rather was part of a more general patternof adaptation that building upon the cognitive achievements of mimetic kno-wing strove to integrate the unconnected bits of information in a more compre-hensive and coherent account of being-in-the-world (Deacon 1997) Neverthe-less it is also true that the availability of language greatly enhanced both com-munication and thinking together for as Halliday observed

the grammar of every natural language is (among other things) a theory of human experienceit is through our acts of meaning that we transform experience into the coherent -though farfrom consistent- patchwork that we learn to project as lsquorealityrsquo (1993 p 46)

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

TABLE IModes Of Knowing Phylogenetic And Cultural Development (from Wells 1999)

Time Mode of Participants Donald(1991) Wartofsky(1979)Years BP Knowing

2 million Instrumental Individual in action Episodic Primary artifactsyears material tools

1 -- 15 million Procedural Between individuals while Mimetic Secondaryyears engaged in action artifacts tools

and practicesmimeticinteraction

50000 Substantive Among members of a (Linguistic) Secondaryyears cultural group reflecting on artifacts

action and as a basis for representations ofplanning further action tools and

practices spokeninteraction

50000 Aesthetic Among members of a Mythic Tertiary artifactsyears cultural group making sense artistic represent-

of the human predicament ations in mythnarrative graphicand musical modes

2500 Theoretical Among members of a Theoretic Tertiary artifactsyears specialist community decontextualized

seeking to explain the natural representationsand human world such as

taxonomiestheories models etc

Meta Among members of a Tertiary artifacts cultural group also representations ofindividuals seeking to mental andunderstand and control their semioticown mental activity processes

In sum what Donald and other scholars argue is that contemporary mentalabilities are the outcome of the development over time of a series of progressi-vely more powerful and flexible modes of representation ndashor in Vygotskyanterms of semiotic mediators of higher mental functions- that have made possi-ble the rational theoretically oriented modes of knowing that underpin theachievements of modern science and its technological applications In the philo-sopher Wartofskyrsquos words

our own perceptual and cognitive understanding of the world is in large part shaped andchanged by the representational artifacts we ourselves create We are in effect the products ofour own activity in this way we transform our own perceptual and cognitive modes our waysof seeing and of understanding by means of the representations we make (1979 p xxiii)

There is however one further important aspect of Donaldrsquos (1991) thesis thatis crucial for the argument that I wish to develop Although the semiotic sys-tems of mimesis speech and writing each powered a new mode of cognitiveactivity they did not replace those that preceded but were additive in theireffects The result is that contemporary humans have a variety of modes of kno-wing at their disposal as they engage in joint activity Furthermore most suchactivities call for more than one mode of knowing and require the complemen-tary and interdependent use of more than one mode of representation

Joint Activity as the Site of Ontogenetic Learning and Development

Two important implications follow from the multi-level historical concep-tion of development just outlined First on any occasion the type of activitythat is undertaken and the specific manner in which it is enacted are necessarilydependent on the particular cultural-historical antecedents of the participantsboth human and artefactual that come together in its realization In particularthe manner in which the situation is interpreted ndashin terms of what action goalsare appropriate and how they can be achievedndash depends on the motives valuesand knowledgeable skills of the human participants and on the affordances ofthe technologies available in the situation And second every instance of an acti-vity provides an occasion for a triple transformation of the situation in whichthe activity is carried out of the artefacts and practices that mediate its enact-ment and most importantly of the knowledge and skills of the human partici-pants Taken together these propositions clarify the way in which cultural andindividual development are both interdependent and rooted in particular situa-ted occasions of joint activity As Rogoff (1994) argues

People of each generation as they engage in sociocultural endeavors with other people makeuse of and extend cultural tools and practices inherited from previous generations As peopledevelop through their shared use of cultural tools and practices they simultaneously contribu-te to the transformation of cultural tools practices and institutions (p 52)

Potentially therefore every occasion of joint activity provides an opportunityfor development on the part of all participants This is a point to which I shallreturn But first I want to consider more carefully the concept of developmentitself

Clearly built into the concept of development is the implication of change andtypically of change in the direction of increasing complexity and effectiveness Inother words development is typically taken to imply improvement or progresstoward some ideal end state or capability However in the light of the previousdiscussion such a progression while it may be meaningful to (some of the) partici-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

pants in any particular situation cannot be understood in any absolute sense butmust be seen as relative to the unfolding historical trajectory of the species of aparticular culture and of the immediate community ndashits values its dominantactivities and the knowledgeable skills that form its resources Furthermore just asthese have changed in the past they will continue to change in the future in res-ponse to the changing demands of the larger environment So while ontogeneticdevelopment does indeed involve increasing complexity and effectiveness of indi-vidualsrsquo participation in the activity systems in which they are involved in theirdaily lives the overall trajectory of development is emergent and its endpoint cannever be specified in advance even in terms of an ideal to be attained

Nevertheless this does not mean that there are not strong regularities in thesequence of ontogenetic development particularly in the early years Indeed asNelson (1996) has suggested during the preschool years children follow a trajec-tory very similar to the sequence of phylogenetic development proposed byDonald (1991) (see Table I above) as they appropriate the semiotic tools of repre-sentation afforded by action mimesis speech and writing Of course this is not asimple recapitulation children growing up in a contemporary literate culture forexample are surrounded from birth by artifacts and practices that result from andembody all the available modes of knowing (Cole 1996) Appropriating existingcultural tools is thus very different from inventing them ex novo as Scribner (1985)points out Nevertheless given the combination of biological and cultural inheri-tance it is not surprising that in most if not all cultures children follow the samesequence as did the species as a whole over the course of history

In the first weeks of life infants act on their immediate surroundings bothanimate and inanimate and begin to develop what Piaget (1970) called sensori-motor intelligence However although this most basic form of activity mayappear to be instinctual it is nevertheless also inherently social First all infantsare born into an environment that is cultural in the sense of having been shapedby countless preceding generations and second the infantrsquos actions are treatedas being intentional and are responded to as such So from the beginning theinfant is caught up in social interaction (Newson 1978) In the second phasewhich typically begins in the first few months the infant also begins to engagein mimetic communication through gaze facial expression and rudimentarygesture (Bruner 1990) Couched in terms of primary and secondary intersubjec-tivity this phase has been described in considerable detail by Trevarthen (19781979) Primary intersubjectivity develops as the infant and parent engage inmutual gaze thereby communicating that they are attending to and respondingto each other In secondary intersubjectivity third parties are brought into jointattention as the parent through gaze directs the infantrsquos attention to an object ofpotential interest or follows the childrsquos direction of gaze and signals that he orshe is also attending to the same object

It is on this basis of joint action and attention that towards the end of thefirst year the child begins to exploit his or her growing command of vocaliza-tion often accompanied by gesture to begin to communicate through speechFrom research predominantly involving children in ldquoWesternrdquo societies it hasbeen established that at first the childrsquos utterances are idiosyncratic drawingonly partially ndashif at allndash on the speech of those around him or her neverthelessparents and other family members have little difficulty in interpreting them incontext and once again they respond in a manner that is contingent on theirinterpretation thereby establishing spoken communication as a joint interactiveactivity By the end of the second year however children appear to abandon thisidiosyncratic ldquoprotolanguagerdquo form of communication and begin to construct a

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

linguistic meaning potential that is systematically related to the language thatis addressed to them in the oft-repeated activities of family life (Bruner 1990Halliday 1975 Wells 1986) Significantly within particular language com-munities the sequence in which children master the basic meanings and thelexicogrammatical forms in which they are realized tends to be very similar fromchild to child (Wells 1985)

The developmental sequence just described ndashaction mimesis speechndash is com-mon to children in all cultures and in all cases takes place in and through jointactivity and interaction with other family and community members Howeveralthough the sequence is universal the manner and pace at which it proceeds varyvery considerably across cultures These differences depend upon many culturally-determined factors such as adult expectations about their childrenrsquos developmentthe position in which the infant is typically held or carried facing the caregiver orturned outwards to face in the same direction as the caregiver the makeup and sizeof the interactional groups in which communication typically occurs and whetherthese events are part of family and community life more generally or are delibera-tely arranged and structured for the presumed benefit of the child (Rogoff 2003)In the later stages of language development the range and extent of the meaningpotential that children construct begins to vary even more widely depending onthe activities in which they engage the linguistic registers that are used in thoseactivities and the stances typically adopted by interlocutors toward the use of lan-guage in their interactions with children (Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

So far the ontogenetic developmental sequence I have described is funda-mentally similar across cultures and follows the phylogenetic sequence in whichhumans have progressively added new semiotic mediational means to theircommunicative repertoires In an important sense therefore the final mode ofrepresentation in Donaldrsquos scheme that of writing is an optional extra sincemany cultures have survived and prospered without a written mode of represen-ting meaning Moreover even in cultures that have a writing system the extentand scope of literacy that individuals attain varies very considerably dependingon the activity systems in which they participate the value that is placed onwritten texts by those communmities the purposes to which they are put andthe genres that are used for those purposes However since literacy and its usesare so strongly associated with schooling I shall leave further discussion of thismode of semiotic mediation to a later part of this paper

Before concluding this section however I want to explore further the con-cept of semiotic mediation In one of the better known passages in Vygotskyrsquoswritings where he argued for the social and cultural origin of higher mentalfunctions he wrote that every function occurs on two planes first in activity andinteraction between people and then within the individual learner (Vygotsky1981) What bridges between these two planes as is clear from his other wri-tings is semiotic mediation To recall Leontrsquoevrsquos formulation of this argument

hellip it is impossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in anyway other than a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words hig-her psychological processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction withothers that is through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried outindependently by the individual (1981 pp 55-56)

In other words when people engage in joint activity their actions gesturesand speech not only mediate the coordination of participation but they alsomake overt the mental activities involved and so render them available forappropriation by novice participants1 Halliday is very clear about this Alt-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

hough the following quotation refers only to language the term lsquolanguagersquocould justifiably be replaced by lsquosemiotic mediationrsquo

In the development of the child as a social being language has the central role Language is themain channel through which the patterns of living are transmitted to him through which helearns to act as a member of lsquosocietyrsquo ndashin and through the various social groups the family theneighbourhood and so onndash and to adopt its lsquoculturersquo its modes of thought and action itsbeliefs and its values (1978 p 9)

However as the child grows older language does become the predominantmode of semiotic mediation and as he wrote in a later paper ldquoLanguage is theessential condition of knowing the process by which experience becomes know-ledge (Halliday 1993 p 94 original emphasis)

Assistance for Learning in Joint Activitie

So far in the discussion of the role of joint activity in human development Ihave concentrated on the tools and particularly the semiotic modes of represen-tation that mediate the achievement of the outcome of activity In this sectionon the other hand I turn to the role of other people in this process both familymembers and the larger community

Until now I have referred to coparticipants in an activity in general termsbut clearly there are further distinctions to be made Particularly helpful in thisrespect is Engestroumlmrsquos model of an activity system which is shown in figure 1

What this model shows is that when we look at an ongoing activity from thepoint of view of an individual participant (t Subject) that individual is involvedin a nexus of other relationships that link him or her to other lsquoparticipantsrsquo theTools and artifacts to mediate action on the Object but also the Community of

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 1The Triangle of Activity

Artifactstools andpractices

Values rulesamp conventions

Community Divisioacutenof labor

Engestrom 1999

Object OutcomeSubject

others engaged in the activity together with the Division of Labor within thatcommunity and also the Rules and Conventions that govern the manner inwhich the activity is carried out (Engestroumlm 1999) What this latter category oflsquoparticipantrsquo underscores is the historical dimension of an activity system sincethese rules and conventions ndashas well as the tools and artifactsndash bring into thepresent the distilled practices of previous generations who have engaged in theactivity as these are interpreted and utilized by the current community

To illustrate the relevance of this model to the development of the youngchild we might compare two versions of a similar activity reported by WertschMinick and Arns (1984) In their study Brazilian children carried out a puzzletask on two occasions first with the mother and secondly with a primary tea-cher What the researchers found was that in general the mothers and teachersengaged in the activity in systematically different ways Whereas the motherstended to direct the childrenrsquos behavior or even carry out parts of the task them-selves in order to complete it in an efficient manner ndashjust as they would havedone if engaged in a household taskndash the teachers tended to encourage thechildrsquos autonomous performance and only provided hints and suggestions whenthey judged them to be necessary to advance the childrenrsquos understandingInterpreting these results the researchers suggested that the two groups ofadults belonged to two different communities (or activity systems) that had dif-ferent rules and conventions about engaging in this joint activity And this inturn led to the different divisions of labor that they observed Similarly Rogoff(2003) cites many examples of substantial differences between cultures inalmost all aspects of child rearing with respect to their ways of engaging chil-dren in the activities that they consider important

What is clear is that ldquobehindrdquo the particular adult ndashor older siblings in someculturesndash who are directly engaged with the child there is a wider communityof family members neighbors and others who have an interest in the upbrin-ging of children and who share beliefs about appropriate ways to involve themin the activities of daily life So whether in Spain Japan or the Peruvian High-lands although the actual practices vary across cultures in each those responsi-ble for childrenrsquos well-being and development act as agents of a wider commu-nity whose beliefs and practices are rooted in a long tradition concerning howactivities should be carried out But equally in all cultures practices also changein response to changes in the world beyond the particular community In manyWestern homes for example computer games or television programs haverecently taken the place of the bedtime story while in many indigenous com-munities crafts that until recently only supplied local needs are now exploitedcommercially for the tourist trade changing the rhythms of daily life and therelationships among family members and the activities in which children areinvolved As suggested earlier therefore in order to understand the activities inwhich children participate today we need to look not only at the immediatesituation but also at the wider community and the changes taking place on allthese time-scales

Microgenesis and the Zone of Proximal Development

It is nevertheless always the immediate microgenetic situation that isthe site of ontogenetic development ndashthe action and interaction between thelearner and those with whom he or she is engaged in the activity in pro-gress When we adopt this microgenetic perspective however we need tomodify the representation of an activity system presented in figure 1 Inthat representation the focus was on the goal-oriented nature of action

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Here we need to focus on the interaction among the participants ndashtheirattempt to attain intersubjectivity with respect to the common object andthe complementarity of the knowledgeable skills they bring to the cocons-truction of the intended outcome (see Figure 2) What figure 2 emphasizesis the fact that although the tools and artefacts that are available to mediatethe jointly undertaken action are the same for each participant each bringsa somewhat different familiarity with their use as a result of their differentlife trajectories and it is this variability in their expertise that makes it pos-sible for each to provide assistance to the others in at least some aspects ofthe joint action Viewed in this light it is clear why Vygotsky emphasizedthe role of joint activity in development and wrote of its potential to enablelearners ldquoto go beyond themselvesrdquo with the assistance of more expertothers

The metaphor Vygotsky used to characterize the potential for learning thatthis sort of activity creates was the ldquozone of proximal developmentrdquo As hewrote when another participant in the activity provides instruction that isappropriately pitched beyond what the learner can manage to do on his or herown it ldquowakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturationlying in the zone of proximal developmentrdquo (1987 p 212) Vygotsky concep-tualized development as the formation of new functional systems (ldquoneoforma-tionsrdquo) and of changes in the relationships among systems which he consideredto occur as a succession of ldquocrises of developmentrdquo that are particularly facilitatedby engagement in the relevant ldquoleading activityrdquo at each stage for example playin childhood and learning to read and write in the early school yearsHowever itwould be a mistake to focus only on the periods of revolutionary change since ashe equally emphasized at any time there are also other more gradual processes ofgrowth

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 2Dialogue in Joint Activity(from Wells2002b)

Outcomematerial ampsemioticartefacts

Toolsartefacts

Subject

Rulesconventions

Community Divisionof labor

Subject

Toolsartefacts

Processes that are central lines of development at one age become peripheral lines of develop-ment at the following age and conversely peripheral lines of development of one age arebrought to the forefront and become central lines since their meaning and relative significancein the total structure of development changes (p 197)2

In developing his important concept of the zone of proximal developmentVygotsky tended to characterize the assistance given by others as ldquoinstructionrdquoand to see its value in ldquothe childrsquos potential to raise himself to a higher intellec-tual level of development through collaboration to move from what he has towhat he does not have through imitationrdquo (1987 p 210) However manyrecent scholars who have built on his work have taken a broader view of thedevelopmental significance of collaboration in joint activities and have characte-rized the assistance that is provided within this relationship in terms such asldquoapprenticeshiprdquo (Lave amp Wenger 1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoguided participationrdquo(Rogoff 1994 2003) and ldquoscaffoldingrdquo (Wood et al 1976) Neverthelesswhile these different metaphors highlight different features of the relationshipwhat they all have in common is the inclusion of the learner in an activity inwhich there is provision of the assistance necessary to help the learner to comple-te an activity in which he or she is interested and to do so in such a way that heor she makes progress toward being able to participate more fully and autono-mously in the future (Maybin Mercer and Stierer 1992)

In many joint activities such as for example traditional forms of craftapprenticeship assistance is only provided when needed and the ldquomasterrdquo doesso with no deliberate didactic intention beyond that of involving the novice inthe completion of the particular task in hand (Lave 1996) Similarly in sociali-zation into activities around the home no explicit instruction is necessary fornovices can learn a great deal by simply watching and listening (cf Rogoff2003) This is what Lave and Wenger (1991) mean when they insist that lear-ning is not an independent activity but an intrinsic aspect of ldquolegitimate perip-heral participationrdquo in a communityrsquos activities From their perspective therefo-re formal education in which learning is the sole purpose of the activity issomething of an anomaly particularly when the only form of assistance providedis the expert teacherrsquos direct instruction and subsequent evaluation of the extentof the studentsrsquo learning

In many recent discussions it has also been recognized that it is not only aldquoteacherrdquo who can provide assistance in the zpd On the one hand in a com-plex activity many participants are more expert than others in some aspectsand therefore on some occasions are able to help those who are less expert(Rogoff 1994) and on the other hand those who provide assistance do nothave to be physically present texts and other artifacts can equally well helpa participant ldquoto go beyond himherselfrdquo as is often the case in intellectualwork such as research and writ ing (Wells 1999) Furthermore asEngestroumlm (1999) and others ndashbuilding on other aspects of Vygotskyrsquos theo-retical writingsndash have noted the material and symbolic tools that have beendeveloped by previous participants in the activity can also provide the samesort of assistance However perhaps the most important point to emphasizeis that there are many situations in which no-one is an expert yet as eachbrings his or her own past experience to the solution of a common problemthe group together is able to achieve more than any single member couldhave done alone Clearly it is such collaboration that has made possible theinventions that have led to the major advances of great civilizations over thecourse of cultural history

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Development in the Pre-School Years

As noted above the responsibility for caring for children in early childhoodvaries very considerably from one society to another Nevertheless in all socie-ties children are involved in joint activities with others in which they receiveassistance with respect to their participation however that may be locally achie-ved For the most part as already mentioned these are activities that are regu-larly repeated in the taken-for-granted routines of daily life The expectation isthat the child will learn to fit in and is simply helped to do so Often referred toas ldquoenculturationrdquo this form of apprenticeship ensures the continuity of the cul-turersquos way of life from one generation to the next and as Donald (1991) arguedit probably occurred even before the emergence of speech

However in all activities there are occasions when problems arise that callfor some level of deliberate decision-making In these situations spoken interac-tion makes possible a degree of reflection and forward planning in which therelations of cause and effect intention action and outcome are made explicitand open to question and discussion The talk that occurs on these occasionsthus plays a particularly important role in helping children to attend to andunderstand the world around them in terms of the culturersquos ways of ldquomakingsenserdquo of it However these occasions can also open up possibilities for changeboth in the form of the activity and in the participantsrsquo understanding of itHow caregivers habitually take up these opportunities is particularly importantfor it plays an important part in shaping the intellectual dispositions withwhich children enter school (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo amp Sterponi2002)

In this section I include some representative examples of kinds of talk thatarise from joint activities in the home These examples are drawn from observa-tions made in settings in England (Wells 1986) and Australia (Hasan 2002) inwhich the young children observed spent most of their time at home with oneparent sometimes with one or more siblings some of the time they entertainedthemselves with occasional adult involvement but they also frequently watchedand ldquohelpedrdquo the parent with household tasks of various kinds

In the first example James (aged 3 12 years) has been playing alone in thegarden and as he reenters the house his mother tries to get him to take off hismuddy shoes However at that moment he sees a bird outside which interestshim more than changing his shoes

Example 1Mother There we are there one slipper onJames I can see a birdMother A what loveJames See a bird Mother (whispering) Is there OutsideJames (pointing and whispering) Yes see

(both continue to speak very softly)Mother Is he eating anythingJames NoMother Where Oh yes hersquos getting- do you know what hersquos doingJames NoMother Hersquos going to the- the paper sack to try to pick out some pieces-

Oh hersquos got some food there and I expect hersquoll pick out somepieces of thread from the sack to go and make his nest under the roofJames Wait a minute and Irsquoll-[James now wants to go out to see more closely but at that moment thebird flies away]

James That birdrsquos gone

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

In the second example Elizabeth (aged 4 years) who is helping with thehouse cleaning watches with interest as her mother shovels wood ash from thefireplace into a bucket

Example 2Elizabeth What are you doing that forMother Irsquom gathering it up and putting it outside so that Daddy can put it on the gardenElizabeth Why does he have to put it on the gardenMother To make the compost rightElizabeth Does that make the grass growMother YesElizabeth Why does itMother You know how I tell you that you need to eat different things like eggs and cab-

bage and rice pudding to make you grow into a big girlElizabeth YesMother Well plants need different foods too and ash is one of the things thatrsquos

good for them

The third example involves James again now eighteen months older Earlierin the afternoon he had been helping his mother with the baking Now hecomes back into the kitchen as his mother is taking the baking trays out of theoven He hears a loud metallic ldquocrackrdquo and asks for an explanation

Example 3James Who did thatMother I expect it was the tin contractingJames Which tinMother The one with your pastry inJames Why did it make that noiseMother Well when it was in the oven it got very hot and stretched a bit Irsquove just taken

it out of the oven and itrsquos cooling down very quickly you see and that noisehappens when it gets smaller again and goes back to its normal shape

James Oh was it a different shape in the ovenMother Oh not very different just a little biggerJames Naughty little tin you might get smacked if you do it again

In all three of these examples the mother willingly responds to the childrsquosinterest and provides information to explain the significance of what the child isseeing or hearing even when in the first this interrupts the motherrsquos plan Allthree cases show how the childrsquos participation in the activity with the adult assu-res that there is intersubjectivity of attention to what interests the child and thisenables the mother to provide relevant information Clearly this is a form ofldquoinstructionrdquo however it is spontaneous and contingent on the childrsquos interestrather than presented as part of a pre-planned curriculum

The third example is particularly interesting from this point of view as thephenomenon of interest to James requires a somewhat technical explanation Atsome point in the future no doubt the expansion of metal when heated and itssubsequent contraction when removed from the heat will figure in the schoolscience curriculum in relation to the systematic study of heat here however itis an interesting side-effect of baking and the motherrsquos explanation while tech-nical in content is couched in everyday language rather than in the abstractterms of scientific generalization As Hasan (2002) has observed

the discourse of quasi specialised knowledge occurs in the lsquomiddle ofrsquo daily activities and bynecessity it calls for a readiness on the motherrsquos part to entertain contextual shifts to bewilling to reclassify the context of the on-going discourse The tendency to move with thechildrsquos moving discourse the readiness to re-classify context is a discourse characteristic of thesame group of mothers who frequently ask questions made precise by qualification and whoattend to their childrenrsquos questions and provide them with well developed answers (p 123)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 16: Actividad y Aprendizaje

No todos los nintildeos experimentan esta clase de respuesta altamente informati-va para sus intereses por supuesto Sobre la base de un corpus sustancial de inte-racciones madre-hijo Hasan (2002) siguiendo a Bernstein (1982) distingueentre mediacioacuten semioacutetica ldquovisiblerdquo e ldquoinvisiblerdquo Mientras que todos los ejem-plos citados anteriormente giran sobre la actividad conjunta y las preguntas delos nintildeos merecen una exploracioacuten adicional en un modo expliacutecito ldquovisiblerdquo lostemas de las contribuciones de muchos otros nintildeos a la actividad y la interaccioacutenson tratados por los padres como ldquoobviosrdquo y por lo tanto como si no requirieranexplicacioacuten En este sentido la mediacioacuten de las creencias culturales y de laspraacutecticas permanece ldquoinvisiblerdquo esto es la forma de ser del mundo y el tema nomerece una discusioacuten adicional El Ejemplo 4 (tomado de Hasan 2002) bajoestaacutes liacuteneas proporciona una buena ilustracioacuten

Ejemplo 4 Madre Ponlo sobre la estufa y deacutejalo alliacuteKaren iquestPor queacuteMadre PorqueKaren iquestAquiacute es doacutende va Madre SiacuteUn poco despueacutesKaren iquestCoacutemo conseguiste esoiquestNo saliste Madre Camineacute encima y lo conseguiacute iquestno me viste Karen HmmMadre Debes estar ciega

Los dos breves extractos del Ejemplo 4 son tiacutepicos de un estilo muy diferentede interaccioacuten comparados con los anteriores Aquiacute el eacutenfasis de los padres enconseguir que el nintildeo se adapte a los modos de la cultura local de actuar y pensarcon eficacia suprime la curiosidad del nintildeo y el deseo de comprender lo quetambieacuten hace menos probable que el nintildeo desarrolle la capacidad para cuestionarel status quo y participar en los esfuerzos por cambiarlo y mejorarlo

Finalmente antes de dejar el tema del aprendizaje a traveacutes de la conversacioacutenen actividades conjuntas es importante considerar la actividad conjunta en elcontexto del juego Vygotski (1978) consideroacute el juego como la actividad princi-pal en los antildeos preescolares ya que anima al nintildeo a explorar las posibilidades dela mediacioacuten semioacutetica mediante el uso de objetos presentes que pueden ser uti-lizados para representar otros objetos no presentes mediante el ldquorole playrdquo en elque el lenguaje crea un mundo imaginario En el Ejemplo 5 James ahora contres antildeos y nueve meses estaacute sentaacutendose en el brazo de un sofaacute conduciendo untren imaginario con su madre como pasajera

Ejemplo 5Madre Aquiacute estamos Me sentareacute al lado Perfecto iquestestaacutes listo iquestTodo a punto

Bien Quita el frenoJames Comenzareacute a levantarloMadre Oh perdoacuten Estaacute bienJames Mamaacute no conduzcas todaviacuteaMadre Oh BienJames [Hace un ruido simulando arrancar el motor]Madre iexclOh Este motor arranca raacutepido Muy bien iquestHay suficiente carboacuten en la parte

posterior iquestHas cargado suficiente carboacuten JamesJames SiacuteMadre Bien Entonces vaacutemonos lejos Despiacutedete de tus amigos James [Suena el ruido del motor que acelera Se riacutee y hace el sonido del silbido del

motor]Madre Ahora vamos muy raacutepido iquestPuedes sentir el traqueteo de los vagones James Siacute

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187180

Madre Oh todo me da vueltas Oh mi desayuno estaacute retumbando en mi barriga iexclOhiexclOh iexclOh

James [Hace el ruido del motor]Madre Creo que deberiacuteamos disminuir la velocidad iquestNo crees James Mm (asintiendo)Madre Creo que estamos yendo un poco raacutepido

Es mejor es maacutes faacutecil ahora iquestno James Mm (asintiendo)Madre [Muje] Mira las vacas en el campo JamesJames MmMadre Y hay un granjero mira El granjero te estaacute saludando

Como contar historias compartidas que es otra actividad conjunta importan-te a esta edad el juego imaginario tambieacuten tiene una funcioacuten importante en lapreparacioacuten del nintildeo para explorar el poder del lenguaje ldquopara crear un mundomediante las palabrasrdquo Como seraacute discutido debajo este uso del lenguaje pararepresentar objetos y eventos no presentes y las relaciones entre ellos adoptagran significado en el contexto de la escolarizacioacuten puacuteblica tiacutepica donde propor-ciona los significados mediacionales principales mediante los que gran parte delcurriculum se materializa (Wells 1986)

En suma con la excepcioacuten del Ejemplo 4 todos los extractos precedentes sonejemplos claros de un adulto ldquotrabajando en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximo delnintildeordquo (Vygotski 1987) ya que se implican en la interaccioacuten en el proceso dedesarrollar la actividad en la que estaacuten conjuntamente inmersos Como Vygotski(1987) enfatizoacute en la actividad conjunta colaborativa el nintildeo puede siemprehacer maacutes de lo que le es posible hacer independientemente La actividad pro-porciona el marco organizacional en el que parte de la conversacioacuten dirige ycomenta la actividad y parte explora los resultados a los que conduce En estecontexto el adulto hace disponible para la apropiacioacuten del nintildeo no soacutelo infor-macioacuten especiacutefica como respuesta a los intereses del nintildeo sino tambieacuten una pos-tura hacia la experiencia que valora la actitud de investigacioacuten Tratando las pre-guntas del nintildeo como dignas de respuesta expliacutecita el adulto apoya el desarrollode una disposicioacuten a plantearse preguntas y a buscarles respuesta mediante lainvestigacioacuten futura (Wells 1999)

El papel de la actividad en la educacioacuten

Aunque el teacutermino ldquoeducacioacutenrdquo se emplea a menudo como sinoacutenimo deldquoescolarizacioacutenrdquo seguacuten una interpretacioacuten maacutes amplia la educacioacuten viene refi-rieacutendose a los primeros antildeos del nintildeo y de hecho como se vio arriba hay muchasocasiones en las que un coparticipante en una actividad en curso proporciona ins-truccioacuten expliacutecita Sin embargo la educacioacuten ndashen el sentido de escolarizacioacutenndashtiende a ser muy diferente de la clase de actividades ilustradas maacutes arriba Maacutesimportante en las escuelas la instruccioacuten es tanto deliberada como sistemaacutetica yes gobernada no por los intereses de los alumnos sino por un curriculum que hasido disentildeado por expertos que no estaacuten familiarizados con los alumnos que van aser instruidos Como resultado a menudo lo que se ensentildea en la escuela no estaacuterelacionado con aquello que a los alumnos maacutes les interesa aprender y es muyprobable que no se obtengan beneficios de las oportunidades que la escuelapodriacutea proporcionar

En las primeras secciones de este trabajo se ha argumentado que el aprendi-zaje no es un fin en siacute mismo sino un aspecto integrado del domino de nuevasformas de actividad que tienen significado y valor para el desarrollo de los apren-dices como miembros de una comunidad y como individuos autoacutenomos uacutenicos

181El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Como Wygotsky insistentemente precisoacute el aprendizaje conduce el desarrollo yla instruccioacuten deberiacutea estar organizada para ayudar a este proceso

La instruccioacuten es soacutelo uacutetil cuando se mueve delante del desarrollo Cuando esto ocurre impulsao despierta toda una serie de funciones que estaacuten en estado de maduracioacuten latente en la zona dedesarrollo proacuteximo (1987 p 212)

La pregunta central para la escolarizacioacuten debe por lo tanto ser coacutemo ofrecerinstruccioacuten que sea relevante para las trayectorias de desarrollo de los alumnos yque de manera adecuada ldquose situacutee dentrordquo de sus zonas de desarrollo proacuteximoJunto a esta una segunda pregunta es coacutemo proporcionar ayuda a los alumnosindividuales para que su aprendizaje les permita de hecho avanzar en su desa-rrollo

Procurando proporcionar respuesta a estas preguntas el concepto de ldquoactivi-dad guiadardquo junto con el de recapitulacioacuten de la secuencia de desarrollo de losmodos de conocimiento puede ofrecer un comienzo uacutetil Los nintildeos cuandoingresan en la escuela han dominado en gran parte los modos de conocimientoasociados con la accioacuten el gesto y el habla (Nelson 1996) Lo que ahora necesi-tan es un aprendizaje de los modos de conocimiento asociado con el lenguajeescrito y de las distintas clases de representacioacuten simboacutelica que derivan de eacutelndashmatemaacutetica cientiacutefica musical etceacuteterandash Es decir necesitan aprenderlos parausar estas formas de representacioacuten como herramienta para la deliberacioacutenmediada la comunicacioacuten reflexiva y el pensamiento y para apropiarse de losdiferentes dominios de conocimiento teoacuterico que han sido construidos acumula-tivamente por las generaciones previas con la ayuda de las ventajas que confierenesos sistemas de ldquomemoria externardquo (Donald 1991)

La recapitulacioacuten del desarrollo histoacuterico cultural orienta la trayectoria a largoplazo para la educacioacuten formal en la escuela y en otras instituciones Pero inclusomaacutes importante para procurar responder la pregunta central presentada arriba esdeterminar los procedimientos efectivos para organizar los pequentildeos pasos queconfiguran las lecciones las unidades curriculares y los programas anuales a lolargo de esta trayectoria Basaacutendonos en las ideas presentadas en la seccioacuten ante-rior dos principios parecen en siacute mismos evidentes En primer lugar los encuen-tros educativos necesitan para estar organizados ser ldquoactividades conjuntasrdquo enlas que todos los participantes contribuyen a las metas convenidas con lo mejorde sus habilidades Y en segundo lugar debe convertirse en norma dar y recibirayuda por parte de cada participante Una de las implicaciones de estos dos prin-cipios es que no puede haber formas universales mejores para participar en alguacutenaspecto del curriculum puesto que cada clase variacutea en las experiencias e interesesque sus miembros aportan y en los valores y praacutecticas aprendidos culturalmenteque motivan y dirigen su implicacioacuten con el nuevo conocimiento y con las habi-lidades que estaacuten esperando dominar

Aunque siempre es importante reconocer valorar y construir sobre las expe-riencias previas de los alumnos ha llegado a ser incluso maacutes necesario a medidaque la migracioacuten tanto inter como intra paiacuteses ha aumentado significativamen-te ya que las diferentes etnias clases y religiones en las comunidades han dadolugar a su vez a comunidades de escuela y aula cada vez maacutes diversas ndashy estadiversidad es incluso mayor donde una proporcioacuten sustancial de alumnos estaacuteaprendiendo la lengua de clase como una segunda lengua (o subsiguiente)ndash Taldiversidad en el bagaje cultural y en la experiencia previa es generalmente vistocomo un problema que necesita ser superado en paiacuteses donde los disentildeadores delcurriculum apuntan a estandarizar la instruccioacuten para alcanzar ideacutenticos resulta-dos para todos los estudiantes como es hoy el caso en Estados Unidos Sin

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187182

embargo cuando las diferencias entre personas en teacuterminos de experiencia valo-res y praacutecticas son reconocidas como normales y deseables esta diversidad puedeconvertirse en una ventaja en la clase ya que las praacutecticas y puntos de vista alter-nativos que afloran pueden enriquecer la comunidad de clase y conducir a discu-siones valiosas en las que las creencias dadas por sentadas sean modificadas y sealcance una comprensioacuten maacutes profunda de los puntos considerados (Wells1999)

En este contexto he encontrado de ayuda pensar en el aprendizaje basado enla escuela en teacuterminos de una espiral del conocimiento donde el resultado espe-rado con cada giro de la espiral es una mayor comprensioacuten (Wells 1999) (verFigura 3) En la primera fase cuando la clase se embarca en un nuevo aspecto delcurriculum es importante animar a los alumnos a compartir sus experienciasprevias ya que como las investigaciones en campos muy diferentes han mostra-do (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotski) esas experiencias proporcionan elpunto de partida para su aprendizaje sean o no reconocidas puacuteblicamente Des-cubriendo lo que los estudiantes ya saben y aquello que les interesa explorar conmaacutes detalle el profesor puede tambieacuten planificar la unidad en cooperacioacuten conlos alumnos (Donoahue 2003) La segunda fase de la espiral conlleva varios acer-camientos a la nueva informacioacuten ndashmediante la explicacioacuten del profesor a traveacutesde materiales impresos o medios audiovusiales o en la forma de feedback de laspropias acciones e investigaciones de los alumnosndash Es importante reconocer sinembargo que la recepcioacuten de la nueva informacioacuten no asegura en siacute misma unaumento de la comprensioacuten Para que esto ocurra la nueva informacioacuten debearticularse con la comprensioacuten existente y con la experiencia previa relevantepara ser despueacutes puesta a prueba mediante la accioacuten en el mundo ndashobteniendofeedback (informacioacuten adicional)ndash yo mediante el diaacutelogo con otros para laconstruccioacuten del conocimiento donde el propoacutesito es llegar a una eleccioacuten con-sensuada entre las teoriacuteas alternativas demandas o interpretaciones sobre la basede una consideracioacuten de las evidencias y argumentos apropiados Finalmentepara consolidar la nuevas comprensiones obtenidas es valioso para la clase com-pleta reflexionar juntos sobre lo que han aprendido y sobre el proceso de cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento en el que han participado sobre las implicaciones quela nueva comprensioacuten tiene para sus propias acciones ndashtanto fuera como dentrode clasendash y sobre las preguntas importantes a las que ellos deben ahora dirigir susinvestigaciones futuras En otras palabras la fase final en el ciclo implica a lacomunidad en un ldquoacercamiento lsquometarsquordquo (Olson y Bruner 1996) es decir en laadopcioacuten de una perspectiva metacognitiva sobre su propio aprendizaje que a lolargo de miles de antildeos probablemente ha jugado un importante papel en eldesarrollo de cada modo de conocimiento presentado en la siacutentesis del desarrollohistoacuterico cultural de Donald (1991)3

Esta espiral necesita varias anotaciones adicionales La primera tiene quever con la naturaleza incompleta y provisional del conocimiento eacuteste estaacutesiempre abierto a la mejora mediante ciclos futuros a traveacutes de la espiral Lasegunda anotacioacuten concierne a la naturaleza esencialmente interactiva ysocial del crecimiento individual y comunitario en la comprensioacuten eacutesta seconsigue gracias a los esfuerzos de los participantes para clarificar sus pro-pios significados a los otros y alternativamente para tener en cuenta y res-ponder a los de los demaacutes (Bajtiacuten 1986) En tercer lugar es necesario enfati-zar que el crecimien to en la comprensioacuten requeriraacute espirales futuras queactiven los diferentes modos de conocimiento ya que la mayoriacutea de los cam-bios y problemas que ocurren en las instituciones maacutes allaacute del aula deman-dan un conocimiento procedimental substantivo y esteacutetico al igual que

183El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

teoacuterico y cada modo de conocimiento tiene una contribucioacuten que hacer aleacutexito de soluciones comprensivas que realcen significativamente la com-prensioacuten Finalmente en la representacioacuten de estas relaciones en la figura 3la espiral tambieacuten resalta la interdependencia de los individuos y la comuni-dad Mientras que la experiencia y la comprensioacuten son esencialmente indivi-duales en su naturaleza crecen fuera de eacutel y adoptan su significado de la par-ticipacioacuten de los individuos en el intercambio de informacioacuten y en su com-promiso en la construccioacuten de conocimiento en la comunidad extensa de laque cada individuo es miembro

Desafortunadamente muchos educadores no comprenden estas relacionesfundamentales y por eso su instruccioacuten no es conceptualizada y planificada demanera que sea oacuteptima para el desarrollo de los estudiantes Como numerososestudios han mostrado (Langer y Applebee 1987 Nystrand y Gamoran 1991)en la mayoriacutea de las clases la que gobierna la praacutectica es la concepcioacuten bancariadel conocimiento (Freire 1970) seguacuten la cual el propoacutesito de la instruccioacuten quetiene lugar en el aula es que un alumno individual esteacute preparado para puntuarbien en los tests y no tanto ampliar su conocimiento Dada esta orientacioacuten lasactividades en las que se pide a los alumnos que participen estaacuten determinadaspor la guiacutea curricular del libro de texto maacutes que por el conocimiento de los pro-fesores sobre los intereses y habilidades de los alumnos particulares de los queson responsables A esto es a lo que Tharp y Gallimore (1988) se refieren con laexpresioacuten ldquoguioacuten recitativordquo unido a la ocupacioacuten de un lugar individual de tra-bajo que domina la rutina diaria Ademaacutes los planes sobre coacutemo proceder sonndashcomo cabiacutea esperarndash unilateralmente impuestos en lugar de ser configuradossobre la base de las decisiones tomadas por la comunidad de clase como un todoy el modus operandi es la competicioacuten en lugar de la colaboracioacuten

Sin embargo como he argumentado en otra parte (Wells 1986 19992002a) eacuteste no es el uacutenico modo en el que la escolarizacioacuten puede ser condu-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187184

FIGURA 3La espiral del conocimiento

ACCIOacuteN Construccioacuten

deconocimiento

ComprensioacutenSubstantivo

Esteacutetico

Teoacuterico

Procedimental

Instrumental

Experiencia Informacioacuten

Modos de conocimiento

cida ndasha pensar de la larga historia de la recitacioacuten que se remonta a maacutes detres mil antildeos a las tempranas instituciones que entrenaban a los escribas yadministradores para leer y escribir (Cole 1996)ndash Pero probablemente elmodo por defecto de la escolarizacioacuten es parecido a una preparacioacuten para ldquolavida adultardquo y no una etapa criacutetica del desarrollo que merece la pena y essignificativa en siacute misma Como Vygotski argumentoacute sobre el dominio de laalfabetizacioacuten ldquola ensentildeanza debe organizarse de tal manera que la lectura yla escritura sean necesarias para algo La escritura debe ser incorporada enuna tarea relevante y necesaria para la vidardquo (1978 pp117-118) Y porldquovidardquo quiere decir no la vida futura sino la totalidad de los intereses y pre-ocupaciones actuales de los aprendices

En los uacuteltimos antildeos se han divulgado proyectos de una variedad de paiacuteses enlos que educadores universitarios han procurado crear condiciones para elldquoaprendizaje auteacutenticordquo en las aulas En todos estos proyectos se ha otorgado unpapel central a las actividades colaborativas que alternando entre los formatos departicipacioacuten individual en pequentildeo grupo y de la clase completa implican alos estudiantes en la exploracioacuten de temas centrales mediante investigacionespraacutecticas y tambieacuten teoacutericas y en la discusioacuten criacutetica y constructiva de sus hallaz-gos y de las implicaciones para futuras acciones El espacio no permite aquiacute unadiscusioacuten individual de estos proyectos pero lo que puede ser dicho sobre todosellos es que en sus diferentes formas valoran tanto los intereses de los alumnoscomo sus experiencias previas y persiguen ayudarles a desarrollar la disposicioacutenpara buscar la comprensioacuten maacutes que la acumulacioacuten simple de informacioacuten ypara valorar la colaboracioacuten maacutes que la competicioacuten como el medio para alcanzaresta menta4

En este contexto es digno atraer la atencioacuten hacia varias instituciones poste-riores a la escuela tales como la Fifth Dimension donde la participacioacuten en activi-dades elegidas personalmente ndasha menudo basadas en ordenadoresndash requiere a losnintildeos dominar habilidades que son tambieacuten necesarias para la escolarizacioacuten y lesproporcionan oportunidades para interactuar con voluntarios universitarios enuna posicioacuten de igualdad (Brown y Cole 2002) De manera similar algunosprogramas basados en museos (Leinhardst Crowley y Kuntson 2002) y variasformas de educacioacuten al aire libre tambieacuten capitalizan los intereses de los estu-diantes para implicarles en actividades desafiantes que demandan para la cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento procesos de diaacutelogo y toma de decisiones comparablesa aquellos encontrados en los contextos escolares previamente descritos

Finalmente si estas praacutecticas pioneras arraigan e influyen en la educacioacutenpuacuteblica con mayor amplitud es esencial que los profesores tengan oportunidadessimilares para desarrollar las disposiciones y pericia necesarias para actuar comoagentes de cambio y liacutederes de una reforma en las instituciones en las que traba-jan Es por lo tanto estimulante ver que a pesar del eacutenfasis de los dirigentes poliacute-ticos en estandarizar los curricula y en los resultados cuantificables algunos pro-gramas de formacioacuten de profesores y desarrollo profesional anima a los profeso-res sobre la base de investigaciones sobre su propia praacutectica a tomar sus propiasdecisiones sobre queacute debe ser ensentildeado y coacutemo y a compartir los resultados desus investigaciones con los compantildeeros Este ha sido el motor de mi propio tra-bajo en los antildeos recientes ya que he participado en la investigacioacuten colaborativacon profesores para crear y mantener comunidades de investigacioacuten tanto en cla-ses como entre los mismos profesores5

185El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Notas1 La secuencia temporal implicada por esta formulacioacuten ha sido ampliamente debatida y especialmente el movimiento desde fueraa dentro que sugiere Mi propia comprensioacuten de lo que la apropiacioacuten supone se capta mejor con el ejemplo de aprender a bailarmediante la inmersioacuten en la actividad con otros (Wells 1999) En muchos casos no hay separacioacuten entre antes y despueacutes o entrefuera y dentro y no hay necesidad de demostracioacuten o ejemplificacioacuten En lugar de esto estando inmerso en la actividad conjuntael principiante es literalmente entrenado fiacutesicamente por los movimiento del coparticipante mientras que al mismo tiempoconstruye su propia organizacioacuten ndashy quizaacute incluso una representacioacuten esquemaacuteticandash de los movimientos corporales A lo largo deltiempo este esquema estaacute tan bien organizado que el principiante se convierte en un experto que estaacute preparado paralelamentepara introducir a otros en la actividad Esto es lo que Lave y Wenger (1991) y Rogoff (2003) quieren decir por desarrollo median-te la participacioacuten en actividades culturales

2 Estoy agradecido a Natalia Gajdamaschko y Steve Gabosch por sus valiosas discusiones de esta distincioacuten durante el XMCA cursoonline sobre la teoriacutea de la actividad histoacuterico cultural Abril 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Aunque estaacute incluido en la Tabla I este modo de conocimiento no ha sido discutido aquiacute ya que el reconocimiento expliacutecito deeste importante modo de conocimiento es muy reciente (Brown 1975) Sin embargo eso no significa que sea en siacute mismo unnuevo fenoacutemeno

4 Para algunos ejemplos representativos veacutease Brown y Campione 1994 Lampert Rittenhouse y Crumbaugh 1996 McMahonRaphael Goatley y Pardo 1997 Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford y Brown 1998 Scardamalia Bereiter y Lamon 1994

5 Juntos formamos un grupo de investigacioacuten colaborativo DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project)(Wells (Ed) 2001)

ReferenciasBAJTIacuteN M M (1986) Speech genres and other late essays Austin University of Texas PressBERNSTEIN B (1982) Codes modalities and the process of cultural reproduction A model En M Apple (Ed) Cultural and econo-

mic reproduction in education (pp 304-355) Londres Routledge amp Kegan PaulBROWN A L (1975) The development of memory Knowing knowing about knowing and knowing how to know En H W

Reese (Ed) Advances in child development and behavior (Vol 10 pp 103-152) Nueva York Academic Press BROWN A L amp CAMPIONE J C (1994) Guided discovery in a community of learners En K McGilly (Ed) Integrating cognitive

theory and classroom practice Classroom lessons (pp 229-270) Cambridge MA MIT PressBradford BooksBROWN K amp COLE M (2002) Cultural historical activity theory and the expansion of opportunities for learning after school En

G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 225-238)Oxford Blackwell

BRUNER J S (1990) Acts of meaning Cambridge MA Harvard University PressCARR M (2002) Emerging learning narratives A perspective from early childhood education En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds)

Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 99-111) Oxford BlackwellCOLE M (1996) Cultural psychology A once and future discipline Cambridge MA The Bellknap Press of Harvard University PressDEACON T W (1997) The symbolic species The co-evolution of language and the brain Nueva York NortonDIAMOND J (1998) Guns germs and steel The fates of human societies Nueva York NortonDONALD M (1991) Origins of the Modern Mind Three Stages in the Evolution of Culture and Cognition Cambridge MA Harvard

University PressDONOAHUE Z (2003) Science teaching and learning Teachers and children plan together Networks 6(1) httpwwwoiseuto-

rontoca~ctdnetworksjournal Vol 6 (1) 2003marchENGESTROumlM Y (1999) Activity theory and individual and social transformation Y En Engestrom R Miettinen amp R-L Puna-

maki (Eds) Perspectives on activity theory (pp 19-38) Cambridge Cambridge University PressFREIRE P (1970) Pedagogy of the oppressed Nueva York Herder and HerderHALLIDAY M A K (1975) Learning how to mean Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1978) Language as social semiotic The social interpretation of language and meaning Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1993) Towards a language-based theory of learning Linguistics and Education 5 93-116HASAN R (2002) Semiotic mediation and mental development in pluralistic societies Some implications for tomorrowrsquos schoo-

ling En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural peerspectives on the future of education (pp112-126) Oxford Blackwell

HEATH S B (1983) Ways with words Cambridge Cambridge University PressLAMPERT M RITTENHOUSE P amp CRUMBAUGH C (1996) Agreeing to disagree Developing sociable mathematical discourse En

D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook of education and human development (pp 731-764) Cambridge MA Blackwell LANGER J A amp APPLEBEE A N (1987) How writing shapes thinking A study of teaching and learning Urbana IL National Council

of Teachers of EnglishLAVE J (1996) Teaching as learning in practice Mind Culture and Activity 3 (3) 149-164LAVE J amp WENGER E (1991) Situated Learning Legitimate peripheral participation Nueva York Cambridge University PressLEINHARDT G CROWLEY K amp KNUTSON K (2002) Learning conversations Explanation and identity in museums Mahwah NJ

Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesLEONTIEV A N (1981) The problem of activity in psychology En J VWertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 37-71) Armonk NY SharpeMAYBIN J MERCER N amp STIERER B (1992) lsquoScaffoldingrsquo learning in the classroom En K Norman (Ed) Thinking voices The

work of the National Oracy Project (pp 186-195) Londres Hodder amp StoughtonMCMAHON S I RAPHAEL T E GOATLEY V J amp PARDO L S (Eds) (1997) The Book Club connection Literacy learning and class-

room talk Nueva York Teachers College PressNELSON K (1996) Language in cognitive development The emergence of the mediated mind Nueva York Cambridge University PressNEWSON J (1978) Dialogue and development En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol The emergence of language (pp 31-42)

New York Academic Press

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187186

NYSTRAND M amp GAMORAN A (1991) Student engagement When recitation becomes conversation En H C Waxman amp H JWalberg (Eds) Effective teaching Current research (pp 257-276)Berkeley CA McCutchan Publishing Corp

OLSON D R amp BRUNER J S (1996) Folk psychology and folk pedagogy En D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook ofeducation and human development (pp 9-27) Cambridge MA Blackwell

PALINCSAR A MAGNUSSON S MARANO N FORD D amp BROWN N (1998) Designing a community of practice Principlesand practices of the GIsML Community Teaching and Teacher Education 14 (1) 5-20

PIAGET J (1970) Piagetrsquos theory En P H Mussen (Ed) Carmichaelrsquos handbook of child development (pp 703-732) Nueva YorkWiley

PONTECORVO C amp STERPONI L (2002) Learning to argue and reason through discourse in educational settings En G Wells ampG Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 127-140) OxfordBlackwell

ROGOFF B (1990) Apprenticeship in thinking Cognitive development in social context Nueva York Oxford University PressROGOFF B (1994) Developing understanding of the idea of Communities of Learners Mind Culture and Activity 1 (4) 209-

229ROGOFF B (2003) The cultural nature of human development Nueva York Oxford University PressROSENBLATT L (1978) The reader the text the poem The transactional theory of the literary work Carbondale IL Southern Illinois

University PressSCARDAMALIA M C BEREITER amp LAMON M (1994) The CSILE project Trying to bring the classroom into World 3 En K

McGilley (Ed) Classroom lessons Integrating cognitive theory and classroom practice (pp 201-228) Cambridge MA MITPress

SCRIBNER S (1985) Vygotskyrsquos uses of history En J V Wertsch (Ed) Culture communication and cognition Vygotskian perspectives(pp 119-145) Cambridge Cambridge University Press

THARP R amp GALLIMORE R (1988) Rousing minds to life Nueva York Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C (1979) Communication and cooperation in early infancy a description of primary intersubjectivity En M

Bullowa (Ed) Before speech The beginning of interpersonal communication (pp 321-348) Cambridge Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C amp HUBLEY P (1978) Secondary intersubjectivity Confidence confiding and acts of meaning in the first year

En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol the emergence of language (pp 183-230) Nueva York Academic PressVYGOTSKI L S (1978)Mind in society The development of higher psychological processes Cambridge MA Harvard University PressVYGOTSKI L S (1981) The genesis of higher mental functions En J V Wertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 144-188) Armonk NY SharpeVYGOTSKI L S (1987) Thinking and speech En R W Rieber amp A S Carton (Eds) The collected works of L S Vygotsky Volumen

1 Problems of general psychology (pp 39-285) Nueva York PlenumWARTOFSKY M (1979) Models representation and scientific understanding Boston ReidelWELLS G (1985) Language development in the pre-school years Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (1986) The meaning makers Children learning language and using language to learn Portsmouth NH HeinemannWELLS G (1999) Dialogic inquiry Towards a sociocultural practice and theory of education Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (Ed) (2001) Action talk and text Learning and teaching through inquiry Nueva York Teachers College PressWELLS G (2002a) Learning and teaching for understanding The key role of collaborative knowledge building En J Brophy

(Ed) Social constructivist teaching Affordances and constraints (pp 1-41) Osford Elsevier ScienceJAIWELLS G (2002b) The role of dialogue in activity theory Mind Culture and Activity 9 (1) 43-66WERTSCH J V MINICK N amp ARNS F J (1984) The creation of context in joint problem solving En B Rogoff amp J Lave (Eds)

Everyday cognition Its development in social context (pp 151-171) Cambridge Cambridge University PressWOOD D BRUNER J S amp ROSS G (1976) The role of tutoring in problem-solving Journal of Child Psychology and Child Psy-

chiatry 17 89-100

187El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Original text

Introduction

Compared with other species the characteristic that distinguishes humans isthe ability and proclivity to engage in tool-mediated joint activity with otherhumans It is this characteristic that accounts for the development of human cul-tures over the course of history as they invented artefacts of various kinds inorder to adapt to and exploit the ecological niches in which they found themsel-ves It also accounts for the diversity of individual personsrsquo development whichdepend on the particular activities in which they participate As Vygotsky(1978 1981) was one of the first to point out the lsquohigherrsquo mental functions thatmake us human are not biologically given but are developmentally constructedthrough the appropriation of historically developed tools and practices that aremade manifest to the child and lsquoscaffoldedrsquo in the meaningful actions and utte-rances of the coparticipants in joint activity

Before continuing readers might find it interesting to reflect on their owndevelopmental trajectories to who they are today I suspect that they may findthemselves agreeing that Who we become depends on the company we keep and what wedo together

A Brief History of the Development of Joint Activity

Leontrsquoev provides a succinct account of Vygotskyrsquos insight in the followingsummary

The initial ideas that led Vygotsky to investigate the genesis of internal mental activity fromexternal activity are fundamentally different from the theoretical approaches of other modernauthors These ideas came from the analysis of the features unique to human productive laboractivity which is mediated by tools This activity is initially social in nature that is it is deve-loped under the conditions of cooperation and social interaction among people Vygotskyidentified two main interconnected features [of this activity] that are necessarily fundamentalfor psychology its tool-like (lsquoinstrumentalrsquo) structure and its inclusion in a system of interre-lations with other people It is these features that define the nature of human psychologicalprocesses The tool mediates activity and thus connects humans not only with the world ofobjects but also with other people Because of this humanrsquos activity assimilates the experience ofhumankind This means that humansrsquo mental processes (their lsquohigher psychological functionsrsquo)acquire a structure necessarily tied to the sociohistorically formed means and methods trans-mitted to them by others in the process of cooperative labor and social interaction But it isimpossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in any way otherthan a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words higher psycho-logical processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction with others thatis through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried out indepen-dently by the individual (Leontrsquoev 1981 pp 55-56 emphases in the original)

As well as emphasizing the social and cooperative nature of human activity thisquotation is important with respect to the arguments that I want to develop inthis paper as it highlights the central role of semiotic mediation in developmentKnowledge is created as well as appropriated in the discourse among peoplewho are working together in a specific situation in order to create or improve anartefact or to solve a problem of importance to the group However Leontrsquoevalso alludes to another of Vygotskyrsquos key insights namely that in order tounderstand current activity it is necessary to investigate the history of that acti-vity It is to this that I next turn

In analyzing the history of human development at least four different time-scales need to be considered The longest is the history of the cultural evolution of

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

the species (the phylogenetic level) next is the historical development of particu-lar cultures The third level (ontogenetic) traces the developmental trajectory ofindividual humans over the course of the lifespan Finally the microgenetic levelis concerned with the development of an instance of a particular activity

In practice it is the latter that has been explored in most detail for usingcontemporary technology it is relatively easy to observe and record the sequenceof actions through which an activity is enacted and the specific operations inwhich the participants engage making use of the relevant artefacts that are avai-lable in the situation (Leontrsquoev 1981) These artefacts may be either material(knives pencils automobiles) or symbolic (utterances maps theories) ndashthoughas Cole (1996) has pointed out to function as mediators of joint activity all arte-facts must have some form of material embodiment as well as a symbolic mea-ning that is to say they must be ready to hand and also have a cultural signifi-cance relevant to the situation

However the form in which a particular instance of activity is realizeddepends not only on the artefacts that are to hand in the situation but also onthe participantsrsquo past experiences with the practices in which the artefacts areused to mediate achievement of the action goals that contribute to the joint acti-vity Thus the microgenesis of a particular instance of activity is necessarilydependent upon the ontogenetic development of the participants that is to sayupon the opportunities their life trajectories have afforded them to appropriatethe relevant cultural knowledge through participation in instances of similaractions and operations

But on the time-scale of ontogenetic development each individualrsquos trajectoryof development is itself strongly influenced by the culture in which he or she isgrowing up and on the historical development of that culture As Rogoff (2003)illustrates in considerable detail cultures vary considerably both over time andacross ecological niches in what mediating artefacts and practices are available andin the relative value accorded to each Moreover within each culture at any parti-cular historical moment participants in activities both incorporate the ways ofprevious generations and adapt them to the exigencies of current conditions

Stepping up one further level the historical development of a particular cul-tures is itself shaped by development on the even larger timescale of the culturaland biological evolution of the species This is the most difficult timescale todescribe in detail for lack of the necessary evidence But certain broad distinc-tions between human communities can be made in terms of their modes of sub-sistence and of the mediating means available for joint activity (Diamond 1998Donald 1991) As recent research has shown our earliest ancestors some 5million years ago lived in small bands of hunter gatherers often on the edge oflakes and oceans Initially their tools were found in the surroundings but overseveral million years they invented ways of making more sophisticated artefactssuch as knives arrowheads baskets and clothing from flints bones skins andvegetable materials Then as some groups migrated to particularly fertile partsof the world they adopted a more settled agrarian way of life growing cropsand breeding animals The resulting ability to produce more food than imme-diately required led in turn to the emergence of trade and to a diversity of spe-cialist occupations such as potters and tailors who exchanged their products forfood and other necessities This stage also saw the development of much largerpopulation groupings with hierarchical class structures that included prieststax collectors and other religious and political functionaries

While migration had been a common feature of human existence from theearliest times the development of large settled populations and of weapons

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

made of bronze and iron led to the expansion of certain cultural groups throughterritorial conquest and colonization by sea and by land As a result during thelast few thousand years the latest phase of phylogenetic development has beencharacterized by the rise and fall of imperial cultures which have imposed theirtechnologies laws and administrative procedures as well as their religions artsknowledge and values on widely diverse subjugated populations Most recentlythe further development of the inventions that led to the first industrial revolu-tion has simply served to increase the scale and intensity of these imperialisttrends At the same time these inventions as well as those of the current indus-trial revolution have also led to a great increase in humansrsquo understanding oftheir social and material environment both through scientific and social rese-arch and through the dissemination of information about other times and placesresulting from travel and the use of print and electronic technologies

In presenting this very condensed account of phylogenetic development Ihave emphasized the material tools that have mediated the progressively morecomplex and diverse activities in which humans have engaged over the course ofthe speciesrsquo history However bearing in mind that what has been the drivingforce of human development is joint activity an equally ndashif not morendash impor-tant determinant of this history is the development of the modes of representa-tion through which humans have communicated and developed their unders-tanding of the world Table I presents the developmental sequence proposed byDonald (1991) based on archeological neuroanatomical historical and othertypes of evidence The table also includes the stages in the historical develop-ment of ways of knowing that were proposed by Wartofsky (1979)

The first stage in this sequence corresponds to the phase in which proto-humans began to diverge from other primate species In this phase as in thebehavior of contemporary higher primates practical action was the predomi-nant form of communication as ndashnot necessarily deliberatelyndash participants sig-naled their intentions in a shared situation and these intentions were interpre-ted and responded to by their co-participants in the activity In the secondmimetic phase which must have developed gradually over many millenniacommunication became somewhat differentiated from the activity to which itreferred as humans deliberately used gestures mime facial expression andvarious types of phonation to comment on as well as to coordinate action and theobjects to which it was directed Later still with the gradual modification of thevocal tract and of the primate brain there emerged the ability to communicatethrough speech and hence the ability to refer not only to particular objects andactions but also to generalized classes and to express observed and intendedrelationships between objects actions and events thus allowing participants toplan for and reflect on the outcomes of joint activity Finally the invention ofwriting which ushered in the final phase in Donaldrsquos proposed sequence occu-rred extremely recently in the long trajectory of phylogenetic development Yetas with those that preceded it enormously increased the human repertoire ofmeans for making and communicating meaning Essentially what it added wasan ldquoexternal memoryrdquo By creating a (relatively) permanent representation oflinguistic meaning it made possible the compilation and distillation of repor-ted information from many sources including the writerrsquos own verbalizedthoughts It also allowed the writer and those who read his or her written textto review critique and revise the meanings expressed and to make the resultsavailable to people in later times and other places for further constructive debateand improvement

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

However action gesture speech and writing are not simply progressivelymore powerful modes of communication They are also progressively morepowerful mediators of thinking This is most obvious with respect to the lin-guistic modes of communication But even before the emergence of speechaction and ndashto an even greater extentndash mimesis enabled humans to think toget-her and thereby to create a shared interpretation of their joint activities In fact ithas been argued that the emergence of language was not simply the result ofbrain and vocal tract development but rather was part of a more general patternof adaptation that building upon the cognitive achievements of mimetic kno-wing strove to integrate the unconnected bits of information in a more compre-hensive and coherent account of being-in-the-world (Deacon 1997) Neverthe-less it is also true that the availability of language greatly enhanced both com-munication and thinking together for as Halliday observed

the grammar of every natural language is (among other things) a theory of human experienceit is through our acts of meaning that we transform experience into the coherent -though farfrom consistent- patchwork that we learn to project as lsquorealityrsquo (1993 p 46)

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

TABLE IModes Of Knowing Phylogenetic And Cultural Development (from Wells 1999)

Time Mode of Participants Donald(1991) Wartofsky(1979)Years BP Knowing

2 million Instrumental Individual in action Episodic Primary artifactsyears material tools

1 -- 15 million Procedural Between individuals while Mimetic Secondaryyears engaged in action artifacts tools

and practicesmimeticinteraction

50000 Substantive Among members of a (Linguistic) Secondaryyears cultural group reflecting on artifacts

action and as a basis for representations ofplanning further action tools and

practices spokeninteraction

50000 Aesthetic Among members of a Mythic Tertiary artifactsyears cultural group making sense artistic represent-

of the human predicament ations in mythnarrative graphicand musical modes

2500 Theoretical Among members of a Theoretic Tertiary artifactsyears specialist community decontextualized

seeking to explain the natural representationsand human world such as

taxonomiestheories models etc

Meta Among members of a Tertiary artifacts cultural group also representations ofindividuals seeking to mental andunderstand and control their semioticown mental activity processes

In sum what Donald and other scholars argue is that contemporary mentalabilities are the outcome of the development over time of a series of progressi-vely more powerful and flexible modes of representation ndashor in Vygotskyanterms of semiotic mediators of higher mental functions- that have made possi-ble the rational theoretically oriented modes of knowing that underpin theachievements of modern science and its technological applications In the philo-sopher Wartofskyrsquos words

our own perceptual and cognitive understanding of the world is in large part shaped andchanged by the representational artifacts we ourselves create We are in effect the products ofour own activity in this way we transform our own perceptual and cognitive modes our waysof seeing and of understanding by means of the representations we make (1979 p xxiii)

There is however one further important aspect of Donaldrsquos (1991) thesis thatis crucial for the argument that I wish to develop Although the semiotic sys-tems of mimesis speech and writing each powered a new mode of cognitiveactivity they did not replace those that preceded but were additive in theireffects The result is that contemporary humans have a variety of modes of kno-wing at their disposal as they engage in joint activity Furthermore most suchactivities call for more than one mode of knowing and require the complemen-tary and interdependent use of more than one mode of representation

Joint Activity as the Site of Ontogenetic Learning and Development

Two important implications follow from the multi-level historical concep-tion of development just outlined First on any occasion the type of activitythat is undertaken and the specific manner in which it is enacted are necessarilydependent on the particular cultural-historical antecedents of the participantsboth human and artefactual that come together in its realization In particularthe manner in which the situation is interpreted ndashin terms of what action goalsare appropriate and how they can be achievedndash depends on the motives valuesand knowledgeable skills of the human participants and on the affordances ofthe technologies available in the situation And second every instance of an acti-vity provides an occasion for a triple transformation of the situation in whichthe activity is carried out of the artefacts and practices that mediate its enact-ment and most importantly of the knowledge and skills of the human partici-pants Taken together these propositions clarify the way in which cultural andindividual development are both interdependent and rooted in particular situa-ted occasions of joint activity As Rogoff (1994) argues

People of each generation as they engage in sociocultural endeavors with other people makeuse of and extend cultural tools and practices inherited from previous generations As peopledevelop through their shared use of cultural tools and practices they simultaneously contribu-te to the transformation of cultural tools practices and institutions (p 52)

Potentially therefore every occasion of joint activity provides an opportunityfor development on the part of all participants This is a point to which I shallreturn But first I want to consider more carefully the concept of developmentitself

Clearly built into the concept of development is the implication of change andtypically of change in the direction of increasing complexity and effectiveness Inother words development is typically taken to imply improvement or progresstoward some ideal end state or capability However in the light of the previousdiscussion such a progression while it may be meaningful to (some of the) partici-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

pants in any particular situation cannot be understood in any absolute sense butmust be seen as relative to the unfolding historical trajectory of the species of aparticular culture and of the immediate community ndashits values its dominantactivities and the knowledgeable skills that form its resources Furthermore just asthese have changed in the past they will continue to change in the future in res-ponse to the changing demands of the larger environment So while ontogeneticdevelopment does indeed involve increasing complexity and effectiveness of indi-vidualsrsquo participation in the activity systems in which they are involved in theirdaily lives the overall trajectory of development is emergent and its endpoint cannever be specified in advance even in terms of an ideal to be attained

Nevertheless this does not mean that there are not strong regularities in thesequence of ontogenetic development particularly in the early years Indeed asNelson (1996) has suggested during the preschool years children follow a trajec-tory very similar to the sequence of phylogenetic development proposed byDonald (1991) (see Table I above) as they appropriate the semiotic tools of repre-sentation afforded by action mimesis speech and writing Of course this is not asimple recapitulation children growing up in a contemporary literate culture forexample are surrounded from birth by artifacts and practices that result from andembody all the available modes of knowing (Cole 1996) Appropriating existingcultural tools is thus very different from inventing them ex novo as Scribner (1985)points out Nevertheless given the combination of biological and cultural inheri-tance it is not surprising that in most if not all cultures children follow the samesequence as did the species as a whole over the course of history

In the first weeks of life infants act on their immediate surroundings bothanimate and inanimate and begin to develop what Piaget (1970) called sensori-motor intelligence However although this most basic form of activity mayappear to be instinctual it is nevertheless also inherently social First all infantsare born into an environment that is cultural in the sense of having been shapedby countless preceding generations and second the infantrsquos actions are treatedas being intentional and are responded to as such So from the beginning theinfant is caught up in social interaction (Newson 1978) In the second phasewhich typically begins in the first few months the infant also begins to engagein mimetic communication through gaze facial expression and rudimentarygesture (Bruner 1990) Couched in terms of primary and secondary intersubjec-tivity this phase has been described in considerable detail by Trevarthen (19781979) Primary intersubjectivity develops as the infant and parent engage inmutual gaze thereby communicating that they are attending to and respondingto each other In secondary intersubjectivity third parties are brought into jointattention as the parent through gaze directs the infantrsquos attention to an object ofpotential interest or follows the childrsquos direction of gaze and signals that he orshe is also attending to the same object

It is on this basis of joint action and attention that towards the end of thefirst year the child begins to exploit his or her growing command of vocaliza-tion often accompanied by gesture to begin to communicate through speechFrom research predominantly involving children in ldquoWesternrdquo societies it hasbeen established that at first the childrsquos utterances are idiosyncratic drawingonly partially ndashif at allndash on the speech of those around him or her neverthelessparents and other family members have little difficulty in interpreting them incontext and once again they respond in a manner that is contingent on theirinterpretation thereby establishing spoken communication as a joint interactiveactivity By the end of the second year however children appear to abandon thisidiosyncratic ldquoprotolanguagerdquo form of communication and begin to construct a

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

linguistic meaning potential that is systematically related to the language thatis addressed to them in the oft-repeated activities of family life (Bruner 1990Halliday 1975 Wells 1986) Significantly within particular language com-munities the sequence in which children master the basic meanings and thelexicogrammatical forms in which they are realized tends to be very similar fromchild to child (Wells 1985)

The developmental sequence just described ndashaction mimesis speechndash is com-mon to children in all cultures and in all cases takes place in and through jointactivity and interaction with other family and community members Howeveralthough the sequence is universal the manner and pace at which it proceeds varyvery considerably across cultures These differences depend upon many culturally-determined factors such as adult expectations about their childrenrsquos developmentthe position in which the infant is typically held or carried facing the caregiver orturned outwards to face in the same direction as the caregiver the makeup and sizeof the interactional groups in which communication typically occurs and whetherthese events are part of family and community life more generally or are delibera-tely arranged and structured for the presumed benefit of the child (Rogoff 2003)In the later stages of language development the range and extent of the meaningpotential that children construct begins to vary even more widely depending onthe activities in which they engage the linguistic registers that are used in thoseactivities and the stances typically adopted by interlocutors toward the use of lan-guage in their interactions with children (Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

So far the ontogenetic developmental sequence I have described is funda-mentally similar across cultures and follows the phylogenetic sequence in whichhumans have progressively added new semiotic mediational means to theircommunicative repertoires In an important sense therefore the final mode ofrepresentation in Donaldrsquos scheme that of writing is an optional extra sincemany cultures have survived and prospered without a written mode of represen-ting meaning Moreover even in cultures that have a writing system the extentand scope of literacy that individuals attain varies very considerably dependingon the activity systems in which they participate the value that is placed onwritten texts by those communmities the purposes to which they are put andthe genres that are used for those purposes However since literacy and its usesare so strongly associated with schooling I shall leave further discussion of thismode of semiotic mediation to a later part of this paper

Before concluding this section however I want to explore further the con-cept of semiotic mediation In one of the better known passages in Vygotskyrsquoswritings where he argued for the social and cultural origin of higher mentalfunctions he wrote that every function occurs on two planes first in activity andinteraction between people and then within the individual learner (Vygotsky1981) What bridges between these two planes as is clear from his other wri-tings is semiotic mediation To recall Leontrsquoevrsquos formulation of this argument

hellip it is impossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in anyway other than a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words hig-her psychological processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction withothers that is through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried outindependently by the individual (1981 pp 55-56)

In other words when people engage in joint activity their actions gesturesand speech not only mediate the coordination of participation but they alsomake overt the mental activities involved and so render them available forappropriation by novice participants1 Halliday is very clear about this Alt-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

hough the following quotation refers only to language the term lsquolanguagersquocould justifiably be replaced by lsquosemiotic mediationrsquo

In the development of the child as a social being language has the central role Language is themain channel through which the patterns of living are transmitted to him through which helearns to act as a member of lsquosocietyrsquo ndashin and through the various social groups the family theneighbourhood and so onndash and to adopt its lsquoculturersquo its modes of thought and action itsbeliefs and its values (1978 p 9)

However as the child grows older language does become the predominantmode of semiotic mediation and as he wrote in a later paper ldquoLanguage is theessential condition of knowing the process by which experience becomes know-ledge (Halliday 1993 p 94 original emphasis)

Assistance for Learning in Joint Activitie

So far in the discussion of the role of joint activity in human development Ihave concentrated on the tools and particularly the semiotic modes of represen-tation that mediate the achievement of the outcome of activity In this sectionon the other hand I turn to the role of other people in this process both familymembers and the larger community

Until now I have referred to coparticipants in an activity in general termsbut clearly there are further distinctions to be made Particularly helpful in thisrespect is Engestroumlmrsquos model of an activity system which is shown in figure 1

What this model shows is that when we look at an ongoing activity from thepoint of view of an individual participant (t Subject) that individual is involvedin a nexus of other relationships that link him or her to other lsquoparticipantsrsquo theTools and artifacts to mediate action on the Object but also the Community of

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 1The Triangle of Activity

Artifactstools andpractices

Values rulesamp conventions

Community Divisioacutenof labor

Engestrom 1999

Object OutcomeSubject

others engaged in the activity together with the Division of Labor within thatcommunity and also the Rules and Conventions that govern the manner inwhich the activity is carried out (Engestroumlm 1999) What this latter category oflsquoparticipantrsquo underscores is the historical dimension of an activity system sincethese rules and conventions ndashas well as the tools and artifactsndash bring into thepresent the distilled practices of previous generations who have engaged in theactivity as these are interpreted and utilized by the current community

To illustrate the relevance of this model to the development of the youngchild we might compare two versions of a similar activity reported by WertschMinick and Arns (1984) In their study Brazilian children carried out a puzzletask on two occasions first with the mother and secondly with a primary tea-cher What the researchers found was that in general the mothers and teachersengaged in the activity in systematically different ways Whereas the motherstended to direct the childrenrsquos behavior or even carry out parts of the task them-selves in order to complete it in an efficient manner ndashjust as they would havedone if engaged in a household taskndash the teachers tended to encourage thechildrsquos autonomous performance and only provided hints and suggestions whenthey judged them to be necessary to advance the childrenrsquos understandingInterpreting these results the researchers suggested that the two groups ofadults belonged to two different communities (or activity systems) that had dif-ferent rules and conventions about engaging in this joint activity And this inturn led to the different divisions of labor that they observed Similarly Rogoff(2003) cites many examples of substantial differences between cultures inalmost all aspects of child rearing with respect to their ways of engaging chil-dren in the activities that they consider important

What is clear is that ldquobehindrdquo the particular adult ndashor older siblings in someculturesndash who are directly engaged with the child there is a wider communityof family members neighbors and others who have an interest in the upbrin-ging of children and who share beliefs about appropriate ways to involve themin the activities of daily life So whether in Spain Japan or the Peruvian High-lands although the actual practices vary across cultures in each those responsi-ble for childrenrsquos well-being and development act as agents of a wider commu-nity whose beliefs and practices are rooted in a long tradition concerning howactivities should be carried out But equally in all cultures practices also changein response to changes in the world beyond the particular community In manyWestern homes for example computer games or television programs haverecently taken the place of the bedtime story while in many indigenous com-munities crafts that until recently only supplied local needs are now exploitedcommercially for the tourist trade changing the rhythms of daily life and therelationships among family members and the activities in which children areinvolved As suggested earlier therefore in order to understand the activities inwhich children participate today we need to look not only at the immediatesituation but also at the wider community and the changes taking place on allthese time-scales

Microgenesis and the Zone of Proximal Development

It is nevertheless always the immediate microgenetic situation that isthe site of ontogenetic development ndashthe action and interaction between thelearner and those with whom he or she is engaged in the activity in pro-gress When we adopt this microgenetic perspective however we need tomodify the representation of an activity system presented in figure 1 Inthat representation the focus was on the goal-oriented nature of action

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Here we need to focus on the interaction among the participants ndashtheirattempt to attain intersubjectivity with respect to the common object andthe complementarity of the knowledgeable skills they bring to the cocons-truction of the intended outcome (see Figure 2) What figure 2 emphasizesis the fact that although the tools and artefacts that are available to mediatethe jointly undertaken action are the same for each participant each bringsa somewhat different familiarity with their use as a result of their differentlife trajectories and it is this variability in their expertise that makes it pos-sible for each to provide assistance to the others in at least some aspects ofthe joint action Viewed in this light it is clear why Vygotsky emphasizedthe role of joint activity in development and wrote of its potential to enablelearners ldquoto go beyond themselvesrdquo with the assistance of more expertothers

The metaphor Vygotsky used to characterize the potential for learning thatthis sort of activity creates was the ldquozone of proximal developmentrdquo As hewrote when another participant in the activity provides instruction that isappropriately pitched beyond what the learner can manage to do on his or herown it ldquowakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturationlying in the zone of proximal developmentrdquo (1987 p 212) Vygotsky concep-tualized development as the formation of new functional systems (ldquoneoforma-tionsrdquo) and of changes in the relationships among systems which he consideredto occur as a succession of ldquocrises of developmentrdquo that are particularly facilitatedby engagement in the relevant ldquoleading activityrdquo at each stage for example playin childhood and learning to read and write in the early school yearsHowever itwould be a mistake to focus only on the periods of revolutionary change since ashe equally emphasized at any time there are also other more gradual processes ofgrowth

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 2Dialogue in Joint Activity(from Wells2002b)

Outcomematerial ampsemioticartefacts

Toolsartefacts

Subject

Rulesconventions

Community Divisionof labor

Subject

Toolsartefacts

Processes that are central lines of development at one age become peripheral lines of develop-ment at the following age and conversely peripheral lines of development of one age arebrought to the forefront and become central lines since their meaning and relative significancein the total structure of development changes (p 197)2

In developing his important concept of the zone of proximal developmentVygotsky tended to characterize the assistance given by others as ldquoinstructionrdquoand to see its value in ldquothe childrsquos potential to raise himself to a higher intellec-tual level of development through collaboration to move from what he has towhat he does not have through imitationrdquo (1987 p 210) However manyrecent scholars who have built on his work have taken a broader view of thedevelopmental significance of collaboration in joint activities and have characte-rized the assistance that is provided within this relationship in terms such asldquoapprenticeshiprdquo (Lave amp Wenger 1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoguided participationrdquo(Rogoff 1994 2003) and ldquoscaffoldingrdquo (Wood et al 1976) Neverthelesswhile these different metaphors highlight different features of the relationshipwhat they all have in common is the inclusion of the learner in an activity inwhich there is provision of the assistance necessary to help the learner to comple-te an activity in which he or she is interested and to do so in such a way that heor she makes progress toward being able to participate more fully and autono-mously in the future (Maybin Mercer and Stierer 1992)

In many joint activities such as for example traditional forms of craftapprenticeship assistance is only provided when needed and the ldquomasterrdquo doesso with no deliberate didactic intention beyond that of involving the novice inthe completion of the particular task in hand (Lave 1996) Similarly in sociali-zation into activities around the home no explicit instruction is necessary fornovices can learn a great deal by simply watching and listening (cf Rogoff2003) This is what Lave and Wenger (1991) mean when they insist that lear-ning is not an independent activity but an intrinsic aspect of ldquolegitimate perip-heral participationrdquo in a communityrsquos activities From their perspective therefo-re formal education in which learning is the sole purpose of the activity issomething of an anomaly particularly when the only form of assistance providedis the expert teacherrsquos direct instruction and subsequent evaluation of the extentof the studentsrsquo learning

In many recent discussions it has also been recognized that it is not only aldquoteacherrdquo who can provide assistance in the zpd On the one hand in a com-plex activity many participants are more expert than others in some aspectsand therefore on some occasions are able to help those who are less expert(Rogoff 1994) and on the other hand those who provide assistance do nothave to be physically present texts and other artifacts can equally well helpa participant ldquoto go beyond himherselfrdquo as is often the case in intellectualwork such as research and writ ing (Wells 1999) Furthermore asEngestroumlm (1999) and others ndashbuilding on other aspects of Vygotskyrsquos theo-retical writingsndash have noted the material and symbolic tools that have beendeveloped by previous participants in the activity can also provide the samesort of assistance However perhaps the most important point to emphasizeis that there are many situations in which no-one is an expert yet as eachbrings his or her own past experience to the solution of a common problemthe group together is able to achieve more than any single member couldhave done alone Clearly it is such collaboration that has made possible theinventions that have led to the major advances of great civilizations over thecourse of cultural history

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Development in the Pre-School Years

As noted above the responsibility for caring for children in early childhoodvaries very considerably from one society to another Nevertheless in all socie-ties children are involved in joint activities with others in which they receiveassistance with respect to their participation however that may be locally achie-ved For the most part as already mentioned these are activities that are regu-larly repeated in the taken-for-granted routines of daily life The expectation isthat the child will learn to fit in and is simply helped to do so Often referred toas ldquoenculturationrdquo this form of apprenticeship ensures the continuity of the cul-turersquos way of life from one generation to the next and as Donald (1991) arguedit probably occurred even before the emergence of speech

However in all activities there are occasions when problems arise that callfor some level of deliberate decision-making In these situations spoken interac-tion makes possible a degree of reflection and forward planning in which therelations of cause and effect intention action and outcome are made explicitand open to question and discussion The talk that occurs on these occasionsthus plays a particularly important role in helping children to attend to andunderstand the world around them in terms of the culturersquos ways of ldquomakingsenserdquo of it However these occasions can also open up possibilities for changeboth in the form of the activity and in the participantsrsquo understanding of itHow caregivers habitually take up these opportunities is particularly importantfor it plays an important part in shaping the intellectual dispositions withwhich children enter school (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo amp Sterponi2002)

In this section I include some representative examples of kinds of talk thatarise from joint activities in the home These examples are drawn from observa-tions made in settings in England (Wells 1986) and Australia (Hasan 2002) inwhich the young children observed spent most of their time at home with oneparent sometimes with one or more siblings some of the time they entertainedthemselves with occasional adult involvement but they also frequently watchedand ldquohelpedrdquo the parent with household tasks of various kinds

In the first example James (aged 3 12 years) has been playing alone in thegarden and as he reenters the house his mother tries to get him to take off hismuddy shoes However at that moment he sees a bird outside which interestshim more than changing his shoes

Example 1Mother There we are there one slipper onJames I can see a birdMother A what loveJames See a bird Mother (whispering) Is there OutsideJames (pointing and whispering) Yes see

(both continue to speak very softly)Mother Is he eating anythingJames NoMother Where Oh yes hersquos getting- do you know what hersquos doingJames NoMother Hersquos going to the- the paper sack to try to pick out some pieces-

Oh hersquos got some food there and I expect hersquoll pick out somepieces of thread from the sack to go and make his nest under the roofJames Wait a minute and Irsquoll-[James now wants to go out to see more closely but at that moment thebird flies away]

James That birdrsquos gone

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

In the second example Elizabeth (aged 4 years) who is helping with thehouse cleaning watches with interest as her mother shovels wood ash from thefireplace into a bucket

Example 2Elizabeth What are you doing that forMother Irsquom gathering it up and putting it outside so that Daddy can put it on the gardenElizabeth Why does he have to put it on the gardenMother To make the compost rightElizabeth Does that make the grass growMother YesElizabeth Why does itMother You know how I tell you that you need to eat different things like eggs and cab-

bage and rice pudding to make you grow into a big girlElizabeth YesMother Well plants need different foods too and ash is one of the things thatrsquos

good for them

The third example involves James again now eighteen months older Earlierin the afternoon he had been helping his mother with the baking Now hecomes back into the kitchen as his mother is taking the baking trays out of theoven He hears a loud metallic ldquocrackrdquo and asks for an explanation

Example 3James Who did thatMother I expect it was the tin contractingJames Which tinMother The one with your pastry inJames Why did it make that noiseMother Well when it was in the oven it got very hot and stretched a bit Irsquove just taken

it out of the oven and itrsquos cooling down very quickly you see and that noisehappens when it gets smaller again and goes back to its normal shape

James Oh was it a different shape in the ovenMother Oh not very different just a little biggerJames Naughty little tin you might get smacked if you do it again

In all three of these examples the mother willingly responds to the childrsquosinterest and provides information to explain the significance of what the child isseeing or hearing even when in the first this interrupts the motherrsquos plan Allthree cases show how the childrsquos participation in the activity with the adult assu-res that there is intersubjectivity of attention to what interests the child and thisenables the mother to provide relevant information Clearly this is a form ofldquoinstructionrdquo however it is spontaneous and contingent on the childrsquos interestrather than presented as part of a pre-planned curriculum

The third example is particularly interesting from this point of view as thephenomenon of interest to James requires a somewhat technical explanation Atsome point in the future no doubt the expansion of metal when heated and itssubsequent contraction when removed from the heat will figure in the schoolscience curriculum in relation to the systematic study of heat here however itis an interesting side-effect of baking and the motherrsquos explanation while tech-nical in content is couched in everyday language rather than in the abstractterms of scientific generalization As Hasan (2002) has observed

the discourse of quasi specialised knowledge occurs in the lsquomiddle ofrsquo daily activities and bynecessity it calls for a readiness on the motherrsquos part to entertain contextual shifts to bewilling to reclassify the context of the on-going discourse The tendency to move with thechildrsquos moving discourse the readiness to re-classify context is a discourse characteristic of thesame group of mothers who frequently ask questions made precise by qualification and whoattend to their childrenrsquos questions and provide them with well developed answers (p 123)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 17: Actividad y Aprendizaje

Madre Oh todo me da vueltas Oh mi desayuno estaacute retumbando en mi barriga iexclOhiexclOh iexclOh

James [Hace el ruido del motor]Madre Creo que deberiacuteamos disminuir la velocidad iquestNo crees James Mm (asintiendo)Madre Creo que estamos yendo un poco raacutepido

Es mejor es maacutes faacutecil ahora iquestno James Mm (asintiendo)Madre [Muje] Mira las vacas en el campo JamesJames MmMadre Y hay un granjero mira El granjero te estaacute saludando

Como contar historias compartidas que es otra actividad conjunta importan-te a esta edad el juego imaginario tambieacuten tiene una funcioacuten importante en lapreparacioacuten del nintildeo para explorar el poder del lenguaje ldquopara crear un mundomediante las palabrasrdquo Como seraacute discutido debajo este uso del lenguaje pararepresentar objetos y eventos no presentes y las relaciones entre ellos adoptagran significado en el contexto de la escolarizacioacuten puacuteblica tiacutepica donde propor-ciona los significados mediacionales principales mediante los que gran parte delcurriculum se materializa (Wells 1986)

En suma con la excepcioacuten del Ejemplo 4 todos los extractos precedentes sonejemplos claros de un adulto ldquotrabajando en la zona de desarrollo proacuteximo delnintildeordquo (Vygotski 1987) ya que se implican en la interaccioacuten en el proceso dedesarrollar la actividad en la que estaacuten conjuntamente inmersos Como Vygotski(1987) enfatizoacute en la actividad conjunta colaborativa el nintildeo puede siemprehacer maacutes de lo que le es posible hacer independientemente La actividad pro-porciona el marco organizacional en el que parte de la conversacioacuten dirige ycomenta la actividad y parte explora los resultados a los que conduce En estecontexto el adulto hace disponible para la apropiacioacuten del nintildeo no soacutelo infor-macioacuten especiacutefica como respuesta a los intereses del nintildeo sino tambieacuten una pos-tura hacia la experiencia que valora la actitud de investigacioacuten Tratando las pre-guntas del nintildeo como dignas de respuesta expliacutecita el adulto apoya el desarrollode una disposicioacuten a plantearse preguntas y a buscarles respuesta mediante lainvestigacioacuten futura (Wells 1999)

El papel de la actividad en la educacioacuten

Aunque el teacutermino ldquoeducacioacutenrdquo se emplea a menudo como sinoacutenimo deldquoescolarizacioacutenrdquo seguacuten una interpretacioacuten maacutes amplia la educacioacuten viene refi-rieacutendose a los primeros antildeos del nintildeo y de hecho como se vio arriba hay muchasocasiones en las que un coparticipante en una actividad en curso proporciona ins-truccioacuten expliacutecita Sin embargo la educacioacuten ndashen el sentido de escolarizacioacutenndashtiende a ser muy diferente de la clase de actividades ilustradas maacutes arriba Maacutesimportante en las escuelas la instruccioacuten es tanto deliberada como sistemaacutetica yes gobernada no por los intereses de los alumnos sino por un curriculum que hasido disentildeado por expertos que no estaacuten familiarizados con los alumnos que van aser instruidos Como resultado a menudo lo que se ensentildea en la escuela no estaacuterelacionado con aquello que a los alumnos maacutes les interesa aprender y es muyprobable que no se obtengan beneficios de las oportunidades que la escuelapodriacutea proporcionar

En las primeras secciones de este trabajo se ha argumentado que el aprendi-zaje no es un fin en siacute mismo sino un aspecto integrado del domino de nuevasformas de actividad que tienen significado y valor para el desarrollo de los apren-dices como miembros de una comunidad y como individuos autoacutenomos uacutenicos

181El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Como Wygotsky insistentemente precisoacute el aprendizaje conduce el desarrollo yla instruccioacuten deberiacutea estar organizada para ayudar a este proceso

La instruccioacuten es soacutelo uacutetil cuando se mueve delante del desarrollo Cuando esto ocurre impulsao despierta toda una serie de funciones que estaacuten en estado de maduracioacuten latente en la zona dedesarrollo proacuteximo (1987 p 212)

La pregunta central para la escolarizacioacuten debe por lo tanto ser coacutemo ofrecerinstruccioacuten que sea relevante para las trayectorias de desarrollo de los alumnos yque de manera adecuada ldquose situacutee dentrordquo de sus zonas de desarrollo proacuteximoJunto a esta una segunda pregunta es coacutemo proporcionar ayuda a los alumnosindividuales para que su aprendizaje les permita de hecho avanzar en su desa-rrollo

Procurando proporcionar respuesta a estas preguntas el concepto de ldquoactivi-dad guiadardquo junto con el de recapitulacioacuten de la secuencia de desarrollo de losmodos de conocimiento puede ofrecer un comienzo uacutetil Los nintildeos cuandoingresan en la escuela han dominado en gran parte los modos de conocimientoasociados con la accioacuten el gesto y el habla (Nelson 1996) Lo que ahora necesi-tan es un aprendizaje de los modos de conocimiento asociado con el lenguajeescrito y de las distintas clases de representacioacuten simboacutelica que derivan de eacutelndashmatemaacutetica cientiacutefica musical etceacuteterandash Es decir necesitan aprenderlos parausar estas formas de representacioacuten como herramienta para la deliberacioacutenmediada la comunicacioacuten reflexiva y el pensamiento y para apropiarse de losdiferentes dominios de conocimiento teoacuterico que han sido construidos acumula-tivamente por las generaciones previas con la ayuda de las ventajas que confierenesos sistemas de ldquomemoria externardquo (Donald 1991)

La recapitulacioacuten del desarrollo histoacuterico cultural orienta la trayectoria a largoplazo para la educacioacuten formal en la escuela y en otras instituciones Pero inclusomaacutes importante para procurar responder la pregunta central presentada arriba esdeterminar los procedimientos efectivos para organizar los pequentildeos pasos queconfiguran las lecciones las unidades curriculares y los programas anuales a lolargo de esta trayectoria Basaacutendonos en las ideas presentadas en la seccioacuten ante-rior dos principios parecen en siacute mismos evidentes En primer lugar los encuen-tros educativos necesitan para estar organizados ser ldquoactividades conjuntasrdquo enlas que todos los participantes contribuyen a las metas convenidas con lo mejorde sus habilidades Y en segundo lugar debe convertirse en norma dar y recibirayuda por parte de cada participante Una de las implicaciones de estos dos prin-cipios es que no puede haber formas universales mejores para participar en alguacutenaspecto del curriculum puesto que cada clase variacutea en las experiencias e interesesque sus miembros aportan y en los valores y praacutecticas aprendidos culturalmenteque motivan y dirigen su implicacioacuten con el nuevo conocimiento y con las habi-lidades que estaacuten esperando dominar

Aunque siempre es importante reconocer valorar y construir sobre las expe-riencias previas de los alumnos ha llegado a ser incluso maacutes necesario a medidaque la migracioacuten tanto inter como intra paiacuteses ha aumentado significativamen-te ya que las diferentes etnias clases y religiones en las comunidades han dadolugar a su vez a comunidades de escuela y aula cada vez maacutes diversas ndashy estadiversidad es incluso mayor donde una proporcioacuten sustancial de alumnos estaacuteaprendiendo la lengua de clase como una segunda lengua (o subsiguiente)ndash Taldiversidad en el bagaje cultural y en la experiencia previa es generalmente vistocomo un problema que necesita ser superado en paiacuteses donde los disentildeadores delcurriculum apuntan a estandarizar la instruccioacuten para alcanzar ideacutenticos resulta-dos para todos los estudiantes como es hoy el caso en Estados Unidos Sin

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187182

embargo cuando las diferencias entre personas en teacuterminos de experiencia valo-res y praacutecticas son reconocidas como normales y deseables esta diversidad puedeconvertirse en una ventaja en la clase ya que las praacutecticas y puntos de vista alter-nativos que afloran pueden enriquecer la comunidad de clase y conducir a discu-siones valiosas en las que las creencias dadas por sentadas sean modificadas y sealcance una comprensioacuten maacutes profunda de los puntos considerados (Wells1999)

En este contexto he encontrado de ayuda pensar en el aprendizaje basado enla escuela en teacuterminos de una espiral del conocimiento donde el resultado espe-rado con cada giro de la espiral es una mayor comprensioacuten (Wells 1999) (verFigura 3) En la primera fase cuando la clase se embarca en un nuevo aspecto delcurriculum es importante animar a los alumnos a compartir sus experienciasprevias ya que como las investigaciones en campos muy diferentes han mostra-do (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotski) esas experiencias proporcionan elpunto de partida para su aprendizaje sean o no reconocidas puacuteblicamente Des-cubriendo lo que los estudiantes ya saben y aquello que les interesa explorar conmaacutes detalle el profesor puede tambieacuten planificar la unidad en cooperacioacuten conlos alumnos (Donoahue 2003) La segunda fase de la espiral conlleva varios acer-camientos a la nueva informacioacuten ndashmediante la explicacioacuten del profesor a traveacutesde materiales impresos o medios audiovusiales o en la forma de feedback de laspropias acciones e investigaciones de los alumnosndash Es importante reconocer sinembargo que la recepcioacuten de la nueva informacioacuten no asegura en siacute misma unaumento de la comprensioacuten Para que esto ocurra la nueva informacioacuten debearticularse con la comprensioacuten existente y con la experiencia previa relevantepara ser despueacutes puesta a prueba mediante la accioacuten en el mundo ndashobteniendofeedback (informacioacuten adicional)ndash yo mediante el diaacutelogo con otros para laconstruccioacuten del conocimiento donde el propoacutesito es llegar a una eleccioacuten con-sensuada entre las teoriacuteas alternativas demandas o interpretaciones sobre la basede una consideracioacuten de las evidencias y argumentos apropiados Finalmentepara consolidar la nuevas comprensiones obtenidas es valioso para la clase com-pleta reflexionar juntos sobre lo que han aprendido y sobre el proceso de cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento en el que han participado sobre las implicaciones quela nueva comprensioacuten tiene para sus propias acciones ndashtanto fuera como dentrode clasendash y sobre las preguntas importantes a las que ellos deben ahora dirigir susinvestigaciones futuras En otras palabras la fase final en el ciclo implica a lacomunidad en un ldquoacercamiento lsquometarsquordquo (Olson y Bruner 1996) es decir en laadopcioacuten de una perspectiva metacognitiva sobre su propio aprendizaje que a lolargo de miles de antildeos probablemente ha jugado un importante papel en eldesarrollo de cada modo de conocimiento presentado en la siacutentesis del desarrollohistoacuterico cultural de Donald (1991)3

Esta espiral necesita varias anotaciones adicionales La primera tiene quever con la naturaleza incompleta y provisional del conocimiento eacuteste estaacutesiempre abierto a la mejora mediante ciclos futuros a traveacutes de la espiral Lasegunda anotacioacuten concierne a la naturaleza esencialmente interactiva ysocial del crecimiento individual y comunitario en la comprensioacuten eacutesta seconsigue gracias a los esfuerzos de los participantes para clarificar sus pro-pios significados a los otros y alternativamente para tener en cuenta y res-ponder a los de los demaacutes (Bajtiacuten 1986) En tercer lugar es necesario enfati-zar que el crecimien to en la comprensioacuten requeriraacute espirales futuras queactiven los diferentes modos de conocimiento ya que la mayoriacutea de los cam-bios y problemas que ocurren en las instituciones maacutes allaacute del aula deman-dan un conocimiento procedimental substantivo y esteacutetico al igual que

183El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

teoacuterico y cada modo de conocimiento tiene una contribucioacuten que hacer aleacutexito de soluciones comprensivas que realcen significativamente la com-prensioacuten Finalmente en la representacioacuten de estas relaciones en la figura 3la espiral tambieacuten resalta la interdependencia de los individuos y la comuni-dad Mientras que la experiencia y la comprensioacuten son esencialmente indivi-duales en su naturaleza crecen fuera de eacutel y adoptan su significado de la par-ticipacioacuten de los individuos en el intercambio de informacioacuten y en su com-promiso en la construccioacuten de conocimiento en la comunidad extensa de laque cada individuo es miembro

Desafortunadamente muchos educadores no comprenden estas relacionesfundamentales y por eso su instruccioacuten no es conceptualizada y planificada demanera que sea oacuteptima para el desarrollo de los estudiantes Como numerososestudios han mostrado (Langer y Applebee 1987 Nystrand y Gamoran 1991)en la mayoriacutea de las clases la que gobierna la praacutectica es la concepcioacuten bancariadel conocimiento (Freire 1970) seguacuten la cual el propoacutesito de la instruccioacuten quetiene lugar en el aula es que un alumno individual esteacute preparado para puntuarbien en los tests y no tanto ampliar su conocimiento Dada esta orientacioacuten lasactividades en las que se pide a los alumnos que participen estaacuten determinadaspor la guiacutea curricular del libro de texto maacutes que por el conocimiento de los pro-fesores sobre los intereses y habilidades de los alumnos particulares de los queson responsables A esto es a lo que Tharp y Gallimore (1988) se refieren con laexpresioacuten ldquoguioacuten recitativordquo unido a la ocupacioacuten de un lugar individual de tra-bajo que domina la rutina diaria Ademaacutes los planes sobre coacutemo proceder sonndashcomo cabiacutea esperarndash unilateralmente impuestos en lugar de ser configuradossobre la base de las decisiones tomadas por la comunidad de clase como un todoy el modus operandi es la competicioacuten en lugar de la colaboracioacuten

Sin embargo como he argumentado en otra parte (Wells 1986 19992002a) eacuteste no es el uacutenico modo en el que la escolarizacioacuten puede ser condu-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187184

FIGURA 3La espiral del conocimiento

ACCIOacuteN Construccioacuten

deconocimiento

ComprensioacutenSubstantivo

Esteacutetico

Teoacuterico

Procedimental

Instrumental

Experiencia Informacioacuten

Modos de conocimiento

cida ndasha pensar de la larga historia de la recitacioacuten que se remonta a maacutes detres mil antildeos a las tempranas instituciones que entrenaban a los escribas yadministradores para leer y escribir (Cole 1996)ndash Pero probablemente elmodo por defecto de la escolarizacioacuten es parecido a una preparacioacuten para ldquolavida adultardquo y no una etapa criacutetica del desarrollo que merece la pena y essignificativa en siacute misma Como Vygotski argumentoacute sobre el dominio de laalfabetizacioacuten ldquola ensentildeanza debe organizarse de tal manera que la lectura yla escritura sean necesarias para algo La escritura debe ser incorporada enuna tarea relevante y necesaria para la vidardquo (1978 pp117-118) Y porldquovidardquo quiere decir no la vida futura sino la totalidad de los intereses y pre-ocupaciones actuales de los aprendices

En los uacuteltimos antildeos se han divulgado proyectos de una variedad de paiacuteses enlos que educadores universitarios han procurado crear condiciones para elldquoaprendizaje auteacutenticordquo en las aulas En todos estos proyectos se ha otorgado unpapel central a las actividades colaborativas que alternando entre los formatos departicipacioacuten individual en pequentildeo grupo y de la clase completa implican alos estudiantes en la exploracioacuten de temas centrales mediante investigacionespraacutecticas y tambieacuten teoacutericas y en la discusioacuten criacutetica y constructiva de sus hallaz-gos y de las implicaciones para futuras acciones El espacio no permite aquiacute unadiscusioacuten individual de estos proyectos pero lo que puede ser dicho sobre todosellos es que en sus diferentes formas valoran tanto los intereses de los alumnoscomo sus experiencias previas y persiguen ayudarles a desarrollar la disposicioacutenpara buscar la comprensioacuten maacutes que la acumulacioacuten simple de informacioacuten ypara valorar la colaboracioacuten maacutes que la competicioacuten como el medio para alcanzaresta menta4

En este contexto es digno atraer la atencioacuten hacia varias instituciones poste-riores a la escuela tales como la Fifth Dimension donde la participacioacuten en activi-dades elegidas personalmente ndasha menudo basadas en ordenadoresndash requiere a losnintildeos dominar habilidades que son tambieacuten necesarias para la escolarizacioacuten y lesproporcionan oportunidades para interactuar con voluntarios universitarios enuna posicioacuten de igualdad (Brown y Cole 2002) De manera similar algunosprogramas basados en museos (Leinhardst Crowley y Kuntson 2002) y variasformas de educacioacuten al aire libre tambieacuten capitalizan los intereses de los estu-diantes para implicarles en actividades desafiantes que demandan para la cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento procesos de diaacutelogo y toma de decisiones comparablesa aquellos encontrados en los contextos escolares previamente descritos

Finalmente si estas praacutecticas pioneras arraigan e influyen en la educacioacutenpuacuteblica con mayor amplitud es esencial que los profesores tengan oportunidadessimilares para desarrollar las disposiciones y pericia necesarias para actuar comoagentes de cambio y liacutederes de una reforma en las instituciones en las que traba-jan Es por lo tanto estimulante ver que a pesar del eacutenfasis de los dirigentes poliacute-ticos en estandarizar los curricula y en los resultados cuantificables algunos pro-gramas de formacioacuten de profesores y desarrollo profesional anima a los profeso-res sobre la base de investigaciones sobre su propia praacutectica a tomar sus propiasdecisiones sobre queacute debe ser ensentildeado y coacutemo y a compartir los resultados desus investigaciones con los compantildeeros Este ha sido el motor de mi propio tra-bajo en los antildeos recientes ya que he participado en la investigacioacuten colaborativacon profesores para crear y mantener comunidades de investigacioacuten tanto en cla-ses como entre los mismos profesores5

185El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Notas1 La secuencia temporal implicada por esta formulacioacuten ha sido ampliamente debatida y especialmente el movimiento desde fueraa dentro que sugiere Mi propia comprensioacuten de lo que la apropiacioacuten supone se capta mejor con el ejemplo de aprender a bailarmediante la inmersioacuten en la actividad con otros (Wells 1999) En muchos casos no hay separacioacuten entre antes y despueacutes o entrefuera y dentro y no hay necesidad de demostracioacuten o ejemplificacioacuten En lugar de esto estando inmerso en la actividad conjuntael principiante es literalmente entrenado fiacutesicamente por los movimiento del coparticipante mientras que al mismo tiempoconstruye su propia organizacioacuten ndashy quizaacute incluso una representacioacuten esquemaacuteticandash de los movimientos corporales A lo largo deltiempo este esquema estaacute tan bien organizado que el principiante se convierte en un experto que estaacute preparado paralelamentepara introducir a otros en la actividad Esto es lo que Lave y Wenger (1991) y Rogoff (2003) quieren decir por desarrollo median-te la participacioacuten en actividades culturales

2 Estoy agradecido a Natalia Gajdamaschko y Steve Gabosch por sus valiosas discusiones de esta distincioacuten durante el XMCA cursoonline sobre la teoriacutea de la actividad histoacuterico cultural Abril 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Aunque estaacute incluido en la Tabla I este modo de conocimiento no ha sido discutido aquiacute ya que el reconocimiento expliacutecito deeste importante modo de conocimiento es muy reciente (Brown 1975) Sin embargo eso no significa que sea en siacute mismo unnuevo fenoacutemeno

4 Para algunos ejemplos representativos veacutease Brown y Campione 1994 Lampert Rittenhouse y Crumbaugh 1996 McMahonRaphael Goatley y Pardo 1997 Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford y Brown 1998 Scardamalia Bereiter y Lamon 1994

5 Juntos formamos un grupo de investigacioacuten colaborativo DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project)(Wells (Ed) 2001)

ReferenciasBAJTIacuteN M M (1986) Speech genres and other late essays Austin University of Texas PressBERNSTEIN B (1982) Codes modalities and the process of cultural reproduction A model En M Apple (Ed) Cultural and econo-

mic reproduction in education (pp 304-355) Londres Routledge amp Kegan PaulBROWN A L (1975) The development of memory Knowing knowing about knowing and knowing how to know En H W

Reese (Ed) Advances in child development and behavior (Vol 10 pp 103-152) Nueva York Academic Press BROWN A L amp CAMPIONE J C (1994) Guided discovery in a community of learners En K McGilly (Ed) Integrating cognitive

theory and classroom practice Classroom lessons (pp 229-270) Cambridge MA MIT PressBradford BooksBROWN K amp COLE M (2002) Cultural historical activity theory and the expansion of opportunities for learning after school En

G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 225-238)Oxford Blackwell

BRUNER J S (1990) Acts of meaning Cambridge MA Harvard University PressCARR M (2002) Emerging learning narratives A perspective from early childhood education En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds)

Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 99-111) Oxford BlackwellCOLE M (1996) Cultural psychology A once and future discipline Cambridge MA The Bellknap Press of Harvard University PressDEACON T W (1997) The symbolic species The co-evolution of language and the brain Nueva York NortonDIAMOND J (1998) Guns germs and steel The fates of human societies Nueva York NortonDONALD M (1991) Origins of the Modern Mind Three Stages in the Evolution of Culture and Cognition Cambridge MA Harvard

University PressDONOAHUE Z (2003) Science teaching and learning Teachers and children plan together Networks 6(1) httpwwwoiseuto-

rontoca~ctdnetworksjournal Vol 6 (1) 2003marchENGESTROumlM Y (1999) Activity theory and individual and social transformation Y En Engestrom R Miettinen amp R-L Puna-

maki (Eds) Perspectives on activity theory (pp 19-38) Cambridge Cambridge University PressFREIRE P (1970) Pedagogy of the oppressed Nueva York Herder and HerderHALLIDAY M A K (1975) Learning how to mean Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1978) Language as social semiotic The social interpretation of language and meaning Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1993) Towards a language-based theory of learning Linguistics and Education 5 93-116HASAN R (2002) Semiotic mediation and mental development in pluralistic societies Some implications for tomorrowrsquos schoo-

ling En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural peerspectives on the future of education (pp112-126) Oxford Blackwell

HEATH S B (1983) Ways with words Cambridge Cambridge University PressLAMPERT M RITTENHOUSE P amp CRUMBAUGH C (1996) Agreeing to disagree Developing sociable mathematical discourse En

D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook of education and human development (pp 731-764) Cambridge MA Blackwell LANGER J A amp APPLEBEE A N (1987) How writing shapes thinking A study of teaching and learning Urbana IL National Council

of Teachers of EnglishLAVE J (1996) Teaching as learning in practice Mind Culture and Activity 3 (3) 149-164LAVE J amp WENGER E (1991) Situated Learning Legitimate peripheral participation Nueva York Cambridge University PressLEINHARDT G CROWLEY K amp KNUTSON K (2002) Learning conversations Explanation and identity in museums Mahwah NJ

Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesLEONTIEV A N (1981) The problem of activity in psychology En J VWertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 37-71) Armonk NY SharpeMAYBIN J MERCER N amp STIERER B (1992) lsquoScaffoldingrsquo learning in the classroom En K Norman (Ed) Thinking voices The

work of the National Oracy Project (pp 186-195) Londres Hodder amp StoughtonMCMAHON S I RAPHAEL T E GOATLEY V J amp PARDO L S (Eds) (1997) The Book Club connection Literacy learning and class-

room talk Nueva York Teachers College PressNELSON K (1996) Language in cognitive development The emergence of the mediated mind Nueva York Cambridge University PressNEWSON J (1978) Dialogue and development En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol The emergence of language (pp 31-42)

New York Academic Press

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187186

NYSTRAND M amp GAMORAN A (1991) Student engagement When recitation becomes conversation En H C Waxman amp H JWalberg (Eds) Effective teaching Current research (pp 257-276)Berkeley CA McCutchan Publishing Corp

OLSON D R amp BRUNER J S (1996) Folk psychology and folk pedagogy En D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook ofeducation and human development (pp 9-27) Cambridge MA Blackwell

PALINCSAR A MAGNUSSON S MARANO N FORD D amp BROWN N (1998) Designing a community of practice Principlesand practices of the GIsML Community Teaching and Teacher Education 14 (1) 5-20

PIAGET J (1970) Piagetrsquos theory En P H Mussen (Ed) Carmichaelrsquos handbook of child development (pp 703-732) Nueva YorkWiley

PONTECORVO C amp STERPONI L (2002) Learning to argue and reason through discourse in educational settings En G Wells ampG Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 127-140) OxfordBlackwell

ROGOFF B (1990) Apprenticeship in thinking Cognitive development in social context Nueva York Oxford University PressROGOFF B (1994) Developing understanding of the idea of Communities of Learners Mind Culture and Activity 1 (4) 209-

229ROGOFF B (2003) The cultural nature of human development Nueva York Oxford University PressROSENBLATT L (1978) The reader the text the poem The transactional theory of the literary work Carbondale IL Southern Illinois

University PressSCARDAMALIA M C BEREITER amp LAMON M (1994) The CSILE project Trying to bring the classroom into World 3 En K

McGilley (Ed) Classroom lessons Integrating cognitive theory and classroom practice (pp 201-228) Cambridge MA MITPress

SCRIBNER S (1985) Vygotskyrsquos uses of history En J V Wertsch (Ed) Culture communication and cognition Vygotskian perspectives(pp 119-145) Cambridge Cambridge University Press

THARP R amp GALLIMORE R (1988) Rousing minds to life Nueva York Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C (1979) Communication and cooperation in early infancy a description of primary intersubjectivity En M

Bullowa (Ed) Before speech The beginning of interpersonal communication (pp 321-348) Cambridge Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C amp HUBLEY P (1978) Secondary intersubjectivity Confidence confiding and acts of meaning in the first year

En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol the emergence of language (pp 183-230) Nueva York Academic PressVYGOTSKI L S (1978)Mind in society The development of higher psychological processes Cambridge MA Harvard University PressVYGOTSKI L S (1981) The genesis of higher mental functions En J V Wertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 144-188) Armonk NY SharpeVYGOTSKI L S (1987) Thinking and speech En R W Rieber amp A S Carton (Eds) The collected works of L S Vygotsky Volumen

1 Problems of general psychology (pp 39-285) Nueva York PlenumWARTOFSKY M (1979) Models representation and scientific understanding Boston ReidelWELLS G (1985) Language development in the pre-school years Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (1986) The meaning makers Children learning language and using language to learn Portsmouth NH HeinemannWELLS G (1999) Dialogic inquiry Towards a sociocultural practice and theory of education Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (Ed) (2001) Action talk and text Learning and teaching through inquiry Nueva York Teachers College PressWELLS G (2002a) Learning and teaching for understanding The key role of collaborative knowledge building En J Brophy

(Ed) Social constructivist teaching Affordances and constraints (pp 1-41) Osford Elsevier ScienceJAIWELLS G (2002b) The role of dialogue in activity theory Mind Culture and Activity 9 (1) 43-66WERTSCH J V MINICK N amp ARNS F J (1984) The creation of context in joint problem solving En B Rogoff amp J Lave (Eds)

Everyday cognition Its development in social context (pp 151-171) Cambridge Cambridge University PressWOOD D BRUNER J S amp ROSS G (1976) The role of tutoring in problem-solving Journal of Child Psychology and Child Psy-

chiatry 17 89-100

187El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Original text

Introduction

Compared with other species the characteristic that distinguishes humans isthe ability and proclivity to engage in tool-mediated joint activity with otherhumans It is this characteristic that accounts for the development of human cul-tures over the course of history as they invented artefacts of various kinds inorder to adapt to and exploit the ecological niches in which they found themsel-ves It also accounts for the diversity of individual personsrsquo development whichdepend on the particular activities in which they participate As Vygotsky(1978 1981) was one of the first to point out the lsquohigherrsquo mental functions thatmake us human are not biologically given but are developmentally constructedthrough the appropriation of historically developed tools and practices that aremade manifest to the child and lsquoscaffoldedrsquo in the meaningful actions and utte-rances of the coparticipants in joint activity

Before continuing readers might find it interesting to reflect on their owndevelopmental trajectories to who they are today I suspect that they may findthemselves agreeing that Who we become depends on the company we keep and what wedo together

A Brief History of the Development of Joint Activity

Leontrsquoev provides a succinct account of Vygotskyrsquos insight in the followingsummary

The initial ideas that led Vygotsky to investigate the genesis of internal mental activity fromexternal activity are fundamentally different from the theoretical approaches of other modernauthors These ideas came from the analysis of the features unique to human productive laboractivity which is mediated by tools This activity is initially social in nature that is it is deve-loped under the conditions of cooperation and social interaction among people Vygotskyidentified two main interconnected features [of this activity] that are necessarily fundamentalfor psychology its tool-like (lsquoinstrumentalrsquo) structure and its inclusion in a system of interre-lations with other people It is these features that define the nature of human psychologicalprocesses The tool mediates activity and thus connects humans not only with the world ofobjects but also with other people Because of this humanrsquos activity assimilates the experience ofhumankind This means that humansrsquo mental processes (their lsquohigher psychological functionsrsquo)acquire a structure necessarily tied to the sociohistorically formed means and methods trans-mitted to them by others in the process of cooperative labor and social interaction But it isimpossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in any way otherthan a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words higher psycho-logical processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction with others thatis through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried out indepen-dently by the individual (Leontrsquoev 1981 pp 55-56 emphases in the original)

As well as emphasizing the social and cooperative nature of human activity thisquotation is important with respect to the arguments that I want to develop inthis paper as it highlights the central role of semiotic mediation in developmentKnowledge is created as well as appropriated in the discourse among peoplewho are working together in a specific situation in order to create or improve anartefact or to solve a problem of importance to the group However Leontrsquoevalso alludes to another of Vygotskyrsquos key insights namely that in order tounderstand current activity it is necessary to investigate the history of that acti-vity It is to this that I next turn

In analyzing the history of human development at least four different time-scales need to be considered The longest is the history of the cultural evolution of

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

the species (the phylogenetic level) next is the historical development of particu-lar cultures The third level (ontogenetic) traces the developmental trajectory ofindividual humans over the course of the lifespan Finally the microgenetic levelis concerned with the development of an instance of a particular activity

In practice it is the latter that has been explored in most detail for usingcontemporary technology it is relatively easy to observe and record the sequenceof actions through which an activity is enacted and the specific operations inwhich the participants engage making use of the relevant artefacts that are avai-lable in the situation (Leontrsquoev 1981) These artefacts may be either material(knives pencils automobiles) or symbolic (utterances maps theories) ndashthoughas Cole (1996) has pointed out to function as mediators of joint activity all arte-facts must have some form of material embodiment as well as a symbolic mea-ning that is to say they must be ready to hand and also have a cultural signifi-cance relevant to the situation

However the form in which a particular instance of activity is realizeddepends not only on the artefacts that are to hand in the situation but also onthe participantsrsquo past experiences with the practices in which the artefacts areused to mediate achievement of the action goals that contribute to the joint acti-vity Thus the microgenesis of a particular instance of activity is necessarilydependent upon the ontogenetic development of the participants that is to sayupon the opportunities their life trajectories have afforded them to appropriatethe relevant cultural knowledge through participation in instances of similaractions and operations

But on the time-scale of ontogenetic development each individualrsquos trajectoryof development is itself strongly influenced by the culture in which he or she isgrowing up and on the historical development of that culture As Rogoff (2003)illustrates in considerable detail cultures vary considerably both over time andacross ecological niches in what mediating artefacts and practices are available andin the relative value accorded to each Moreover within each culture at any parti-cular historical moment participants in activities both incorporate the ways ofprevious generations and adapt them to the exigencies of current conditions

Stepping up one further level the historical development of a particular cul-tures is itself shaped by development on the even larger timescale of the culturaland biological evolution of the species This is the most difficult timescale todescribe in detail for lack of the necessary evidence But certain broad distinc-tions between human communities can be made in terms of their modes of sub-sistence and of the mediating means available for joint activity (Diamond 1998Donald 1991) As recent research has shown our earliest ancestors some 5million years ago lived in small bands of hunter gatherers often on the edge oflakes and oceans Initially their tools were found in the surroundings but overseveral million years they invented ways of making more sophisticated artefactssuch as knives arrowheads baskets and clothing from flints bones skins andvegetable materials Then as some groups migrated to particularly fertile partsof the world they adopted a more settled agrarian way of life growing cropsand breeding animals The resulting ability to produce more food than imme-diately required led in turn to the emergence of trade and to a diversity of spe-cialist occupations such as potters and tailors who exchanged their products forfood and other necessities This stage also saw the development of much largerpopulation groupings with hierarchical class structures that included prieststax collectors and other religious and political functionaries

While migration had been a common feature of human existence from theearliest times the development of large settled populations and of weapons

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

made of bronze and iron led to the expansion of certain cultural groups throughterritorial conquest and colonization by sea and by land As a result during thelast few thousand years the latest phase of phylogenetic development has beencharacterized by the rise and fall of imperial cultures which have imposed theirtechnologies laws and administrative procedures as well as their religions artsknowledge and values on widely diverse subjugated populations Most recentlythe further development of the inventions that led to the first industrial revolu-tion has simply served to increase the scale and intensity of these imperialisttrends At the same time these inventions as well as those of the current indus-trial revolution have also led to a great increase in humansrsquo understanding oftheir social and material environment both through scientific and social rese-arch and through the dissemination of information about other times and placesresulting from travel and the use of print and electronic technologies

In presenting this very condensed account of phylogenetic development Ihave emphasized the material tools that have mediated the progressively morecomplex and diverse activities in which humans have engaged over the course ofthe speciesrsquo history However bearing in mind that what has been the drivingforce of human development is joint activity an equally ndashif not morendash impor-tant determinant of this history is the development of the modes of representa-tion through which humans have communicated and developed their unders-tanding of the world Table I presents the developmental sequence proposed byDonald (1991) based on archeological neuroanatomical historical and othertypes of evidence The table also includes the stages in the historical develop-ment of ways of knowing that were proposed by Wartofsky (1979)

The first stage in this sequence corresponds to the phase in which proto-humans began to diverge from other primate species In this phase as in thebehavior of contemporary higher primates practical action was the predomi-nant form of communication as ndashnot necessarily deliberatelyndash participants sig-naled their intentions in a shared situation and these intentions were interpre-ted and responded to by their co-participants in the activity In the secondmimetic phase which must have developed gradually over many millenniacommunication became somewhat differentiated from the activity to which itreferred as humans deliberately used gestures mime facial expression andvarious types of phonation to comment on as well as to coordinate action and theobjects to which it was directed Later still with the gradual modification of thevocal tract and of the primate brain there emerged the ability to communicatethrough speech and hence the ability to refer not only to particular objects andactions but also to generalized classes and to express observed and intendedrelationships between objects actions and events thus allowing participants toplan for and reflect on the outcomes of joint activity Finally the invention ofwriting which ushered in the final phase in Donaldrsquos proposed sequence occu-rred extremely recently in the long trajectory of phylogenetic development Yetas with those that preceded it enormously increased the human repertoire ofmeans for making and communicating meaning Essentially what it added wasan ldquoexternal memoryrdquo By creating a (relatively) permanent representation oflinguistic meaning it made possible the compilation and distillation of repor-ted information from many sources including the writerrsquos own verbalizedthoughts It also allowed the writer and those who read his or her written textto review critique and revise the meanings expressed and to make the resultsavailable to people in later times and other places for further constructive debateand improvement

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

However action gesture speech and writing are not simply progressivelymore powerful modes of communication They are also progressively morepowerful mediators of thinking This is most obvious with respect to the lin-guistic modes of communication But even before the emergence of speechaction and ndashto an even greater extentndash mimesis enabled humans to think toget-her and thereby to create a shared interpretation of their joint activities In fact ithas been argued that the emergence of language was not simply the result ofbrain and vocal tract development but rather was part of a more general patternof adaptation that building upon the cognitive achievements of mimetic kno-wing strove to integrate the unconnected bits of information in a more compre-hensive and coherent account of being-in-the-world (Deacon 1997) Neverthe-less it is also true that the availability of language greatly enhanced both com-munication and thinking together for as Halliday observed

the grammar of every natural language is (among other things) a theory of human experienceit is through our acts of meaning that we transform experience into the coherent -though farfrom consistent- patchwork that we learn to project as lsquorealityrsquo (1993 p 46)

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

TABLE IModes Of Knowing Phylogenetic And Cultural Development (from Wells 1999)

Time Mode of Participants Donald(1991) Wartofsky(1979)Years BP Knowing

2 million Instrumental Individual in action Episodic Primary artifactsyears material tools

1 -- 15 million Procedural Between individuals while Mimetic Secondaryyears engaged in action artifacts tools

and practicesmimeticinteraction

50000 Substantive Among members of a (Linguistic) Secondaryyears cultural group reflecting on artifacts

action and as a basis for representations ofplanning further action tools and

practices spokeninteraction

50000 Aesthetic Among members of a Mythic Tertiary artifactsyears cultural group making sense artistic represent-

of the human predicament ations in mythnarrative graphicand musical modes

2500 Theoretical Among members of a Theoretic Tertiary artifactsyears specialist community decontextualized

seeking to explain the natural representationsand human world such as

taxonomiestheories models etc

Meta Among members of a Tertiary artifacts cultural group also representations ofindividuals seeking to mental andunderstand and control their semioticown mental activity processes

In sum what Donald and other scholars argue is that contemporary mentalabilities are the outcome of the development over time of a series of progressi-vely more powerful and flexible modes of representation ndashor in Vygotskyanterms of semiotic mediators of higher mental functions- that have made possi-ble the rational theoretically oriented modes of knowing that underpin theachievements of modern science and its technological applications In the philo-sopher Wartofskyrsquos words

our own perceptual and cognitive understanding of the world is in large part shaped andchanged by the representational artifacts we ourselves create We are in effect the products ofour own activity in this way we transform our own perceptual and cognitive modes our waysof seeing and of understanding by means of the representations we make (1979 p xxiii)

There is however one further important aspect of Donaldrsquos (1991) thesis thatis crucial for the argument that I wish to develop Although the semiotic sys-tems of mimesis speech and writing each powered a new mode of cognitiveactivity they did not replace those that preceded but were additive in theireffects The result is that contemporary humans have a variety of modes of kno-wing at their disposal as they engage in joint activity Furthermore most suchactivities call for more than one mode of knowing and require the complemen-tary and interdependent use of more than one mode of representation

Joint Activity as the Site of Ontogenetic Learning and Development

Two important implications follow from the multi-level historical concep-tion of development just outlined First on any occasion the type of activitythat is undertaken and the specific manner in which it is enacted are necessarilydependent on the particular cultural-historical antecedents of the participantsboth human and artefactual that come together in its realization In particularthe manner in which the situation is interpreted ndashin terms of what action goalsare appropriate and how they can be achievedndash depends on the motives valuesand knowledgeable skills of the human participants and on the affordances ofthe technologies available in the situation And second every instance of an acti-vity provides an occasion for a triple transformation of the situation in whichthe activity is carried out of the artefacts and practices that mediate its enact-ment and most importantly of the knowledge and skills of the human partici-pants Taken together these propositions clarify the way in which cultural andindividual development are both interdependent and rooted in particular situa-ted occasions of joint activity As Rogoff (1994) argues

People of each generation as they engage in sociocultural endeavors with other people makeuse of and extend cultural tools and practices inherited from previous generations As peopledevelop through their shared use of cultural tools and practices they simultaneously contribu-te to the transformation of cultural tools practices and institutions (p 52)

Potentially therefore every occasion of joint activity provides an opportunityfor development on the part of all participants This is a point to which I shallreturn But first I want to consider more carefully the concept of developmentitself

Clearly built into the concept of development is the implication of change andtypically of change in the direction of increasing complexity and effectiveness Inother words development is typically taken to imply improvement or progresstoward some ideal end state or capability However in the light of the previousdiscussion such a progression while it may be meaningful to (some of the) partici-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

pants in any particular situation cannot be understood in any absolute sense butmust be seen as relative to the unfolding historical trajectory of the species of aparticular culture and of the immediate community ndashits values its dominantactivities and the knowledgeable skills that form its resources Furthermore just asthese have changed in the past they will continue to change in the future in res-ponse to the changing demands of the larger environment So while ontogeneticdevelopment does indeed involve increasing complexity and effectiveness of indi-vidualsrsquo participation in the activity systems in which they are involved in theirdaily lives the overall trajectory of development is emergent and its endpoint cannever be specified in advance even in terms of an ideal to be attained

Nevertheless this does not mean that there are not strong regularities in thesequence of ontogenetic development particularly in the early years Indeed asNelson (1996) has suggested during the preschool years children follow a trajec-tory very similar to the sequence of phylogenetic development proposed byDonald (1991) (see Table I above) as they appropriate the semiotic tools of repre-sentation afforded by action mimesis speech and writing Of course this is not asimple recapitulation children growing up in a contemporary literate culture forexample are surrounded from birth by artifacts and practices that result from andembody all the available modes of knowing (Cole 1996) Appropriating existingcultural tools is thus very different from inventing them ex novo as Scribner (1985)points out Nevertheless given the combination of biological and cultural inheri-tance it is not surprising that in most if not all cultures children follow the samesequence as did the species as a whole over the course of history

In the first weeks of life infants act on their immediate surroundings bothanimate and inanimate and begin to develop what Piaget (1970) called sensori-motor intelligence However although this most basic form of activity mayappear to be instinctual it is nevertheless also inherently social First all infantsare born into an environment that is cultural in the sense of having been shapedby countless preceding generations and second the infantrsquos actions are treatedas being intentional and are responded to as such So from the beginning theinfant is caught up in social interaction (Newson 1978) In the second phasewhich typically begins in the first few months the infant also begins to engagein mimetic communication through gaze facial expression and rudimentarygesture (Bruner 1990) Couched in terms of primary and secondary intersubjec-tivity this phase has been described in considerable detail by Trevarthen (19781979) Primary intersubjectivity develops as the infant and parent engage inmutual gaze thereby communicating that they are attending to and respondingto each other In secondary intersubjectivity third parties are brought into jointattention as the parent through gaze directs the infantrsquos attention to an object ofpotential interest or follows the childrsquos direction of gaze and signals that he orshe is also attending to the same object

It is on this basis of joint action and attention that towards the end of thefirst year the child begins to exploit his or her growing command of vocaliza-tion often accompanied by gesture to begin to communicate through speechFrom research predominantly involving children in ldquoWesternrdquo societies it hasbeen established that at first the childrsquos utterances are idiosyncratic drawingonly partially ndashif at allndash on the speech of those around him or her neverthelessparents and other family members have little difficulty in interpreting them incontext and once again they respond in a manner that is contingent on theirinterpretation thereby establishing spoken communication as a joint interactiveactivity By the end of the second year however children appear to abandon thisidiosyncratic ldquoprotolanguagerdquo form of communication and begin to construct a

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

linguistic meaning potential that is systematically related to the language thatis addressed to them in the oft-repeated activities of family life (Bruner 1990Halliday 1975 Wells 1986) Significantly within particular language com-munities the sequence in which children master the basic meanings and thelexicogrammatical forms in which they are realized tends to be very similar fromchild to child (Wells 1985)

The developmental sequence just described ndashaction mimesis speechndash is com-mon to children in all cultures and in all cases takes place in and through jointactivity and interaction with other family and community members Howeveralthough the sequence is universal the manner and pace at which it proceeds varyvery considerably across cultures These differences depend upon many culturally-determined factors such as adult expectations about their childrenrsquos developmentthe position in which the infant is typically held or carried facing the caregiver orturned outwards to face in the same direction as the caregiver the makeup and sizeof the interactional groups in which communication typically occurs and whetherthese events are part of family and community life more generally or are delibera-tely arranged and structured for the presumed benefit of the child (Rogoff 2003)In the later stages of language development the range and extent of the meaningpotential that children construct begins to vary even more widely depending onthe activities in which they engage the linguistic registers that are used in thoseactivities and the stances typically adopted by interlocutors toward the use of lan-guage in their interactions with children (Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

So far the ontogenetic developmental sequence I have described is funda-mentally similar across cultures and follows the phylogenetic sequence in whichhumans have progressively added new semiotic mediational means to theircommunicative repertoires In an important sense therefore the final mode ofrepresentation in Donaldrsquos scheme that of writing is an optional extra sincemany cultures have survived and prospered without a written mode of represen-ting meaning Moreover even in cultures that have a writing system the extentand scope of literacy that individuals attain varies very considerably dependingon the activity systems in which they participate the value that is placed onwritten texts by those communmities the purposes to which they are put andthe genres that are used for those purposes However since literacy and its usesare so strongly associated with schooling I shall leave further discussion of thismode of semiotic mediation to a later part of this paper

Before concluding this section however I want to explore further the con-cept of semiotic mediation In one of the better known passages in Vygotskyrsquoswritings where he argued for the social and cultural origin of higher mentalfunctions he wrote that every function occurs on two planes first in activity andinteraction between people and then within the individual learner (Vygotsky1981) What bridges between these two planes as is clear from his other wri-tings is semiotic mediation To recall Leontrsquoevrsquos formulation of this argument

hellip it is impossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in anyway other than a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words hig-her psychological processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction withothers that is through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried outindependently by the individual (1981 pp 55-56)

In other words when people engage in joint activity their actions gesturesand speech not only mediate the coordination of participation but they alsomake overt the mental activities involved and so render them available forappropriation by novice participants1 Halliday is very clear about this Alt-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

hough the following quotation refers only to language the term lsquolanguagersquocould justifiably be replaced by lsquosemiotic mediationrsquo

In the development of the child as a social being language has the central role Language is themain channel through which the patterns of living are transmitted to him through which helearns to act as a member of lsquosocietyrsquo ndashin and through the various social groups the family theneighbourhood and so onndash and to adopt its lsquoculturersquo its modes of thought and action itsbeliefs and its values (1978 p 9)

However as the child grows older language does become the predominantmode of semiotic mediation and as he wrote in a later paper ldquoLanguage is theessential condition of knowing the process by which experience becomes know-ledge (Halliday 1993 p 94 original emphasis)

Assistance for Learning in Joint Activitie

So far in the discussion of the role of joint activity in human development Ihave concentrated on the tools and particularly the semiotic modes of represen-tation that mediate the achievement of the outcome of activity In this sectionon the other hand I turn to the role of other people in this process both familymembers and the larger community

Until now I have referred to coparticipants in an activity in general termsbut clearly there are further distinctions to be made Particularly helpful in thisrespect is Engestroumlmrsquos model of an activity system which is shown in figure 1

What this model shows is that when we look at an ongoing activity from thepoint of view of an individual participant (t Subject) that individual is involvedin a nexus of other relationships that link him or her to other lsquoparticipantsrsquo theTools and artifacts to mediate action on the Object but also the Community of

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 1The Triangle of Activity

Artifactstools andpractices

Values rulesamp conventions

Community Divisioacutenof labor

Engestrom 1999

Object OutcomeSubject

others engaged in the activity together with the Division of Labor within thatcommunity and also the Rules and Conventions that govern the manner inwhich the activity is carried out (Engestroumlm 1999) What this latter category oflsquoparticipantrsquo underscores is the historical dimension of an activity system sincethese rules and conventions ndashas well as the tools and artifactsndash bring into thepresent the distilled practices of previous generations who have engaged in theactivity as these are interpreted and utilized by the current community

To illustrate the relevance of this model to the development of the youngchild we might compare two versions of a similar activity reported by WertschMinick and Arns (1984) In their study Brazilian children carried out a puzzletask on two occasions first with the mother and secondly with a primary tea-cher What the researchers found was that in general the mothers and teachersengaged in the activity in systematically different ways Whereas the motherstended to direct the childrenrsquos behavior or even carry out parts of the task them-selves in order to complete it in an efficient manner ndashjust as they would havedone if engaged in a household taskndash the teachers tended to encourage thechildrsquos autonomous performance and only provided hints and suggestions whenthey judged them to be necessary to advance the childrenrsquos understandingInterpreting these results the researchers suggested that the two groups ofadults belonged to two different communities (or activity systems) that had dif-ferent rules and conventions about engaging in this joint activity And this inturn led to the different divisions of labor that they observed Similarly Rogoff(2003) cites many examples of substantial differences between cultures inalmost all aspects of child rearing with respect to their ways of engaging chil-dren in the activities that they consider important

What is clear is that ldquobehindrdquo the particular adult ndashor older siblings in someculturesndash who are directly engaged with the child there is a wider communityof family members neighbors and others who have an interest in the upbrin-ging of children and who share beliefs about appropriate ways to involve themin the activities of daily life So whether in Spain Japan or the Peruvian High-lands although the actual practices vary across cultures in each those responsi-ble for childrenrsquos well-being and development act as agents of a wider commu-nity whose beliefs and practices are rooted in a long tradition concerning howactivities should be carried out But equally in all cultures practices also changein response to changes in the world beyond the particular community In manyWestern homes for example computer games or television programs haverecently taken the place of the bedtime story while in many indigenous com-munities crafts that until recently only supplied local needs are now exploitedcommercially for the tourist trade changing the rhythms of daily life and therelationships among family members and the activities in which children areinvolved As suggested earlier therefore in order to understand the activities inwhich children participate today we need to look not only at the immediatesituation but also at the wider community and the changes taking place on allthese time-scales

Microgenesis and the Zone of Proximal Development

It is nevertheless always the immediate microgenetic situation that isthe site of ontogenetic development ndashthe action and interaction between thelearner and those with whom he or she is engaged in the activity in pro-gress When we adopt this microgenetic perspective however we need tomodify the representation of an activity system presented in figure 1 Inthat representation the focus was on the goal-oriented nature of action

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Here we need to focus on the interaction among the participants ndashtheirattempt to attain intersubjectivity with respect to the common object andthe complementarity of the knowledgeable skills they bring to the cocons-truction of the intended outcome (see Figure 2) What figure 2 emphasizesis the fact that although the tools and artefacts that are available to mediatethe jointly undertaken action are the same for each participant each bringsa somewhat different familiarity with their use as a result of their differentlife trajectories and it is this variability in their expertise that makes it pos-sible for each to provide assistance to the others in at least some aspects ofthe joint action Viewed in this light it is clear why Vygotsky emphasizedthe role of joint activity in development and wrote of its potential to enablelearners ldquoto go beyond themselvesrdquo with the assistance of more expertothers

The metaphor Vygotsky used to characterize the potential for learning thatthis sort of activity creates was the ldquozone of proximal developmentrdquo As hewrote when another participant in the activity provides instruction that isappropriately pitched beyond what the learner can manage to do on his or herown it ldquowakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturationlying in the zone of proximal developmentrdquo (1987 p 212) Vygotsky concep-tualized development as the formation of new functional systems (ldquoneoforma-tionsrdquo) and of changes in the relationships among systems which he consideredto occur as a succession of ldquocrises of developmentrdquo that are particularly facilitatedby engagement in the relevant ldquoleading activityrdquo at each stage for example playin childhood and learning to read and write in the early school yearsHowever itwould be a mistake to focus only on the periods of revolutionary change since ashe equally emphasized at any time there are also other more gradual processes ofgrowth

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 2Dialogue in Joint Activity(from Wells2002b)

Outcomematerial ampsemioticartefacts

Toolsartefacts

Subject

Rulesconventions

Community Divisionof labor

Subject

Toolsartefacts

Processes that are central lines of development at one age become peripheral lines of develop-ment at the following age and conversely peripheral lines of development of one age arebrought to the forefront and become central lines since their meaning and relative significancein the total structure of development changes (p 197)2

In developing his important concept of the zone of proximal developmentVygotsky tended to characterize the assistance given by others as ldquoinstructionrdquoand to see its value in ldquothe childrsquos potential to raise himself to a higher intellec-tual level of development through collaboration to move from what he has towhat he does not have through imitationrdquo (1987 p 210) However manyrecent scholars who have built on his work have taken a broader view of thedevelopmental significance of collaboration in joint activities and have characte-rized the assistance that is provided within this relationship in terms such asldquoapprenticeshiprdquo (Lave amp Wenger 1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoguided participationrdquo(Rogoff 1994 2003) and ldquoscaffoldingrdquo (Wood et al 1976) Neverthelesswhile these different metaphors highlight different features of the relationshipwhat they all have in common is the inclusion of the learner in an activity inwhich there is provision of the assistance necessary to help the learner to comple-te an activity in which he or she is interested and to do so in such a way that heor she makes progress toward being able to participate more fully and autono-mously in the future (Maybin Mercer and Stierer 1992)

In many joint activities such as for example traditional forms of craftapprenticeship assistance is only provided when needed and the ldquomasterrdquo doesso with no deliberate didactic intention beyond that of involving the novice inthe completion of the particular task in hand (Lave 1996) Similarly in sociali-zation into activities around the home no explicit instruction is necessary fornovices can learn a great deal by simply watching and listening (cf Rogoff2003) This is what Lave and Wenger (1991) mean when they insist that lear-ning is not an independent activity but an intrinsic aspect of ldquolegitimate perip-heral participationrdquo in a communityrsquos activities From their perspective therefo-re formal education in which learning is the sole purpose of the activity issomething of an anomaly particularly when the only form of assistance providedis the expert teacherrsquos direct instruction and subsequent evaluation of the extentof the studentsrsquo learning

In many recent discussions it has also been recognized that it is not only aldquoteacherrdquo who can provide assistance in the zpd On the one hand in a com-plex activity many participants are more expert than others in some aspectsand therefore on some occasions are able to help those who are less expert(Rogoff 1994) and on the other hand those who provide assistance do nothave to be physically present texts and other artifacts can equally well helpa participant ldquoto go beyond himherselfrdquo as is often the case in intellectualwork such as research and writ ing (Wells 1999) Furthermore asEngestroumlm (1999) and others ndashbuilding on other aspects of Vygotskyrsquos theo-retical writingsndash have noted the material and symbolic tools that have beendeveloped by previous participants in the activity can also provide the samesort of assistance However perhaps the most important point to emphasizeis that there are many situations in which no-one is an expert yet as eachbrings his or her own past experience to the solution of a common problemthe group together is able to achieve more than any single member couldhave done alone Clearly it is such collaboration that has made possible theinventions that have led to the major advances of great civilizations over thecourse of cultural history

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Development in the Pre-School Years

As noted above the responsibility for caring for children in early childhoodvaries very considerably from one society to another Nevertheless in all socie-ties children are involved in joint activities with others in which they receiveassistance with respect to their participation however that may be locally achie-ved For the most part as already mentioned these are activities that are regu-larly repeated in the taken-for-granted routines of daily life The expectation isthat the child will learn to fit in and is simply helped to do so Often referred toas ldquoenculturationrdquo this form of apprenticeship ensures the continuity of the cul-turersquos way of life from one generation to the next and as Donald (1991) arguedit probably occurred even before the emergence of speech

However in all activities there are occasions when problems arise that callfor some level of deliberate decision-making In these situations spoken interac-tion makes possible a degree of reflection and forward planning in which therelations of cause and effect intention action and outcome are made explicitand open to question and discussion The talk that occurs on these occasionsthus plays a particularly important role in helping children to attend to andunderstand the world around them in terms of the culturersquos ways of ldquomakingsenserdquo of it However these occasions can also open up possibilities for changeboth in the form of the activity and in the participantsrsquo understanding of itHow caregivers habitually take up these opportunities is particularly importantfor it plays an important part in shaping the intellectual dispositions withwhich children enter school (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo amp Sterponi2002)

In this section I include some representative examples of kinds of talk thatarise from joint activities in the home These examples are drawn from observa-tions made in settings in England (Wells 1986) and Australia (Hasan 2002) inwhich the young children observed spent most of their time at home with oneparent sometimes with one or more siblings some of the time they entertainedthemselves with occasional adult involvement but they also frequently watchedand ldquohelpedrdquo the parent with household tasks of various kinds

In the first example James (aged 3 12 years) has been playing alone in thegarden and as he reenters the house his mother tries to get him to take off hismuddy shoes However at that moment he sees a bird outside which interestshim more than changing his shoes

Example 1Mother There we are there one slipper onJames I can see a birdMother A what loveJames See a bird Mother (whispering) Is there OutsideJames (pointing and whispering) Yes see

(both continue to speak very softly)Mother Is he eating anythingJames NoMother Where Oh yes hersquos getting- do you know what hersquos doingJames NoMother Hersquos going to the- the paper sack to try to pick out some pieces-

Oh hersquos got some food there and I expect hersquoll pick out somepieces of thread from the sack to go and make his nest under the roofJames Wait a minute and Irsquoll-[James now wants to go out to see more closely but at that moment thebird flies away]

James That birdrsquos gone

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

In the second example Elizabeth (aged 4 years) who is helping with thehouse cleaning watches with interest as her mother shovels wood ash from thefireplace into a bucket

Example 2Elizabeth What are you doing that forMother Irsquom gathering it up and putting it outside so that Daddy can put it on the gardenElizabeth Why does he have to put it on the gardenMother To make the compost rightElizabeth Does that make the grass growMother YesElizabeth Why does itMother You know how I tell you that you need to eat different things like eggs and cab-

bage and rice pudding to make you grow into a big girlElizabeth YesMother Well plants need different foods too and ash is one of the things thatrsquos

good for them

The third example involves James again now eighteen months older Earlierin the afternoon he had been helping his mother with the baking Now hecomes back into the kitchen as his mother is taking the baking trays out of theoven He hears a loud metallic ldquocrackrdquo and asks for an explanation

Example 3James Who did thatMother I expect it was the tin contractingJames Which tinMother The one with your pastry inJames Why did it make that noiseMother Well when it was in the oven it got very hot and stretched a bit Irsquove just taken

it out of the oven and itrsquos cooling down very quickly you see and that noisehappens when it gets smaller again and goes back to its normal shape

James Oh was it a different shape in the ovenMother Oh not very different just a little biggerJames Naughty little tin you might get smacked if you do it again

In all three of these examples the mother willingly responds to the childrsquosinterest and provides information to explain the significance of what the child isseeing or hearing even when in the first this interrupts the motherrsquos plan Allthree cases show how the childrsquos participation in the activity with the adult assu-res that there is intersubjectivity of attention to what interests the child and thisenables the mother to provide relevant information Clearly this is a form ofldquoinstructionrdquo however it is spontaneous and contingent on the childrsquos interestrather than presented as part of a pre-planned curriculum

The third example is particularly interesting from this point of view as thephenomenon of interest to James requires a somewhat technical explanation Atsome point in the future no doubt the expansion of metal when heated and itssubsequent contraction when removed from the heat will figure in the schoolscience curriculum in relation to the systematic study of heat here however itis an interesting side-effect of baking and the motherrsquos explanation while tech-nical in content is couched in everyday language rather than in the abstractterms of scientific generalization As Hasan (2002) has observed

the discourse of quasi specialised knowledge occurs in the lsquomiddle ofrsquo daily activities and bynecessity it calls for a readiness on the motherrsquos part to entertain contextual shifts to bewilling to reclassify the context of the on-going discourse The tendency to move with thechildrsquos moving discourse the readiness to re-classify context is a discourse characteristic of thesame group of mothers who frequently ask questions made precise by qualification and whoattend to their childrenrsquos questions and provide them with well developed answers (p 123)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 18: Actividad y Aprendizaje

Como Wygotsky insistentemente precisoacute el aprendizaje conduce el desarrollo yla instruccioacuten deberiacutea estar organizada para ayudar a este proceso

La instruccioacuten es soacutelo uacutetil cuando se mueve delante del desarrollo Cuando esto ocurre impulsao despierta toda una serie de funciones que estaacuten en estado de maduracioacuten latente en la zona dedesarrollo proacuteximo (1987 p 212)

La pregunta central para la escolarizacioacuten debe por lo tanto ser coacutemo ofrecerinstruccioacuten que sea relevante para las trayectorias de desarrollo de los alumnos yque de manera adecuada ldquose situacutee dentrordquo de sus zonas de desarrollo proacuteximoJunto a esta una segunda pregunta es coacutemo proporcionar ayuda a los alumnosindividuales para que su aprendizaje les permita de hecho avanzar en su desa-rrollo

Procurando proporcionar respuesta a estas preguntas el concepto de ldquoactivi-dad guiadardquo junto con el de recapitulacioacuten de la secuencia de desarrollo de losmodos de conocimiento puede ofrecer un comienzo uacutetil Los nintildeos cuandoingresan en la escuela han dominado en gran parte los modos de conocimientoasociados con la accioacuten el gesto y el habla (Nelson 1996) Lo que ahora necesi-tan es un aprendizaje de los modos de conocimiento asociado con el lenguajeescrito y de las distintas clases de representacioacuten simboacutelica que derivan de eacutelndashmatemaacutetica cientiacutefica musical etceacuteterandash Es decir necesitan aprenderlos parausar estas formas de representacioacuten como herramienta para la deliberacioacutenmediada la comunicacioacuten reflexiva y el pensamiento y para apropiarse de losdiferentes dominios de conocimiento teoacuterico que han sido construidos acumula-tivamente por las generaciones previas con la ayuda de las ventajas que confierenesos sistemas de ldquomemoria externardquo (Donald 1991)

La recapitulacioacuten del desarrollo histoacuterico cultural orienta la trayectoria a largoplazo para la educacioacuten formal en la escuela y en otras instituciones Pero inclusomaacutes importante para procurar responder la pregunta central presentada arriba esdeterminar los procedimientos efectivos para organizar los pequentildeos pasos queconfiguran las lecciones las unidades curriculares y los programas anuales a lolargo de esta trayectoria Basaacutendonos en las ideas presentadas en la seccioacuten ante-rior dos principios parecen en siacute mismos evidentes En primer lugar los encuen-tros educativos necesitan para estar organizados ser ldquoactividades conjuntasrdquo enlas que todos los participantes contribuyen a las metas convenidas con lo mejorde sus habilidades Y en segundo lugar debe convertirse en norma dar y recibirayuda por parte de cada participante Una de las implicaciones de estos dos prin-cipios es que no puede haber formas universales mejores para participar en alguacutenaspecto del curriculum puesto que cada clase variacutea en las experiencias e interesesque sus miembros aportan y en los valores y praacutecticas aprendidos culturalmenteque motivan y dirigen su implicacioacuten con el nuevo conocimiento y con las habi-lidades que estaacuten esperando dominar

Aunque siempre es importante reconocer valorar y construir sobre las expe-riencias previas de los alumnos ha llegado a ser incluso maacutes necesario a medidaque la migracioacuten tanto inter como intra paiacuteses ha aumentado significativamen-te ya que las diferentes etnias clases y religiones en las comunidades han dadolugar a su vez a comunidades de escuela y aula cada vez maacutes diversas ndashy estadiversidad es incluso mayor donde una proporcioacuten sustancial de alumnos estaacuteaprendiendo la lengua de clase como una segunda lengua (o subsiguiente)ndash Taldiversidad en el bagaje cultural y en la experiencia previa es generalmente vistocomo un problema que necesita ser superado en paiacuteses donde los disentildeadores delcurriculum apuntan a estandarizar la instruccioacuten para alcanzar ideacutenticos resulta-dos para todos los estudiantes como es hoy el caso en Estados Unidos Sin

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187182

embargo cuando las diferencias entre personas en teacuterminos de experiencia valo-res y praacutecticas son reconocidas como normales y deseables esta diversidad puedeconvertirse en una ventaja en la clase ya que las praacutecticas y puntos de vista alter-nativos que afloran pueden enriquecer la comunidad de clase y conducir a discu-siones valiosas en las que las creencias dadas por sentadas sean modificadas y sealcance una comprensioacuten maacutes profunda de los puntos considerados (Wells1999)

En este contexto he encontrado de ayuda pensar en el aprendizaje basado enla escuela en teacuterminos de una espiral del conocimiento donde el resultado espe-rado con cada giro de la espiral es una mayor comprensioacuten (Wells 1999) (verFigura 3) En la primera fase cuando la clase se embarca en un nuevo aspecto delcurriculum es importante animar a los alumnos a compartir sus experienciasprevias ya que como las investigaciones en campos muy diferentes han mostra-do (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotski) esas experiencias proporcionan elpunto de partida para su aprendizaje sean o no reconocidas puacuteblicamente Des-cubriendo lo que los estudiantes ya saben y aquello que les interesa explorar conmaacutes detalle el profesor puede tambieacuten planificar la unidad en cooperacioacuten conlos alumnos (Donoahue 2003) La segunda fase de la espiral conlleva varios acer-camientos a la nueva informacioacuten ndashmediante la explicacioacuten del profesor a traveacutesde materiales impresos o medios audiovusiales o en la forma de feedback de laspropias acciones e investigaciones de los alumnosndash Es importante reconocer sinembargo que la recepcioacuten de la nueva informacioacuten no asegura en siacute misma unaumento de la comprensioacuten Para que esto ocurra la nueva informacioacuten debearticularse con la comprensioacuten existente y con la experiencia previa relevantepara ser despueacutes puesta a prueba mediante la accioacuten en el mundo ndashobteniendofeedback (informacioacuten adicional)ndash yo mediante el diaacutelogo con otros para laconstruccioacuten del conocimiento donde el propoacutesito es llegar a una eleccioacuten con-sensuada entre las teoriacuteas alternativas demandas o interpretaciones sobre la basede una consideracioacuten de las evidencias y argumentos apropiados Finalmentepara consolidar la nuevas comprensiones obtenidas es valioso para la clase com-pleta reflexionar juntos sobre lo que han aprendido y sobre el proceso de cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento en el que han participado sobre las implicaciones quela nueva comprensioacuten tiene para sus propias acciones ndashtanto fuera como dentrode clasendash y sobre las preguntas importantes a las que ellos deben ahora dirigir susinvestigaciones futuras En otras palabras la fase final en el ciclo implica a lacomunidad en un ldquoacercamiento lsquometarsquordquo (Olson y Bruner 1996) es decir en laadopcioacuten de una perspectiva metacognitiva sobre su propio aprendizaje que a lolargo de miles de antildeos probablemente ha jugado un importante papel en eldesarrollo de cada modo de conocimiento presentado en la siacutentesis del desarrollohistoacuterico cultural de Donald (1991)3

Esta espiral necesita varias anotaciones adicionales La primera tiene quever con la naturaleza incompleta y provisional del conocimiento eacuteste estaacutesiempre abierto a la mejora mediante ciclos futuros a traveacutes de la espiral Lasegunda anotacioacuten concierne a la naturaleza esencialmente interactiva ysocial del crecimiento individual y comunitario en la comprensioacuten eacutesta seconsigue gracias a los esfuerzos de los participantes para clarificar sus pro-pios significados a los otros y alternativamente para tener en cuenta y res-ponder a los de los demaacutes (Bajtiacuten 1986) En tercer lugar es necesario enfati-zar que el crecimien to en la comprensioacuten requeriraacute espirales futuras queactiven los diferentes modos de conocimiento ya que la mayoriacutea de los cam-bios y problemas que ocurren en las instituciones maacutes allaacute del aula deman-dan un conocimiento procedimental substantivo y esteacutetico al igual que

183El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

teoacuterico y cada modo de conocimiento tiene una contribucioacuten que hacer aleacutexito de soluciones comprensivas que realcen significativamente la com-prensioacuten Finalmente en la representacioacuten de estas relaciones en la figura 3la espiral tambieacuten resalta la interdependencia de los individuos y la comuni-dad Mientras que la experiencia y la comprensioacuten son esencialmente indivi-duales en su naturaleza crecen fuera de eacutel y adoptan su significado de la par-ticipacioacuten de los individuos en el intercambio de informacioacuten y en su com-promiso en la construccioacuten de conocimiento en la comunidad extensa de laque cada individuo es miembro

Desafortunadamente muchos educadores no comprenden estas relacionesfundamentales y por eso su instruccioacuten no es conceptualizada y planificada demanera que sea oacuteptima para el desarrollo de los estudiantes Como numerososestudios han mostrado (Langer y Applebee 1987 Nystrand y Gamoran 1991)en la mayoriacutea de las clases la que gobierna la praacutectica es la concepcioacuten bancariadel conocimiento (Freire 1970) seguacuten la cual el propoacutesito de la instruccioacuten quetiene lugar en el aula es que un alumno individual esteacute preparado para puntuarbien en los tests y no tanto ampliar su conocimiento Dada esta orientacioacuten lasactividades en las que se pide a los alumnos que participen estaacuten determinadaspor la guiacutea curricular del libro de texto maacutes que por el conocimiento de los pro-fesores sobre los intereses y habilidades de los alumnos particulares de los queson responsables A esto es a lo que Tharp y Gallimore (1988) se refieren con laexpresioacuten ldquoguioacuten recitativordquo unido a la ocupacioacuten de un lugar individual de tra-bajo que domina la rutina diaria Ademaacutes los planes sobre coacutemo proceder sonndashcomo cabiacutea esperarndash unilateralmente impuestos en lugar de ser configuradossobre la base de las decisiones tomadas por la comunidad de clase como un todoy el modus operandi es la competicioacuten en lugar de la colaboracioacuten

Sin embargo como he argumentado en otra parte (Wells 1986 19992002a) eacuteste no es el uacutenico modo en el que la escolarizacioacuten puede ser condu-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187184

FIGURA 3La espiral del conocimiento

ACCIOacuteN Construccioacuten

deconocimiento

ComprensioacutenSubstantivo

Esteacutetico

Teoacuterico

Procedimental

Instrumental

Experiencia Informacioacuten

Modos de conocimiento

cida ndasha pensar de la larga historia de la recitacioacuten que se remonta a maacutes detres mil antildeos a las tempranas instituciones que entrenaban a los escribas yadministradores para leer y escribir (Cole 1996)ndash Pero probablemente elmodo por defecto de la escolarizacioacuten es parecido a una preparacioacuten para ldquolavida adultardquo y no una etapa criacutetica del desarrollo que merece la pena y essignificativa en siacute misma Como Vygotski argumentoacute sobre el dominio de laalfabetizacioacuten ldquola ensentildeanza debe organizarse de tal manera que la lectura yla escritura sean necesarias para algo La escritura debe ser incorporada enuna tarea relevante y necesaria para la vidardquo (1978 pp117-118) Y porldquovidardquo quiere decir no la vida futura sino la totalidad de los intereses y pre-ocupaciones actuales de los aprendices

En los uacuteltimos antildeos se han divulgado proyectos de una variedad de paiacuteses enlos que educadores universitarios han procurado crear condiciones para elldquoaprendizaje auteacutenticordquo en las aulas En todos estos proyectos se ha otorgado unpapel central a las actividades colaborativas que alternando entre los formatos departicipacioacuten individual en pequentildeo grupo y de la clase completa implican alos estudiantes en la exploracioacuten de temas centrales mediante investigacionespraacutecticas y tambieacuten teoacutericas y en la discusioacuten criacutetica y constructiva de sus hallaz-gos y de las implicaciones para futuras acciones El espacio no permite aquiacute unadiscusioacuten individual de estos proyectos pero lo que puede ser dicho sobre todosellos es que en sus diferentes formas valoran tanto los intereses de los alumnoscomo sus experiencias previas y persiguen ayudarles a desarrollar la disposicioacutenpara buscar la comprensioacuten maacutes que la acumulacioacuten simple de informacioacuten ypara valorar la colaboracioacuten maacutes que la competicioacuten como el medio para alcanzaresta menta4

En este contexto es digno atraer la atencioacuten hacia varias instituciones poste-riores a la escuela tales como la Fifth Dimension donde la participacioacuten en activi-dades elegidas personalmente ndasha menudo basadas en ordenadoresndash requiere a losnintildeos dominar habilidades que son tambieacuten necesarias para la escolarizacioacuten y lesproporcionan oportunidades para interactuar con voluntarios universitarios enuna posicioacuten de igualdad (Brown y Cole 2002) De manera similar algunosprogramas basados en museos (Leinhardst Crowley y Kuntson 2002) y variasformas de educacioacuten al aire libre tambieacuten capitalizan los intereses de los estu-diantes para implicarles en actividades desafiantes que demandan para la cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento procesos de diaacutelogo y toma de decisiones comparablesa aquellos encontrados en los contextos escolares previamente descritos

Finalmente si estas praacutecticas pioneras arraigan e influyen en la educacioacutenpuacuteblica con mayor amplitud es esencial que los profesores tengan oportunidadessimilares para desarrollar las disposiciones y pericia necesarias para actuar comoagentes de cambio y liacutederes de una reforma en las instituciones en las que traba-jan Es por lo tanto estimulante ver que a pesar del eacutenfasis de los dirigentes poliacute-ticos en estandarizar los curricula y en los resultados cuantificables algunos pro-gramas de formacioacuten de profesores y desarrollo profesional anima a los profeso-res sobre la base de investigaciones sobre su propia praacutectica a tomar sus propiasdecisiones sobre queacute debe ser ensentildeado y coacutemo y a compartir los resultados desus investigaciones con los compantildeeros Este ha sido el motor de mi propio tra-bajo en los antildeos recientes ya que he participado en la investigacioacuten colaborativacon profesores para crear y mantener comunidades de investigacioacuten tanto en cla-ses como entre los mismos profesores5

185El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Notas1 La secuencia temporal implicada por esta formulacioacuten ha sido ampliamente debatida y especialmente el movimiento desde fueraa dentro que sugiere Mi propia comprensioacuten de lo que la apropiacioacuten supone se capta mejor con el ejemplo de aprender a bailarmediante la inmersioacuten en la actividad con otros (Wells 1999) En muchos casos no hay separacioacuten entre antes y despueacutes o entrefuera y dentro y no hay necesidad de demostracioacuten o ejemplificacioacuten En lugar de esto estando inmerso en la actividad conjuntael principiante es literalmente entrenado fiacutesicamente por los movimiento del coparticipante mientras que al mismo tiempoconstruye su propia organizacioacuten ndashy quizaacute incluso una representacioacuten esquemaacuteticandash de los movimientos corporales A lo largo deltiempo este esquema estaacute tan bien organizado que el principiante se convierte en un experto que estaacute preparado paralelamentepara introducir a otros en la actividad Esto es lo que Lave y Wenger (1991) y Rogoff (2003) quieren decir por desarrollo median-te la participacioacuten en actividades culturales

2 Estoy agradecido a Natalia Gajdamaschko y Steve Gabosch por sus valiosas discusiones de esta distincioacuten durante el XMCA cursoonline sobre la teoriacutea de la actividad histoacuterico cultural Abril 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Aunque estaacute incluido en la Tabla I este modo de conocimiento no ha sido discutido aquiacute ya que el reconocimiento expliacutecito deeste importante modo de conocimiento es muy reciente (Brown 1975) Sin embargo eso no significa que sea en siacute mismo unnuevo fenoacutemeno

4 Para algunos ejemplos representativos veacutease Brown y Campione 1994 Lampert Rittenhouse y Crumbaugh 1996 McMahonRaphael Goatley y Pardo 1997 Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford y Brown 1998 Scardamalia Bereiter y Lamon 1994

5 Juntos formamos un grupo de investigacioacuten colaborativo DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project)(Wells (Ed) 2001)

ReferenciasBAJTIacuteN M M (1986) Speech genres and other late essays Austin University of Texas PressBERNSTEIN B (1982) Codes modalities and the process of cultural reproduction A model En M Apple (Ed) Cultural and econo-

mic reproduction in education (pp 304-355) Londres Routledge amp Kegan PaulBROWN A L (1975) The development of memory Knowing knowing about knowing and knowing how to know En H W

Reese (Ed) Advances in child development and behavior (Vol 10 pp 103-152) Nueva York Academic Press BROWN A L amp CAMPIONE J C (1994) Guided discovery in a community of learners En K McGilly (Ed) Integrating cognitive

theory and classroom practice Classroom lessons (pp 229-270) Cambridge MA MIT PressBradford BooksBROWN K amp COLE M (2002) Cultural historical activity theory and the expansion of opportunities for learning after school En

G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 225-238)Oxford Blackwell

BRUNER J S (1990) Acts of meaning Cambridge MA Harvard University PressCARR M (2002) Emerging learning narratives A perspective from early childhood education En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds)

Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 99-111) Oxford BlackwellCOLE M (1996) Cultural psychology A once and future discipline Cambridge MA The Bellknap Press of Harvard University PressDEACON T W (1997) The symbolic species The co-evolution of language and the brain Nueva York NortonDIAMOND J (1998) Guns germs and steel The fates of human societies Nueva York NortonDONALD M (1991) Origins of the Modern Mind Three Stages in the Evolution of Culture and Cognition Cambridge MA Harvard

University PressDONOAHUE Z (2003) Science teaching and learning Teachers and children plan together Networks 6(1) httpwwwoiseuto-

rontoca~ctdnetworksjournal Vol 6 (1) 2003marchENGESTROumlM Y (1999) Activity theory and individual and social transformation Y En Engestrom R Miettinen amp R-L Puna-

maki (Eds) Perspectives on activity theory (pp 19-38) Cambridge Cambridge University PressFREIRE P (1970) Pedagogy of the oppressed Nueva York Herder and HerderHALLIDAY M A K (1975) Learning how to mean Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1978) Language as social semiotic The social interpretation of language and meaning Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1993) Towards a language-based theory of learning Linguistics and Education 5 93-116HASAN R (2002) Semiotic mediation and mental development in pluralistic societies Some implications for tomorrowrsquos schoo-

ling En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural peerspectives on the future of education (pp112-126) Oxford Blackwell

HEATH S B (1983) Ways with words Cambridge Cambridge University PressLAMPERT M RITTENHOUSE P amp CRUMBAUGH C (1996) Agreeing to disagree Developing sociable mathematical discourse En

D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook of education and human development (pp 731-764) Cambridge MA Blackwell LANGER J A amp APPLEBEE A N (1987) How writing shapes thinking A study of teaching and learning Urbana IL National Council

of Teachers of EnglishLAVE J (1996) Teaching as learning in practice Mind Culture and Activity 3 (3) 149-164LAVE J amp WENGER E (1991) Situated Learning Legitimate peripheral participation Nueva York Cambridge University PressLEINHARDT G CROWLEY K amp KNUTSON K (2002) Learning conversations Explanation and identity in museums Mahwah NJ

Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesLEONTIEV A N (1981) The problem of activity in psychology En J VWertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 37-71) Armonk NY SharpeMAYBIN J MERCER N amp STIERER B (1992) lsquoScaffoldingrsquo learning in the classroom En K Norman (Ed) Thinking voices The

work of the National Oracy Project (pp 186-195) Londres Hodder amp StoughtonMCMAHON S I RAPHAEL T E GOATLEY V J amp PARDO L S (Eds) (1997) The Book Club connection Literacy learning and class-

room talk Nueva York Teachers College PressNELSON K (1996) Language in cognitive development The emergence of the mediated mind Nueva York Cambridge University PressNEWSON J (1978) Dialogue and development En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol The emergence of language (pp 31-42)

New York Academic Press

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187186

NYSTRAND M amp GAMORAN A (1991) Student engagement When recitation becomes conversation En H C Waxman amp H JWalberg (Eds) Effective teaching Current research (pp 257-276)Berkeley CA McCutchan Publishing Corp

OLSON D R amp BRUNER J S (1996) Folk psychology and folk pedagogy En D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook ofeducation and human development (pp 9-27) Cambridge MA Blackwell

PALINCSAR A MAGNUSSON S MARANO N FORD D amp BROWN N (1998) Designing a community of practice Principlesand practices of the GIsML Community Teaching and Teacher Education 14 (1) 5-20

PIAGET J (1970) Piagetrsquos theory En P H Mussen (Ed) Carmichaelrsquos handbook of child development (pp 703-732) Nueva YorkWiley

PONTECORVO C amp STERPONI L (2002) Learning to argue and reason through discourse in educational settings En G Wells ampG Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 127-140) OxfordBlackwell

ROGOFF B (1990) Apprenticeship in thinking Cognitive development in social context Nueva York Oxford University PressROGOFF B (1994) Developing understanding of the idea of Communities of Learners Mind Culture and Activity 1 (4) 209-

229ROGOFF B (2003) The cultural nature of human development Nueva York Oxford University PressROSENBLATT L (1978) The reader the text the poem The transactional theory of the literary work Carbondale IL Southern Illinois

University PressSCARDAMALIA M C BEREITER amp LAMON M (1994) The CSILE project Trying to bring the classroom into World 3 En K

McGilley (Ed) Classroom lessons Integrating cognitive theory and classroom practice (pp 201-228) Cambridge MA MITPress

SCRIBNER S (1985) Vygotskyrsquos uses of history En J V Wertsch (Ed) Culture communication and cognition Vygotskian perspectives(pp 119-145) Cambridge Cambridge University Press

THARP R amp GALLIMORE R (1988) Rousing minds to life Nueva York Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C (1979) Communication and cooperation in early infancy a description of primary intersubjectivity En M

Bullowa (Ed) Before speech The beginning of interpersonal communication (pp 321-348) Cambridge Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C amp HUBLEY P (1978) Secondary intersubjectivity Confidence confiding and acts of meaning in the first year

En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol the emergence of language (pp 183-230) Nueva York Academic PressVYGOTSKI L S (1978)Mind in society The development of higher psychological processes Cambridge MA Harvard University PressVYGOTSKI L S (1981) The genesis of higher mental functions En J V Wertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 144-188) Armonk NY SharpeVYGOTSKI L S (1987) Thinking and speech En R W Rieber amp A S Carton (Eds) The collected works of L S Vygotsky Volumen

1 Problems of general psychology (pp 39-285) Nueva York PlenumWARTOFSKY M (1979) Models representation and scientific understanding Boston ReidelWELLS G (1985) Language development in the pre-school years Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (1986) The meaning makers Children learning language and using language to learn Portsmouth NH HeinemannWELLS G (1999) Dialogic inquiry Towards a sociocultural practice and theory of education Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (Ed) (2001) Action talk and text Learning and teaching through inquiry Nueva York Teachers College PressWELLS G (2002a) Learning and teaching for understanding The key role of collaborative knowledge building En J Brophy

(Ed) Social constructivist teaching Affordances and constraints (pp 1-41) Osford Elsevier ScienceJAIWELLS G (2002b) The role of dialogue in activity theory Mind Culture and Activity 9 (1) 43-66WERTSCH J V MINICK N amp ARNS F J (1984) The creation of context in joint problem solving En B Rogoff amp J Lave (Eds)

Everyday cognition Its development in social context (pp 151-171) Cambridge Cambridge University PressWOOD D BRUNER J S amp ROSS G (1976) The role of tutoring in problem-solving Journal of Child Psychology and Child Psy-

chiatry 17 89-100

187El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Original text

Introduction

Compared with other species the characteristic that distinguishes humans isthe ability and proclivity to engage in tool-mediated joint activity with otherhumans It is this characteristic that accounts for the development of human cul-tures over the course of history as they invented artefacts of various kinds inorder to adapt to and exploit the ecological niches in which they found themsel-ves It also accounts for the diversity of individual personsrsquo development whichdepend on the particular activities in which they participate As Vygotsky(1978 1981) was one of the first to point out the lsquohigherrsquo mental functions thatmake us human are not biologically given but are developmentally constructedthrough the appropriation of historically developed tools and practices that aremade manifest to the child and lsquoscaffoldedrsquo in the meaningful actions and utte-rances of the coparticipants in joint activity

Before continuing readers might find it interesting to reflect on their owndevelopmental trajectories to who they are today I suspect that they may findthemselves agreeing that Who we become depends on the company we keep and what wedo together

A Brief History of the Development of Joint Activity

Leontrsquoev provides a succinct account of Vygotskyrsquos insight in the followingsummary

The initial ideas that led Vygotsky to investigate the genesis of internal mental activity fromexternal activity are fundamentally different from the theoretical approaches of other modernauthors These ideas came from the analysis of the features unique to human productive laboractivity which is mediated by tools This activity is initially social in nature that is it is deve-loped under the conditions of cooperation and social interaction among people Vygotskyidentified two main interconnected features [of this activity] that are necessarily fundamentalfor psychology its tool-like (lsquoinstrumentalrsquo) structure and its inclusion in a system of interre-lations with other people It is these features that define the nature of human psychologicalprocesses The tool mediates activity and thus connects humans not only with the world ofobjects but also with other people Because of this humanrsquos activity assimilates the experience ofhumankind This means that humansrsquo mental processes (their lsquohigher psychological functionsrsquo)acquire a structure necessarily tied to the sociohistorically formed means and methods trans-mitted to them by others in the process of cooperative labor and social interaction But it isimpossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in any way otherthan a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words higher psycho-logical processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction with others thatis through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried out indepen-dently by the individual (Leontrsquoev 1981 pp 55-56 emphases in the original)

As well as emphasizing the social and cooperative nature of human activity thisquotation is important with respect to the arguments that I want to develop inthis paper as it highlights the central role of semiotic mediation in developmentKnowledge is created as well as appropriated in the discourse among peoplewho are working together in a specific situation in order to create or improve anartefact or to solve a problem of importance to the group However Leontrsquoevalso alludes to another of Vygotskyrsquos key insights namely that in order tounderstand current activity it is necessary to investigate the history of that acti-vity It is to this that I next turn

In analyzing the history of human development at least four different time-scales need to be considered The longest is the history of the cultural evolution of

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

the species (the phylogenetic level) next is the historical development of particu-lar cultures The third level (ontogenetic) traces the developmental trajectory ofindividual humans over the course of the lifespan Finally the microgenetic levelis concerned with the development of an instance of a particular activity

In practice it is the latter that has been explored in most detail for usingcontemporary technology it is relatively easy to observe and record the sequenceof actions through which an activity is enacted and the specific operations inwhich the participants engage making use of the relevant artefacts that are avai-lable in the situation (Leontrsquoev 1981) These artefacts may be either material(knives pencils automobiles) or symbolic (utterances maps theories) ndashthoughas Cole (1996) has pointed out to function as mediators of joint activity all arte-facts must have some form of material embodiment as well as a symbolic mea-ning that is to say they must be ready to hand and also have a cultural signifi-cance relevant to the situation

However the form in which a particular instance of activity is realizeddepends not only on the artefacts that are to hand in the situation but also onthe participantsrsquo past experiences with the practices in which the artefacts areused to mediate achievement of the action goals that contribute to the joint acti-vity Thus the microgenesis of a particular instance of activity is necessarilydependent upon the ontogenetic development of the participants that is to sayupon the opportunities their life trajectories have afforded them to appropriatethe relevant cultural knowledge through participation in instances of similaractions and operations

But on the time-scale of ontogenetic development each individualrsquos trajectoryof development is itself strongly influenced by the culture in which he or she isgrowing up and on the historical development of that culture As Rogoff (2003)illustrates in considerable detail cultures vary considerably both over time andacross ecological niches in what mediating artefacts and practices are available andin the relative value accorded to each Moreover within each culture at any parti-cular historical moment participants in activities both incorporate the ways ofprevious generations and adapt them to the exigencies of current conditions

Stepping up one further level the historical development of a particular cul-tures is itself shaped by development on the even larger timescale of the culturaland biological evolution of the species This is the most difficult timescale todescribe in detail for lack of the necessary evidence But certain broad distinc-tions between human communities can be made in terms of their modes of sub-sistence and of the mediating means available for joint activity (Diamond 1998Donald 1991) As recent research has shown our earliest ancestors some 5million years ago lived in small bands of hunter gatherers often on the edge oflakes and oceans Initially their tools were found in the surroundings but overseveral million years they invented ways of making more sophisticated artefactssuch as knives arrowheads baskets and clothing from flints bones skins andvegetable materials Then as some groups migrated to particularly fertile partsof the world they adopted a more settled agrarian way of life growing cropsand breeding animals The resulting ability to produce more food than imme-diately required led in turn to the emergence of trade and to a diversity of spe-cialist occupations such as potters and tailors who exchanged their products forfood and other necessities This stage also saw the development of much largerpopulation groupings with hierarchical class structures that included prieststax collectors and other religious and political functionaries

While migration had been a common feature of human existence from theearliest times the development of large settled populations and of weapons

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

made of bronze and iron led to the expansion of certain cultural groups throughterritorial conquest and colonization by sea and by land As a result during thelast few thousand years the latest phase of phylogenetic development has beencharacterized by the rise and fall of imperial cultures which have imposed theirtechnologies laws and administrative procedures as well as their religions artsknowledge and values on widely diverse subjugated populations Most recentlythe further development of the inventions that led to the first industrial revolu-tion has simply served to increase the scale and intensity of these imperialisttrends At the same time these inventions as well as those of the current indus-trial revolution have also led to a great increase in humansrsquo understanding oftheir social and material environment both through scientific and social rese-arch and through the dissemination of information about other times and placesresulting from travel and the use of print and electronic technologies

In presenting this very condensed account of phylogenetic development Ihave emphasized the material tools that have mediated the progressively morecomplex and diverse activities in which humans have engaged over the course ofthe speciesrsquo history However bearing in mind that what has been the drivingforce of human development is joint activity an equally ndashif not morendash impor-tant determinant of this history is the development of the modes of representa-tion through which humans have communicated and developed their unders-tanding of the world Table I presents the developmental sequence proposed byDonald (1991) based on archeological neuroanatomical historical and othertypes of evidence The table also includes the stages in the historical develop-ment of ways of knowing that were proposed by Wartofsky (1979)

The first stage in this sequence corresponds to the phase in which proto-humans began to diverge from other primate species In this phase as in thebehavior of contemporary higher primates practical action was the predomi-nant form of communication as ndashnot necessarily deliberatelyndash participants sig-naled their intentions in a shared situation and these intentions were interpre-ted and responded to by their co-participants in the activity In the secondmimetic phase which must have developed gradually over many millenniacommunication became somewhat differentiated from the activity to which itreferred as humans deliberately used gestures mime facial expression andvarious types of phonation to comment on as well as to coordinate action and theobjects to which it was directed Later still with the gradual modification of thevocal tract and of the primate brain there emerged the ability to communicatethrough speech and hence the ability to refer not only to particular objects andactions but also to generalized classes and to express observed and intendedrelationships between objects actions and events thus allowing participants toplan for and reflect on the outcomes of joint activity Finally the invention ofwriting which ushered in the final phase in Donaldrsquos proposed sequence occu-rred extremely recently in the long trajectory of phylogenetic development Yetas with those that preceded it enormously increased the human repertoire ofmeans for making and communicating meaning Essentially what it added wasan ldquoexternal memoryrdquo By creating a (relatively) permanent representation oflinguistic meaning it made possible the compilation and distillation of repor-ted information from many sources including the writerrsquos own verbalizedthoughts It also allowed the writer and those who read his or her written textto review critique and revise the meanings expressed and to make the resultsavailable to people in later times and other places for further constructive debateand improvement

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

However action gesture speech and writing are not simply progressivelymore powerful modes of communication They are also progressively morepowerful mediators of thinking This is most obvious with respect to the lin-guistic modes of communication But even before the emergence of speechaction and ndashto an even greater extentndash mimesis enabled humans to think toget-her and thereby to create a shared interpretation of their joint activities In fact ithas been argued that the emergence of language was not simply the result ofbrain and vocal tract development but rather was part of a more general patternof adaptation that building upon the cognitive achievements of mimetic kno-wing strove to integrate the unconnected bits of information in a more compre-hensive and coherent account of being-in-the-world (Deacon 1997) Neverthe-less it is also true that the availability of language greatly enhanced both com-munication and thinking together for as Halliday observed

the grammar of every natural language is (among other things) a theory of human experienceit is through our acts of meaning that we transform experience into the coherent -though farfrom consistent- patchwork that we learn to project as lsquorealityrsquo (1993 p 46)

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

TABLE IModes Of Knowing Phylogenetic And Cultural Development (from Wells 1999)

Time Mode of Participants Donald(1991) Wartofsky(1979)Years BP Knowing

2 million Instrumental Individual in action Episodic Primary artifactsyears material tools

1 -- 15 million Procedural Between individuals while Mimetic Secondaryyears engaged in action artifacts tools

and practicesmimeticinteraction

50000 Substantive Among members of a (Linguistic) Secondaryyears cultural group reflecting on artifacts

action and as a basis for representations ofplanning further action tools and

practices spokeninteraction

50000 Aesthetic Among members of a Mythic Tertiary artifactsyears cultural group making sense artistic represent-

of the human predicament ations in mythnarrative graphicand musical modes

2500 Theoretical Among members of a Theoretic Tertiary artifactsyears specialist community decontextualized

seeking to explain the natural representationsand human world such as

taxonomiestheories models etc

Meta Among members of a Tertiary artifacts cultural group also representations ofindividuals seeking to mental andunderstand and control their semioticown mental activity processes

In sum what Donald and other scholars argue is that contemporary mentalabilities are the outcome of the development over time of a series of progressi-vely more powerful and flexible modes of representation ndashor in Vygotskyanterms of semiotic mediators of higher mental functions- that have made possi-ble the rational theoretically oriented modes of knowing that underpin theachievements of modern science and its technological applications In the philo-sopher Wartofskyrsquos words

our own perceptual and cognitive understanding of the world is in large part shaped andchanged by the representational artifacts we ourselves create We are in effect the products ofour own activity in this way we transform our own perceptual and cognitive modes our waysof seeing and of understanding by means of the representations we make (1979 p xxiii)

There is however one further important aspect of Donaldrsquos (1991) thesis thatis crucial for the argument that I wish to develop Although the semiotic sys-tems of mimesis speech and writing each powered a new mode of cognitiveactivity they did not replace those that preceded but were additive in theireffects The result is that contemporary humans have a variety of modes of kno-wing at their disposal as they engage in joint activity Furthermore most suchactivities call for more than one mode of knowing and require the complemen-tary and interdependent use of more than one mode of representation

Joint Activity as the Site of Ontogenetic Learning and Development

Two important implications follow from the multi-level historical concep-tion of development just outlined First on any occasion the type of activitythat is undertaken and the specific manner in which it is enacted are necessarilydependent on the particular cultural-historical antecedents of the participantsboth human and artefactual that come together in its realization In particularthe manner in which the situation is interpreted ndashin terms of what action goalsare appropriate and how they can be achievedndash depends on the motives valuesand knowledgeable skills of the human participants and on the affordances ofthe technologies available in the situation And second every instance of an acti-vity provides an occasion for a triple transformation of the situation in whichthe activity is carried out of the artefacts and practices that mediate its enact-ment and most importantly of the knowledge and skills of the human partici-pants Taken together these propositions clarify the way in which cultural andindividual development are both interdependent and rooted in particular situa-ted occasions of joint activity As Rogoff (1994) argues

People of each generation as they engage in sociocultural endeavors with other people makeuse of and extend cultural tools and practices inherited from previous generations As peopledevelop through their shared use of cultural tools and practices they simultaneously contribu-te to the transformation of cultural tools practices and institutions (p 52)

Potentially therefore every occasion of joint activity provides an opportunityfor development on the part of all participants This is a point to which I shallreturn But first I want to consider more carefully the concept of developmentitself

Clearly built into the concept of development is the implication of change andtypically of change in the direction of increasing complexity and effectiveness Inother words development is typically taken to imply improvement or progresstoward some ideal end state or capability However in the light of the previousdiscussion such a progression while it may be meaningful to (some of the) partici-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

pants in any particular situation cannot be understood in any absolute sense butmust be seen as relative to the unfolding historical trajectory of the species of aparticular culture and of the immediate community ndashits values its dominantactivities and the knowledgeable skills that form its resources Furthermore just asthese have changed in the past they will continue to change in the future in res-ponse to the changing demands of the larger environment So while ontogeneticdevelopment does indeed involve increasing complexity and effectiveness of indi-vidualsrsquo participation in the activity systems in which they are involved in theirdaily lives the overall trajectory of development is emergent and its endpoint cannever be specified in advance even in terms of an ideal to be attained

Nevertheless this does not mean that there are not strong regularities in thesequence of ontogenetic development particularly in the early years Indeed asNelson (1996) has suggested during the preschool years children follow a trajec-tory very similar to the sequence of phylogenetic development proposed byDonald (1991) (see Table I above) as they appropriate the semiotic tools of repre-sentation afforded by action mimesis speech and writing Of course this is not asimple recapitulation children growing up in a contemporary literate culture forexample are surrounded from birth by artifacts and practices that result from andembody all the available modes of knowing (Cole 1996) Appropriating existingcultural tools is thus very different from inventing them ex novo as Scribner (1985)points out Nevertheless given the combination of biological and cultural inheri-tance it is not surprising that in most if not all cultures children follow the samesequence as did the species as a whole over the course of history

In the first weeks of life infants act on their immediate surroundings bothanimate and inanimate and begin to develop what Piaget (1970) called sensori-motor intelligence However although this most basic form of activity mayappear to be instinctual it is nevertheless also inherently social First all infantsare born into an environment that is cultural in the sense of having been shapedby countless preceding generations and second the infantrsquos actions are treatedas being intentional and are responded to as such So from the beginning theinfant is caught up in social interaction (Newson 1978) In the second phasewhich typically begins in the first few months the infant also begins to engagein mimetic communication through gaze facial expression and rudimentarygesture (Bruner 1990) Couched in terms of primary and secondary intersubjec-tivity this phase has been described in considerable detail by Trevarthen (19781979) Primary intersubjectivity develops as the infant and parent engage inmutual gaze thereby communicating that they are attending to and respondingto each other In secondary intersubjectivity third parties are brought into jointattention as the parent through gaze directs the infantrsquos attention to an object ofpotential interest or follows the childrsquos direction of gaze and signals that he orshe is also attending to the same object

It is on this basis of joint action and attention that towards the end of thefirst year the child begins to exploit his or her growing command of vocaliza-tion often accompanied by gesture to begin to communicate through speechFrom research predominantly involving children in ldquoWesternrdquo societies it hasbeen established that at first the childrsquos utterances are idiosyncratic drawingonly partially ndashif at allndash on the speech of those around him or her neverthelessparents and other family members have little difficulty in interpreting them incontext and once again they respond in a manner that is contingent on theirinterpretation thereby establishing spoken communication as a joint interactiveactivity By the end of the second year however children appear to abandon thisidiosyncratic ldquoprotolanguagerdquo form of communication and begin to construct a

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

linguistic meaning potential that is systematically related to the language thatis addressed to them in the oft-repeated activities of family life (Bruner 1990Halliday 1975 Wells 1986) Significantly within particular language com-munities the sequence in which children master the basic meanings and thelexicogrammatical forms in which they are realized tends to be very similar fromchild to child (Wells 1985)

The developmental sequence just described ndashaction mimesis speechndash is com-mon to children in all cultures and in all cases takes place in and through jointactivity and interaction with other family and community members Howeveralthough the sequence is universal the manner and pace at which it proceeds varyvery considerably across cultures These differences depend upon many culturally-determined factors such as adult expectations about their childrenrsquos developmentthe position in which the infant is typically held or carried facing the caregiver orturned outwards to face in the same direction as the caregiver the makeup and sizeof the interactional groups in which communication typically occurs and whetherthese events are part of family and community life more generally or are delibera-tely arranged and structured for the presumed benefit of the child (Rogoff 2003)In the later stages of language development the range and extent of the meaningpotential that children construct begins to vary even more widely depending onthe activities in which they engage the linguistic registers that are used in thoseactivities and the stances typically adopted by interlocutors toward the use of lan-guage in their interactions with children (Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

So far the ontogenetic developmental sequence I have described is funda-mentally similar across cultures and follows the phylogenetic sequence in whichhumans have progressively added new semiotic mediational means to theircommunicative repertoires In an important sense therefore the final mode ofrepresentation in Donaldrsquos scheme that of writing is an optional extra sincemany cultures have survived and prospered without a written mode of represen-ting meaning Moreover even in cultures that have a writing system the extentand scope of literacy that individuals attain varies very considerably dependingon the activity systems in which they participate the value that is placed onwritten texts by those communmities the purposes to which they are put andthe genres that are used for those purposes However since literacy and its usesare so strongly associated with schooling I shall leave further discussion of thismode of semiotic mediation to a later part of this paper

Before concluding this section however I want to explore further the con-cept of semiotic mediation In one of the better known passages in Vygotskyrsquoswritings where he argued for the social and cultural origin of higher mentalfunctions he wrote that every function occurs on two planes first in activity andinteraction between people and then within the individual learner (Vygotsky1981) What bridges between these two planes as is clear from his other wri-tings is semiotic mediation To recall Leontrsquoevrsquos formulation of this argument

hellip it is impossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in anyway other than a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words hig-her psychological processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction withothers that is through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried outindependently by the individual (1981 pp 55-56)

In other words when people engage in joint activity their actions gesturesand speech not only mediate the coordination of participation but they alsomake overt the mental activities involved and so render them available forappropriation by novice participants1 Halliday is very clear about this Alt-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

hough the following quotation refers only to language the term lsquolanguagersquocould justifiably be replaced by lsquosemiotic mediationrsquo

In the development of the child as a social being language has the central role Language is themain channel through which the patterns of living are transmitted to him through which helearns to act as a member of lsquosocietyrsquo ndashin and through the various social groups the family theneighbourhood and so onndash and to adopt its lsquoculturersquo its modes of thought and action itsbeliefs and its values (1978 p 9)

However as the child grows older language does become the predominantmode of semiotic mediation and as he wrote in a later paper ldquoLanguage is theessential condition of knowing the process by which experience becomes know-ledge (Halliday 1993 p 94 original emphasis)

Assistance for Learning in Joint Activitie

So far in the discussion of the role of joint activity in human development Ihave concentrated on the tools and particularly the semiotic modes of represen-tation that mediate the achievement of the outcome of activity In this sectionon the other hand I turn to the role of other people in this process both familymembers and the larger community

Until now I have referred to coparticipants in an activity in general termsbut clearly there are further distinctions to be made Particularly helpful in thisrespect is Engestroumlmrsquos model of an activity system which is shown in figure 1

What this model shows is that when we look at an ongoing activity from thepoint of view of an individual participant (t Subject) that individual is involvedin a nexus of other relationships that link him or her to other lsquoparticipantsrsquo theTools and artifacts to mediate action on the Object but also the Community of

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 1The Triangle of Activity

Artifactstools andpractices

Values rulesamp conventions

Community Divisioacutenof labor

Engestrom 1999

Object OutcomeSubject

others engaged in the activity together with the Division of Labor within thatcommunity and also the Rules and Conventions that govern the manner inwhich the activity is carried out (Engestroumlm 1999) What this latter category oflsquoparticipantrsquo underscores is the historical dimension of an activity system sincethese rules and conventions ndashas well as the tools and artifactsndash bring into thepresent the distilled practices of previous generations who have engaged in theactivity as these are interpreted and utilized by the current community

To illustrate the relevance of this model to the development of the youngchild we might compare two versions of a similar activity reported by WertschMinick and Arns (1984) In their study Brazilian children carried out a puzzletask on two occasions first with the mother and secondly with a primary tea-cher What the researchers found was that in general the mothers and teachersengaged in the activity in systematically different ways Whereas the motherstended to direct the childrenrsquos behavior or even carry out parts of the task them-selves in order to complete it in an efficient manner ndashjust as they would havedone if engaged in a household taskndash the teachers tended to encourage thechildrsquos autonomous performance and only provided hints and suggestions whenthey judged them to be necessary to advance the childrenrsquos understandingInterpreting these results the researchers suggested that the two groups ofadults belonged to two different communities (or activity systems) that had dif-ferent rules and conventions about engaging in this joint activity And this inturn led to the different divisions of labor that they observed Similarly Rogoff(2003) cites many examples of substantial differences between cultures inalmost all aspects of child rearing with respect to their ways of engaging chil-dren in the activities that they consider important

What is clear is that ldquobehindrdquo the particular adult ndashor older siblings in someculturesndash who are directly engaged with the child there is a wider communityof family members neighbors and others who have an interest in the upbrin-ging of children and who share beliefs about appropriate ways to involve themin the activities of daily life So whether in Spain Japan or the Peruvian High-lands although the actual practices vary across cultures in each those responsi-ble for childrenrsquos well-being and development act as agents of a wider commu-nity whose beliefs and practices are rooted in a long tradition concerning howactivities should be carried out But equally in all cultures practices also changein response to changes in the world beyond the particular community In manyWestern homes for example computer games or television programs haverecently taken the place of the bedtime story while in many indigenous com-munities crafts that until recently only supplied local needs are now exploitedcommercially for the tourist trade changing the rhythms of daily life and therelationships among family members and the activities in which children areinvolved As suggested earlier therefore in order to understand the activities inwhich children participate today we need to look not only at the immediatesituation but also at the wider community and the changes taking place on allthese time-scales

Microgenesis and the Zone of Proximal Development

It is nevertheless always the immediate microgenetic situation that isthe site of ontogenetic development ndashthe action and interaction between thelearner and those with whom he or she is engaged in the activity in pro-gress When we adopt this microgenetic perspective however we need tomodify the representation of an activity system presented in figure 1 Inthat representation the focus was on the goal-oriented nature of action

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Here we need to focus on the interaction among the participants ndashtheirattempt to attain intersubjectivity with respect to the common object andthe complementarity of the knowledgeable skills they bring to the cocons-truction of the intended outcome (see Figure 2) What figure 2 emphasizesis the fact that although the tools and artefacts that are available to mediatethe jointly undertaken action are the same for each participant each bringsa somewhat different familiarity with their use as a result of their differentlife trajectories and it is this variability in their expertise that makes it pos-sible for each to provide assistance to the others in at least some aspects ofthe joint action Viewed in this light it is clear why Vygotsky emphasizedthe role of joint activity in development and wrote of its potential to enablelearners ldquoto go beyond themselvesrdquo with the assistance of more expertothers

The metaphor Vygotsky used to characterize the potential for learning thatthis sort of activity creates was the ldquozone of proximal developmentrdquo As hewrote when another participant in the activity provides instruction that isappropriately pitched beyond what the learner can manage to do on his or herown it ldquowakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturationlying in the zone of proximal developmentrdquo (1987 p 212) Vygotsky concep-tualized development as the formation of new functional systems (ldquoneoforma-tionsrdquo) and of changes in the relationships among systems which he consideredto occur as a succession of ldquocrises of developmentrdquo that are particularly facilitatedby engagement in the relevant ldquoleading activityrdquo at each stage for example playin childhood and learning to read and write in the early school yearsHowever itwould be a mistake to focus only on the periods of revolutionary change since ashe equally emphasized at any time there are also other more gradual processes ofgrowth

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 2Dialogue in Joint Activity(from Wells2002b)

Outcomematerial ampsemioticartefacts

Toolsartefacts

Subject

Rulesconventions

Community Divisionof labor

Subject

Toolsartefacts

Processes that are central lines of development at one age become peripheral lines of develop-ment at the following age and conversely peripheral lines of development of one age arebrought to the forefront and become central lines since their meaning and relative significancein the total structure of development changes (p 197)2

In developing his important concept of the zone of proximal developmentVygotsky tended to characterize the assistance given by others as ldquoinstructionrdquoand to see its value in ldquothe childrsquos potential to raise himself to a higher intellec-tual level of development through collaboration to move from what he has towhat he does not have through imitationrdquo (1987 p 210) However manyrecent scholars who have built on his work have taken a broader view of thedevelopmental significance of collaboration in joint activities and have characte-rized the assistance that is provided within this relationship in terms such asldquoapprenticeshiprdquo (Lave amp Wenger 1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoguided participationrdquo(Rogoff 1994 2003) and ldquoscaffoldingrdquo (Wood et al 1976) Neverthelesswhile these different metaphors highlight different features of the relationshipwhat they all have in common is the inclusion of the learner in an activity inwhich there is provision of the assistance necessary to help the learner to comple-te an activity in which he or she is interested and to do so in such a way that heor she makes progress toward being able to participate more fully and autono-mously in the future (Maybin Mercer and Stierer 1992)

In many joint activities such as for example traditional forms of craftapprenticeship assistance is only provided when needed and the ldquomasterrdquo doesso with no deliberate didactic intention beyond that of involving the novice inthe completion of the particular task in hand (Lave 1996) Similarly in sociali-zation into activities around the home no explicit instruction is necessary fornovices can learn a great deal by simply watching and listening (cf Rogoff2003) This is what Lave and Wenger (1991) mean when they insist that lear-ning is not an independent activity but an intrinsic aspect of ldquolegitimate perip-heral participationrdquo in a communityrsquos activities From their perspective therefo-re formal education in which learning is the sole purpose of the activity issomething of an anomaly particularly when the only form of assistance providedis the expert teacherrsquos direct instruction and subsequent evaluation of the extentof the studentsrsquo learning

In many recent discussions it has also been recognized that it is not only aldquoteacherrdquo who can provide assistance in the zpd On the one hand in a com-plex activity many participants are more expert than others in some aspectsand therefore on some occasions are able to help those who are less expert(Rogoff 1994) and on the other hand those who provide assistance do nothave to be physically present texts and other artifacts can equally well helpa participant ldquoto go beyond himherselfrdquo as is often the case in intellectualwork such as research and writ ing (Wells 1999) Furthermore asEngestroumlm (1999) and others ndashbuilding on other aspects of Vygotskyrsquos theo-retical writingsndash have noted the material and symbolic tools that have beendeveloped by previous participants in the activity can also provide the samesort of assistance However perhaps the most important point to emphasizeis that there are many situations in which no-one is an expert yet as eachbrings his or her own past experience to the solution of a common problemthe group together is able to achieve more than any single member couldhave done alone Clearly it is such collaboration that has made possible theinventions that have led to the major advances of great civilizations over thecourse of cultural history

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Development in the Pre-School Years

As noted above the responsibility for caring for children in early childhoodvaries very considerably from one society to another Nevertheless in all socie-ties children are involved in joint activities with others in which they receiveassistance with respect to their participation however that may be locally achie-ved For the most part as already mentioned these are activities that are regu-larly repeated in the taken-for-granted routines of daily life The expectation isthat the child will learn to fit in and is simply helped to do so Often referred toas ldquoenculturationrdquo this form of apprenticeship ensures the continuity of the cul-turersquos way of life from one generation to the next and as Donald (1991) arguedit probably occurred even before the emergence of speech

However in all activities there are occasions when problems arise that callfor some level of deliberate decision-making In these situations spoken interac-tion makes possible a degree of reflection and forward planning in which therelations of cause and effect intention action and outcome are made explicitand open to question and discussion The talk that occurs on these occasionsthus plays a particularly important role in helping children to attend to andunderstand the world around them in terms of the culturersquos ways of ldquomakingsenserdquo of it However these occasions can also open up possibilities for changeboth in the form of the activity and in the participantsrsquo understanding of itHow caregivers habitually take up these opportunities is particularly importantfor it plays an important part in shaping the intellectual dispositions withwhich children enter school (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo amp Sterponi2002)

In this section I include some representative examples of kinds of talk thatarise from joint activities in the home These examples are drawn from observa-tions made in settings in England (Wells 1986) and Australia (Hasan 2002) inwhich the young children observed spent most of their time at home with oneparent sometimes with one or more siblings some of the time they entertainedthemselves with occasional adult involvement but they also frequently watchedand ldquohelpedrdquo the parent with household tasks of various kinds

In the first example James (aged 3 12 years) has been playing alone in thegarden and as he reenters the house his mother tries to get him to take off hismuddy shoes However at that moment he sees a bird outside which interestshim more than changing his shoes

Example 1Mother There we are there one slipper onJames I can see a birdMother A what loveJames See a bird Mother (whispering) Is there OutsideJames (pointing and whispering) Yes see

(both continue to speak very softly)Mother Is he eating anythingJames NoMother Where Oh yes hersquos getting- do you know what hersquos doingJames NoMother Hersquos going to the- the paper sack to try to pick out some pieces-

Oh hersquos got some food there and I expect hersquoll pick out somepieces of thread from the sack to go and make his nest under the roofJames Wait a minute and Irsquoll-[James now wants to go out to see more closely but at that moment thebird flies away]

James That birdrsquos gone

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

In the second example Elizabeth (aged 4 years) who is helping with thehouse cleaning watches with interest as her mother shovels wood ash from thefireplace into a bucket

Example 2Elizabeth What are you doing that forMother Irsquom gathering it up and putting it outside so that Daddy can put it on the gardenElizabeth Why does he have to put it on the gardenMother To make the compost rightElizabeth Does that make the grass growMother YesElizabeth Why does itMother You know how I tell you that you need to eat different things like eggs and cab-

bage and rice pudding to make you grow into a big girlElizabeth YesMother Well plants need different foods too and ash is one of the things thatrsquos

good for them

The third example involves James again now eighteen months older Earlierin the afternoon he had been helping his mother with the baking Now hecomes back into the kitchen as his mother is taking the baking trays out of theoven He hears a loud metallic ldquocrackrdquo and asks for an explanation

Example 3James Who did thatMother I expect it was the tin contractingJames Which tinMother The one with your pastry inJames Why did it make that noiseMother Well when it was in the oven it got very hot and stretched a bit Irsquove just taken

it out of the oven and itrsquos cooling down very quickly you see and that noisehappens when it gets smaller again and goes back to its normal shape

James Oh was it a different shape in the ovenMother Oh not very different just a little biggerJames Naughty little tin you might get smacked if you do it again

In all three of these examples the mother willingly responds to the childrsquosinterest and provides information to explain the significance of what the child isseeing or hearing even when in the first this interrupts the motherrsquos plan Allthree cases show how the childrsquos participation in the activity with the adult assu-res that there is intersubjectivity of attention to what interests the child and thisenables the mother to provide relevant information Clearly this is a form ofldquoinstructionrdquo however it is spontaneous and contingent on the childrsquos interestrather than presented as part of a pre-planned curriculum

The third example is particularly interesting from this point of view as thephenomenon of interest to James requires a somewhat technical explanation Atsome point in the future no doubt the expansion of metal when heated and itssubsequent contraction when removed from the heat will figure in the schoolscience curriculum in relation to the systematic study of heat here however itis an interesting side-effect of baking and the motherrsquos explanation while tech-nical in content is couched in everyday language rather than in the abstractterms of scientific generalization As Hasan (2002) has observed

the discourse of quasi specialised knowledge occurs in the lsquomiddle ofrsquo daily activities and bynecessity it calls for a readiness on the motherrsquos part to entertain contextual shifts to bewilling to reclassify the context of the on-going discourse The tendency to move with thechildrsquos moving discourse the readiness to re-classify context is a discourse characteristic of thesame group of mothers who frequently ask questions made precise by qualification and whoattend to their childrenrsquos questions and provide them with well developed answers (p 123)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 19: Actividad y Aprendizaje

embargo cuando las diferencias entre personas en teacuterminos de experiencia valo-res y praacutecticas son reconocidas como normales y deseables esta diversidad puedeconvertirse en una ventaja en la clase ya que las praacutecticas y puntos de vista alter-nativos que afloran pueden enriquecer la comunidad de clase y conducir a discu-siones valiosas en las que las creencias dadas por sentadas sean modificadas y sealcance una comprensioacuten maacutes profunda de los puntos considerados (Wells1999)

En este contexto he encontrado de ayuda pensar en el aprendizaje basado enla escuela en teacuterminos de una espiral del conocimiento donde el resultado espe-rado con cada giro de la espiral es una mayor comprensioacuten (Wells 1999) (verFigura 3) En la primera fase cuando la clase se embarca en un nuevo aspecto delcurriculum es importante animar a los alumnos a compartir sus experienciasprevias ya que como las investigaciones en campos muy diferentes han mostra-do (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotski) esas experiencias proporcionan elpunto de partida para su aprendizaje sean o no reconocidas puacuteblicamente Des-cubriendo lo que los estudiantes ya saben y aquello que les interesa explorar conmaacutes detalle el profesor puede tambieacuten planificar la unidad en cooperacioacuten conlos alumnos (Donoahue 2003) La segunda fase de la espiral conlleva varios acer-camientos a la nueva informacioacuten ndashmediante la explicacioacuten del profesor a traveacutesde materiales impresos o medios audiovusiales o en la forma de feedback de laspropias acciones e investigaciones de los alumnosndash Es importante reconocer sinembargo que la recepcioacuten de la nueva informacioacuten no asegura en siacute misma unaumento de la comprensioacuten Para que esto ocurra la nueva informacioacuten debearticularse con la comprensioacuten existente y con la experiencia previa relevantepara ser despueacutes puesta a prueba mediante la accioacuten en el mundo ndashobteniendofeedback (informacioacuten adicional)ndash yo mediante el diaacutelogo con otros para laconstruccioacuten del conocimiento donde el propoacutesito es llegar a una eleccioacuten con-sensuada entre las teoriacuteas alternativas demandas o interpretaciones sobre la basede una consideracioacuten de las evidencias y argumentos apropiados Finalmentepara consolidar la nuevas comprensiones obtenidas es valioso para la clase com-pleta reflexionar juntos sobre lo que han aprendido y sobre el proceso de cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento en el que han participado sobre las implicaciones quela nueva comprensioacuten tiene para sus propias acciones ndashtanto fuera como dentrode clasendash y sobre las preguntas importantes a las que ellos deben ahora dirigir susinvestigaciones futuras En otras palabras la fase final en el ciclo implica a lacomunidad en un ldquoacercamiento lsquometarsquordquo (Olson y Bruner 1996) es decir en laadopcioacuten de una perspectiva metacognitiva sobre su propio aprendizaje que a lolargo de miles de antildeos probablemente ha jugado un importante papel en eldesarrollo de cada modo de conocimiento presentado en la siacutentesis del desarrollohistoacuterico cultural de Donald (1991)3

Esta espiral necesita varias anotaciones adicionales La primera tiene quever con la naturaleza incompleta y provisional del conocimiento eacuteste estaacutesiempre abierto a la mejora mediante ciclos futuros a traveacutes de la espiral Lasegunda anotacioacuten concierne a la naturaleza esencialmente interactiva ysocial del crecimiento individual y comunitario en la comprensioacuten eacutesta seconsigue gracias a los esfuerzos de los participantes para clarificar sus pro-pios significados a los otros y alternativamente para tener en cuenta y res-ponder a los de los demaacutes (Bajtiacuten 1986) En tercer lugar es necesario enfati-zar que el crecimien to en la comprensioacuten requeriraacute espirales futuras queactiven los diferentes modos de conocimiento ya que la mayoriacutea de los cam-bios y problemas que ocurren en las instituciones maacutes allaacute del aula deman-dan un conocimiento procedimental substantivo y esteacutetico al igual que

183El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

teoacuterico y cada modo de conocimiento tiene una contribucioacuten que hacer aleacutexito de soluciones comprensivas que realcen significativamente la com-prensioacuten Finalmente en la representacioacuten de estas relaciones en la figura 3la espiral tambieacuten resalta la interdependencia de los individuos y la comuni-dad Mientras que la experiencia y la comprensioacuten son esencialmente indivi-duales en su naturaleza crecen fuera de eacutel y adoptan su significado de la par-ticipacioacuten de los individuos en el intercambio de informacioacuten y en su com-promiso en la construccioacuten de conocimiento en la comunidad extensa de laque cada individuo es miembro

Desafortunadamente muchos educadores no comprenden estas relacionesfundamentales y por eso su instruccioacuten no es conceptualizada y planificada demanera que sea oacuteptima para el desarrollo de los estudiantes Como numerososestudios han mostrado (Langer y Applebee 1987 Nystrand y Gamoran 1991)en la mayoriacutea de las clases la que gobierna la praacutectica es la concepcioacuten bancariadel conocimiento (Freire 1970) seguacuten la cual el propoacutesito de la instruccioacuten quetiene lugar en el aula es que un alumno individual esteacute preparado para puntuarbien en los tests y no tanto ampliar su conocimiento Dada esta orientacioacuten lasactividades en las que se pide a los alumnos que participen estaacuten determinadaspor la guiacutea curricular del libro de texto maacutes que por el conocimiento de los pro-fesores sobre los intereses y habilidades de los alumnos particulares de los queson responsables A esto es a lo que Tharp y Gallimore (1988) se refieren con laexpresioacuten ldquoguioacuten recitativordquo unido a la ocupacioacuten de un lugar individual de tra-bajo que domina la rutina diaria Ademaacutes los planes sobre coacutemo proceder sonndashcomo cabiacutea esperarndash unilateralmente impuestos en lugar de ser configuradossobre la base de las decisiones tomadas por la comunidad de clase como un todoy el modus operandi es la competicioacuten en lugar de la colaboracioacuten

Sin embargo como he argumentado en otra parte (Wells 1986 19992002a) eacuteste no es el uacutenico modo en el que la escolarizacioacuten puede ser condu-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187184

FIGURA 3La espiral del conocimiento

ACCIOacuteN Construccioacuten

deconocimiento

ComprensioacutenSubstantivo

Esteacutetico

Teoacuterico

Procedimental

Instrumental

Experiencia Informacioacuten

Modos de conocimiento

cida ndasha pensar de la larga historia de la recitacioacuten que se remonta a maacutes detres mil antildeos a las tempranas instituciones que entrenaban a los escribas yadministradores para leer y escribir (Cole 1996)ndash Pero probablemente elmodo por defecto de la escolarizacioacuten es parecido a una preparacioacuten para ldquolavida adultardquo y no una etapa criacutetica del desarrollo que merece la pena y essignificativa en siacute misma Como Vygotski argumentoacute sobre el dominio de laalfabetizacioacuten ldquola ensentildeanza debe organizarse de tal manera que la lectura yla escritura sean necesarias para algo La escritura debe ser incorporada enuna tarea relevante y necesaria para la vidardquo (1978 pp117-118) Y porldquovidardquo quiere decir no la vida futura sino la totalidad de los intereses y pre-ocupaciones actuales de los aprendices

En los uacuteltimos antildeos se han divulgado proyectos de una variedad de paiacuteses enlos que educadores universitarios han procurado crear condiciones para elldquoaprendizaje auteacutenticordquo en las aulas En todos estos proyectos se ha otorgado unpapel central a las actividades colaborativas que alternando entre los formatos departicipacioacuten individual en pequentildeo grupo y de la clase completa implican alos estudiantes en la exploracioacuten de temas centrales mediante investigacionespraacutecticas y tambieacuten teoacutericas y en la discusioacuten criacutetica y constructiva de sus hallaz-gos y de las implicaciones para futuras acciones El espacio no permite aquiacute unadiscusioacuten individual de estos proyectos pero lo que puede ser dicho sobre todosellos es que en sus diferentes formas valoran tanto los intereses de los alumnoscomo sus experiencias previas y persiguen ayudarles a desarrollar la disposicioacutenpara buscar la comprensioacuten maacutes que la acumulacioacuten simple de informacioacuten ypara valorar la colaboracioacuten maacutes que la competicioacuten como el medio para alcanzaresta menta4

En este contexto es digno atraer la atencioacuten hacia varias instituciones poste-riores a la escuela tales como la Fifth Dimension donde la participacioacuten en activi-dades elegidas personalmente ndasha menudo basadas en ordenadoresndash requiere a losnintildeos dominar habilidades que son tambieacuten necesarias para la escolarizacioacuten y lesproporcionan oportunidades para interactuar con voluntarios universitarios enuna posicioacuten de igualdad (Brown y Cole 2002) De manera similar algunosprogramas basados en museos (Leinhardst Crowley y Kuntson 2002) y variasformas de educacioacuten al aire libre tambieacuten capitalizan los intereses de los estu-diantes para implicarles en actividades desafiantes que demandan para la cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento procesos de diaacutelogo y toma de decisiones comparablesa aquellos encontrados en los contextos escolares previamente descritos

Finalmente si estas praacutecticas pioneras arraigan e influyen en la educacioacutenpuacuteblica con mayor amplitud es esencial que los profesores tengan oportunidadessimilares para desarrollar las disposiciones y pericia necesarias para actuar comoagentes de cambio y liacutederes de una reforma en las instituciones en las que traba-jan Es por lo tanto estimulante ver que a pesar del eacutenfasis de los dirigentes poliacute-ticos en estandarizar los curricula y en los resultados cuantificables algunos pro-gramas de formacioacuten de profesores y desarrollo profesional anima a los profeso-res sobre la base de investigaciones sobre su propia praacutectica a tomar sus propiasdecisiones sobre queacute debe ser ensentildeado y coacutemo y a compartir los resultados desus investigaciones con los compantildeeros Este ha sido el motor de mi propio tra-bajo en los antildeos recientes ya que he participado en la investigacioacuten colaborativacon profesores para crear y mantener comunidades de investigacioacuten tanto en cla-ses como entre los mismos profesores5

185El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Notas1 La secuencia temporal implicada por esta formulacioacuten ha sido ampliamente debatida y especialmente el movimiento desde fueraa dentro que sugiere Mi propia comprensioacuten de lo que la apropiacioacuten supone se capta mejor con el ejemplo de aprender a bailarmediante la inmersioacuten en la actividad con otros (Wells 1999) En muchos casos no hay separacioacuten entre antes y despueacutes o entrefuera y dentro y no hay necesidad de demostracioacuten o ejemplificacioacuten En lugar de esto estando inmerso en la actividad conjuntael principiante es literalmente entrenado fiacutesicamente por los movimiento del coparticipante mientras que al mismo tiempoconstruye su propia organizacioacuten ndashy quizaacute incluso una representacioacuten esquemaacuteticandash de los movimientos corporales A lo largo deltiempo este esquema estaacute tan bien organizado que el principiante se convierte en un experto que estaacute preparado paralelamentepara introducir a otros en la actividad Esto es lo que Lave y Wenger (1991) y Rogoff (2003) quieren decir por desarrollo median-te la participacioacuten en actividades culturales

2 Estoy agradecido a Natalia Gajdamaschko y Steve Gabosch por sus valiosas discusiones de esta distincioacuten durante el XMCA cursoonline sobre la teoriacutea de la actividad histoacuterico cultural Abril 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Aunque estaacute incluido en la Tabla I este modo de conocimiento no ha sido discutido aquiacute ya que el reconocimiento expliacutecito deeste importante modo de conocimiento es muy reciente (Brown 1975) Sin embargo eso no significa que sea en siacute mismo unnuevo fenoacutemeno

4 Para algunos ejemplos representativos veacutease Brown y Campione 1994 Lampert Rittenhouse y Crumbaugh 1996 McMahonRaphael Goatley y Pardo 1997 Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford y Brown 1998 Scardamalia Bereiter y Lamon 1994

5 Juntos formamos un grupo de investigacioacuten colaborativo DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project)(Wells (Ed) 2001)

ReferenciasBAJTIacuteN M M (1986) Speech genres and other late essays Austin University of Texas PressBERNSTEIN B (1982) Codes modalities and the process of cultural reproduction A model En M Apple (Ed) Cultural and econo-

mic reproduction in education (pp 304-355) Londres Routledge amp Kegan PaulBROWN A L (1975) The development of memory Knowing knowing about knowing and knowing how to know En H W

Reese (Ed) Advances in child development and behavior (Vol 10 pp 103-152) Nueva York Academic Press BROWN A L amp CAMPIONE J C (1994) Guided discovery in a community of learners En K McGilly (Ed) Integrating cognitive

theory and classroom practice Classroom lessons (pp 229-270) Cambridge MA MIT PressBradford BooksBROWN K amp COLE M (2002) Cultural historical activity theory and the expansion of opportunities for learning after school En

G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 225-238)Oxford Blackwell

BRUNER J S (1990) Acts of meaning Cambridge MA Harvard University PressCARR M (2002) Emerging learning narratives A perspective from early childhood education En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds)

Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 99-111) Oxford BlackwellCOLE M (1996) Cultural psychology A once and future discipline Cambridge MA The Bellknap Press of Harvard University PressDEACON T W (1997) The symbolic species The co-evolution of language and the brain Nueva York NortonDIAMOND J (1998) Guns germs and steel The fates of human societies Nueva York NortonDONALD M (1991) Origins of the Modern Mind Three Stages in the Evolution of Culture and Cognition Cambridge MA Harvard

University PressDONOAHUE Z (2003) Science teaching and learning Teachers and children plan together Networks 6(1) httpwwwoiseuto-

rontoca~ctdnetworksjournal Vol 6 (1) 2003marchENGESTROumlM Y (1999) Activity theory and individual and social transformation Y En Engestrom R Miettinen amp R-L Puna-

maki (Eds) Perspectives on activity theory (pp 19-38) Cambridge Cambridge University PressFREIRE P (1970) Pedagogy of the oppressed Nueva York Herder and HerderHALLIDAY M A K (1975) Learning how to mean Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1978) Language as social semiotic The social interpretation of language and meaning Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1993) Towards a language-based theory of learning Linguistics and Education 5 93-116HASAN R (2002) Semiotic mediation and mental development in pluralistic societies Some implications for tomorrowrsquos schoo-

ling En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural peerspectives on the future of education (pp112-126) Oxford Blackwell

HEATH S B (1983) Ways with words Cambridge Cambridge University PressLAMPERT M RITTENHOUSE P amp CRUMBAUGH C (1996) Agreeing to disagree Developing sociable mathematical discourse En

D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook of education and human development (pp 731-764) Cambridge MA Blackwell LANGER J A amp APPLEBEE A N (1987) How writing shapes thinking A study of teaching and learning Urbana IL National Council

of Teachers of EnglishLAVE J (1996) Teaching as learning in practice Mind Culture and Activity 3 (3) 149-164LAVE J amp WENGER E (1991) Situated Learning Legitimate peripheral participation Nueva York Cambridge University PressLEINHARDT G CROWLEY K amp KNUTSON K (2002) Learning conversations Explanation and identity in museums Mahwah NJ

Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesLEONTIEV A N (1981) The problem of activity in psychology En J VWertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 37-71) Armonk NY SharpeMAYBIN J MERCER N amp STIERER B (1992) lsquoScaffoldingrsquo learning in the classroom En K Norman (Ed) Thinking voices The

work of the National Oracy Project (pp 186-195) Londres Hodder amp StoughtonMCMAHON S I RAPHAEL T E GOATLEY V J amp PARDO L S (Eds) (1997) The Book Club connection Literacy learning and class-

room talk Nueva York Teachers College PressNELSON K (1996) Language in cognitive development The emergence of the mediated mind Nueva York Cambridge University PressNEWSON J (1978) Dialogue and development En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol The emergence of language (pp 31-42)

New York Academic Press

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187186

NYSTRAND M amp GAMORAN A (1991) Student engagement When recitation becomes conversation En H C Waxman amp H JWalberg (Eds) Effective teaching Current research (pp 257-276)Berkeley CA McCutchan Publishing Corp

OLSON D R amp BRUNER J S (1996) Folk psychology and folk pedagogy En D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook ofeducation and human development (pp 9-27) Cambridge MA Blackwell

PALINCSAR A MAGNUSSON S MARANO N FORD D amp BROWN N (1998) Designing a community of practice Principlesand practices of the GIsML Community Teaching and Teacher Education 14 (1) 5-20

PIAGET J (1970) Piagetrsquos theory En P H Mussen (Ed) Carmichaelrsquos handbook of child development (pp 703-732) Nueva YorkWiley

PONTECORVO C amp STERPONI L (2002) Learning to argue and reason through discourse in educational settings En G Wells ampG Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 127-140) OxfordBlackwell

ROGOFF B (1990) Apprenticeship in thinking Cognitive development in social context Nueva York Oxford University PressROGOFF B (1994) Developing understanding of the idea of Communities of Learners Mind Culture and Activity 1 (4) 209-

229ROGOFF B (2003) The cultural nature of human development Nueva York Oxford University PressROSENBLATT L (1978) The reader the text the poem The transactional theory of the literary work Carbondale IL Southern Illinois

University PressSCARDAMALIA M C BEREITER amp LAMON M (1994) The CSILE project Trying to bring the classroom into World 3 En K

McGilley (Ed) Classroom lessons Integrating cognitive theory and classroom practice (pp 201-228) Cambridge MA MITPress

SCRIBNER S (1985) Vygotskyrsquos uses of history En J V Wertsch (Ed) Culture communication and cognition Vygotskian perspectives(pp 119-145) Cambridge Cambridge University Press

THARP R amp GALLIMORE R (1988) Rousing minds to life Nueva York Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C (1979) Communication and cooperation in early infancy a description of primary intersubjectivity En M

Bullowa (Ed) Before speech The beginning of interpersonal communication (pp 321-348) Cambridge Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C amp HUBLEY P (1978) Secondary intersubjectivity Confidence confiding and acts of meaning in the first year

En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol the emergence of language (pp 183-230) Nueva York Academic PressVYGOTSKI L S (1978)Mind in society The development of higher psychological processes Cambridge MA Harvard University PressVYGOTSKI L S (1981) The genesis of higher mental functions En J V Wertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 144-188) Armonk NY SharpeVYGOTSKI L S (1987) Thinking and speech En R W Rieber amp A S Carton (Eds) The collected works of L S Vygotsky Volumen

1 Problems of general psychology (pp 39-285) Nueva York PlenumWARTOFSKY M (1979) Models representation and scientific understanding Boston ReidelWELLS G (1985) Language development in the pre-school years Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (1986) The meaning makers Children learning language and using language to learn Portsmouth NH HeinemannWELLS G (1999) Dialogic inquiry Towards a sociocultural practice and theory of education Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (Ed) (2001) Action talk and text Learning and teaching through inquiry Nueva York Teachers College PressWELLS G (2002a) Learning and teaching for understanding The key role of collaborative knowledge building En J Brophy

(Ed) Social constructivist teaching Affordances and constraints (pp 1-41) Osford Elsevier ScienceJAIWELLS G (2002b) The role of dialogue in activity theory Mind Culture and Activity 9 (1) 43-66WERTSCH J V MINICK N amp ARNS F J (1984) The creation of context in joint problem solving En B Rogoff amp J Lave (Eds)

Everyday cognition Its development in social context (pp 151-171) Cambridge Cambridge University PressWOOD D BRUNER J S amp ROSS G (1976) The role of tutoring in problem-solving Journal of Child Psychology and Child Psy-

chiatry 17 89-100

187El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Original text

Introduction

Compared with other species the characteristic that distinguishes humans isthe ability and proclivity to engage in tool-mediated joint activity with otherhumans It is this characteristic that accounts for the development of human cul-tures over the course of history as they invented artefacts of various kinds inorder to adapt to and exploit the ecological niches in which they found themsel-ves It also accounts for the diversity of individual personsrsquo development whichdepend on the particular activities in which they participate As Vygotsky(1978 1981) was one of the first to point out the lsquohigherrsquo mental functions thatmake us human are not biologically given but are developmentally constructedthrough the appropriation of historically developed tools and practices that aremade manifest to the child and lsquoscaffoldedrsquo in the meaningful actions and utte-rances of the coparticipants in joint activity

Before continuing readers might find it interesting to reflect on their owndevelopmental trajectories to who they are today I suspect that they may findthemselves agreeing that Who we become depends on the company we keep and what wedo together

A Brief History of the Development of Joint Activity

Leontrsquoev provides a succinct account of Vygotskyrsquos insight in the followingsummary

The initial ideas that led Vygotsky to investigate the genesis of internal mental activity fromexternal activity are fundamentally different from the theoretical approaches of other modernauthors These ideas came from the analysis of the features unique to human productive laboractivity which is mediated by tools This activity is initially social in nature that is it is deve-loped under the conditions of cooperation and social interaction among people Vygotskyidentified two main interconnected features [of this activity] that are necessarily fundamentalfor psychology its tool-like (lsquoinstrumentalrsquo) structure and its inclusion in a system of interre-lations with other people It is these features that define the nature of human psychologicalprocesses The tool mediates activity and thus connects humans not only with the world ofobjects but also with other people Because of this humanrsquos activity assimilates the experience ofhumankind This means that humansrsquo mental processes (their lsquohigher psychological functionsrsquo)acquire a structure necessarily tied to the sociohistorically formed means and methods trans-mitted to them by others in the process of cooperative labor and social interaction But it isimpossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in any way otherthan a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words higher psycho-logical processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction with others thatis through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried out indepen-dently by the individual (Leontrsquoev 1981 pp 55-56 emphases in the original)

As well as emphasizing the social and cooperative nature of human activity thisquotation is important with respect to the arguments that I want to develop inthis paper as it highlights the central role of semiotic mediation in developmentKnowledge is created as well as appropriated in the discourse among peoplewho are working together in a specific situation in order to create or improve anartefact or to solve a problem of importance to the group However Leontrsquoevalso alludes to another of Vygotskyrsquos key insights namely that in order tounderstand current activity it is necessary to investigate the history of that acti-vity It is to this that I next turn

In analyzing the history of human development at least four different time-scales need to be considered The longest is the history of the cultural evolution of

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

the species (the phylogenetic level) next is the historical development of particu-lar cultures The third level (ontogenetic) traces the developmental trajectory ofindividual humans over the course of the lifespan Finally the microgenetic levelis concerned with the development of an instance of a particular activity

In practice it is the latter that has been explored in most detail for usingcontemporary technology it is relatively easy to observe and record the sequenceof actions through which an activity is enacted and the specific operations inwhich the participants engage making use of the relevant artefacts that are avai-lable in the situation (Leontrsquoev 1981) These artefacts may be either material(knives pencils automobiles) or symbolic (utterances maps theories) ndashthoughas Cole (1996) has pointed out to function as mediators of joint activity all arte-facts must have some form of material embodiment as well as a symbolic mea-ning that is to say they must be ready to hand and also have a cultural signifi-cance relevant to the situation

However the form in which a particular instance of activity is realizeddepends not only on the artefacts that are to hand in the situation but also onthe participantsrsquo past experiences with the practices in which the artefacts areused to mediate achievement of the action goals that contribute to the joint acti-vity Thus the microgenesis of a particular instance of activity is necessarilydependent upon the ontogenetic development of the participants that is to sayupon the opportunities their life trajectories have afforded them to appropriatethe relevant cultural knowledge through participation in instances of similaractions and operations

But on the time-scale of ontogenetic development each individualrsquos trajectoryof development is itself strongly influenced by the culture in which he or she isgrowing up and on the historical development of that culture As Rogoff (2003)illustrates in considerable detail cultures vary considerably both over time andacross ecological niches in what mediating artefacts and practices are available andin the relative value accorded to each Moreover within each culture at any parti-cular historical moment participants in activities both incorporate the ways ofprevious generations and adapt them to the exigencies of current conditions

Stepping up one further level the historical development of a particular cul-tures is itself shaped by development on the even larger timescale of the culturaland biological evolution of the species This is the most difficult timescale todescribe in detail for lack of the necessary evidence But certain broad distinc-tions between human communities can be made in terms of their modes of sub-sistence and of the mediating means available for joint activity (Diamond 1998Donald 1991) As recent research has shown our earliest ancestors some 5million years ago lived in small bands of hunter gatherers often on the edge oflakes and oceans Initially their tools were found in the surroundings but overseveral million years they invented ways of making more sophisticated artefactssuch as knives arrowheads baskets and clothing from flints bones skins andvegetable materials Then as some groups migrated to particularly fertile partsof the world they adopted a more settled agrarian way of life growing cropsand breeding animals The resulting ability to produce more food than imme-diately required led in turn to the emergence of trade and to a diversity of spe-cialist occupations such as potters and tailors who exchanged their products forfood and other necessities This stage also saw the development of much largerpopulation groupings with hierarchical class structures that included prieststax collectors and other religious and political functionaries

While migration had been a common feature of human existence from theearliest times the development of large settled populations and of weapons

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

made of bronze and iron led to the expansion of certain cultural groups throughterritorial conquest and colonization by sea and by land As a result during thelast few thousand years the latest phase of phylogenetic development has beencharacterized by the rise and fall of imperial cultures which have imposed theirtechnologies laws and administrative procedures as well as their religions artsknowledge and values on widely diverse subjugated populations Most recentlythe further development of the inventions that led to the first industrial revolu-tion has simply served to increase the scale and intensity of these imperialisttrends At the same time these inventions as well as those of the current indus-trial revolution have also led to a great increase in humansrsquo understanding oftheir social and material environment both through scientific and social rese-arch and through the dissemination of information about other times and placesresulting from travel and the use of print and electronic technologies

In presenting this very condensed account of phylogenetic development Ihave emphasized the material tools that have mediated the progressively morecomplex and diverse activities in which humans have engaged over the course ofthe speciesrsquo history However bearing in mind that what has been the drivingforce of human development is joint activity an equally ndashif not morendash impor-tant determinant of this history is the development of the modes of representa-tion through which humans have communicated and developed their unders-tanding of the world Table I presents the developmental sequence proposed byDonald (1991) based on archeological neuroanatomical historical and othertypes of evidence The table also includes the stages in the historical develop-ment of ways of knowing that were proposed by Wartofsky (1979)

The first stage in this sequence corresponds to the phase in which proto-humans began to diverge from other primate species In this phase as in thebehavior of contemporary higher primates practical action was the predomi-nant form of communication as ndashnot necessarily deliberatelyndash participants sig-naled their intentions in a shared situation and these intentions were interpre-ted and responded to by their co-participants in the activity In the secondmimetic phase which must have developed gradually over many millenniacommunication became somewhat differentiated from the activity to which itreferred as humans deliberately used gestures mime facial expression andvarious types of phonation to comment on as well as to coordinate action and theobjects to which it was directed Later still with the gradual modification of thevocal tract and of the primate brain there emerged the ability to communicatethrough speech and hence the ability to refer not only to particular objects andactions but also to generalized classes and to express observed and intendedrelationships between objects actions and events thus allowing participants toplan for and reflect on the outcomes of joint activity Finally the invention ofwriting which ushered in the final phase in Donaldrsquos proposed sequence occu-rred extremely recently in the long trajectory of phylogenetic development Yetas with those that preceded it enormously increased the human repertoire ofmeans for making and communicating meaning Essentially what it added wasan ldquoexternal memoryrdquo By creating a (relatively) permanent representation oflinguistic meaning it made possible the compilation and distillation of repor-ted information from many sources including the writerrsquos own verbalizedthoughts It also allowed the writer and those who read his or her written textto review critique and revise the meanings expressed and to make the resultsavailable to people in later times and other places for further constructive debateand improvement

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

However action gesture speech and writing are not simply progressivelymore powerful modes of communication They are also progressively morepowerful mediators of thinking This is most obvious with respect to the lin-guistic modes of communication But even before the emergence of speechaction and ndashto an even greater extentndash mimesis enabled humans to think toget-her and thereby to create a shared interpretation of their joint activities In fact ithas been argued that the emergence of language was not simply the result ofbrain and vocal tract development but rather was part of a more general patternof adaptation that building upon the cognitive achievements of mimetic kno-wing strove to integrate the unconnected bits of information in a more compre-hensive and coherent account of being-in-the-world (Deacon 1997) Neverthe-less it is also true that the availability of language greatly enhanced both com-munication and thinking together for as Halliday observed

the grammar of every natural language is (among other things) a theory of human experienceit is through our acts of meaning that we transform experience into the coherent -though farfrom consistent- patchwork that we learn to project as lsquorealityrsquo (1993 p 46)

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

TABLE IModes Of Knowing Phylogenetic And Cultural Development (from Wells 1999)

Time Mode of Participants Donald(1991) Wartofsky(1979)Years BP Knowing

2 million Instrumental Individual in action Episodic Primary artifactsyears material tools

1 -- 15 million Procedural Between individuals while Mimetic Secondaryyears engaged in action artifacts tools

and practicesmimeticinteraction

50000 Substantive Among members of a (Linguistic) Secondaryyears cultural group reflecting on artifacts

action and as a basis for representations ofplanning further action tools and

practices spokeninteraction

50000 Aesthetic Among members of a Mythic Tertiary artifactsyears cultural group making sense artistic represent-

of the human predicament ations in mythnarrative graphicand musical modes

2500 Theoretical Among members of a Theoretic Tertiary artifactsyears specialist community decontextualized

seeking to explain the natural representationsand human world such as

taxonomiestheories models etc

Meta Among members of a Tertiary artifacts cultural group also representations ofindividuals seeking to mental andunderstand and control their semioticown mental activity processes

In sum what Donald and other scholars argue is that contemporary mentalabilities are the outcome of the development over time of a series of progressi-vely more powerful and flexible modes of representation ndashor in Vygotskyanterms of semiotic mediators of higher mental functions- that have made possi-ble the rational theoretically oriented modes of knowing that underpin theachievements of modern science and its technological applications In the philo-sopher Wartofskyrsquos words

our own perceptual and cognitive understanding of the world is in large part shaped andchanged by the representational artifacts we ourselves create We are in effect the products ofour own activity in this way we transform our own perceptual and cognitive modes our waysof seeing and of understanding by means of the representations we make (1979 p xxiii)

There is however one further important aspect of Donaldrsquos (1991) thesis thatis crucial for the argument that I wish to develop Although the semiotic sys-tems of mimesis speech and writing each powered a new mode of cognitiveactivity they did not replace those that preceded but were additive in theireffects The result is that contemporary humans have a variety of modes of kno-wing at their disposal as they engage in joint activity Furthermore most suchactivities call for more than one mode of knowing and require the complemen-tary and interdependent use of more than one mode of representation

Joint Activity as the Site of Ontogenetic Learning and Development

Two important implications follow from the multi-level historical concep-tion of development just outlined First on any occasion the type of activitythat is undertaken and the specific manner in which it is enacted are necessarilydependent on the particular cultural-historical antecedents of the participantsboth human and artefactual that come together in its realization In particularthe manner in which the situation is interpreted ndashin terms of what action goalsare appropriate and how they can be achievedndash depends on the motives valuesand knowledgeable skills of the human participants and on the affordances ofthe technologies available in the situation And second every instance of an acti-vity provides an occasion for a triple transformation of the situation in whichthe activity is carried out of the artefacts and practices that mediate its enact-ment and most importantly of the knowledge and skills of the human partici-pants Taken together these propositions clarify the way in which cultural andindividual development are both interdependent and rooted in particular situa-ted occasions of joint activity As Rogoff (1994) argues

People of each generation as they engage in sociocultural endeavors with other people makeuse of and extend cultural tools and practices inherited from previous generations As peopledevelop through their shared use of cultural tools and practices they simultaneously contribu-te to the transformation of cultural tools practices and institutions (p 52)

Potentially therefore every occasion of joint activity provides an opportunityfor development on the part of all participants This is a point to which I shallreturn But first I want to consider more carefully the concept of developmentitself

Clearly built into the concept of development is the implication of change andtypically of change in the direction of increasing complexity and effectiveness Inother words development is typically taken to imply improvement or progresstoward some ideal end state or capability However in the light of the previousdiscussion such a progression while it may be meaningful to (some of the) partici-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

pants in any particular situation cannot be understood in any absolute sense butmust be seen as relative to the unfolding historical trajectory of the species of aparticular culture and of the immediate community ndashits values its dominantactivities and the knowledgeable skills that form its resources Furthermore just asthese have changed in the past they will continue to change in the future in res-ponse to the changing demands of the larger environment So while ontogeneticdevelopment does indeed involve increasing complexity and effectiveness of indi-vidualsrsquo participation in the activity systems in which they are involved in theirdaily lives the overall trajectory of development is emergent and its endpoint cannever be specified in advance even in terms of an ideal to be attained

Nevertheless this does not mean that there are not strong regularities in thesequence of ontogenetic development particularly in the early years Indeed asNelson (1996) has suggested during the preschool years children follow a trajec-tory very similar to the sequence of phylogenetic development proposed byDonald (1991) (see Table I above) as they appropriate the semiotic tools of repre-sentation afforded by action mimesis speech and writing Of course this is not asimple recapitulation children growing up in a contemporary literate culture forexample are surrounded from birth by artifacts and practices that result from andembody all the available modes of knowing (Cole 1996) Appropriating existingcultural tools is thus very different from inventing them ex novo as Scribner (1985)points out Nevertheless given the combination of biological and cultural inheri-tance it is not surprising that in most if not all cultures children follow the samesequence as did the species as a whole over the course of history

In the first weeks of life infants act on their immediate surroundings bothanimate and inanimate and begin to develop what Piaget (1970) called sensori-motor intelligence However although this most basic form of activity mayappear to be instinctual it is nevertheless also inherently social First all infantsare born into an environment that is cultural in the sense of having been shapedby countless preceding generations and second the infantrsquos actions are treatedas being intentional and are responded to as such So from the beginning theinfant is caught up in social interaction (Newson 1978) In the second phasewhich typically begins in the first few months the infant also begins to engagein mimetic communication through gaze facial expression and rudimentarygesture (Bruner 1990) Couched in terms of primary and secondary intersubjec-tivity this phase has been described in considerable detail by Trevarthen (19781979) Primary intersubjectivity develops as the infant and parent engage inmutual gaze thereby communicating that they are attending to and respondingto each other In secondary intersubjectivity third parties are brought into jointattention as the parent through gaze directs the infantrsquos attention to an object ofpotential interest or follows the childrsquos direction of gaze and signals that he orshe is also attending to the same object

It is on this basis of joint action and attention that towards the end of thefirst year the child begins to exploit his or her growing command of vocaliza-tion often accompanied by gesture to begin to communicate through speechFrom research predominantly involving children in ldquoWesternrdquo societies it hasbeen established that at first the childrsquos utterances are idiosyncratic drawingonly partially ndashif at allndash on the speech of those around him or her neverthelessparents and other family members have little difficulty in interpreting them incontext and once again they respond in a manner that is contingent on theirinterpretation thereby establishing spoken communication as a joint interactiveactivity By the end of the second year however children appear to abandon thisidiosyncratic ldquoprotolanguagerdquo form of communication and begin to construct a

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

linguistic meaning potential that is systematically related to the language thatis addressed to them in the oft-repeated activities of family life (Bruner 1990Halliday 1975 Wells 1986) Significantly within particular language com-munities the sequence in which children master the basic meanings and thelexicogrammatical forms in which they are realized tends to be very similar fromchild to child (Wells 1985)

The developmental sequence just described ndashaction mimesis speechndash is com-mon to children in all cultures and in all cases takes place in and through jointactivity and interaction with other family and community members Howeveralthough the sequence is universal the manner and pace at which it proceeds varyvery considerably across cultures These differences depend upon many culturally-determined factors such as adult expectations about their childrenrsquos developmentthe position in which the infant is typically held or carried facing the caregiver orturned outwards to face in the same direction as the caregiver the makeup and sizeof the interactional groups in which communication typically occurs and whetherthese events are part of family and community life more generally or are delibera-tely arranged and structured for the presumed benefit of the child (Rogoff 2003)In the later stages of language development the range and extent of the meaningpotential that children construct begins to vary even more widely depending onthe activities in which they engage the linguistic registers that are used in thoseactivities and the stances typically adopted by interlocutors toward the use of lan-guage in their interactions with children (Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

So far the ontogenetic developmental sequence I have described is funda-mentally similar across cultures and follows the phylogenetic sequence in whichhumans have progressively added new semiotic mediational means to theircommunicative repertoires In an important sense therefore the final mode ofrepresentation in Donaldrsquos scheme that of writing is an optional extra sincemany cultures have survived and prospered without a written mode of represen-ting meaning Moreover even in cultures that have a writing system the extentand scope of literacy that individuals attain varies very considerably dependingon the activity systems in which they participate the value that is placed onwritten texts by those communmities the purposes to which they are put andthe genres that are used for those purposes However since literacy and its usesare so strongly associated with schooling I shall leave further discussion of thismode of semiotic mediation to a later part of this paper

Before concluding this section however I want to explore further the con-cept of semiotic mediation In one of the better known passages in Vygotskyrsquoswritings where he argued for the social and cultural origin of higher mentalfunctions he wrote that every function occurs on two planes first in activity andinteraction between people and then within the individual learner (Vygotsky1981) What bridges between these two planes as is clear from his other wri-tings is semiotic mediation To recall Leontrsquoevrsquos formulation of this argument

hellip it is impossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in anyway other than a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words hig-her psychological processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction withothers that is through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried outindependently by the individual (1981 pp 55-56)

In other words when people engage in joint activity their actions gesturesand speech not only mediate the coordination of participation but they alsomake overt the mental activities involved and so render them available forappropriation by novice participants1 Halliday is very clear about this Alt-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

hough the following quotation refers only to language the term lsquolanguagersquocould justifiably be replaced by lsquosemiotic mediationrsquo

In the development of the child as a social being language has the central role Language is themain channel through which the patterns of living are transmitted to him through which helearns to act as a member of lsquosocietyrsquo ndashin and through the various social groups the family theneighbourhood and so onndash and to adopt its lsquoculturersquo its modes of thought and action itsbeliefs and its values (1978 p 9)

However as the child grows older language does become the predominantmode of semiotic mediation and as he wrote in a later paper ldquoLanguage is theessential condition of knowing the process by which experience becomes know-ledge (Halliday 1993 p 94 original emphasis)

Assistance for Learning in Joint Activitie

So far in the discussion of the role of joint activity in human development Ihave concentrated on the tools and particularly the semiotic modes of represen-tation that mediate the achievement of the outcome of activity In this sectionon the other hand I turn to the role of other people in this process both familymembers and the larger community

Until now I have referred to coparticipants in an activity in general termsbut clearly there are further distinctions to be made Particularly helpful in thisrespect is Engestroumlmrsquos model of an activity system which is shown in figure 1

What this model shows is that when we look at an ongoing activity from thepoint of view of an individual participant (t Subject) that individual is involvedin a nexus of other relationships that link him or her to other lsquoparticipantsrsquo theTools and artifacts to mediate action on the Object but also the Community of

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 1The Triangle of Activity

Artifactstools andpractices

Values rulesamp conventions

Community Divisioacutenof labor

Engestrom 1999

Object OutcomeSubject

others engaged in the activity together with the Division of Labor within thatcommunity and also the Rules and Conventions that govern the manner inwhich the activity is carried out (Engestroumlm 1999) What this latter category oflsquoparticipantrsquo underscores is the historical dimension of an activity system sincethese rules and conventions ndashas well as the tools and artifactsndash bring into thepresent the distilled practices of previous generations who have engaged in theactivity as these are interpreted and utilized by the current community

To illustrate the relevance of this model to the development of the youngchild we might compare two versions of a similar activity reported by WertschMinick and Arns (1984) In their study Brazilian children carried out a puzzletask on two occasions first with the mother and secondly with a primary tea-cher What the researchers found was that in general the mothers and teachersengaged in the activity in systematically different ways Whereas the motherstended to direct the childrenrsquos behavior or even carry out parts of the task them-selves in order to complete it in an efficient manner ndashjust as they would havedone if engaged in a household taskndash the teachers tended to encourage thechildrsquos autonomous performance and only provided hints and suggestions whenthey judged them to be necessary to advance the childrenrsquos understandingInterpreting these results the researchers suggested that the two groups ofadults belonged to two different communities (or activity systems) that had dif-ferent rules and conventions about engaging in this joint activity And this inturn led to the different divisions of labor that they observed Similarly Rogoff(2003) cites many examples of substantial differences between cultures inalmost all aspects of child rearing with respect to their ways of engaging chil-dren in the activities that they consider important

What is clear is that ldquobehindrdquo the particular adult ndashor older siblings in someculturesndash who are directly engaged with the child there is a wider communityof family members neighbors and others who have an interest in the upbrin-ging of children and who share beliefs about appropriate ways to involve themin the activities of daily life So whether in Spain Japan or the Peruvian High-lands although the actual practices vary across cultures in each those responsi-ble for childrenrsquos well-being and development act as agents of a wider commu-nity whose beliefs and practices are rooted in a long tradition concerning howactivities should be carried out But equally in all cultures practices also changein response to changes in the world beyond the particular community In manyWestern homes for example computer games or television programs haverecently taken the place of the bedtime story while in many indigenous com-munities crafts that until recently only supplied local needs are now exploitedcommercially for the tourist trade changing the rhythms of daily life and therelationships among family members and the activities in which children areinvolved As suggested earlier therefore in order to understand the activities inwhich children participate today we need to look not only at the immediatesituation but also at the wider community and the changes taking place on allthese time-scales

Microgenesis and the Zone of Proximal Development

It is nevertheless always the immediate microgenetic situation that isthe site of ontogenetic development ndashthe action and interaction between thelearner and those with whom he or she is engaged in the activity in pro-gress When we adopt this microgenetic perspective however we need tomodify the representation of an activity system presented in figure 1 Inthat representation the focus was on the goal-oriented nature of action

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Here we need to focus on the interaction among the participants ndashtheirattempt to attain intersubjectivity with respect to the common object andthe complementarity of the knowledgeable skills they bring to the cocons-truction of the intended outcome (see Figure 2) What figure 2 emphasizesis the fact that although the tools and artefacts that are available to mediatethe jointly undertaken action are the same for each participant each bringsa somewhat different familiarity with their use as a result of their differentlife trajectories and it is this variability in their expertise that makes it pos-sible for each to provide assistance to the others in at least some aspects ofthe joint action Viewed in this light it is clear why Vygotsky emphasizedthe role of joint activity in development and wrote of its potential to enablelearners ldquoto go beyond themselvesrdquo with the assistance of more expertothers

The metaphor Vygotsky used to characterize the potential for learning thatthis sort of activity creates was the ldquozone of proximal developmentrdquo As hewrote when another participant in the activity provides instruction that isappropriately pitched beyond what the learner can manage to do on his or herown it ldquowakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturationlying in the zone of proximal developmentrdquo (1987 p 212) Vygotsky concep-tualized development as the formation of new functional systems (ldquoneoforma-tionsrdquo) and of changes in the relationships among systems which he consideredto occur as a succession of ldquocrises of developmentrdquo that are particularly facilitatedby engagement in the relevant ldquoleading activityrdquo at each stage for example playin childhood and learning to read and write in the early school yearsHowever itwould be a mistake to focus only on the periods of revolutionary change since ashe equally emphasized at any time there are also other more gradual processes ofgrowth

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 2Dialogue in Joint Activity(from Wells2002b)

Outcomematerial ampsemioticartefacts

Toolsartefacts

Subject

Rulesconventions

Community Divisionof labor

Subject

Toolsartefacts

Processes that are central lines of development at one age become peripheral lines of develop-ment at the following age and conversely peripheral lines of development of one age arebrought to the forefront and become central lines since their meaning and relative significancein the total structure of development changes (p 197)2

In developing his important concept of the zone of proximal developmentVygotsky tended to characterize the assistance given by others as ldquoinstructionrdquoand to see its value in ldquothe childrsquos potential to raise himself to a higher intellec-tual level of development through collaboration to move from what he has towhat he does not have through imitationrdquo (1987 p 210) However manyrecent scholars who have built on his work have taken a broader view of thedevelopmental significance of collaboration in joint activities and have characte-rized the assistance that is provided within this relationship in terms such asldquoapprenticeshiprdquo (Lave amp Wenger 1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoguided participationrdquo(Rogoff 1994 2003) and ldquoscaffoldingrdquo (Wood et al 1976) Neverthelesswhile these different metaphors highlight different features of the relationshipwhat they all have in common is the inclusion of the learner in an activity inwhich there is provision of the assistance necessary to help the learner to comple-te an activity in which he or she is interested and to do so in such a way that heor she makes progress toward being able to participate more fully and autono-mously in the future (Maybin Mercer and Stierer 1992)

In many joint activities such as for example traditional forms of craftapprenticeship assistance is only provided when needed and the ldquomasterrdquo doesso with no deliberate didactic intention beyond that of involving the novice inthe completion of the particular task in hand (Lave 1996) Similarly in sociali-zation into activities around the home no explicit instruction is necessary fornovices can learn a great deal by simply watching and listening (cf Rogoff2003) This is what Lave and Wenger (1991) mean when they insist that lear-ning is not an independent activity but an intrinsic aspect of ldquolegitimate perip-heral participationrdquo in a communityrsquos activities From their perspective therefo-re formal education in which learning is the sole purpose of the activity issomething of an anomaly particularly when the only form of assistance providedis the expert teacherrsquos direct instruction and subsequent evaluation of the extentof the studentsrsquo learning

In many recent discussions it has also been recognized that it is not only aldquoteacherrdquo who can provide assistance in the zpd On the one hand in a com-plex activity many participants are more expert than others in some aspectsand therefore on some occasions are able to help those who are less expert(Rogoff 1994) and on the other hand those who provide assistance do nothave to be physically present texts and other artifacts can equally well helpa participant ldquoto go beyond himherselfrdquo as is often the case in intellectualwork such as research and writ ing (Wells 1999) Furthermore asEngestroumlm (1999) and others ndashbuilding on other aspects of Vygotskyrsquos theo-retical writingsndash have noted the material and symbolic tools that have beendeveloped by previous participants in the activity can also provide the samesort of assistance However perhaps the most important point to emphasizeis that there are many situations in which no-one is an expert yet as eachbrings his or her own past experience to the solution of a common problemthe group together is able to achieve more than any single member couldhave done alone Clearly it is such collaboration that has made possible theinventions that have led to the major advances of great civilizations over thecourse of cultural history

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Development in the Pre-School Years

As noted above the responsibility for caring for children in early childhoodvaries very considerably from one society to another Nevertheless in all socie-ties children are involved in joint activities with others in which they receiveassistance with respect to their participation however that may be locally achie-ved For the most part as already mentioned these are activities that are regu-larly repeated in the taken-for-granted routines of daily life The expectation isthat the child will learn to fit in and is simply helped to do so Often referred toas ldquoenculturationrdquo this form of apprenticeship ensures the continuity of the cul-turersquos way of life from one generation to the next and as Donald (1991) arguedit probably occurred even before the emergence of speech

However in all activities there are occasions when problems arise that callfor some level of deliberate decision-making In these situations spoken interac-tion makes possible a degree of reflection and forward planning in which therelations of cause and effect intention action and outcome are made explicitand open to question and discussion The talk that occurs on these occasionsthus plays a particularly important role in helping children to attend to andunderstand the world around them in terms of the culturersquos ways of ldquomakingsenserdquo of it However these occasions can also open up possibilities for changeboth in the form of the activity and in the participantsrsquo understanding of itHow caregivers habitually take up these opportunities is particularly importantfor it plays an important part in shaping the intellectual dispositions withwhich children enter school (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo amp Sterponi2002)

In this section I include some representative examples of kinds of talk thatarise from joint activities in the home These examples are drawn from observa-tions made in settings in England (Wells 1986) and Australia (Hasan 2002) inwhich the young children observed spent most of their time at home with oneparent sometimes with one or more siblings some of the time they entertainedthemselves with occasional adult involvement but they also frequently watchedand ldquohelpedrdquo the parent with household tasks of various kinds

In the first example James (aged 3 12 years) has been playing alone in thegarden and as he reenters the house his mother tries to get him to take off hismuddy shoes However at that moment he sees a bird outside which interestshim more than changing his shoes

Example 1Mother There we are there one slipper onJames I can see a birdMother A what loveJames See a bird Mother (whispering) Is there OutsideJames (pointing and whispering) Yes see

(both continue to speak very softly)Mother Is he eating anythingJames NoMother Where Oh yes hersquos getting- do you know what hersquos doingJames NoMother Hersquos going to the- the paper sack to try to pick out some pieces-

Oh hersquos got some food there and I expect hersquoll pick out somepieces of thread from the sack to go and make his nest under the roofJames Wait a minute and Irsquoll-[James now wants to go out to see more closely but at that moment thebird flies away]

James That birdrsquos gone

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

In the second example Elizabeth (aged 4 years) who is helping with thehouse cleaning watches with interest as her mother shovels wood ash from thefireplace into a bucket

Example 2Elizabeth What are you doing that forMother Irsquom gathering it up and putting it outside so that Daddy can put it on the gardenElizabeth Why does he have to put it on the gardenMother To make the compost rightElizabeth Does that make the grass growMother YesElizabeth Why does itMother You know how I tell you that you need to eat different things like eggs and cab-

bage and rice pudding to make you grow into a big girlElizabeth YesMother Well plants need different foods too and ash is one of the things thatrsquos

good for them

The third example involves James again now eighteen months older Earlierin the afternoon he had been helping his mother with the baking Now hecomes back into the kitchen as his mother is taking the baking trays out of theoven He hears a loud metallic ldquocrackrdquo and asks for an explanation

Example 3James Who did thatMother I expect it was the tin contractingJames Which tinMother The one with your pastry inJames Why did it make that noiseMother Well when it was in the oven it got very hot and stretched a bit Irsquove just taken

it out of the oven and itrsquos cooling down very quickly you see and that noisehappens when it gets smaller again and goes back to its normal shape

James Oh was it a different shape in the ovenMother Oh not very different just a little biggerJames Naughty little tin you might get smacked if you do it again

In all three of these examples the mother willingly responds to the childrsquosinterest and provides information to explain the significance of what the child isseeing or hearing even when in the first this interrupts the motherrsquos plan Allthree cases show how the childrsquos participation in the activity with the adult assu-res that there is intersubjectivity of attention to what interests the child and thisenables the mother to provide relevant information Clearly this is a form ofldquoinstructionrdquo however it is spontaneous and contingent on the childrsquos interestrather than presented as part of a pre-planned curriculum

The third example is particularly interesting from this point of view as thephenomenon of interest to James requires a somewhat technical explanation Atsome point in the future no doubt the expansion of metal when heated and itssubsequent contraction when removed from the heat will figure in the schoolscience curriculum in relation to the systematic study of heat here however itis an interesting side-effect of baking and the motherrsquos explanation while tech-nical in content is couched in everyday language rather than in the abstractterms of scientific generalization As Hasan (2002) has observed

the discourse of quasi specialised knowledge occurs in the lsquomiddle ofrsquo daily activities and bynecessity it calls for a readiness on the motherrsquos part to entertain contextual shifts to bewilling to reclassify the context of the on-going discourse The tendency to move with thechildrsquos moving discourse the readiness to re-classify context is a discourse characteristic of thesame group of mothers who frequently ask questions made precise by qualification and whoattend to their childrenrsquos questions and provide them with well developed answers (p 123)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 20: Actividad y Aprendizaje

teoacuterico y cada modo de conocimiento tiene una contribucioacuten que hacer aleacutexito de soluciones comprensivas que realcen significativamente la com-prensioacuten Finalmente en la representacioacuten de estas relaciones en la figura 3la espiral tambieacuten resalta la interdependencia de los individuos y la comuni-dad Mientras que la experiencia y la comprensioacuten son esencialmente indivi-duales en su naturaleza crecen fuera de eacutel y adoptan su significado de la par-ticipacioacuten de los individuos en el intercambio de informacioacuten y en su com-promiso en la construccioacuten de conocimiento en la comunidad extensa de laque cada individuo es miembro

Desafortunadamente muchos educadores no comprenden estas relacionesfundamentales y por eso su instruccioacuten no es conceptualizada y planificada demanera que sea oacuteptima para el desarrollo de los estudiantes Como numerososestudios han mostrado (Langer y Applebee 1987 Nystrand y Gamoran 1991)en la mayoriacutea de las clases la que gobierna la praacutectica es la concepcioacuten bancariadel conocimiento (Freire 1970) seguacuten la cual el propoacutesito de la instruccioacuten quetiene lugar en el aula es que un alumno individual esteacute preparado para puntuarbien en los tests y no tanto ampliar su conocimiento Dada esta orientacioacuten lasactividades en las que se pide a los alumnos que participen estaacuten determinadaspor la guiacutea curricular del libro de texto maacutes que por el conocimiento de los pro-fesores sobre los intereses y habilidades de los alumnos particulares de los queson responsables A esto es a lo que Tharp y Gallimore (1988) se refieren con laexpresioacuten ldquoguioacuten recitativordquo unido a la ocupacioacuten de un lugar individual de tra-bajo que domina la rutina diaria Ademaacutes los planes sobre coacutemo proceder sonndashcomo cabiacutea esperarndash unilateralmente impuestos en lugar de ser configuradossobre la base de las decisiones tomadas por la comunidad de clase como un todoy el modus operandi es la competicioacuten en lugar de la colaboracioacuten

Sin embargo como he argumentado en otra parte (Wells 1986 19992002a) eacuteste no es el uacutenico modo en el que la escolarizacioacuten puede ser condu-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187184

FIGURA 3La espiral del conocimiento

ACCIOacuteN Construccioacuten

deconocimiento

ComprensioacutenSubstantivo

Esteacutetico

Teoacuterico

Procedimental

Instrumental

Experiencia Informacioacuten

Modos de conocimiento

cida ndasha pensar de la larga historia de la recitacioacuten que se remonta a maacutes detres mil antildeos a las tempranas instituciones que entrenaban a los escribas yadministradores para leer y escribir (Cole 1996)ndash Pero probablemente elmodo por defecto de la escolarizacioacuten es parecido a una preparacioacuten para ldquolavida adultardquo y no una etapa criacutetica del desarrollo que merece la pena y essignificativa en siacute misma Como Vygotski argumentoacute sobre el dominio de laalfabetizacioacuten ldquola ensentildeanza debe organizarse de tal manera que la lectura yla escritura sean necesarias para algo La escritura debe ser incorporada enuna tarea relevante y necesaria para la vidardquo (1978 pp117-118) Y porldquovidardquo quiere decir no la vida futura sino la totalidad de los intereses y pre-ocupaciones actuales de los aprendices

En los uacuteltimos antildeos se han divulgado proyectos de una variedad de paiacuteses enlos que educadores universitarios han procurado crear condiciones para elldquoaprendizaje auteacutenticordquo en las aulas En todos estos proyectos se ha otorgado unpapel central a las actividades colaborativas que alternando entre los formatos departicipacioacuten individual en pequentildeo grupo y de la clase completa implican alos estudiantes en la exploracioacuten de temas centrales mediante investigacionespraacutecticas y tambieacuten teoacutericas y en la discusioacuten criacutetica y constructiva de sus hallaz-gos y de las implicaciones para futuras acciones El espacio no permite aquiacute unadiscusioacuten individual de estos proyectos pero lo que puede ser dicho sobre todosellos es que en sus diferentes formas valoran tanto los intereses de los alumnoscomo sus experiencias previas y persiguen ayudarles a desarrollar la disposicioacutenpara buscar la comprensioacuten maacutes que la acumulacioacuten simple de informacioacuten ypara valorar la colaboracioacuten maacutes que la competicioacuten como el medio para alcanzaresta menta4

En este contexto es digno atraer la atencioacuten hacia varias instituciones poste-riores a la escuela tales como la Fifth Dimension donde la participacioacuten en activi-dades elegidas personalmente ndasha menudo basadas en ordenadoresndash requiere a losnintildeos dominar habilidades que son tambieacuten necesarias para la escolarizacioacuten y lesproporcionan oportunidades para interactuar con voluntarios universitarios enuna posicioacuten de igualdad (Brown y Cole 2002) De manera similar algunosprogramas basados en museos (Leinhardst Crowley y Kuntson 2002) y variasformas de educacioacuten al aire libre tambieacuten capitalizan los intereses de los estu-diantes para implicarles en actividades desafiantes que demandan para la cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento procesos de diaacutelogo y toma de decisiones comparablesa aquellos encontrados en los contextos escolares previamente descritos

Finalmente si estas praacutecticas pioneras arraigan e influyen en la educacioacutenpuacuteblica con mayor amplitud es esencial que los profesores tengan oportunidadessimilares para desarrollar las disposiciones y pericia necesarias para actuar comoagentes de cambio y liacutederes de una reforma en las instituciones en las que traba-jan Es por lo tanto estimulante ver que a pesar del eacutenfasis de los dirigentes poliacute-ticos en estandarizar los curricula y en los resultados cuantificables algunos pro-gramas de formacioacuten de profesores y desarrollo profesional anima a los profeso-res sobre la base de investigaciones sobre su propia praacutectica a tomar sus propiasdecisiones sobre queacute debe ser ensentildeado y coacutemo y a compartir los resultados desus investigaciones con los compantildeeros Este ha sido el motor de mi propio tra-bajo en los antildeos recientes ya que he participado en la investigacioacuten colaborativacon profesores para crear y mantener comunidades de investigacioacuten tanto en cla-ses como entre los mismos profesores5

185El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Notas1 La secuencia temporal implicada por esta formulacioacuten ha sido ampliamente debatida y especialmente el movimiento desde fueraa dentro que sugiere Mi propia comprensioacuten de lo que la apropiacioacuten supone se capta mejor con el ejemplo de aprender a bailarmediante la inmersioacuten en la actividad con otros (Wells 1999) En muchos casos no hay separacioacuten entre antes y despueacutes o entrefuera y dentro y no hay necesidad de demostracioacuten o ejemplificacioacuten En lugar de esto estando inmerso en la actividad conjuntael principiante es literalmente entrenado fiacutesicamente por los movimiento del coparticipante mientras que al mismo tiempoconstruye su propia organizacioacuten ndashy quizaacute incluso una representacioacuten esquemaacuteticandash de los movimientos corporales A lo largo deltiempo este esquema estaacute tan bien organizado que el principiante se convierte en un experto que estaacute preparado paralelamentepara introducir a otros en la actividad Esto es lo que Lave y Wenger (1991) y Rogoff (2003) quieren decir por desarrollo median-te la participacioacuten en actividades culturales

2 Estoy agradecido a Natalia Gajdamaschko y Steve Gabosch por sus valiosas discusiones de esta distincioacuten durante el XMCA cursoonline sobre la teoriacutea de la actividad histoacuterico cultural Abril 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Aunque estaacute incluido en la Tabla I este modo de conocimiento no ha sido discutido aquiacute ya que el reconocimiento expliacutecito deeste importante modo de conocimiento es muy reciente (Brown 1975) Sin embargo eso no significa que sea en siacute mismo unnuevo fenoacutemeno

4 Para algunos ejemplos representativos veacutease Brown y Campione 1994 Lampert Rittenhouse y Crumbaugh 1996 McMahonRaphael Goatley y Pardo 1997 Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford y Brown 1998 Scardamalia Bereiter y Lamon 1994

5 Juntos formamos un grupo de investigacioacuten colaborativo DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project)(Wells (Ed) 2001)

ReferenciasBAJTIacuteN M M (1986) Speech genres and other late essays Austin University of Texas PressBERNSTEIN B (1982) Codes modalities and the process of cultural reproduction A model En M Apple (Ed) Cultural and econo-

mic reproduction in education (pp 304-355) Londres Routledge amp Kegan PaulBROWN A L (1975) The development of memory Knowing knowing about knowing and knowing how to know En H W

Reese (Ed) Advances in child development and behavior (Vol 10 pp 103-152) Nueva York Academic Press BROWN A L amp CAMPIONE J C (1994) Guided discovery in a community of learners En K McGilly (Ed) Integrating cognitive

theory and classroom practice Classroom lessons (pp 229-270) Cambridge MA MIT PressBradford BooksBROWN K amp COLE M (2002) Cultural historical activity theory and the expansion of opportunities for learning after school En

G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 225-238)Oxford Blackwell

BRUNER J S (1990) Acts of meaning Cambridge MA Harvard University PressCARR M (2002) Emerging learning narratives A perspective from early childhood education En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds)

Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 99-111) Oxford BlackwellCOLE M (1996) Cultural psychology A once and future discipline Cambridge MA The Bellknap Press of Harvard University PressDEACON T W (1997) The symbolic species The co-evolution of language and the brain Nueva York NortonDIAMOND J (1998) Guns germs and steel The fates of human societies Nueva York NortonDONALD M (1991) Origins of the Modern Mind Three Stages in the Evolution of Culture and Cognition Cambridge MA Harvard

University PressDONOAHUE Z (2003) Science teaching and learning Teachers and children plan together Networks 6(1) httpwwwoiseuto-

rontoca~ctdnetworksjournal Vol 6 (1) 2003marchENGESTROumlM Y (1999) Activity theory and individual and social transformation Y En Engestrom R Miettinen amp R-L Puna-

maki (Eds) Perspectives on activity theory (pp 19-38) Cambridge Cambridge University PressFREIRE P (1970) Pedagogy of the oppressed Nueva York Herder and HerderHALLIDAY M A K (1975) Learning how to mean Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1978) Language as social semiotic The social interpretation of language and meaning Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1993) Towards a language-based theory of learning Linguistics and Education 5 93-116HASAN R (2002) Semiotic mediation and mental development in pluralistic societies Some implications for tomorrowrsquos schoo-

ling En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural peerspectives on the future of education (pp112-126) Oxford Blackwell

HEATH S B (1983) Ways with words Cambridge Cambridge University PressLAMPERT M RITTENHOUSE P amp CRUMBAUGH C (1996) Agreeing to disagree Developing sociable mathematical discourse En

D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook of education and human development (pp 731-764) Cambridge MA Blackwell LANGER J A amp APPLEBEE A N (1987) How writing shapes thinking A study of teaching and learning Urbana IL National Council

of Teachers of EnglishLAVE J (1996) Teaching as learning in practice Mind Culture and Activity 3 (3) 149-164LAVE J amp WENGER E (1991) Situated Learning Legitimate peripheral participation Nueva York Cambridge University PressLEINHARDT G CROWLEY K amp KNUTSON K (2002) Learning conversations Explanation and identity in museums Mahwah NJ

Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesLEONTIEV A N (1981) The problem of activity in psychology En J VWertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 37-71) Armonk NY SharpeMAYBIN J MERCER N amp STIERER B (1992) lsquoScaffoldingrsquo learning in the classroom En K Norman (Ed) Thinking voices The

work of the National Oracy Project (pp 186-195) Londres Hodder amp StoughtonMCMAHON S I RAPHAEL T E GOATLEY V J amp PARDO L S (Eds) (1997) The Book Club connection Literacy learning and class-

room talk Nueva York Teachers College PressNELSON K (1996) Language in cognitive development The emergence of the mediated mind Nueva York Cambridge University PressNEWSON J (1978) Dialogue and development En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol The emergence of language (pp 31-42)

New York Academic Press

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187186

NYSTRAND M amp GAMORAN A (1991) Student engagement When recitation becomes conversation En H C Waxman amp H JWalberg (Eds) Effective teaching Current research (pp 257-276)Berkeley CA McCutchan Publishing Corp

OLSON D R amp BRUNER J S (1996) Folk psychology and folk pedagogy En D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook ofeducation and human development (pp 9-27) Cambridge MA Blackwell

PALINCSAR A MAGNUSSON S MARANO N FORD D amp BROWN N (1998) Designing a community of practice Principlesand practices of the GIsML Community Teaching and Teacher Education 14 (1) 5-20

PIAGET J (1970) Piagetrsquos theory En P H Mussen (Ed) Carmichaelrsquos handbook of child development (pp 703-732) Nueva YorkWiley

PONTECORVO C amp STERPONI L (2002) Learning to argue and reason through discourse in educational settings En G Wells ampG Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 127-140) OxfordBlackwell

ROGOFF B (1990) Apprenticeship in thinking Cognitive development in social context Nueva York Oxford University PressROGOFF B (1994) Developing understanding of the idea of Communities of Learners Mind Culture and Activity 1 (4) 209-

229ROGOFF B (2003) The cultural nature of human development Nueva York Oxford University PressROSENBLATT L (1978) The reader the text the poem The transactional theory of the literary work Carbondale IL Southern Illinois

University PressSCARDAMALIA M C BEREITER amp LAMON M (1994) The CSILE project Trying to bring the classroom into World 3 En K

McGilley (Ed) Classroom lessons Integrating cognitive theory and classroom practice (pp 201-228) Cambridge MA MITPress

SCRIBNER S (1985) Vygotskyrsquos uses of history En J V Wertsch (Ed) Culture communication and cognition Vygotskian perspectives(pp 119-145) Cambridge Cambridge University Press

THARP R amp GALLIMORE R (1988) Rousing minds to life Nueva York Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C (1979) Communication and cooperation in early infancy a description of primary intersubjectivity En M

Bullowa (Ed) Before speech The beginning of interpersonal communication (pp 321-348) Cambridge Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C amp HUBLEY P (1978) Secondary intersubjectivity Confidence confiding and acts of meaning in the first year

En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol the emergence of language (pp 183-230) Nueva York Academic PressVYGOTSKI L S (1978)Mind in society The development of higher psychological processes Cambridge MA Harvard University PressVYGOTSKI L S (1981) The genesis of higher mental functions En J V Wertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 144-188) Armonk NY SharpeVYGOTSKI L S (1987) Thinking and speech En R W Rieber amp A S Carton (Eds) The collected works of L S Vygotsky Volumen

1 Problems of general psychology (pp 39-285) Nueva York PlenumWARTOFSKY M (1979) Models representation and scientific understanding Boston ReidelWELLS G (1985) Language development in the pre-school years Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (1986) The meaning makers Children learning language and using language to learn Portsmouth NH HeinemannWELLS G (1999) Dialogic inquiry Towards a sociocultural practice and theory of education Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (Ed) (2001) Action talk and text Learning and teaching through inquiry Nueva York Teachers College PressWELLS G (2002a) Learning and teaching for understanding The key role of collaborative knowledge building En J Brophy

(Ed) Social constructivist teaching Affordances and constraints (pp 1-41) Osford Elsevier ScienceJAIWELLS G (2002b) The role of dialogue in activity theory Mind Culture and Activity 9 (1) 43-66WERTSCH J V MINICK N amp ARNS F J (1984) The creation of context in joint problem solving En B Rogoff amp J Lave (Eds)

Everyday cognition Its development in social context (pp 151-171) Cambridge Cambridge University PressWOOD D BRUNER J S amp ROSS G (1976) The role of tutoring in problem-solving Journal of Child Psychology and Child Psy-

chiatry 17 89-100

187El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Original text

Introduction

Compared with other species the characteristic that distinguishes humans isthe ability and proclivity to engage in tool-mediated joint activity with otherhumans It is this characteristic that accounts for the development of human cul-tures over the course of history as they invented artefacts of various kinds inorder to adapt to and exploit the ecological niches in which they found themsel-ves It also accounts for the diversity of individual personsrsquo development whichdepend on the particular activities in which they participate As Vygotsky(1978 1981) was one of the first to point out the lsquohigherrsquo mental functions thatmake us human are not biologically given but are developmentally constructedthrough the appropriation of historically developed tools and practices that aremade manifest to the child and lsquoscaffoldedrsquo in the meaningful actions and utte-rances of the coparticipants in joint activity

Before continuing readers might find it interesting to reflect on their owndevelopmental trajectories to who they are today I suspect that they may findthemselves agreeing that Who we become depends on the company we keep and what wedo together

A Brief History of the Development of Joint Activity

Leontrsquoev provides a succinct account of Vygotskyrsquos insight in the followingsummary

The initial ideas that led Vygotsky to investigate the genesis of internal mental activity fromexternal activity are fundamentally different from the theoretical approaches of other modernauthors These ideas came from the analysis of the features unique to human productive laboractivity which is mediated by tools This activity is initially social in nature that is it is deve-loped under the conditions of cooperation and social interaction among people Vygotskyidentified two main interconnected features [of this activity] that are necessarily fundamentalfor psychology its tool-like (lsquoinstrumentalrsquo) structure and its inclusion in a system of interre-lations with other people It is these features that define the nature of human psychologicalprocesses The tool mediates activity and thus connects humans not only with the world ofobjects but also with other people Because of this humanrsquos activity assimilates the experience ofhumankind This means that humansrsquo mental processes (their lsquohigher psychological functionsrsquo)acquire a structure necessarily tied to the sociohistorically formed means and methods trans-mitted to them by others in the process of cooperative labor and social interaction But it isimpossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in any way otherthan a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words higher psycho-logical processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction with others thatis through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried out indepen-dently by the individual (Leontrsquoev 1981 pp 55-56 emphases in the original)

As well as emphasizing the social and cooperative nature of human activity thisquotation is important with respect to the arguments that I want to develop inthis paper as it highlights the central role of semiotic mediation in developmentKnowledge is created as well as appropriated in the discourse among peoplewho are working together in a specific situation in order to create or improve anartefact or to solve a problem of importance to the group However Leontrsquoevalso alludes to another of Vygotskyrsquos key insights namely that in order tounderstand current activity it is necessary to investigate the history of that acti-vity It is to this that I next turn

In analyzing the history of human development at least four different time-scales need to be considered The longest is the history of the cultural evolution of

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

the species (the phylogenetic level) next is the historical development of particu-lar cultures The third level (ontogenetic) traces the developmental trajectory ofindividual humans over the course of the lifespan Finally the microgenetic levelis concerned with the development of an instance of a particular activity

In practice it is the latter that has been explored in most detail for usingcontemporary technology it is relatively easy to observe and record the sequenceof actions through which an activity is enacted and the specific operations inwhich the participants engage making use of the relevant artefacts that are avai-lable in the situation (Leontrsquoev 1981) These artefacts may be either material(knives pencils automobiles) or symbolic (utterances maps theories) ndashthoughas Cole (1996) has pointed out to function as mediators of joint activity all arte-facts must have some form of material embodiment as well as a symbolic mea-ning that is to say they must be ready to hand and also have a cultural signifi-cance relevant to the situation

However the form in which a particular instance of activity is realizeddepends not only on the artefacts that are to hand in the situation but also onthe participantsrsquo past experiences with the practices in which the artefacts areused to mediate achievement of the action goals that contribute to the joint acti-vity Thus the microgenesis of a particular instance of activity is necessarilydependent upon the ontogenetic development of the participants that is to sayupon the opportunities their life trajectories have afforded them to appropriatethe relevant cultural knowledge through participation in instances of similaractions and operations

But on the time-scale of ontogenetic development each individualrsquos trajectoryof development is itself strongly influenced by the culture in which he or she isgrowing up and on the historical development of that culture As Rogoff (2003)illustrates in considerable detail cultures vary considerably both over time andacross ecological niches in what mediating artefacts and practices are available andin the relative value accorded to each Moreover within each culture at any parti-cular historical moment participants in activities both incorporate the ways ofprevious generations and adapt them to the exigencies of current conditions

Stepping up one further level the historical development of a particular cul-tures is itself shaped by development on the even larger timescale of the culturaland biological evolution of the species This is the most difficult timescale todescribe in detail for lack of the necessary evidence But certain broad distinc-tions between human communities can be made in terms of their modes of sub-sistence and of the mediating means available for joint activity (Diamond 1998Donald 1991) As recent research has shown our earliest ancestors some 5million years ago lived in small bands of hunter gatherers often on the edge oflakes and oceans Initially their tools were found in the surroundings but overseveral million years they invented ways of making more sophisticated artefactssuch as knives arrowheads baskets and clothing from flints bones skins andvegetable materials Then as some groups migrated to particularly fertile partsof the world they adopted a more settled agrarian way of life growing cropsand breeding animals The resulting ability to produce more food than imme-diately required led in turn to the emergence of trade and to a diversity of spe-cialist occupations such as potters and tailors who exchanged their products forfood and other necessities This stage also saw the development of much largerpopulation groupings with hierarchical class structures that included prieststax collectors and other religious and political functionaries

While migration had been a common feature of human existence from theearliest times the development of large settled populations and of weapons

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

made of bronze and iron led to the expansion of certain cultural groups throughterritorial conquest and colonization by sea and by land As a result during thelast few thousand years the latest phase of phylogenetic development has beencharacterized by the rise and fall of imperial cultures which have imposed theirtechnologies laws and administrative procedures as well as their religions artsknowledge and values on widely diverse subjugated populations Most recentlythe further development of the inventions that led to the first industrial revolu-tion has simply served to increase the scale and intensity of these imperialisttrends At the same time these inventions as well as those of the current indus-trial revolution have also led to a great increase in humansrsquo understanding oftheir social and material environment both through scientific and social rese-arch and through the dissemination of information about other times and placesresulting from travel and the use of print and electronic technologies

In presenting this very condensed account of phylogenetic development Ihave emphasized the material tools that have mediated the progressively morecomplex and diverse activities in which humans have engaged over the course ofthe speciesrsquo history However bearing in mind that what has been the drivingforce of human development is joint activity an equally ndashif not morendash impor-tant determinant of this history is the development of the modes of representa-tion through which humans have communicated and developed their unders-tanding of the world Table I presents the developmental sequence proposed byDonald (1991) based on archeological neuroanatomical historical and othertypes of evidence The table also includes the stages in the historical develop-ment of ways of knowing that were proposed by Wartofsky (1979)

The first stage in this sequence corresponds to the phase in which proto-humans began to diverge from other primate species In this phase as in thebehavior of contemporary higher primates practical action was the predomi-nant form of communication as ndashnot necessarily deliberatelyndash participants sig-naled their intentions in a shared situation and these intentions were interpre-ted and responded to by their co-participants in the activity In the secondmimetic phase which must have developed gradually over many millenniacommunication became somewhat differentiated from the activity to which itreferred as humans deliberately used gestures mime facial expression andvarious types of phonation to comment on as well as to coordinate action and theobjects to which it was directed Later still with the gradual modification of thevocal tract and of the primate brain there emerged the ability to communicatethrough speech and hence the ability to refer not only to particular objects andactions but also to generalized classes and to express observed and intendedrelationships between objects actions and events thus allowing participants toplan for and reflect on the outcomes of joint activity Finally the invention ofwriting which ushered in the final phase in Donaldrsquos proposed sequence occu-rred extremely recently in the long trajectory of phylogenetic development Yetas with those that preceded it enormously increased the human repertoire ofmeans for making and communicating meaning Essentially what it added wasan ldquoexternal memoryrdquo By creating a (relatively) permanent representation oflinguistic meaning it made possible the compilation and distillation of repor-ted information from many sources including the writerrsquos own verbalizedthoughts It also allowed the writer and those who read his or her written textto review critique and revise the meanings expressed and to make the resultsavailable to people in later times and other places for further constructive debateand improvement

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

However action gesture speech and writing are not simply progressivelymore powerful modes of communication They are also progressively morepowerful mediators of thinking This is most obvious with respect to the lin-guistic modes of communication But even before the emergence of speechaction and ndashto an even greater extentndash mimesis enabled humans to think toget-her and thereby to create a shared interpretation of their joint activities In fact ithas been argued that the emergence of language was not simply the result ofbrain and vocal tract development but rather was part of a more general patternof adaptation that building upon the cognitive achievements of mimetic kno-wing strove to integrate the unconnected bits of information in a more compre-hensive and coherent account of being-in-the-world (Deacon 1997) Neverthe-less it is also true that the availability of language greatly enhanced both com-munication and thinking together for as Halliday observed

the grammar of every natural language is (among other things) a theory of human experienceit is through our acts of meaning that we transform experience into the coherent -though farfrom consistent- patchwork that we learn to project as lsquorealityrsquo (1993 p 46)

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

TABLE IModes Of Knowing Phylogenetic And Cultural Development (from Wells 1999)

Time Mode of Participants Donald(1991) Wartofsky(1979)Years BP Knowing

2 million Instrumental Individual in action Episodic Primary artifactsyears material tools

1 -- 15 million Procedural Between individuals while Mimetic Secondaryyears engaged in action artifacts tools

and practicesmimeticinteraction

50000 Substantive Among members of a (Linguistic) Secondaryyears cultural group reflecting on artifacts

action and as a basis for representations ofplanning further action tools and

practices spokeninteraction

50000 Aesthetic Among members of a Mythic Tertiary artifactsyears cultural group making sense artistic represent-

of the human predicament ations in mythnarrative graphicand musical modes

2500 Theoretical Among members of a Theoretic Tertiary artifactsyears specialist community decontextualized

seeking to explain the natural representationsand human world such as

taxonomiestheories models etc

Meta Among members of a Tertiary artifacts cultural group also representations ofindividuals seeking to mental andunderstand and control their semioticown mental activity processes

In sum what Donald and other scholars argue is that contemporary mentalabilities are the outcome of the development over time of a series of progressi-vely more powerful and flexible modes of representation ndashor in Vygotskyanterms of semiotic mediators of higher mental functions- that have made possi-ble the rational theoretically oriented modes of knowing that underpin theachievements of modern science and its technological applications In the philo-sopher Wartofskyrsquos words

our own perceptual and cognitive understanding of the world is in large part shaped andchanged by the representational artifacts we ourselves create We are in effect the products ofour own activity in this way we transform our own perceptual and cognitive modes our waysof seeing and of understanding by means of the representations we make (1979 p xxiii)

There is however one further important aspect of Donaldrsquos (1991) thesis thatis crucial for the argument that I wish to develop Although the semiotic sys-tems of mimesis speech and writing each powered a new mode of cognitiveactivity they did not replace those that preceded but were additive in theireffects The result is that contemporary humans have a variety of modes of kno-wing at their disposal as they engage in joint activity Furthermore most suchactivities call for more than one mode of knowing and require the complemen-tary and interdependent use of more than one mode of representation

Joint Activity as the Site of Ontogenetic Learning and Development

Two important implications follow from the multi-level historical concep-tion of development just outlined First on any occasion the type of activitythat is undertaken and the specific manner in which it is enacted are necessarilydependent on the particular cultural-historical antecedents of the participantsboth human and artefactual that come together in its realization In particularthe manner in which the situation is interpreted ndashin terms of what action goalsare appropriate and how they can be achievedndash depends on the motives valuesand knowledgeable skills of the human participants and on the affordances ofthe technologies available in the situation And second every instance of an acti-vity provides an occasion for a triple transformation of the situation in whichthe activity is carried out of the artefacts and practices that mediate its enact-ment and most importantly of the knowledge and skills of the human partici-pants Taken together these propositions clarify the way in which cultural andindividual development are both interdependent and rooted in particular situa-ted occasions of joint activity As Rogoff (1994) argues

People of each generation as they engage in sociocultural endeavors with other people makeuse of and extend cultural tools and practices inherited from previous generations As peopledevelop through their shared use of cultural tools and practices they simultaneously contribu-te to the transformation of cultural tools practices and institutions (p 52)

Potentially therefore every occasion of joint activity provides an opportunityfor development on the part of all participants This is a point to which I shallreturn But first I want to consider more carefully the concept of developmentitself

Clearly built into the concept of development is the implication of change andtypically of change in the direction of increasing complexity and effectiveness Inother words development is typically taken to imply improvement or progresstoward some ideal end state or capability However in the light of the previousdiscussion such a progression while it may be meaningful to (some of the) partici-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

pants in any particular situation cannot be understood in any absolute sense butmust be seen as relative to the unfolding historical trajectory of the species of aparticular culture and of the immediate community ndashits values its dominantactivities and the knowledgeable skills that form its resources Furthermore just asthese have changed in the past they will continue to change in the future in res-ponse to the changing demands of the larger environment So while ontogeneticdevelopment does indeed involve increasing complexity and effectiveness of indi-vidualsrsquo participation in the activity systems in which they are involved in theirdaily lives the overall trajectory of development is emergent and its endpoint cannever be specified in advance even in terms of an ideal to be attained

Nevertheless this does not mean that there are not strong regularities in thesequence of ontogenetic development particularly in the early years Indeed asNelson (1996) has suggested during the preschool years children follow a trajec-tory very similar to the sequence of phylogenetic development proposed byDonald (1991) (see Table I above) as they appropriate the semiotic tools of repre-sentation afforded by action mimesis speech and writing Of course this is not asimple recapitulation children growing up in a contemporary literate culture forexample are surrounded from birth by artifacts and practices that result from andembody all the available modes of knowing (Cole 1996) Appropriating existingcultural tools is thus very different from inventing them ex novo as Scribner (1985)points out Nevertheless given the combination of biological and cultural inheri-tance it is not surprising that in most if not all cultures children follow the samesequence as did the species as a whole over the course of history

In the first weeks of life infants act on their immediate surroundings bothanimate and inanimate and begin to develop what Piaget (1970) called sensori-motor intelligence However although this most basic form of activity mayappear to be instinctual it is nevertheless also inherently social First all infantsare born into an environment that is cultural in the sense of having been shapedby countless preceding generations and second the infantrsquos actions are treatedas being intentional and are responded to as such So from the beginning theinfant is caught up in social interaction (Newson 1978) In the second phasewhich typically begins in the first few months the infant also begins to engagein mimetic communication through gaze facial expression and rudimentarygesture (Bruner 1990) Couched in terms of primary and secondary intersubjec-tivity this phase has been described in considerable detail by Trevarthen (19781979) Primary intersubjectivity develops as the infant and parent engage inmutual gaze thereby communicating that they are attending to and respondingto each other In secondary intersubjectivity third parties are brought into jointattention as the parent through gaze directs the infantrsquos attention to an object ofpotential interest or follows the childrsquos direction of gaze and signals that he orshe is also attending to the same object

It is on this basis of joint action and attention that towards the end of thefirst year the child begins to exploit his or her growing command of vocaliza-tion often accompanied by gesture to begin to communicate through speechFrom research predominantly involving children in ldquoWesternrdquo societies it hasbeen established that at first the childrsquos utterances are idiosyncratic drawingonly partially ndashif at allndash on the speech of those around him or her neverthelessparents and other family members have little difficulty in interpreting them incontext and once again they respond in a manner that is contingent on theirinterpretation thereby establishing spoken communication as a joint interactiveactivity By the end of the second year however children appear to abandon thisidiosyncratic ldquoprotolanguagerdquo form of communication and begin to construct a

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

linguistic meaning potential that is systematically related to the language thatis addressed to them in the oft-repeated activities of family life (Bruner 1990Halliday 1975 Wells 1986) Significantly within particular language com-munities the sequence in which children master the basic meanings and thelexicogrammatical forms in which they are realized tends to be very similar fromchild to child (Wells 1985)

The developmental sequence just described ndashaction mimesis speechndash is com-mon to children in all cultures and in all cases takes place in and through jointactivity and interaction with other family and community members Howeveralthough the sequence is universal the manner and pace at which it proceeds varyvery considerably across cultures These differences depend upon many culturally-determined factors such as adult expectations about their childrenrsquos developmentthe position in which the infant is typically held or carried facing the caregiver orturned outwards to face in the same direction as the caregiver the makeup and sizeof the interactional groups in which communication typically occurs and whetherthese events are part of family and community life more generally or are delibera-tely arranged and structured for the presumed benefit of the child (Rogoff 2003)In the later stages of language development the range and extent of the meaningpotential that children construct begins to vary even more widely depending onthe activities in which they engage the linguistic registers that are used in thoseactivities and the stances typically adopted by interlocutors toward the use of lan-guage in their interactions with children (Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

So far the ontogenetic developmental sequence I have described is funda-mentally similar across cultures and follows the phylogenetic sequence in whichhumans have progressively added new semiotic mediational means to theircommunicative repertoires In an important sense therefore the final mode ofrepresentation in Donaldrsquos scheme that of writing is an optional extra sincemany cultures have survived and prospered without a written mode of represen-ting meaning Moreover even in cultures that have a writing system the extentand scope of literacy that individuals attain varies very considerably dependingon the activity systems in which they participate the value that is placed onwritten texts by those communmities the purposes to which they are put andthe genres that are used for those purposes However since literacy and its usesare so strongly associated with schooling I shall leave further discussion of thismode of semiotic mediation to a later part of this paper

Before concluding this section however I want to explore further the con-cept of semiotic mediation In one of the better known passages in Vygotskyrsquoswritings where he argued for the social and cultural origin of higher mentalfunctions he wrote that every function occurs on two planes first in activity andinteraction between people and then within the individual learner (Vygotsky1981) What bridges between these two planes as is clear from his other wri-tings is semiotic mediation To recall Leontrsquoevrsquos formulation of this argument

hellip it is impossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in anyway other than a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words hig-her psychological processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction withothers that is through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried outindependently by the individual (1981 pp 55-56)

In other words when people engage in joint activity their actions gesturesand speech not only mediate the coordination of participation but they alsomake overt the mental activities involved and so render them available forappropriation by novice participants1 Halliday is very clear about this Alt-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

hough the following quotation refers only to language the term lsquolanguagersquocould justifiably be replaced by lsquosemiotic mediationrsquo

In the development of the child as a social being language has the central role Language is themain channel through which the patterns of living are transmitted to him through which helearns to act as a member of lsquosocietyrsquo ndashin and through the various social groups the family theneighbourhood and so onndash and to adopt its lsquoculturersquo its modes of thought and action itsbeliefs and its values (1978 p 9)

However as the child grows older language does become the predominantmode of semiotic mediation and as he wrote in a later paper ldquoLanguage is theessential condition of knowing the process by which experience becomes know-ledge (Halliday 1993 p 94 original emphasis)

Assistance for Learning in Joint Activitie

So far in the discussion of the role of joint activity in human development Ihave concentrated on the tools and particularly the semiotic modes of represen-tation that mediate the achievement of the outcome of activity In this sectionon the other hand I turn to the role of other people in this process both familymembers and the larger community

Until now I have referred to coparticipants in an activity in general termsbut clearly there are further distinctions to be made Particularly helpful in thisrespect is Engestroumlmrsquos model of an activity system which is shown in figure 1

What this model shows is that when we look at an ongoing activity from thepoint of view of an individual participant (t Subject) that individual is involvedin a nexus of other relationships that link him or her to other lsquoparticipantsrsquo theTools and artifacts to mediate action on the Object but also the Community of

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 1The Triangle of Activity

Artifactstools andpractices

Values rulesamp conventions

Community Divisioacutenof labor

Engestrom 1999

Object OutcomeSubject

others engaged in the activity together with the Division of Labor within thatcommunity and also the Rules and Conventions that govern the manner inwhich the activity is carried out (Engestroumlm 1999) What this latter category oflsquoparticipantrsquo underscores is the historical dimension of an activity system sincethese rules and conventions ndashas well as the tools and artifactsndash bring into thepresent the distilled practices of previous generations who have engaged in theactivity as these are interpreted and utilized by the current community

To illustrate the relevance of this model to the development of the youngchild we might compare two versions of a similar activity reported by WertschMinick and Arns (1984) In their study Brazilian children carried out a puzzletask on two occasions first with the mother and secondly with a primary tea-cher What the researchers found was that in general the mothers and teachersengaged in the activity in systematically different ways Whereas the motherstended to direct the childrenrsquos behavior or even carry out parts of the task them-selves in order to complete it in an efficient manner ndashjust as they would havedone if engaged in a household taskndash the teachers tended to encourage thechildrsquos autonomous performance and only provided hints and suggestions whenthey judged them to be necessary to advance the childrenrsquos understandingInterpreting these results the researchers suggested that the two groups ofadults belonged to two different communities (or activity systems) that had dif-ferent rules and conventions about engaging in this joint activity And this inturn led to the different divisions of labor that they observed Similarly Rogoff(2003) cites many examples of substantial differences between cultures inalmost all aspects of child rearing with respect to their ways of engaging chil-dren in the activities that they consider important

What is clear is that ldquobehindrdquo the particular adult ndashor older siblings in someculturesndash who are directly engaged with the child there is a wider communityof family members neighbors and others who have an interest in the upbrin-ging of children and who share beliefs about appropriate ways to involve themin the activities of daily life So whether in Spain Japan or the Peruvian High-lands although the actual practices vary across cultures in each those responsi-ble for childrenrsquos well-being and development act as agents of a wider commu-nity whose beliefs and practices are rooted in a long tradition concerning howactivities should be carried out But equally in all cultures practices also changein response to changes in the world beyond the particular community In manyWestern homes for example computer games or television programs haverecently taken the place of the bedtime story while in many indigenous com-munities crafts that until recently only supplied local needs are now exploitedcommercially for the tourist trade changing the rhythms of daily life and therelationships among family members and the activities in which children areinvolved As suggested earlier therefore in order to understand the activities inwhich children participate today we need to look not only at the immediatesituation but also at the wider community and the changes taking place on allthese time-scales

Microgenesis and the Zone of Proximal Development

It is nevertheless always the immediate microgenetic situation that isthe site of ontogenetic development ndashthe action and interaction between thelearner and those with whom he or she is engaged in the activity in pro-gress When we adopt this microgenetic perspective however we need tomodify the representation of an activity system presented in figure 1 Inthat representation the focus was on the goal-oriented nature of action

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Here we need to focus on the interaction among the participants ndashtheirattempt to attain intersubjectivity with respect to the common object andthe complementarity of the knowledgeable skills they bring to the cocons-truction of the intended outcome (see Figure 2) What figure 2 emphasizesis the fact that although the tools and artefacts that are available to mediatethe jointly undertaken action are the same for each participant each bringsa somewhat different familiarity with their use as a result of their differentlife trajectories and it is this variability in their expertise that makes it pos-sible for each to provide assistance to the others in at least some aspects ofthe joint action Viewed in this light it is clear why Vygotsky emphasizedthe role of joint activity in development and wrote of its potential to enablelearners ldquoto go beyond themselvesrdquo with the assistance of more expertothers

The metaphor Vygotsky used to characterize the potential for learning thatthis sort of activity creates was the ldquozone of proximal developmentrdquo As hewrote when another participant in the activity provides instruction that isappropriately pitched beyond what the learner can manage to do on his or herown it ldquowakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturationlying in the zone of proximal developmentrdquo (1987 p 212) Vygotsky concep-tualized development as the formation of new functional systems (ldquoneoforma-tionsrdquo) and of changes in the relationships among systems which he consideredto occur as a succession of ldquocrises of developmentrdquo that are particularly facilitatedby engagement in the relevant ldquoleading activityrdquo at each stage for example playin childhood and learning to read and write in the early school yearsHowever itwould be a mistake to focus only on the periods of revolutionary change since ashe equally emphasized at any time there are also other more gradual processes ofgrowth

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 2Dialogue in Joint Activity(from Wells2002b)

Outcomematerial ampsemioticartefacts

Toolsartefacts

Subject

Rulesconventions

Community Divisionof labor

Subject

Toolsartefacts

Processes that are central lines of development at one age become peripheral lines of develop-ment at the following age and conversely peripheral lines of development of one age arebrought to the forefront and become central lines since their meaning and relative significancein the total structure of development changes (p 197)2

In developing his important concept of the zone of proximal developmentVygotsky tended to characterize the assistance given by others as ldquoinstructionrdquoand to see its value in ldquothe childrsquos potential to raise himself to a higher intellec-tual level of development through collaboration to move from what he has towhat he does not have through imitationrdquo (1987 p 210) However manyrecent scholars who have built on his work have taken a broader view of thedevelopmental significance of collaboration in joint activities and have characte-rized the assistance that is provided within this relationship in terms such asldquoapprenticeshiprdquo (Lave amp Wenger 1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoguided participationrdquo(Rogoff 1994 2003) and ldquoscaffoldingrdquo (Wood et al 1976) Neverthelesswhile these different metaphors highlight different features of the relationshipwhat they all have in common is the inclusion of the learner in an activity inwhich there is provision of the assistance necessary to help the learner to comple-te an activity in which he or she is interested and to do so in such a way that heor she makes progress toward being able to participate more fully and autono-mously in the future (Maybin Mercer and Stierer 1992)

In many joint activities such as for example traditional forms of craftapprenticeship assistance is only provided when needed and the ldquomasterrdquo doesso with no deliberate didactic intention beyond that of involving the novice inthe completion of the particular task in hand (Lave 1996) Similarly in sociali-zation into activities around the home no explicit instruction is necessary fornovices can learn a great deal by simply watching and listening (cf Rogoff2003) This is what Lave and Wenger (1991) mean when they insist that lear-ning is not an independent activity but an intrinsic aspect of ldquolegitimate perip-heral participationrdquo in a communityrsquos activities From their perspective therefo-re formal education in which learning is the sole purpose of the activity issomething of an anomaly particularly when the only form of assistance providedis the expert teacherrsquos direct instruction and subsequent evaluation of the extentof the studentsrsquo learning

In many recent discussions it has also been recognized that it is not only aldquoteacherrdquo who can provide assistance in the zpd On the one hand in a com-plex activity many participants are more expert than others in some aspectsand therefore on some occasions are able to help those who are less expert(Rogoff 1994) and on the other hand those who provide assistance do nothave to be physically present texts and other artifacts can equally well helpa participant ldquoto go beyond himherselfrdquo as is often the case in intellectualwork such as research and writ ing (Wells 1999) Furthermore asEngestroumlm (1999) and others ndashbuilding on other aspects of Vygotskyrsquos theo-retical writingsndash have noted the material and symbolic tools that have beendeveloped by previous participants in the activity can also provide the samesort of assistance However perhaps the most important point to emphasizeis that there are many situations in which no-one is an expert yet as eachbrings his or her own past experience to the solution of a common problemthe group together is able to achieve more than any single member couldhave done alone Clearly it is such collaboration that has made possible theinventions that have led to the major advances of great civilizations over thecourse of cultural history

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Development in the Pre-School Years

As noted above the responsibility for caring for children in early childhoodvaries very considerably from one society to another Nevertheless in all socie-ties children are involved in joint activities with others in which they receiveassistance with respect to their participation however that may be locally achie-ved For the most part as already mentioned these are activities that are regu-larly repeated in the taken-for-granted routines of daily life The expectation isthat the child will learn to fit in and is simply helped to do so Often referred toas ldquoenculturationrdquo this form of apprenticeship ensures the continuity of the cul-turersquos way of life from one generation to the next and as Donald (1991) arguedit probably occurred even before the emergence of speech

However in all activities there are occasions when problems arise that callfor some level of deliberate decision-making In these situations spoken interac-tion makes possible a degree of reflection and forward planning in which therelations of cause and effect intention action and outcome are made explicitand open to question and discussion The talk that occurs on these occasionsthus plays a particularly important role in helping children to attend to andunderstand the world around them in terms of the culturersquos ways of ldquomakingsenserdquo of it However these occasions can also open up possibilities for changeboth in the form of the activity and in the participantsrsquo understanding of itHow caregivers habitually take up these opportunities is particularly importantfor it plays an important part in shaping the intellectual dispositions withwhich children enter school (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo amp Sterponi2002)

In this section I include some representative examples of kinds of talk thatarise from joint activities in the home These examples are drawn from observa-tions made in settings in England (Wells 1986) and Australia (Hasan 2002) inwhich the young children observed spent most of their time at home with oneparent sometimes with one or more siblings some of the time they entertainedthemselves with occasional adult involvement but they also frequently watchedand ldquohelpedrdquo the parent with household tasks of various kinds

In the first example James (aged 3 12 years) has been playing alone in thegarden and as he reenters the house his mother tries to get him to take off hismuddy shoes However at that moment he sees a bird outside which interestshim more than changing his shoes

Example 1Mother There we are there one slipper onJames I can see a birdMother A what loveJames See a bird Mother (whispering) Is there OutsideJames (pointing and whispering) Yes see

(both continue to speak very softly)Mother Is he eating anythingJames NoMother Where Oh yes hersquos getting- do you know what hersquos doingJames NoMother Hersquos going to the- the paper sack to try to pick out some pieces-

Oh hersquos got some food there and I expect hersquoll pick out somepieces of thread from the sack to go and make his nest under the roofJames Wait a minute and Irsquoll-[James now wants to go out to see more closely but at that moment thebird flies away]

James That birdrsquos gone

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

In the second example Elizabeth (aged 4 years) who is helping with thehouse cleaning watches with interest as her mother shovels wood ash from thefireplace into a bucket

Example 2Elizabeth What are you doing that forMother Irsquom gathering it up and putting it outside so that Daddy can put it on the gardenElizabeth Why does he have to put it on the gardenMother To make the compost rightElizabeth Does that make the grass growMother YesElizabeth Why does itMother You know how I tell you that you need to eat different things like eggs and cab-

bage and rice pudding to make you grow into a big girlElizabeth YesMother Well plants need different foods too and ash is one of the things thatrsquos

good for them

The third example involves James again now eighteen months older Earlierin the afternoon he had been helping his mother with the baking Now hecomes back into the kitchen as his mother is taking the baking trays out of theoven He hears a loud metallic ldquocrackrdquo and asks for an explanation

Example 3James Who did thatMother I expect it was the tin contractingJames Which tinMother The one with your pastry inJames Why did it make that noiseMother Well when it was in the oven it got very hot and stretched a bit Irsquove just taken

it out of the oven and itrsquos cooling down very quickly you see and that noisehappens when it gets smaller again and goes back to its normal shape

James Oh was it a different shape in the ovenMother Oh not very different just a little biggerJames Naughty little tin you might get smacked if you do it again

In all three of these examples the mother willingly responds to the childrsquosinterest and provides information to explain the significance of what the child isseeing or hearing even when in the first this interrupts the motherrsquos plan Allthree cases show how the childrsquos participation in the activity with the adult assu-res that there is intersubjectivity of attention to what interests the child and thisenables the mother to provide relevant information Clearly this is a form ofldquoinstructionrdquo however it is spontaneous and contingent on the childrsquos interestrather than presented as part of a pre-planned curriculum

The third example is particularly interesting from this point of view as thephenomenon of interest to James requires a somewhat technical explanation Atsome point in the future no doubt the expansion of metal when heated and itssubsequent contraction when removed from the heat will figure in the schoolscience curriculum in relation to the systematic study of heat here however itis an interesting side-effect of baking and the motherrsquos explanation while tech-nical in content is couched in everyday language rather than in the abstractterms of scientific generalization As Hasan (2002) has observed

the discourse of quasi specialised knowledge occurs in the lsquomiddle ofrsquo daily activities and bynecessity it calls for a readiness on the motherrsquos part to entertain contextual shifts to bewilling to reclassify the context of the on-going discourse The tendency to move with thechildrsquos moving discourse the readiness to re-classify context is a discourse characteristic of thesame group of mothers who frequently ask questions made precise by qualification and whoattend to their childrenrsquos questions and provide them with well developed answers (p 123)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 21: Actividad y Aprendizaje

cida ndasha pensar de la larga historia de la recitacioacuten que se remonta a maacutes detres mil antildeos a las tempranas instituciones que entrenaban a los escribas yadministradores para leer y escribir (Cole 1996)ndash Pero probablemente elmodo por defecto de la escolarizacioacuten es parecido a una preparacioacuten para ldquolavida adultardquo y no una etapa criacutetica del desarrollo que merece la pena y essignificativa en siacute misma Como Vygotski argumentoacute sobre el dominio de laalfabetizacioacuten ldquola ensentildeanza debe organizarse de tal manera que la lectura yla escritura sean necesarias para algo La escritura debe ser incorporada enuna tarea relevante y necesaria para la vidardquo (1978 pp117-118) Y porldquovidardquo quiere decir no la vida futura sino la totalidad de los intereses y pre-ocupaciones actuales de los aprendices

En los uacuteltimos antildeos se han divulgado proyectos de una variedad de paiacuteses enlos que educadores universitarios han procurado crear condiciones para elldquoaprendizaje auteacutenticordquo en las aulas En todos estos proyectos se ha otorgado unpapel central a las actividades colaborativas que alternando entre los formatos departicipacioacuten individual en pequentildeo grupo y de la clase completa implican alos estudiantes en la exploracioacuten de temas centrales mediante investigacionespraacutecticas y tambieacuten teoacutericas y en la discusioacuten criacutetica y constructiva de sus hallaz-gos y de las implicaciones para futuras acciones El espacio no permite aquiacute unadiscusioacuten individual de estos proyectos pero lo que puede ser dicho sobre todosellos es que en sus diferentes formas valoran tanto los intereses de los alumnoscomo sus experiencias previas y persiguen ayudarles a desarrollar la disposicioacutenpara buscar la comprensioacuten maacutes que la acumulacioacuten simple de informacioacuten ypara valorar la colaboracioacuten maacutes que la competicioacuten como el medio para alcanzaresta menta4

En este contexto es digno atraer la atencioacuten hacia varias instituciones poste-riores a la escuela tales como la Fifth Dimension donde la participacioacuten en activi-dades elegidas personalmente ndasha menudo basadas en ordenadoresndash requiere a losnintildeos dominar habilidades que son tambieacuten necesarias para la escolarizacioacuten y lesproporcionan oportunidades para interactuar con voluntarios universitarios enuna posicioacuten de igualdad (Brown y Cole 2002) De manera similar algunosprogramas basados en museos (Leinhardst Crowley y Kuntson 2002) y variasformas de educacioacuten al aire libre tambieacuten capitalizan los intereses de los estu-diantes para implicarles en actividades desafiantes que demandan para la cons-truccioacuten de conocimiento procesos de diaacutelogo y toma de decisiones comparablesa aquellos encontrados en los contextos escolares previamente descritos

Finalmente si estas praacutecticas pioneras arraigan e influyen en la educacioacutenpuacuteblica con mayor amplitud es esencial que los profesores tengan oportunidadessimilares para desarrollar las disposiciones y pericia necesarias para actuar comoagentes de cambio y liacutederes de una reforma en las instituciones en las que traba-jan Es por lo tanto estimulante ver que a pesar del eacutenfasis de los dirigentes poliacute-ticos en estandarizar los curricula y en los resultados cuantificables algunos pro-gramas de formacioacuten de profesores y desarrollo profesional anima a los profeso-res sobre la base de investigaciones sobre su propia praacutectica a tomar sus propiasdecisiones sobre queacute debe ser ensentildeado y coacutemo y a compartir los resultados desus investigaciones con los compantildeeros Este ha sido el motor de mi propio tra-bajo en los antildeos recientes ya que he participado en la investigacioacuten colaborativacon profesores para crear y mantener comunidades de investigacioacuten tanto en cla-ses como entre los mismos profesores5

185El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Notas1 La secuencia temporal implicada por esta formulacioacuten ha sido ampliamente debatida y especialmente el movimiento desde fueraa dentro que sugiere Mi propia comprensioacuten de lo que la apropiacioacuten supone se capta mejor con el ejemplo de aprender a bailarmediante la inmersioacuten en la actividad con otros (Wells 1999) En muchos casos no hay separacioacuten entre antes y despueacutes o entrefuera y dentro y no hay necesidad de demostracioacuten o ejemplificacioacuten En lugar de esto estando inmerso en la actividad conjuntael principiante es literalmente entrenado fiacutesicamente por los movimiento del coparticipante mientras que al mismo tiempoconstruye su propia organizacioacuten ndashy quizaacute incluso una representacioacuten esquemaacuteticandash de los movimientos corporales A lo largo deltiempo este esquema estaacute tan bien organizado que el principiante se convierte en un experto que estaacute preparado paralelamentepara introducir a otros en la actividad Esto es lo que Lave y Wenger (1991) y Rogoff (2003) quieren decir por desarrollo median-te la participacioacuten en actividades culturales

2 Estoy agradecido a Natalia Gajdamaschko y Steve Gabosch por sus valiosas discusiones de esta distincioacuten durante el XMCA cursoonline sobre la teoriacutea de la actividad histoacuterico cultural Abril 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Aunque estaacute incluido en la Tabla I este modo de conocimiento no ha sido discutido aquiacute ya que el reconocimiento expliacutecito deeste importante modo de conocimiento es muy reciente (Brown 1975) Sin embargo eso no significa que sea en siacute mismo unnuevo fenoacutemeno

4 Para algunos ejemplos representativos veacutease Brown y Campione 1994 Lampert Rittenhouse y Crumbaugh 1996 McMahonRaphael Goatley y Pardo 1997 Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford y Brown 1998 Scardamalia Bereiter y Lamon 1994

5 Juntos formamos un grupo de investigacioacuten colaborativo DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project)(Wells (Ed) 2001)

ReferenciasBAJTIacuteN M M (1986) Speech genres and other late essays Austin University of Texas PressBERNSTEIN B (1982) Codes modalities and the process of cultural reproduction A model En M Apple (Ed) Cultural and econo-

mic reproduction in education (pp 304-355) Londres Routledge amp Kegan PaulBROWN A L (1975) The development of memory Knowing knowing about knowing and knowing how to know En H W

Reese (Ed) Advances in child development and behavior (Vol 10 pp 103-152) Nueva York Academic Press BROWN A L amp CAMPIONE J C (1994) Guided discovery in a community of learners En K McGilly (Ed) Integrating cognitive

theory and classroom practice Classroom lessons (pp 229-270) Cambridge MA MIT PressBradford BooksBROWN K amp COLE M (2002) Cultural historical activity theory and the expansion of opportunities for learning after school En

G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 225-238)Oxford Blackwell

BRUNER J S (1990) Acts of meaning Cambridge MA Harvard University PressCARR M (2002) Emerging learning narratives A perspective from early childhood education En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds)

Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 99-111) Oxford BlackwellCOLE M (1996) Cultural psychology A once and future discipline Cambridge MA The Bellknap Press of Harvard University PressDEACON T W (1997) The symbolic species The co-evolution of language and the brain Nueva York NortonDIAMOND J (1998) Guns germs and steel The fates of human societies Nueva York NortonDONALD M (1991) Origins of the Modern Mind Three Stages in the Evolution of Culture and Cognition Cambridge MA Harvard

University PressDONOAHUE Z (2003) Science teaching and learning Teachers and children plan together Networks 6(1) httpwwwoiseuto-

rontoca~ctdnetworksjournal Vol 6 (1) 2003marchENGESTROumlM Y (1999) Activity theory and individual and social transformation Y En Engestrom R Miettinen amp R-L Puna-

maki (Eds) Perspectives on activity theory (pp 19-38) Cambridge Cambridge University PressFREIRE P (1970) Pedagogy of the oppressed Nueva York Herder and HerderHALLIDAY M A K (1975) Learning how to mean Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1978) Language as social semiotic The social interpretation of language and meaning Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1993) Towards a language-based theory of learning Linguistics and Education 5 93-116HASAN R (2002) Semiotic mediation and mental development in pluralistic societies Some implications for tomorrowrsquos schoo-

ling En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural peerspectives on the future of education (pp112-126) Oxford Blackwell

HEATH S B (1983) Ways with words Cambridge Cambridge University PressLAMPERT M RITTENHOUSE P amp CRUMBAUGH C (1996) Agreeing to disagree Developing sociable mathematical discourse En

D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook of education and human development (pp 731-764) Cambridge MA Blackwell LANGER J A amp APPLEBEE A N (1987) How writing shapes thinking A study of teaching and learning Urbana IL National Council

of Teachers of EnglishLAVE J (1996) Teaching as learning in practice Mind Culture and Activity 3 (3) 149-164LAVE J amp WENGER E (1991) Situated Learning Legitimate peripheral participation Nueva York Cambridge University PressLEINHARDT G CROWLEY K amp KNUTSON K (2002) Learning conversations Explanation and identity in museums Mahwah NJ

Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesLEONTIEV A N (1981) The problem of activity in psychology En J VWertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 37-71) Armonk NY SharpeMAYBIN J MERCER N amp STIERER B (1992) lsquoScaffoldingrsquo learning in the classroom En K Norman (Ed) Thinking voices The

work of the National Oracy Project (pp 186-195) Londres Hodder amp StoughtonMCMAHON S I RAPHAEL T E GOATLEY V J amp PARDO L S (Eds) (1997) The Book Club connection Literacy learning and class-

room talk Nueva York Teachers College PressNELSON K (1996) Language in cognitive development The emergence of the mediated mind Nueva York Cambridge University PressNEWSON J (1978) Dialogue and development En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol The emergence of language (pp 31-42)

New York Academic Press

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187186

NYSTRAND M amp GAMORAN A (1991) Student engagement When recitation becomes conversation En H C Waxman amp H JWalberg (Eds) Effective teaching Current research (pp 257-276)Berkeley CA McCutchan Publishing Corp

OLSON D R amp BRUNER J S (1996) Folk psychology and folk pedagogy En D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook ofeducation and human development (pp 9-27) Cambridge MA Blackwell

PALINCSAR A MAGNUSSON S MARANO N FORD D amp BROWN N (1998) Designing a community of practice Principlesand practices of the GIsML Community Teaching and Teacher Education 14 (1) 5-20

PIAGET J (1970) Piagetrsquos theory En P H Mussen (Ed) Carmichaelrsquos handbook of child development (pp 703-732) Nueva YorkWiley

PONTECORVO C amp STERPONI L (2002) Learning to argue and reason through discourse in educational settings En G Wells ampG Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 127-140) OxfordBlackwell

ROGOFF B (1990) Apprenticeship in thinking Cognitive development in social context Nueva York Oxford University PressROGOFF B (1994) Developing understanding of the idea of Communities of Learners Mind Culture and Activity 1 (4) 209-

229ROGOFF B (2003) The cultural nature of human development Nueva York Oxford University PressROSENBLATT L (1978) The reader the text the poem The transactional theory of the literary work Carbondale IL Southern Illinois

University PressSCARDAMALIA M C BEREITER amp LAMON M (1994) The CSILE project Trying to bring the classroom into World 3 En K

McGilley (Ed) Classroom lessons Integrating cognitive theory and classroom practice (pp 201-228) Cambridge MA MITPress

SCRIBNER S (1985) Vygotskyrsquos uses of history En J V Wertsch (Ed) Culture communication and cognition Vygotskian perspectives(pp 119-145) Cambridge Cambridge University Press

THARP R amp GALLIMORE R (1988) Rousing minds to life Nueva York Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C (1979) Communication and cooperation in early infancy a description of primary intersubjectivity En M

Bullowa (Ed) Before speech The beginning of interpersonal communication (pp 321-348) Cambridge Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C amp HUBLEY P (1978) Secondary intersubjectivity Confidence confiding and acts of meaning in the first year

En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol the emergence of language (pp 183-230) Nueva York Academic PressVYGOTSKI L S (1978)Mind in society The development of higher psychological processes Cambridge MA Harvard University PressVYGOTSKI L S (1981) The genesis of higher mental functions En J V Wertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 144-188) Armonk NY SharpeVYGOTSKI L S (1987) Thinking and speech En R W Rieber amp A S Carton (Eds) The collected works of L S Vygotsky Volumen

1 Problems of general psychology (pp 39-285) Nueva York PlenumWARTOFSKY M (1979) Models representation and scientific understanding Boston ReidelWELLS G (1985) Language development in the pre-school years Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (1986) The meaning makers Children learning language and using language to learn Portsmouth NH HeinemannWELLS G (1999) Dialogic inquiry Towards a sociocultural practice and theory of education Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (Ed) (2001) Action talk and text Learning and teaching through inquiry Nueva York Teachers College PressWELLS G (2002a) Learning and teaching for understanding The key role of collaborative knowledge building En J Brophy

(Ed) Social constructivist teaching Affordances and constraints (pp 1-41) Osford Elsevier ScienceJAIWELLS G (2002b) The role of dialogue in activity theory Mind Culture and Activity 9 (1) 43-66WERTSCH J V MINICK N amp ARNS F J (1984) The creation of context in joint problem solving En B Rogoff amp J Lave (Eds)

Everyday cognition Its development in social context (pp 151-171) Cambridge Cambridge University PressWOOD D BRUNER J S amp ROSS G (1976) The role of tutoring in problem-solving Journal of Child Psychology and Child Psy-

chiatry 17 89-100

187El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Original text

Introduction

Compared with other species the characteristic that distinguishes humans isthe ability and proclivity to engage in tool-mediated joint activity with otherhumans It is this characteristic that accounts for the development of human cul-tures over the course of history as they invented artefacts of various kinds inorder to adapt to and exploit the ecological niches in which they found themsel-ves It also accounts for the diversity of individual personsrsquo development whichdepend on the particular activities in which they participate As Vygotsky(1978 1981) was one of the first to point out the lsquohigherrsquo mental functions thatmake us human are not biologically given but are developmentally constructedthrough the appropriation of historically developed tools and practices that aremade manifest to the child and lsquoscaffoldedrsquo in the meaningful actions and utte-rances of the coparticipants in joint activity

Before continuing readers might find it interesting to reflect on their owndevelopmental trajectories to who they are today I suspect that they may findthemselves agreeing that Who we become depends on the company we keep and what wedo together

A Brief History of the Development of Joint Activity

Leontrsquoev provides a succinct account of Vygotskyrsquos insight in the followingsummary

The initial ideas that led Vygotsky to investigate the genesis of internal mental activity fromexternal activity are fundamentally different from the theoretical approaches of other modernauthors These ideas came from the analysis of the features unique to human productive laboractivity which is mediated by tools This activity is initially social in nature that is it is deve-loped under the conditions of cooperation and social interaction among people Vygotskyidentified two main interconnected features [of this activity] that are necessarily fundamentalfor psychology its tool-like (lsquoinstrumentalrsquo) structure and its inclusion in a system of interre-lations with other people It is these features that define the nature of human psychologicalprocesses The tool mediates activity and thus connects humans not only with the world ofobjects but also with other people Because of this humanrsquos activity assimilates the experience ofhumankind This means that humansrsquo mental processes (their lsquohigher psychological functionsrsquo)acquire a structure necessarily tied to the sociohistorically formed means and methods trans-mitted to them by others in the process of cooperative labor and social interaction But it isimpossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in any way otherthan a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words higher psycho-logical processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction with others thatis through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried out indepen-dently by the individual (Leontrsquoev 1981 pp 55-56 emphases in the original)

As well as emphasizing the social and cooperative nature of human activity thisquotation is important with respect to the arguments that I want to develop inthis paper as it highlights the central role of semiotic mediation in developmentKnowledge is created as well as appropriated in the discourse among peoplewho are working together in a specific situation in order to create or improve anartefact or to solve a problem of importance to the group However Leontrsquoevalso alludes to another of Vygotskyrsquos key insights namely that in order tounderstand current activity it is necessary to investigate the history of that acti-vity It is to this that I next turn

In analyzing the history of human development at least four different time-scales need to be considered The longest is the history of the cultural evolution of

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

the species (the phylogenetic level) next is the historical development of particu-lar cultures The third level (ontogenetic) traces the developmental trajectory ofindividual humans over the course of the lifespan Finally the microgenetic levelis concerned with the development of an instance of a particular activity

In practice it is the latter that has been explored in most detail for usingcontemporary technology it is relatively easy to observe and record the sequenceof actions through which an activity is enacted and the specific operations inwhich the participants engage making use of the relevant artefacts that are avai-lable in the situation (Leontrsquoev 1981) These artefacts may be either material(knives pencils automobiles) or symbolic (utterances maps theories) ndashthoughas Cole (1996) has pointed out to function as mediators of joint activity all arte-facts must have some form of material embodiment as well as a symbolic mea-ning that is to say they must be ready to hand and also have a cultural signifi-cance relevant to the situation

However the form in which a particular instance of activity is realizeddepends not only on the artefacts that are to hand in the situation but also onthe participantsrsquo past experiences with the practices in which the artefacts areused to mediate achievement of the action goals that contribute to the joint acti-vity Thus the microgenesis of a particular instance of activity is necessarilydependent upon the ontogenetic development of the participants that is to sayupon the opportunities their life trajectories have afforded them to appropriatethe relevant cultural knowledge through participation in instances of similaractions and operations

But on the time-scale of ontogenetic development each individualrsquos trajectoryof development is itself strongly influenced by the culture in which he or she isgrowing up and on the historical development of that culture As Rogoff (2003)illustrates in considerable detail cultures vary considerably both over time andacross ecological niches in what mediating artefacts and practices are available andin the relative value accorded to each Moreover within each culture at any parti-cular historical moment participants in activities both incorporate the ways ofprevious generations and adapt them to the exigencies of current conditions

Stepping up one further level the historical development of a particular cul-tures is itself shaped by development on the even larger timescale of the culturaland biological evolution of the species This is the most difficult timescale todescribe in detail for lack of the necessary evidence But certain broad distinc-tions between human communities can be made in terms of their modes of sub-sistence and of the mediating means available for joint activity (Diamond 1998Donald 1991) As recent research has shown our earliest ancestors some 5million years ago lived in small bands of hunter gatherers often on the edge oflakes and oceans Initially their tools were found in the surroundings but overseveral million years they invented ways of making more sophisticated artefactssuch as knives arrowheads baskets and clothing from flints bones skins andvegetable materials Then as some groups migrated to particularly fertile partsof the world they adopted a more settled agrarian way of life growing cropsand breeding animals The resulting ability to produce more food than imme-diately required led in turn to the emergence of trade and to a diversity of spe-cialist occupations such as potters and tailors who exchanged their products forfood and other necessities This stage also saw the development of much largerpopulation groupings with hierarchical class structures that included prieststax collectors and other religious and political functionaries

While migration had been a common feature of human existence from theearliest times the development of large settled populations and of weapons

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

made of bronze and iron led to the expansion of certain cultural groups throughterritorial conquest and colonization by sea and by land As a result during thelast few thousand years the latest phase of phylogenetic development has beencharacterized by the rise and fall of imperial cultures which have imposed theirtechnologies laws and administrative procedures as well as their religions artsknowledge and values on widely diverse subjugated populations Most recentlythe further development of the inventions that led to the first industrial revolu-tion has simply served to increase the scale and intensity of these imperialisttrends At the same time these inventions as well as those of the current indus-trial revolution have also led to a great increase in humansrsquo understanding oftheir social and material environment both through scientific and social rese-arch and through the dissemination of information about other times and placesresulting from travel and the use of print and electronic technologies

In presenting this very condensed account of phylogenetic development Ihave emphasized the material tools that have mediated the progressively morecomplex and diverse activities in which humans have engaged over the course ofthe speciesrsquo history However bearing in mind that what has been the drivingforce of human development is joint activity an equally ndashif not morendash impor-tant determinant of this history is the development of the modes of representa-tion through which humans have communicated and developed their unders-tanding of the world Table I presents the developmental sequence proposed byDonald (1991) based on archeological neuroanatomical historical and othertypes of evidence The table also includes the stages in the historical develop-ment of ways of knowing that were proposed by Wartofsky (1979)

The first stage in this sequence corresponds to the phase in which proto-humans began to diverge from other primate species In this phase as in thebehavior of contemporary higher primates practical action was the predomi-nant form of communication as ndashnot necessarily deliberatelyndash participants sig-naled their intentions in a shared situation and these intentions were interpre-ted and responded to by their co-participants in the activity In the secondmimetic phase which must have developed gradually over many millenniacommunication became somewhat differentiated from the activity to which itreferred as humans deliberately used gestures mime facial expression andvarious types of phonation to comment on as well as to coordinate action and theobjects to which it was directed Later still with the gradual modification of thevocal tract and of the primate brain there emerged the ability to communicatethrough speech and hence the ability to refer not only to particular objects andactions but also to generalized classes and to express observed and intendedrelationships between objects actions and events thus allowing participants toplan for and reflect on the outcomes of joint activity Finally the invention ofwriting which ushered in the final phase in Donaldrsquos proposed sequence occu-rred extremely recently in the long trajectory of phylogenetic development Yetas with those that preceded it enormously increased the human repertoire ofmeans for making and communicating meaning Essentially what it added wasan ldquoexternal memoryrdquo By creating a (relatively) permanent representation oflinguistic meaning it made possible the compilation and distillation of repor-ted information from many sources including the writerrsquos own verbalizedthoughts It also allowed the writer and those who read his or her written textto review critique and revise the meanings expressed and to make the resultsavailable to people in later times and other places for further constructive debateand improvement

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

However action gesture speech and writing are not simply progressivelymore powerful modes of communication They are also progressively morepowerful mediators of thinking This is most obvious with respect to the lin-guistic modes of communication But even before the emergence of speechaction and ndashto an even greater extentndash mimesis enabled humans to think toget-her and thereby to create a shared interpretation of their joint activities In fact ithas been argued that the emergence of language was not simply the result ofbrain and vocal tract development but rather was part of a more general patternof adaptation that building upon the cognitive achievements of mimetic kno-wing strove to integrate the unconnected bits of information in a more compre-hensive and coherent account of being-in-the-world (Deacon 1997) Neverthe-less it is also true that the availability of language greatly enhanced both com-munication and thinking together for as Halliday observed

the grammar of every natural language is (among other things) a theory of human experienceit is through our acts of meaning that we transform experience into the coherent -though farfrom consistent- patchwork that we learn to project as lsquorealityrsquo (1993 p 46)

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

TABLE IModes Of Knowing Phylogenetic And Cultural Development (from Wells 1999)

Time Mode of Participants Donald(1991) Wartofsky(1979)Years BP Knowing

2 million Instrumental Individual in action Episodic Primary artifactsyears material tools

1 -- 15 million Procedural Between individuals while Mimetic Secondaryyears engaged in action artifacts tools

and practicesmimeticinteraction

50000 Substantive Among members of a (Linguistic) Secondaryyears cultural group reflecting on artifacts

action and as a basis for representations ofplanning further action tools and

practices spokeninteraction

50000 Aesthetic Among members of a Mythic Tertiary artifactsyears cultural group making sense artistic represent-

of the human predicament ations in mythnarrative graphicand musical modes

2500 Theoretical Among members of a Theoretic Tertiary artifactsyears specialist community decontextualized

seeking to explain the natural representationsand human world such as

taxonomiestheories models etc

Meta Among members of a Tertiary artifacts cultural group also representations ofindividuals seeking to mental andunderstand and control their semioticown mental activity processes

In sum what Donald and other scholars argue is that contemporary mentalabilities are the outcome of the development over time of a series of progressi-vely more powerful and flexible modes of representation ndashor in Vygotskyanterms of semiotic mediators of higher mental functions- that have made possi-ble the rational theoretically oriented modes of knowing that underpin theachievements of modern science and its technological applications In the philo-sopher Wartofskyrsquos words

our own perceptual and cognitive understanding of the world is in large part shaped andchanged by the representational artifacts we ourselves create We are in effect the products ofour own activity in this way we transform our own perceptual and cognitive modes our waysof seeing and of understanding by means of the representations we make (1979 p xxiii)

There is however one further important aspect of Donaldrsquos (1991) thesis thatis crucial for the argument that I wish to develop Although the semiotic sys-tems of mimesis speech and writing each powered a new mode of cognitiveactivity they did not replace those that preceded but were additive in theireffects The result is that contemporary humans have a variety of modes of kno-wing at their disposal as they engage in joint activity Furthermore most suchactivities call for more than one mode of knowing and require the complemen-tary and interdependent use of more than one mode of representation

Joint Activity as the Site of Ontogenetic Learning and Development

Two important implications follow from the multi-level historical concep-tion of development just outlined First on any occasion the type of activitythat is undertaken and the specific manner in which it is enacted are necessarilydependent on the particular cultural-historical antecedents of the participantsboth human and artefactual that come together in its realization In particularthe manner in which the situation is interpreted ndashin terms of what action goalsare appropriate and how they can be achievedndash depends on the motives valuesand knowledgeable skills of the human participants and on the affordances ofthe technologies available in the situation And second every instance of an acti-vity provides an occasion for a triple transformation of the situation in whichthe activity is carried out of the artefacts and practices that mediate its enact-ment and most importantly of the knowledge and skills of the human partici-pants Taken together these propositions clarify the way in which cultural andindividual development are both interdependent and rooted in particular situa-ted occasions of joint activity As Rogoff (1994) argues

People of each generation as they engage in sociocultural endeavors with other people makeuse of and extend cultural tools and practices inherited from previous generations As peopledevelop through their shared use of cultural tools and practices they simultaneously contribu-te to the transformation of cultural tools practices and institutions (p 52)

Potentially therefore every occasion of joint activity provides an opportunityfor development on the part of all participants This is a point to which I shallreturn But first I want to consider more carefully the concept of developmentitself

Clearly built into the concept of development is the implication of change andtypically of change in the direction of increasing complexity and effectiveness Inother words development is typically taken to imply improvement or progresstoward some ideal end state or capability However in the light of the previousdiscussion such a progression while it may be meaningful to (some of the) partici-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

pants in any particular situation cannot be understood in any absolute sense butmust be seen as relative to the unfolding historical trajectory of the species of aparticular culture and of the immediate community ndashits values its dominantactivities and the knowledgeable skills that form its resources Furthermore just asthese have changed in the past they will continue to change in the future in res-ponse to the changing demands of the larger environment So while ontogeneticdevelopment does indeed involve increasing complexity and effectiveness of indi-vidualsrsquo participation in the activity systems in which they are involved in theirdaily lives the overall trajectory of development is emergent and its endpoint cannever be specified in advance even in terms of an ideal to be attained

Nevertheless this does not mean that there are not strong regularities in thesequence of ontogenetic development particularly in the early years Indeed asNelson (1996) has suggested during the preschool years children follow a trajec-tory very similar to the sequence of phylogenetic development proposed byDonald (1991) (see Table I above) as they appropriate the semiotic tools of repre-sentation afforded by action mimesis speech and writing Of course this is not asimple recapitulation children growing up in a contemporary literate culture forexample are surrounded from birth by artifacts and practices that result from andembody all the available modes of knowing (Cole 1996) Appropriating existingcultural tools is thus very different from inventing them ex novo as Scribner (1985)points out Nevertheless given the combination of biological and cultural inheri-tance it is not surprising that in most if not all cultures children follow the samesequence as did the species as a whole over the course of history

In the first weeks of life infants act on their immediate surroundings bothanimate and inanimate and begin to develop what Piaget (1970) called sensori-motor intelligence However although this most basic form of activity mayappear to be instinctual it is nevertheless also inherently social First all infantsare born into an environment that is cultural in the sense of having been shapedby countless preceding generations and second the infantrsquos actions are treatedas being intentional and are responded to as such So from the beginning theinfant is caught up in social interaction (Newson 1978) In the second phasewhich typically begins in the first few months the infant also begins to engagein mimetic communication through gaze facial expression and rudimentarygesture (Bruner 1990) Couched in terms of primary and secondary intersubjec-tivity this phase has been described in considerable detail by Trevarthen (19781979) Primary intersubjectivity develops as the infant and parent engage inmutual gaze thereby communicating that they are attending to and respondingto each other In secondary intersubjectivity third parties are brought into jointattention as the parent through gaze directs the infantrsquos attention to an object ofpotential interest or follows the childrsquos direction of gaze and signals that he orshe is also attending to the same object

It is on this basis of joint action and attention that towards the end of thefirst year the child begins to exploit his or her growing command of vocaliza-tion often accompanied by gesture to begin to communicate through speechFrom research predominantly involving children in ldquoWesternrdquo societies it hasbeen established that at first the childrsquos utterances are idiosyncratic drawingonly partially ndashif at allndash on the speech of those around him or her neverthelessparents and other family members have little difficulty in interpreting them incontext and once again they respond in a manner that is contingent on theirinterpretation thereby establishing spoken communication as a joint interactiveactivity By the end of the second year however children appear to abandon thisidiosyncratic ldquoprotolanguagerdquo form of communication and begin to construct a

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

linguistic meaning potential that is systematically related to the language thatis addressed to them in the oft-repeated activities of family life (Bruner 1990Halliday 1975 Wells 1986) Significantly within particular language com-munities the sequence in which children master the basic meanings and thelexicogrammatical forms in which they are realized tends to be very similar fromchild to child (Wells 1985)

The developmental sequence just described ndashaction mimesis speechndash is com-mon to children in all cultures and in all cases takes place in and through jointactivity and interaction with other family and community members Howeveralthough the sequence is universal the manner and pace at which it proceeds varyvery considerably across cultures These differences depend upon many culturally-determined factors such as adult expectations about their childrenrsquos developmentthe position in which the infant is typically held or carried facing the caregiver orturned outwards to face in the same direction as the caregiver the makeup and sizeof the interactional groups in which communication typically occurs and whetherthese events are part of family and community life more generally or are delibera-tely arranged and structured for the presumed benefit of the child (Rogoff 2003)In the later stages of language development the range and extent of the meaningpotential that children construct begins to vary even more widely depending onthe activities in which they engage the linguistic registers that are used in thoseactivities and the stances typically adopted by interlocutors toward the use of lan-guage in their interactions with children (Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

So far the ontogenetic developmental sequence I have described is funda-mentally similar across cultures and follows the phylogenetic sequence in whichhumans have progressively added new semiotic mediational means to theircommunicative repertoires In an important sense therefore the final mode ofrepresentation in Donaldrsquos scheme that of writing is an optional extra sincemany cultures have survived and prospered without a written mode of represen-ting meaning Moreover even in cultures that have a writing system the extentand scope of literacy that individuals attain varies very considerably dependingon the activity systems in which they participate the value that is placed onwritten texts by those communmities the purposes to which they are put andthe genres that are used for those purposes However since literacy and its usesare so strongly associated with schooling I shall leave further discussion of thismode of semiotic mediation to a later part of this paper

Before concluding this section however I want to explore further the con-cept of semiotic mediation In one of the better known passages in Vygotskyrsquoswritings where he argued for the social and cultural origin of higher mentalfunctions he wrote that every function occurs on two planes first in activity andinteraction between people and then within the individual learner (Vygotsky1981) What bridges between these two planes as is clear from his other wri-tings is semiotic mediation To recall Leontrsquoevrsquos formulation of this argument

hellip it is impossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in anyway other than a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words hig-her psychological processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction withothers that is through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried outindependently by the individual (1981 pp 55-56)

In other words when people engage in joint activity their actions gesturesand speech not only mediate the coordination of participation but they alsomake overt the mental activities involved and so render them available forappropriation by novice participants1 Halliday is very clear about this Alt-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

hough the following quotation refers only to language the term lsquolanguagersquocould justifiably be replaced by lsquosemiotic mediationrsquo

In the development of the child as a social being language has the central role Language is themain channel through which the patterns of living are transmitted to him through which helearns to act as a member of lsquosocietyrsquo ndashin and through the various social groups the family theneighbourhood and so onndash and to adopt its lsquoculturersquo its modes of thought and action itsbeliefs and its values (1978 p 9)

However as the child grows older language does become the predominantmode of semiotic mediation and as he wrote in a later paper ldquoLanguage is theessential condition of knowing the process by which experience becomes know-ledge (Halliday 1993 p 94 original emphasis)

Assistance for Learning in Joint Activitie

So far in the discussion of the role of joint activity in human development Ihave concentrated on the tools and particularly the semiotic modes of represen-tation that mediate the achievement of the outcome of activity In this sectionon the other hand I turn to the role of other people in this process both familymembers and the larger community

Until now I have referred to coparticipants in an activity in general termsbut clearly there are further distinctions to be made Particularly helpful in thisrespect is Engestroumlmrsquos model of an activity system which is shown in figure 1

What this model shows is that when we look at an ongoing activity from thepoint of view of an individual participant (t Subject) that individual is involvedin a nexus of other relationships that link him or her to other lsquoparticipantsrsquo theTools and artifacts to mediate action on the Object but also the Community of

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 1The Triangle of Activity

Artifactstools andpractices

Values rulesamp conventions

Community Divisioacutenof labor

Engestrom 1999

Object OutcomeSubject

others engaged in the activity together with the Division of Labor within thatcommunity and also the Rules and Conventions that govern the manner inwhich the activity is carried out (Engestroumlm 1999) What this latter category oflsquoparticipantrsquo underscores is the historical dimension of an activity system sincethese rules and conventions ndashas well as the tools and artifactsndash bring into thepresent the distilled practices of previous generations who have engaged in theactivity as these are interpreted and utilized by the current community

To illustrate the relevance of this model to the development of the youngchild we might compare two versions of a similar activity reported by WertschMinick and Arns (1984) In their study Brazilian children carried out a puzzletask on two occasions first with the mother and secondly with a primary tea-cher What the researchers found was that in general the mothers and teachersengaged in the activity in systematically different ways Whereas the motherstended to direct the childrenrsquos behavior or even carry out parts of the task them-selves in order to complete it in an efficient manner ndashjust as they would havedone if engaged in a household taskndash the teachers tended to encourage thechildrsquos autonomous performance and only provided hints and suggestions whenthey judged them to be necessary to advance the childrenrsquos understandingInterpreting these results the researchers suggested that the two groups ofadults belonged to two different communities (or activity systems) that had dif-ferent rules and conventions about engaging in this joint activity And this inturn led to the different divisions of labor that they observed Similarly Rogoff(2003) cites many examples of substantial differences between cultures inalmost all aspects of child rearing with respect to their ways of engaging chil-dren in the activities that they consider important

What is clear is that ldquobehindrdquo the particular adult ndashor older siblings in someculturesndash who are directly engaged with the child there is a wider communityof family members neighbors and others who have an interest in the upbrin-ging of children and who share beliefs about appropriate ways to involve themin the activities of daily life So whether in Spain Japan or the Peruvian High-lands although the actual practices vary across cultures in each those responsi-ble for childrenrsquos well-being and development act as agents of a wider commu-nity whose beliefs and practices are rooted in a long tradition concerning howactivities should be carried out But equally in all cultures practices also changein response to changes in the world beyond the particular community In manyWestern homes for example computer games or television programs haverecently taken the place of the bedtime story while in many indigenous com-munities crafts that until recently only supplied local needs are now exploitedcommercially for the tourist trade changing the rhythms of daily life and therelationships among family members and the activities in which children areinvolved As suggested earlier therefore in order to understand the activities inwhich children participate today we need to look not only at the immediatesituation but also at the wider community and the changes taking place on allthese time-scales

Microgenesis and the Zone of Proximal Development

It is nevertheless always the immediate microgenetic situation that isthe site of ontogenetic development ndashthe action and interaction between thelearner and those with whom he or she is engaged in the activity in pro-gress When we adopt this microgenetic perspective however we need tomodify the representation of an activity system presented in figure 1 Inthat representation the focus was on the goal-oriented nature of action

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Here we need to focus on the interaction among the participants ndashtheirattempt to attain intersubjectivity with respect to the common object andthe complementarity of the knowledgeable skills they bring to the cocons-truction of the intended outcome (see Figure 2) What figure 2 emphasizesis the fact that although the tools and artefacts that are available to mediatethe jointly undertaken action are the same for each participant each bringsa somewhat different familiarity with their use as a result of their differentlife trajectories and it is this variability in their expertise that makes it pos-sible for each to provide assistance to the others in at least some aspects ofthe joint action Viewed in this light it is clear why Vygotsky emphasizedthe role of joint activity in development and wrote of its potential to enablelearners ldquoto go beyond themselvesrdquo with the assistance of more expertothers

The metaphor Vygotsky used to characterize the potential for learning thatthis sort of activity creates was the ldquozone of proximal developmentrdquo As hewrote when another participant in the activity provides instruction that isappropriately pitched beyond what the learner can manage to do on his or herown it ldquowakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturationlying in the zone of proximal developmentrdquo (1987 p 212) Vygotsky concep-tualized development as the formation of new functional systems (ldquoneoforma-tionsrdquo) and of changes in the relationships among systems which he consideredto occur as a succession of ldquocrises of developmentrdquo that are particularly facilitatedby engagement in the relevant ldquoleading activityrdquo at each stage for example playin childhood and learning to read and write in the early school yearsHowever itwould be a mistake to focus only on the periods of revolutionary change since ashe equally emphasized at any time there are also other more gradual processes ofgrowth

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 2Dialogue in Joint Activity(from Wells2002b)

Outcomematerial ampsemioticartefacts

Toolsartefacts

Subject

Rulesconventions

Community Divisionof labor

Subject

Toolsartefacts

Processes that are central lines of development at one age become peripheral lines of develop-ment at the following age and conversely peripheral lines of development of one age arebrought to the forefront and become central lines since their meaning and relative significancein the total structure of development changes (p 197)2

In developing his important concept of the zone of proximal developmentVygotsky tended to characterize the assistance given by others as ldquoinstructionrdquoand to see its value in ldquothe childrsquos potential to raise himself to a higher intellec-tual level of development through collaboration to move from what he has towhat he does not have through imitationrdquo (1987 p 210) However manyrecent scholars who have built on his work have taken a broader view of thedevelopmental significance of collaboration in joint activities and have characte-rized the assistance that is provided within this relationship in terms such asldquoapprenticeshiprdquo (Lave amp Wenger 1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoguided participationrdquo(Rogoff 1994 2003) and ldquoscaffoldingrdquo (Wood et al 1976) Neverthelesswhile these different metaphors highlight different features of the relationshipwhat they all have in common is the inclusion of the learner in an activity inwhich there is provision of the assistance necessary to help the learner to comple-te an activity in which he or she is interested and to do so in such a way that heor she makes progress toward being able to participate more fully and autono-mously in the future (Maybin Mercer and Stierer 1992)

In many joint activities such as for example traditional forms of craftapprenticeship assistance is only provided when needed and the ldquomasterrdquo doesso with no deliberate didactic intention beyond that of involving the novice inthe completion of the particular task in hand (Lave 1996) Similarly in sociali-zation into activities around the home no explicit instruction is necessary fornovices can learn a great deal by simply watching and listening (cf Rogoff2003) This is what Lave and Wenger (1991) mean when they insist that lear-ning is not an independent activity but an intrinsic aspect of ldquolegitimate perip-heral participationrdquo in a communityrsquos activities From their perspective therefo-re formal education in which learning is the sole purpose of the activity issomething of an anomaly particularly when the only form of assistance providedis the expert teacherrsquos direct instruction and subsequent evaluation of the extentof the studentsrsquo learning

In many recent discussions it has also been recognized that it is not only aldquoteacherrdquo who can provide assistance in the zpd On the one hand in a com-plex activity many participants are more expert than others in some aspectsand therefore on some occasions are able to help those who are less expert(Rogoff 1994) and on the other hand those who provide assistance do nothave to be physically present texts and other artifacts can equally well helpa participant ldquoto go beyond himherselfrdquo as is often the case in intellectualwork such as research and writ ing (Wells 1999) Furthermore asEngestroumlm (1999) and others ndashbuilding on other aspects of Vygotskyrsquos theo-retical writingsndash have noted the material and symbolic tools that have beendeveloped by previous participants in the activity can also provide the samesort of assistance However perhaps the most important point to emphasizeis that there are many situations in which no-one is an expert yet as eachbrings his or her own past experience to the solution of a common problemthe group together is able to achieve more than any single member couldhave done alone Clearly it is such collaboration that has made possible theinventions that have led to the major advances of great civilizations over thecourse of cultural history

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Development in the Pre-School Years

As noted above the responsibility for caring for children in early childhoodvaries very considerably from one society to another Nevertheless in all socie-ties children are involved in joint activities with others in which they receiveassistance with respect to their participation however that may be locally achie-ved For the most part as already mentioned these are activities that are regu-larly repeated in the taken-for-granted routines of daily life The expectation isthat the child will learn to fit in and is simply helped to do so Often referred toas ldquoenculturationrdquo this form of apprenticeship ensures the continuity of the cul-turersquos way of life from one generation to the next and as Donald (1991) arguedit probably occurred even before the emergence of speech

However in all activities there are occasions when problems arise that callfor some level of deliberate decision-making In these situations spoken interac-tion makes possible a degree of reflection and forward planning in which therelations of cause and effect intention action and outcome are made explicitand open to question and discussion The talk that occurs on these occasionsthus plays a particularly important role in helping children to attend to andunderstand the world around them in terms of the culturersquos ways of ldquomakingsenserdquo of it However these occasions can also open up possibilities for changeboth in the form of the activity and in the participantsrsquo understanding of itHow caregivers habitually take up these opportunities is particularly importantfor it plays an important part in shaping the intellectual dispositions withwhich children enter school (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo amp Sterponi2002)

In this section I include some representative examples of kinds of talk thatarise from joint activities in the home These examples are drawn from observa-tions made in settings in England (Wells 1986) and Australia (Hasan 2002) inwhich the young children observed spent most of their time at home with oneparent sometimes with one or more siblings some of the time they entertainedthemselves with occasional adult involvement but they also frequently watchedand ldquohelpedrdquo the parent with household tasks of various kinds

In the first example James (aged 3 12 years) has been playing alone in thegarden and as he reenters the house his mother tries to get him to take off hismuddy shoes However at that moment he sees a bird outside which interestshim more than changing his shoes

Example 1Mother There we are there one slipper onJames I can see a birdMother A what loveJames See a bird Mother (whispering) Is there OutsideJames (pointing and whispering) Yes see

(both continue to speak very softly)Mother Is he eating anythingJames NoMother Where Oh yes hersquos getting- do you know what hersquos doingJames NoMother Hersquos going to the- the paper sack to try to pick out some pieces-

Oh hersquos got some food there and I expect hersquoll pick out somepieces of thread from the sack to go and make his nest under the roofJames Wait a minute and Irsquoll-[James now wants to go out to see more closely but at that moment thebird flies away]

James That birdrsquos gone

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

In the second example Elizabeth (aged 4 years) who is helping with thehouse cleaning watches with interest as her mother shovels wood ash from thefireplace into a bucket

Example 2Elizabeth What are you doing that forMother Irsquom gathering it up and putting it outside so that Daddy can put it on the gardenElizabeth Why does he have to put it on the gardenMother To make the compost rightElizabeth Does that make the grass growMother YesElizabeth Why does itMother You know how I tell you that you need to eat different things like eggs and cab-

bage and rice pudding to make you grow into a big girlElizabeth YesMother Well plants need different foods too and ash is one of the things thatrsquos

good for them

The third example involves James again now eighteen months older Earlierin the afternoon he had been helping his mother with the baking Now hecomes back into the kitchen as his mother is taking the baking trays out of theoven He hears a loud metallic ldquocrackrdquo and asks for an explanation

Example 3James Who did thatMother I expect it was the tin contractingJames Which tinMother The one with your pastry inJames Why did it make that noiseMother Well when it was in the oven it got very hot and stretched a bit Irsquove just taken

it out of the oven and itrsquos cooling down very quickly you see and that noisehappens when it gets smaller again and goes back to its normal shape

James Oh was it a different shape in the ovenMother Oh not very different just a little biggerJames Naughty little tin you might get smacked if you do it again

In all three of these examples the mother willingly responds to the childrsquosinterest and provides information to explain the significance of what the child isseeing or hearing even when in the first this interrupts the motherrsquos plan Allthree cases show how the childrsquos participation in the activity with the adult assu-res that there is intersubjectivity of attention to what interests the child and thisenables the mother to provide relevant information Clearly this is a form ofldquoinstructionrdquo however it is spontaneous and contingent on the childrsquos interestrather than presented as part of a pre-planned curriculum

The third example is particularly interesting from this point of view as thephenomenon of interest to James requires a somewhat technical explanation Atsome point in the future no doubt the expansion of metal when heated and itssubsequent contraction when removed from the heat will figure in the schoolscience curriculum in relation to the systematic study of heat here however itis an interesting side-effect of baking and the motherrsquos explanation while tech-nical in content is couched in everyday language rather than in the abstractterms of scientific generalization As Hasan (2002) has observed

the discourse of quasi specialised knowledge occurs in the lsquomiddle ofrsquo daily activities and bynecessity it calls for a readiness on the motherrsquos part to entertain contextual shifts to bewilling to reclassify the context of the on-going discourse The tendency to move with thechildrsquos moving discourse the readiness to re-classify context is a discourse characteristic of thesame group of mothers who frequently ask questions made precise by qualification and whoattend to their childrenrsquos questions and provide them with well developed answers (p 123)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 22: Actividad y Aprendizaje

Notas1 La secuencia temporal implicada por esta formulacioacuten ha sido ampliamente debatida y especialmente el movimiento desde fueraa dentro que sugiere Mi propia comprensioacuten de lo que la apropiacioacuten supone se capta mejor con el ejemplo de aprender a bailarmediante la inmersioacuten en la actividad con otros (Wells 1999) En muchos casos no hay separacioacuten entre antes y despueacutes o entrefuera y dentro y no hay necesidad de demostracioacuten o ejemplificacioacuten En lugar de esto estando inmerso en la actividad conjuntael principiante es literalmente entrenado fiacutesicamente por los movimiento del coparticipante mientras que al mismo tiempoconstruye su propia organizacioacuten ndashy quizaacute incluso una representacioacuten esquemaacuteticandash de los movimientos corporales A lo largo deltiempo este esquema estaacute tan bien organizado que el principiante se convierte en un experto que estaacute preparado paralelamentepara introducir a otros en la actividad Esto es lo que Lave y Wenger (1991) y Rogoff (2003) quieren decir por desarrollo median-te la participacioacuten en actividades culturales

2 Estoy agradecido a Natalia Gajdamaschko y Steve Gabosch por sus valiosas discusiones de esta distincioacuten durante el XMCA cursoonline sobre la teoriacutea de la actividad histoacuterico cultural Abril 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Aunque estaacute incluido en la Tabla I este modo de conocimiento no ha sido discutido aquiacute ya que el reconocimiento expliacutecito deeste importante modo de conocimiento es muy reciente (Brown 1975) Sin embargo eso no significa que sea en siacute mismo unnuevo fenoacutemeno

4 Para algunos ejemplos representativos veacutease Brown y Campione 1994 Lampert Rittenhouse y Crumbaugh 1996 McMahonRaphael Goatley y Pardo 1997 Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford y Brown 1998 Scardamalia Bereiter y Lamon 1994

5 Juntos formamos un grupo de investigacioacuten colaborativo DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project)(Wells (Ed) 2001)

ReferenciasBAJTIacuteN M M (1986) Speech genres and other late essays Austin University of Texas PressBERNSTEIN B (1982) Codes modalities and the process of cultural reproduction A model En M Apple (Ed) Cultural and econo-

mic reproduction in education (pp 304-355) Londres Routledge amp Kegan PaulBROWN A L (1975) The development of memory Knowing knowing about knowing and knowing how to know En H W

Reese (Ed) Advances in child development and behavior (Vol 10 pp 103-152) Nueva York Academic Press BROWN A L amp CAMPIONE J C (1994) Guided discovery in a community of learners En K McGilly (Ed) Integrating cognitive

theory and classroom practice Classroom lessons (pp 229-270) Cambridge MA MIT PressBradford BooksBROWN K amp COLE M (2002) Cultural historical activity theory and the expansion of opportunities for learning after school En

G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 225-238)Oxford Blackwell

BRUNER J S (1990) Acts of meaning Cambridge MA Harvard University PressCARR M (2002) Emerging learning narratives A perspective from early childhood education En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds)

Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 99-111) Oxford BlackwellCOLE M (1996) Cultural psychology A once and future discipline Cambridge MA The Bellknap Press of Harvard University PressDEACON T W (1997) The symbolic species The co-evolution of language and the brain Nueva York NortonDIAMOND J (1998) Guns germs and steel The fates of human societies Nueva York NortonDONALD M (1991) Origins of the Modern Mind Three Stages in the Evolution of Culture and Cognition Cambridge MA Harvard

University PressDONOAHUE Z (2003) Science teaching and learning Teachers and children plan together Networks 6(1) httpwwwoiseuto-

rontoca~ctdnetworksjournal Vol 6 (1) 2003marchENGESTROumlM Y (1999) Activity theory and individual and social transformation Y En Engestrom R Miettinen amp R-L Puna-

maki (Eds) Perspectives on activity theory (pp 19-38) Cambridge Cambridge University PressFREIRE P (1970) Pedagogy of the oppressed Nueva York Herder and HerderHALLIDAY M A K (1975) Learning how to mean Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1978) Language as social semiotic The social interpretation of language and meaning Londres ArnoldHALLIDAY M A K (1993) Towards a language-based theory of learning Linguistics and Education 5 93-116HASAN R (2002) Semiotic mediation and mental development in pluralistic societies Some implications for tomorrowrsquos schoo-

ling En G Wells amp G Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural peerspectives on the future of education (pp112-126) Oxford Blackwell

HEATH S B (1983) Ways with words Cambridge Cambridge University PressLAMPERT M RITTENHOUSE P amp CRUMBAUGH C (1996) Agreeing to disagree Developing sociable mathematical discourse En

D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook of education and human development (pp 731-764) Cambridge MA Blackwell LANGER J A amp APPLEBEE A N (1987) How writing shapes thinking A study of teaching and learning Urbana IL National Council

of Teachers of EnglishLAVE J (1996) Teaching as learning in practice Mind Culture and Activity 3 (3) 149-164LAVE J amp WENGER E (1991) Situated Learning Legitimate peripheral participation Nueva York Cambridge University PressLEINHARDT G CROWLEY K amp KNUTSON K (2002) Learning conversations Explanation and identity in museums Mahwah NJ

Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesLEONTIEV A N (1981) The problem of activity in psychology En J VWertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 37-71) Armonk NY SharpeMAYBIN J MERCER N amp STIERER B (1992) lsquoScaffoldingrsquo learning in the classroom En K Norman (Ed) Thinking voices The

work of the National Oracy Project (pp 186-195) Londres Hodder amp StoughtonMCMAHON S I RAPHAEL T E GOATLEY V J amp PARDO L S (Eds) (1997) The Book Club connection Literacy learning and class-

room talk Nueva York Teachers College PressNELSON K (1996) Language in cognitive development The emergence of the mediated mind Nueva York Cambridge University PressNEWSON J (1978) Dialogue and development En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol The emergence of language (pp 31-42)

New York Academic Press

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187186

NYSTRAND M amp GAMORAN A (1991) Student engagement When recitation becomes conversation En H C Waxman amp H JWalberg (Eds) Effective teaching Current research (pp 257-276)Berkeley CA McCutchan Publishing Corp

OLSON D R amp BRUNER J S (1996) Folk psychology and folk pedagogy En D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook ofeducation and human development (pp 9-27) Cambridge MA Blackwell

PALINCSAR A MAGNUSSON S MARANO N FORD D amp BROWN N (1998) Designing a community of practice Principlesand practices of the GIsML Community Teaching and Teacher Education 14 (1) 5-20

PIAGET J (1970) Piagetrsquos theory En P H Mussen (Ed) Carmichaelrsquos handbook of child development (pp 703-732) Nueva YorkWiley

PONTECORVO C amp STERPONI L (2002) Learning to argue and reason through discourse in educational settings En G Wells ampG Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 127-140) OxfordBlackwell

ROGOFF B (1990) Apprenticeship in thinking Cognitive development in social context Nueva York Oxford University PressROGOFF B (1994) Developing understanding of the idea of Communities of Learners Mind Culture and Activity 1 (4) 209-

229ROGOFF B (2003) The cultural nature of human development Nueva York Oxford University PressROSENBLATT L (1978) The reader the text the poem The transactional theory of the literary work Carbondale IL Southern Illinois

University PressSCARDAMALIA M C BEREITER amp LAMON M (1994) The CSILE project Trying to bring the classroom into World 3 En K

McGilley (Ed) Classroom lessons Integrating cognitive theory and classroom practice (pp 201-228) Cambridge MA MITPress

SCRIBNER S (1985) Vygotskyrsquos uses of history En J V Wertsch (Ed) Culture communication and cognition Vygotskian perspectives(pp 119-145) Cambridge Cambridge University Press

THARP R amp GALLIMORE R (1988) Rousing minds to life Nueva York Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C (1979) Communication and cooperation in early infancy a description of primary intersubjectivity En M

Bullowa (Ed) Before speech The beginning of interpersonal communication (pp 321-348) Cambridge Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C amp HUBLEY P (1978) Secondary intersubjectivity Confidence confiding and acts of meaning in the first year

En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol the emergence of language (pp 183-230) Nueva York Academic PressVYGOTSKI L S (1978)Mind in society The development of higher psychological processes Cambridge MA Harvard University PressVYGOTSKI L S (1981) The genesis of higher mental functions En J V Wertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 144-188) Armonk NY SharpeVYGOTSKI L S (1987) Thinking and speech En R W Rieber amp A S Carton (Eds) The collected works of L S Vygotsky Volumen

1 Problems of general psychology (pp 39-285) Nueva York PlenumWARTOFSKY M (1979) Models representation and scientific understanding Boston ReidelWELLS G (1985) Language development in the pre-school years Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (1986) The meaning makers Children learning language and using language to learn Portsmouth NH HeinemannWELLS G (1999) Dialogic inquiry Towards a sociocultural practice and theory of education Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (Ed) (2001) Action talk and text Learning and teaching through inquiry Nueva York Teachers College PressWELLS G (2002a) Learning and teaching for understanding The key role of collaborative knowledge building En J Brophy

(Ed) Social constructivist teaching Affordances and constraints (pp 1-41) Osford Elsevier ScienceJAIWELLS G (2002b) The role of dialogue in activity theory Mind Culture and Activity 9 (1) 43-66WERTSCH J V MINICK N amp ARNS F J (1984) The creation of context in joint problem solving En B Rogoff amp J Lave (Eds)

Everyday cognition Its development in social context (pp 151-171) Cambridge Cambridge University PressWOOD D BRUNER J S amp ROSS G (1976) The role of tutoring in problem-solving Journal of Child Psychology and Child Psy-

chiatry 17 89-100

187El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Original text

Introduction

Compared with other species the characteristic that distinguishes humans isthe ability and proclivity to engage in tool-mediated joint activity with otherhumans It is this characteristic that accounts for the development of human cul-tures over the course of history as they invented artefacts of various kinds inorder to adapt to and exploit the ecological niches in which they found themsel-ves It also accounts for the diversity of individual personsrsquo development whichdepend on the particular activities in which they participate As Vygotsky(1978 1981) was one of the first to point out the lsquohigherrsquo mental functions thatmake us human are not biologically given but are developmentally constructedthrough the appropriation of historically developed tools and practices that aremade manifest to the child and lsquoscaffoldedrsquo in the meaningful actions and utte-rances of the coparticipants in joint activity

Before continuing readers might find it interesting to reflect on their owndevelopmental trajectories to who they are today I suspect that they may findthemselves agreeing that Who we become depends on the company we keep and what wedo together

A Brief History of the Development of Joint Activity

Leontrsquoev provides a succinct account of Vygotskyrsquos insight in the followingsummary

The initial ideas that led Vygotsky to investigate the genesis of internal mental activity fromexternal activity are fundamentally different from the theoretical approaches of other modernauthors These ideas came from the analysis of the features unique to human productive laboractivity which is mediated by tools This activity is initially social in nature that is it is deve-loped under the conditions of cooperation and social interaction among people Vygotskyidentified two main interconnected features [of this activity] that are necessarily fundamentalfor psychology its tool-like (lsquoinstrumentalrsquo) structure and its inclusion in a system of interre-lations with other people It is these features that define the nature of human psychologicalprocesses The tool mediates activity and thus connects humans not only with the world ofobjects but also with other people Because of this humanrsquos activity assimilates the experience ofhumankind This means that humansrsquo mental processes (their lsquohigher psychological functionsrsquo)acquire a structure necessarily tied to the sociohistorically formed means and methods trans-mitted to them by others in the process of cooperative labor and social interaction But it isimpossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in any way otherthan a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words higher psycho-logical processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction with others thatis through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried out indepen-dently by the individual (Leontrsquoev 1981 pp 55-56 emphases in the original)

As well as emphasizing the social and cooperative nature of human activity thisquotation is important with respect to the arguments that I want to develop inthis paper as it highlights the central role of semiotic mediation in developmentKnowledge is created as well as appropriated in the discourse among peoplewho are working together in a specific situation in order to create or improve anartefact or to solve a problem of importance to the group However Leontrsquoevalso alludes to another of Vygotskyrsquos key insights namely that in order tounderstand current activity it is necessary to investigate the history of that acti-vity It is to this that I next turn

In analyzing the history of human development at least four different time-scales need to be considered The longest is the history of the cultural evolution of

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

the species (the phylogenetic level) next is the historical development of particu-lar cultures The third level (ontogenetic) traces the developmental trajectory ofindividual humans over the course of the lifespan Finally the microgenetic levelis concerned with the development of an instance of a particular activity

In practice it is the latter that has been explored in most detail for usingcontemporary technology it is relatively easy to observe and record the sequenceof actions through which an activity is enacted and the specific operations inwhich the participants engage making use of the relevant artefacts that are avai-lable in the situation (Leontrsquoev 1981) These artefacts may be either material(knives pencils automobiles) or symbolic (utterances maps theories) ndashthoughas Cole (1996) has pointed out to function as mediators of joint activity all arte-facts must have some form of material embodiment as well as a symbolic mea-ning that is to say they must be ready to hand and also have a cultural signifi-cance relevant to the situation

However the form in which a particular instance of activity is realizeddepends not only on the artefacts that are to hand in the situation but also onthe participantsrsquo past experiences with the practices in which the artefacts areused to mediate achievement of the action goals that contribute to the joint acti-vity Thus the microgenesis of a particular instance of activity is necessarilydependent upon the ontogenetic development of the participants that is to sayupon the opportunities their life trajectories have afforded them to appropriatethe relevant cultural knowledge through participation in instances of similaractions and operations

But on the time-scale of ontogenetic development each individualrsquos trajectoryof development is itself strongly influenced by the culture in which he or she isgrowing up and on the historical development of that culture As Rogoff (2003)illustrates in considerable detail cultures vary considerably both over time andacross ecological niches in what mediating artefacts and practices are available andin the relative value accorded to each Moreover within each culture at any parti-cular historical moment participants in activities both incorporate the ways ofprevious generations and adapt them to the exigencies of current conditions

Stepping up one further level the historical development of a particular cul-tures is itself shaped by development on the even larger timescale of the culturaland biological evolution of the species This is the most difficult timescale todescribe in detail for lack of the necessary evidence But certain broad distinc-tions between human communities can be made in terms of their modes of sub-sistence and of the mediating means available for joint activity (Diamond 1998Donald 1991) As recent research has shown our earliest ancestors some 5million years ago lived in small bands of hunter gatherers often on the edge oflakes and oceans Initially their tools were found in the surroundings but overseveral million years they invented ways of making more sophisticated artefactssuch as knives arrowheads baskets and clothing from flints bones skins andvegetable materials Then as some groups migrated to particularly fertile partsof the world they adopted a more settled agrarian way of life growing cropsand breeding animals The resulting ability to produce more food than imme-diately required led in turn to the emergence of trade and to a diversity of spe-cialist occupations such as potters and tailors who exchanged their products forfood and other necessities This stage also saw the development of much largerpopulation groupings with hierarchical class structures that included prieststax collectors and other religious and political functionaries

While migration had been a common feature of human existence from theearliest times the development of large settled populations and of weapons

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

made of bronze and iron led to the expansion of certain cultural groups throughterritorial conquest and colonization by sea and by land As a result during thelast few thousand years the latest phase of phylogenetic development has beencharacterized by the rise and fall of imperial cultures which have imposed theirtechnologies laws and administrative procedures as well as their religions artsknowledge and values on widely diverse subjugated populations Most recentlythe further development of the inventions that led to the first industrial revolu-tion has simply served to increase the scale and intensity of these imperialisttrends At the same time these inventions as well as those of the current indus-trial revolution have also led to a great increase in humansrsquo understanding oftheir social and material environment both through scientific and social rese-arch and through the dissemination of information about other times and placesresulting from travel and the use of print and electronic technologies

In presenting this very condensed account of phylogenetic development Ihave emphasized the material tools that have mediated the progressively morecomplex and diverse activities in which humans have engaged over the course ofthe speciesrsquo history However bearing in mind that what has been the drivingforce of human development is joint activity an equally ndashif not morendash impor-tant determinant of this history is the development of the modes of representa-tion through which humans have communicated and developed their unders-tanding of the world Table I presents the developmental sequence proposed byDonald (1991) based on archeological neuroanatomical historical and othertypes of evidence The table also includes the stages in the historical develop-ment of ways of knowing that were proposed by Wartofsky (1979)

The first stage in this sequence corresponds to the phase in which proto-humans began to diverge from other primate species In this phase as in thebehavior of contemporary higher primates practical action was the predomi-nant form of communication as ndashnot necessarily deliberatelyndash participants sig-naled their intentions in a shared situation and these intentions were interpre-ted and responded to by their co-participants in the activity In the secondmimetic phase which must have developed gradually over many millenniacommunication became somewhat differentiated from the activity to which itreferred as humans deliberately used gestures mime facial expression andvarious types of phonation to comment on as well as to coordinate action and theobjects to which it was directed Later still with the gradual modification of thevocal tract and of the primate brain there emerged the ability to communicatethrough speech and hence the ability to refer not only to particular objects andactions but also to generalized classes and to express observed and intendedrelationships between objects actions and events thus allowing participants toplan for and reflect on the outcomes of joint activity Finally the invention ofwriting which ushered in the final phase in Donaldrsquos proposed sequence occu-rred extremely recently in the long trajectory of phylogenetic development Yetas with those that preceded it enormously increased the human repertoire ofmeans for making and communicating meaning Essentially what it added wasan ldquoexternal memoryrdquo By creating a (relatively) permanent representation oflinguistic meaning it made possible the compilation and distillation of repor-ted information from many sources including the writerrsquos own verbalizedthoughts It also allowed the writer and those who read his or her written textto review critique and revise the meanings expressed and to make the resultsavailable to people in later times and other places for further constructive debateand improvement

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

However action gesture speech and writing are not simply progressivelymore powerful modes of communication They are also progressively morepowerful mediators of thinking This is most obvious with respect to the lin-guistic modes of communication But even before the emergence of speechaction and ndashto an even greater extentndash mimesis enabled humans to think toget-her and thereby to create a shared interpretation of their joint activities In fact ithas been argued that the emergence of language was not simply the result ofbrain and vocal tract development but rather was part of a more general patternof adaptation that building upon the cognitive achievements of mimetic kno-wing strove to integrate the unconnected bits of information in a more compre-hensive and coherent account of being-in-the-world (Deacon 1997) Neverthe-less it is also true that the availability of language greatly enhanced both com-munication and thinking together for as Halliday observed

the grammar of every natural language is (among other things) a theory of human experienceit is through our acts of meaning that we transform experience into the coherent -though farfrom consistent- patchwork that we learn to project as lsquorealityrsquo (1993 p 46)

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

TABLE IModes Of Knowing Phylogenetic And Cultural Development (from Wells 1999)

Time Mode of Participants Donald(1991) Wartofsky(1979)Years BP Knowing

2 million Instrumental Individual in action Episodic Primary artifactsyears material tools

1 -- 15 million Procedural Between individuals while Mimetic Secondaryyears engaged in action artifacts tools

and practicesmimeticinteraction

50000 Substantive Among members of a (Linguistic) Secondaryyears cultural group reflecting on artifacts

action and as a basis for representations ofplanning further action tools and

practices spokeninteraction

50000 Aesthetic Among members of a Mythic Tertiary artifactsyears cultural group making sense artistic represent-

of the human predicament ations in mythnarrative graphicand musical modes

2500 Theoretical Among members of a Theoretic Tertiary artifactsyears specialist community decontextualized

seeking to explain the natural representationsand human world such as

taxonomiestheories models etc

Meta Among members of a Tertiary artifacts cultural group also representations ofindividuals seeking to mental andunderstand and control their semioticown mental activity processes

In sum what Donald and other scholars argue is that contemporary mentalabilities are the outcome of the development over time of a series of progressi-vely more powerful and flexible modes of representation ndashor in Vygotskyanterms of semiotic mediators of higher mental functions- that have made possi-ble the rational theoretically oriented modes of knowing that underpin theachievements of modern science and its technological applications In the philo-sopher Wartofskyrsquos words

our own perceptual and cognitive understanding of the world is in large part shaped andchanged by the representational artifacts we ourselves create We are in effect the products ofour own activity in this way we transform our own perceptual and cognitive modes our waysof seeing and of understanding by means of the representations we make (1979 p xxiii)

There is however one further important aspect of Donaldrsquos (1991) thesis thatis crucial for the argument that I wish to develop Although the semiotic sys-tems of mimesis speech and writing each powered a new mode of cognitiveactivity they did not replace those that preceded but were additive in theireffects The result is that contemporary humans have a variety of modes of kno-wing at their disposal as they engage in joint activity Furthermore most suchactivities call for more than one mode of knowing and require the complemen-tary and interdependent use of more than one mode of representation

Joint Activity as the Site of Ontogenetic Learning and Development

Two important implications follow from the multi-level historical concep-tion of development just outlined First on any occasion the type of activitythat is undertaken and the specific manner in which it is enacted are necessarilydependent on the particular cultural-historical antecedents of the participantsboth human and artefactual that come together in its realization In particularthe manner in which the situation is interpreted ndashin terms of what action goalsare appropriate and how they can be achievedndash depends on the motives valuesand knowledgeable skills of the human participants and on the affordances ofthe technologies available in the situation And second every instance of an acti-vity provides an occasion for a triple transformation of the situation in whichthe activity is carried out of the artefacts and practices that mediate its enact-ment and most importantly of the knowledge and skills of the human partici-pants Taken together these propositions clarify the way in which cultural andindividual development are both interdependent and rooted in particular situa-ted occasions of joint activity As Rogoff (1994) argues

People of each generation as they engage in sociocultural endeavors with other people makeuse of and extend cultural tools and practices inherited from previous generations As peopledevelop through their shared use of cultural tools and practices they simultaneously contribu-te to the transformation of cultural tools practices and institutions (p 52)

Potentially therefore every occasion of joint activity provides an opportunityfor development on the part of all participants This is a point to which I shallreturn But first I want to consider more carefully the concept of developmentitself

Clearly built into the concept of development is the implication of change andtypically of change in the direction of increasing complexity and effectiveness Inother words development is typically taken to imply improvement or progresstoward some ideal end state or capability However in the light of the previousdiscussion such a progression while it may be meaningful to (some of the) partici-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

pants in any particular situation cannot be understood in any absolute sense butmust be seen as relative to the unfolding historical trajectory of the species of aparticular culture and of the immediate community ndashits values its dominantactivities and the knowledgeable skills that form its resources Furthermore just asthese have changed in the past they will continue to change in the future in res-ponse to the changing demands of the larger environment So while ontogeneticdevelopment does indeed involve increasing complexity and effectiveness of indi-vidualsrsquo participation in the activity systems in which they are involved in theirdaily lives the overall trajectory of development is emergent and its endpoint cannever be specified in advance even in terms of an ideal to be attained

Nevertheless this does not mean that there are not strong regularities in thesequence of ontogenetic development particularly in the early years Indeed asNelson (1996) has suggested during the preschool years children follow a trajec-tory very similar to the sequence of phylogenetic development proposed byDonald (1991) (see Table I above) as they appropriate the semiotic tools of repre-sentation afforded by action mimesis speech and writing Of course this is not asimple recapitulation children growing up in a contemporary literate culture forexample are surrounded from birth by artifacts and practices that result from andembody all the available modes of knowing (Cole 1996) Appropriating existingcultural tools is thus very different from inventing them ex novo as Scribner (1985)points out Nevertheless given the combination of biological and cultural inheri-tance it is not surprising that in most if not all cultures children follow the samesequence as did the species as a whole over the course of history

In the first weeks of life infants act on their immediate surroundings bothanimate and inanimate and begin to develop what Piaget (1970) called sensori-motor intelligence However although this most basic form of activity mayappear to be instinctual it is nevertheless also inherently social First all infantsare born into an environment that is cultural in the sense of having been shapedby countless preceding generations and second the infantrsquos actions are treatedas being intentional and are responded to as such So from the beginning theinfant is caught up in social interaction (Newson 1978) In the second phasewhich typically begins in the first few months the infant also begins to engagein mimetic communication through gaze facial expression and rudimentarygesture (Bruner 1990) Couched in terms of primary and secondary intersubjec-tivity this phase has been described in considerable detail by Trevarthen (19781979) Primary intersubjectivity develops as the infant and parent engage inmutual gaze thereby communicating that they are attending to and respondingto each other In secondary intersubjectivity third parties are brought into jointattention as the parent through gaze directs the infantrsquos attention to an object ofpotential interest or follows the childrsquos direction of gaze and signals that he orshe is also attending to the same object

It is on this basis of joint action and attention that towards the end of thefirst year the child begins to exploit his or her growing command of vocaliza-tion often accompanied by gesture to begin to communicate through speechFrom research predominantly involving children in ldquoWesternrdquo societies it hasbeen established that at first the childrsquos utterances are idiosyncratic drawingonly partially ndashif at allndash on the speech of those around him or her neverthelessparents and other family members have little difficulty in interpreting them incontext and once again they respond in a manner that is contingent on theirinterpretation thereby establishing spoken communication as a joint interactiveactivity By the end of the second year however children appear to abandon thisidiosyncratic ldquoprotolanguagerdquo form of communication and begin to construct a

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

linguistic meaning potential that is systematically related to the language thatis addressed to them in the oft-repeated activities of family life (Bruner 1990Halliday 1975 Wells 1986) Significantly within particular language com-munities the sequence in which children master the basic meanings and thelexicogrammatical forms in which they are realized tends to be very similar fromchild to child (Wells 1985)

The developmental sequence just described ndashaction mimesis speechndash is com-mon to children in all cultures and in all cases takes place in and through jointactivity and interaction with other family and community members Howeveralthough the sequence is universal the manner and pace at which it proceeds varyvery considerably across cultures These differences depend upon many culturally-determined factors such as adult expectations about their childrenrsquos developmentthe position in which the infant is typically held or carried facing the caregiver orturned outwards to face in the same direction as the caregiver the makeup and sizeof the interactional groups in which communication typically occurs and whetherthese events are part of family and community life more generally or are delibera-tely arranged and structured for the presumed benefit of the child (Rogoff 2003)In the later stages of language development the range and extent of the meaningpotential that children construct begins to vary even more widely depending onthe activities in which they engage the linguistic registers that are used in thoseactivities and the stances typically adopted by interlocutors toward the use of lan-guage in their interactions with children (Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

So far the ontogenetic developmental sequence I have described is funda-mentally similar across cultures and follows the phylogenetic sequence in whichhumans have progressively added new semiotic mediational means to theircommunicative repertoires In an important sense therefore the final mode ofrepresentation in Donaldrsquos scheme that of writing is an optional extra sincemany cultures have survived and prospered without a written mode of represen-ting meaning Moreover even in cultures that have a writing system the extentand scope of literacy that individuals attain varies very considerably dependingon the activity systems in which they participate the value that is placed onwritten texts by those communmities the purposes to which they are put andthe genres that are used for those purposes However since literacy and its usesare so strongly associated with schooling I shall leave further discussion of thismode of semiotic mediation to a later part of this paper

Before concluding this section however I want to explore further the con-cept of semiotic mediation In one of the better known passages in Vygotskyrsquoswritings where he argued for the social and cultural origin of higher mentalfunctions he wrote that every function occurs on two planes first in activity andinteraction between people and then within the individual learner (Vygotsky1981) What bridges between these two planes as is clear from his other wri-tings is semiotic mediation To recall Leontrsquoevrsquos formulation of this argument

hellip it is impossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in anyway other than a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words hig-her psychological processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction withothers that is through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried outindependently by the individual (1981 pp 55-56)

In other words when people engage in joint activity their actions gesturesand speech not only mediate the coordination of participation but they alsomake overt the mental activities involved and so render them available forappropriation by novice participants1 Halliday is very clear about this Alt-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

hough the following quotation refers only to language the term lsquolanguagersquocould justifiably be replaced by lsquosemiotic mediationrsquo

In the development of the child as a social being language has the central role Language is themain channel through which the patterns of living are transmitted to him through which helearns to act as a member of lsquosocietyrsquo ndashin and through the various social groups the family theneighbourhood and so onndash and to adopt its lsquoculturersquo its modes of thought and action itsbeliefs and its values (1978 p 9)

However as the child grows older language does become the predominantmode of semiotic mediation and as he wrote in a later paper ldquoLanguage is theessential condition of knowing the process by which experience becomes know-ledge (Halliday 1993 p 94 original emphasis)

Assistance for Learning in Joint Activitie

So far in the discussion of the role of joint activity in human development Ihave concentrated on the tools and particularly the semiotic modes of represen-tation that mediate the achievement of the outcome of activity In this sectionon the other hand I turn to the role of other people in this process both familymembers and the larger community

Until now I have referred to coparticipants in an activity in general termsbut clearly there are further distinctions to be made Particularly helpful in thisrespect is Engestroumlmrsquos model of an activity system which is shown in figure 1

What this model shows is that when we look at an ongoing activity from thepoint of view of an individual participant (t Subject) that individual is involvedin a nexus of other relationships that link him or her to other lsquoparticipantsrsquo theTools and artifacts to mediate action on the Object but also the Community of

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 1The Triangle of Activity

Artifactstools andpractices

Values rulesamp conventions

Community Divisioacutenof labor

Engestrom 1999

Object OutcomeSubject

others engaged in the activity together with the Division of Labor within thatcommunity and also the Rules and Conventions that govern the manner inwhich the activity is carried out (Engestroumlm 1999) What this latter category oflsquoparticipantrsquo underscores is the historical dimension of an activity system sincethese rules and conventions ndashas well as the tools and artifactsndash bring into thepresent the distilled practices of previous generations who have engaged in theactivity as these are interpreted and utilized by the current community

To illustrate the relevance of this model to the development of the youngchild we might compare two versions of a similar activity reported by WertschMinick and Arns (1984) In their study Brazilian children carried out a puzzletask on two occasions first with the mother and secondly with a primary tea-cher What the researchers found was that in general the mothers and teachersengaged in the activity in systematically different ways Whereas the motherstended to direct the childrenrsquos behavior or even carry out parts of the task them-selves in order to complete it in an efficient manner ndashjust as they would havedone if engaged in a household taskndash the teachers tended to encourage thechildrsquos autonomous performance and only provided hints and suggestions whenthey judged them to be necessary to advance the childrenrsquos understandingInterpreting these results the researchers suggested that the two groups ofadults belonged to two different communities (or activity systems) that had dif-ferent rules and conventions about engaging in this joint activity And this inturn led to the different divisions of labor that they observed Similarly Rogoff(2003) cites many examples of substantial differences between cultures inalmost all aspects of child rearing with respect to their ways of engaging chil-dren in the activities that they consider important

What is clear is that ldquobehindrdquo the particular adult ndashor older siblings in someculturesndash who are directly engaged with the child there is a wider communityof family members neighbors and others who have an interest in the upbrin-ging of children and who share beliefs about appropriate ways to involve themin the activities of daily life So whether in Spain Japan or the Peruvian High-lands although the actual practices vary across cultures in each those responsi-ble for childrenrsquos well-being and development act as agents of a wider commu-nity whose beliefs and practices are rooted in a long tradition concerning howactivities should be carried out But equally in all cultures practices also changein response to changes in the world beyond the particular community In manyWestern homes for example computer games or television programs haverecently taken the place of the bedtime story while in many indigenous com-munities crafts that until recently only supplied local needs are now exploitedcommercially for the tourist trade changing the rhythms of daily life and therelationships among family members and the activities in which children areinvolved As suggested earlier therefore in order to understand the activities inwhich children participate today we need to look not only at the immediatesituation but also at the wider community and the changes taking place on allthese time-scales

Microgenesis and the Zone of Proximal Development

It is nevertheless always the immediate microgenetic situation that isthe site of ontogenetic development ndashthe action and interaction between thelearner and those with whom he or she is engaged in the activity in pro-gress When we adopt this microgenetic perspective however we need tomodify the representation of an activity system presented in figure 1 Inthat representation the focus was on the goal-oriented nature of action

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Here we need to focus on the interaction among the participants ndashtheirattempt to attain intersubjectivity with respect to the common object andthe complementarity of the knowledgeable skills they bring to the cocons-truction of the intended outcome (see Figure 2) What figure 2 emphasizesis the fact that although the tools and artefacts that are available to mediatethe jointly undertaken action are the same for each participant each bringsa somewhat different familiarity with their use as a result of their differentlife trajectories and it is this variability in their expertise that makes it pos-sible for each to provide assistance to the others in at least some aspects ofthe joint action Viewed in this light it is clear why Vygotsky emphasizedthe role of joint activity in development and wrote of its potential to enablelearners ldquoto go beyond themselvesrdquo with the assistance of more expertothers

The metaphor Vygotsky used to characterize the potential for learning thatthis sort of activity creates was the ldquozone of proximal developmentrdquo As hewrote when another participant in the activity provides instruction that isappropriately pitched beyond what the learner can manage to do on his or herown it ldquowakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturationlying in the zone of proximal developmentrdquo (1987 p 212) Vygotsky concep-tualized development as the formation of new functional systems (ldquoneoforma-tionsrdquo) and of changes in the relationships among systems which he consideredto occur as a succession of ldquocrises of developmentrdquo that are particularly facilitatedby engagement in the relevant ldquoleading activityrdquo at each stage for example playin childhood and learning to read and write in the early school yearsHowever itwould be a mistake to focus only on the periods of revolutionary change since ashe equally emphasized at any time there are also other more gradual processes ofgrowth

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 2Dialogue in Joint Activity(from Wells2002b)

Outcomematerial ampsemioticartefacts

Toolsartefacts

Subject

Rulesconventions

Community Divisionof labor

Subject

Toolsartefacts

Processes that are central lines of development at one age become peripheral lines of develop-ment at the following age and conversely peripheral lines of development of one age arebrought to the forefront and become central lines since their meaning and relative significancein the total structure of development changes (p 197)2

In developing his important concept of the zone of proximal developmentVygotsky tended to characterize the assistance given by others as ldquoinstructionrdquoand to see its value in ldquothe childrsquos potential to raise himself to a higher intellec-tual level of development through collaboration to move from what he has towhat he does not have through imitationrdquo (1987 p 210) However manyrecent scholars who have built on his work have taken a broader view of thedevelopmental significance of collaboration in joint activities and have characte-rized the assistance that is provided within this relationship in terms such asldquoapprenticeshiprdquo (Lave amp Wenger 1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoguided participationrdquo(Rogoff 1994 2003) and ldquoscaffoldingrdquo (Wood et al 1976) Neverthelesswhile these different metaphors highlight different features of the relationshipwhat they all have in common is the inclusion of the learner in an activity inwhich there is provision of the assistance necessary to help the learner to comple-te an activity in which he or she is interested and to do so in such a way that heor she makes progress toward being able to participate more fully and autono-mously in the future (Maybin Mercer and Stierer 1992)

In many joint activities such as for example traditional forms of craftapprenticeship assistance is only provided when needed and the ldquomasterrdquo doesso with no deliberate didactic intention beyond that of involving the novice inthe completion of the particular task in hand (Lave 1996) Similarly in sociali-zation into activities around the home no explicit instruction is necessary fornovices can learn a great deal by simply watching and listening (cf Rogoff2003) This is what Lave and Wenger (1991) mean when they insist that lear-ning is not an independent activity but an intrinsic aspect of ldquolegitimate perip-heral participationrdquo in a communityrsquos activities From their perspective therefo-re formal education in which learning is the sole purpose of the activity issomething of an anomaly particularly when the only form of assistance providedis the expert teacherrsquos direct instruction and subsequent evaluation of the extentof the studentsrsquo learning

In many recent discussions it has also been recognized that it is not only aldquoteacherrdquo who can provide assistance in the zpd On the one hand in a com-plex activity many participants are more expert than others in some aspectsand therefore on some occasions are able to help those who are less expert(Rogoff 1994) and on the other hand those who provide assistance do nothave to be physically present texts and other artifacts can equally well helpa participant ldquoto go beyond himherselfrdquo as is often the case in intellectualwork such as research and writ ing (Wells 1999) Furthermore asEngestroumlm (1999) and others ndashbuilding on other aspects of Vygotskyrsquos theo-retical writingsndash have noted the material and symbolic tools that have beendeveloped by previous participants in the activity can also provide the samesort of assistance However perhaps the most important point to emphasizeis that there are many situations in which no-one is an expert yet as eachbrings his or her own past experience to the solution of a common problemthe group together is able to achieve more than any single member couldhave done alone Clearly it is such collaboration that has made possible theinventions that have led to the major advances of great civilizations over thecourse of cultural history

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Development in the Pre-School Years

As noted above the responsibility for caring for children in early childhoodvaries very considerably from one society to another Nevertheless in all socie-ties children are involved in joint activities with others in which they receiveassistance with respect to their participation however that may be locally achie-ved For the most part as already mentioned these are activities that are regu-larly repeated in the taken-for-granted routines of daily life The expectation isthat the child will learn to fit in and is simply helped to do so Often referred toas ldquoenculturationrdquo this form of apprenticeship ensures the continuity of the cul-turersquos way of life from one generation to the next and as Donald (1991) arguedit probably occurred even before the emergence of speech

However in all activities there are occasions when problems arise that callfor some level of deliberate decision-making In these situations spoken interac-tion makes possible a degree of reflection and forward planning in which therelations of cause and effect intention action and outcome are made explicitand open to question and discussion The talk that occurs on these occasionsthus plays a particularly important role in helping children to attend to andunderstand the world around them in terms of the culturersquos ways of ldquomakingsenserdquo of it However these occasions can also open up possibilities for changeboth in the form of the activity and in the participantsrsquo understanding of itHow caregivers habitually take up these opportunities is particularly importantfor it plays an important part in shaping the intellectual dispositions withwhich children enter school (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo amp Sterponi2002)

In this section I include some representative examples of kinds of talk thatarise from joint activities in the home These examples are drawn from observa-tions made in settings in England (Wells 1986) and Australia (Hasan 2002) inwhich the young children observed spent most of their time at home with oneparent sometimes with one or more siblings some of the time they entertainedthemselves with occasional adult involvement but they also frequently watchedand ldquohelpedrdquo the parent with household tasks of various kinds

In the first example James (aged 3 12 years) has been playing alone in thegarden and as he reenters the house his mother tries to get him to take off hismuddy shoes However at that moment he sees a bird outside which interestshim more than changing his shoes

Example 1Mother There we are there one slipper onJames I can see a birdMother A what loveJames See a bird Mother (whispering) Is there OutsideJames (pointing and whispering) Yes see

(both continue to speak very softly)Mother Is he eating anythingJames NoMother Where Oh yes hersquos getting- do you know what hersquos doingJames NoMother Hersquos going to the- the paper sack to try to pick out some pieces-

Oh hersquos got some food there and I expect hersquoll pick out somepieces of thread from the sack to go and make his nest under the roofJames Wait a minute and Irsquoll-[James now wants to go out to see more closely but at that moment thebird flies away]

James That birdrsquos gone

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

In the second example Elizabeth (aged 4 years) who is helping with thehouse cleaning watches with interest as her mother shovels wood ash from thefireplace into a bucket

Example 2Elizabeth What are you doing that forMother Irsquom gathering it up and putting it outside so that Daddy can put it on the gardenElizabeth Why does he have to put it on the gardenMother To make the compost rightElizabeth Does that make the grass growMother YesElizabeth Why does itMother You know how I tell you that you need to eat different things like eggs and cab-

bage and rice pudding to make you grow into a big girlElizabeth YesMother Well plants need different foods too and ash is one of the things thatrsquos

good for them

The third example involves James again now eighteen months older Earlierin the afternoon he had been helping his mother with the baking Now hecomes back into the kitchen as his mother is taking the baking trays out of theoven He hears a loud metallic ldquocrackrdquo and asks for an explanation

Example 3James Who did thatMother I expect it was the tin contractingJames Which tinMother The one with your pastry inJames Why did it make that noiseMother Well when it was in the oven it got very hot and stretched a bit Irsquove just taken

it out of the oven and itrsquos cooling down very quickly you see and that noisehappens when it gets smaller again and goes back to its normal shape

James Oh was it a different shape in the ovenMother Oh not very different just a little biggerJames Naughty little tin you might get smacked if you do it again

In all three of these examples the mother willingly responds to the childrsquosinterest and provides information to explain the significance of what the child isseeing or hearing even when in the first this interrupts the motherrsquos plan Allthree cases show how the childrsquos participation in the activity with the adult assu-res that there is intersubjectivity of attention to what interests the child and thisenables the mother to provide relevant information Clearly this is a form ofldquoinstructionrdquo however it is spontaneous and contingent on the childrsquos interestrather than presented as part of a pre-planned curriculum

The third example is particularly interesting from this point of view as thephenomenon of interest to James requires a somewhat technical explanation Atsome point in the future no doubt the expansion of metal when heated and itssubsequent contraction when removed from the heat will figure in the schoolscience curriculum in relation to the systematic study of heat here however itis an interesting side-effect of baking and the motherrsquos explanation while tech-nical in content is couched in everyday language rather than in the abstractterms of scientific generalization As Hasan (2002) has observed

the discourse of quasi specialised knowledge occurs in the lsquomiddle ofrsquo daily activities and bynecessity it calls for a readiness on the motherrsquos part to entertain contextual shifts to bewilling to reclassify the context of the on-going discourse The tendency to move with thechildrsquos moving discourse the readiness to re-classify context is a discourse characteristic of thesame group of mothers who frequently ask questions made precise by qualification and whoattend to their childrenrsquos questions and provide them with well developed answers (p 123)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 23: Actividad y Aprendizaje

NYSTRAND M amp GAMORAN A (1991) Student engagement When recitation becomes conversation En H C Waxman amp H JWalberg (Eds) Effective teaching Current research (pp 257-276)Berkeley CA McCutchan Publishing Corp

OLSON D R amp BRUNER J S (1996) Folk psychology and folk pedagogy En D R Olson amp N Torrance (Eds) The handbook ofeducation and human development (pp 9-27) Cambridge MA Blackwell

PALINCSAR A MAGNUSSON S MARANO N FORD D amp BROWN N (1998) Designing a community of practice Principlesand practices of the GIsML Community Teaching and Teacher Education 14 (1) 5-20

PIAGET J (1970) Piagetrsquos theory En P H Mussen (Ed) Carmichaelrsquos handbook of child development (pp 703-732) Nueva YorkWiley

PONTECORVO C amp STERPONI L (2002) Learning to argue and reason through discourse in educational settings En G Wells ampG Claxton (Eds) Learning for life in the 21st century Sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp 127-140) OxfordBlackwell

ROGOFF B (1990) Apprenticeship in thinking Cognitive development in social context Nueva York Oxford University PressROGOFF B (1994) Developing understanding of the idea of Communities of Learners Mind Culture and Activity 1 (4) 209-

229ROGOFF B (2003) The cultural nature of human development Nueva York Oxford University PressROSENBLATT L (1978) The reader the text the poem The transactional theory of the literary work Carbondale IL Southern Illinois

University PressSCARDAMALIA M C BEREITER amp LAMON M (1994) The CSILE project Trying to bring the classroom into World 3 En K

McGilley (Ed) Classroom lessons Integrating cognitive theory and classroom practice (pp 201-228) Cambridge MA MITPress

SCRIBNER S (1985) Vygotskyrsquos uses of history En J V Wertsch (Ed) Culture communication and cognition Vygotskian perspectives(pp 119-145) Cambridge Cambridge University Press

THARP R amp GALLIMORE R (1988) Rousing minds to life Nueva York Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C (1979) Communication and cooperation in early infancy a description of primary intersubjectivity En M

Bullowa (Ed) Before speech The beginning of interpersonal communication (pp 321-348) Cambridge Cambridge University PressTREVARTHEN C amp HUBLEY P (1978) Secondary intersubjectivity Confidence confiding and acts of meaning in the first year

En A Lock (Ed) Action gesture and symbol the emergence of language (pp 183-230) Nueva York Academic PressVYGOTSKI L S (1978)Mind in society The development of higher psychological processes Cambridge MA Harvard University PressVYGOTSKI L S (1981) The genesis of higher mental functions En J V Wertsch (Ed) The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology

(pp 144-188) Armonk NY SharpeVYGOTSKI L S (1987) Thinking and speech En R W Rieber amp A S Carton (Eds) The collected works of L S Vygotsky Volumen

1 Problems of general psychology (pp 39-285) Nueva York PlenumWARTOFSKY M (1979) Models representation and scientific understanding Boston ReidelWELLS G (1985) Language development in the pre-school years Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (1986) The meaning makers Children learning language and using language to learn Portsmouth NH HeinemannWELLS G (1999) Dialogic inquiry Towards a sociocultural practice and theory of education Cambridge Cambridge University PressWELLS G (Ed) (2001) Action talk and text Learning and teaching through inquiry Nueva York Teachers College PressWELLS G (2002a) Learning and teaching for understanding The key role of collaborative knowledge building En J Brophy

(Ed) Social constructivist teaching Affordances and constraints (pp 1-41) Osford Elsevier ScienceJAIWELLS G (2002b) The role of dialogue in activity theory Mind Culture and Activity 9 (1) 43-66WERTSCH J V MINICK N amp ARNS F J (1984) The creation of context in joint problem solving En B Rogoff amp J Lave (Eds)

Everyday cognition Its development in social context (pp 151-171) Cambridge Cambridge University PressWOOD D BRUNER J S amp ROSS G (1976) The role of tutoring in problem-solving Journal of Child Psychology and Child Psy-

chiatry 17 89-100

187El papel de la actividad en el desarrollo y la educacioacuten G Wells

Original text

Introduction

Compared with other species the characteristic that distinguishes humans isthe ability and proclivity to engage in tool-mediated joint activity with otherhumans It is this characteristic that accounts for the development of human cul-tures over the course of history as they invented artefacts of various kinds inorder to adapt to and exploit the ecological niches in which they found themsel-ves It also accounts for the diversity of individual personsrsquo development whichdepend on the particular activities in which they participate As Vygotsky(1978 1981) was one of the first to point out the lsquohigherrsquo mental functions thatmake us human are not biologically given but are developmentally constructedthrough the appropriation of historically developed tools and practices that aremade manifest to the child and lsquoscaffoldedrsquo in the meaningful actions and utte-rances of the coparticipants in joint activity

Before continuing readers might find it interesting to reflect on their owndevelopmental trajectories to who they are today I suspect that they may findthemselves agreeing that Who we become depends on the company we keep and what wedo together

A Brief History of the Development of Joint Activity

Leontrsquoev provides a succinct account of Vygotskyrsquos insight in the followingsummary

The initial ideas that led Vygotsky to investigate the genesis of internal mental activity fromexternal activity are fundamentally different from the theoretical approaches of other modernauthors These ideas came from the analysis of the features unique to human productive laboractivity which is mediated by tools This activity is initially social in nature that is it is deve-loped under the conditions of cooperation and social interaction among people Vygotskyidentified two main interconnected features [of this activity] that are necessarily fundamentalfor psychology its tool-like (lsquoinstrumentalrsquo) structure and its inclusion in a system of interre-lations with other people It is these features that define the nature of human psychologicalprocesses The tool mediates activity and thus connects humans not only with the world ofobjects but also with other people Because of this humanrsquos activity assimilates the experience ofhumankind This means that humansrsquo mental processes (their lsquohigher psychological functionsrsquo)acquire a structure necessarily tied to the sociohistorically formed means and methods trans-mitted to them by others in the process of cooperative labor and social interaction But it isimpossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in any way otherthan a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words higher psycho-logical processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction with others thatis through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried out indepen-dently by the individual (Leontrsquoev 1981 pp 55-56 emphases in the original)

As well as emphasizing the social and cooperative nature of human activity thisquotation is important with respect to the arguments that I want to develop inthis paper as it highlights the central role of semiotic mediation in developmentKnowledge is created as well as appropriated in the discourse among peoplewho are working together in a specific situation in order to create or improve anartefact or to solve a problem of importance to the group However Leontrsquoevalso alludes to another of Vygotskyrsquos key insights namely that in order tounderstand current activity it is necessary to investigate the history of that acti-vity It is to this that I next turn

In analyzing the history of human development at least four different time-scales need to be considered The longest is the history of the cultural evolution of

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

the species (the phylogenetic level) next is the historical development of particu-lar cultures The third level (ontogenetic) traces the developmental trajectory ofindividual humans over the course of the lifespan Finally the microgenetic levelis concerned with the development of an instance of a particular activity

In practice it is the latter that has been explored in most detail for usingcontemporary technology it is relatively easy to observe and record the sequenceof actions through which an activity is enacted and the specific operations inwhich the participants engage making use of the relevant artefacts that are avai-lable in the situation (Leontrsquoev 1981) These artefacts may be either material(knives pencils automobiles) or symbolic (utterances maps theories) ndashthoughas Cole (1996) has pointed out to function as mediators of joint activity all arte-facts must have some form of material embodiment as well as a symbolic mea-ning that is to say they must be ready to hand and also have a cultural signifi-cance relevant to the situation

However the form in which a particular instance of activity is realizeddepends not only on the artefacts that are to hand in the situation but also onthe participantsrsquo past experiences with the practices in which the artefacts areused to mediate achievement of the action goals that contribute to the joint acti-vity Thus the microgenesis of a particular instance of activity is necessarilydependent upon the ontogenetic development of the participants that is to sayupon the opportunities their life trajectories have afforded them to appropriatethe relevant cultural knowledge through participation in instances of similaractions and operations

But on the time-scale of ontogenetic development each individualrsquos trajectoryof development is itself strongly influenced by the culture in which he or she isgrowing up and on the historical development of that culture As Rogoff (2003)illustrates in considerable detail cultures vary considerably both over time andacross ecological niches in what mediating artefacts and practices are available andin the relative value accorded to each Moreover within each culture at any parti-cular historical moment participants in activities both incorporate the ways ofprevious generations and adapt them to the exigencies of current conditions

Stepping up one further level the historical development of a particular cul-tures is itself shaped by development on the even larger timescale of the culturaland biological evolution of the species This is the most difficult timescale todescribe in detail for lack of the necessary evidence But certain broad distinc-tions between human communities can be made in terms of their modes of sub-sistence and of the mediating means available for joint activity (Diamond 1998Donald 1991) As recent research has shown our earliest ancestors some 5million years ago lived in small bands of hunter gatherers often on the edge oflakes and oceans Initially their tools were found in the surroundings but overseveral million years they invented ways of making more sophisticated artefactssuch as knives arrowheads baskets and clothing from flints bones skins andvegetable materials Then as some groups migrated to particularly fertile partsof the world they adopted a more settled agrarian way of life growing cropsand breeding animals The resulting ability to produce more food than imme-diately required led in turn to the emergence of trade and to a diversity of spe-cialist occupations such as potters and tailors who exchanged their products forfood and other necessities This stage also saw the development of much largerpopulation groupings with hierarchical class structures that included prieststax collectors and other religious and political functionaries

While migration had been a common feature of human existence from theearliest times the development of large settled populations and of weapons

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

made of bronze and iron led to the expansion of certain cultural groups throughterritorial conquest and colonization by sea and by land As a result during thelast few thousand years the latest phase of phylogenetic development has beencharacterized by the rise and fall of imperial cultures which have imposed theirtechnologies laws and administrative procedures as well as their religions artsknowledge and values on widely diverse subjugated populations Most recentlythe further development of the inventions that led to the first industrial revolu-tion has simply served to increase the scale and intensity of these imperialisttrends At the same time these inventions as well as those of the current indus-trial revolution have also led to a great increase in humansrsquo understanding oftheir social and material environment both through scientific and social rese-arch and through the dissemination of information about other times and placesresulting from travel and the use of print and electronic technologies

In presenting this very condensed account of phylogenetic development Ihave emphasized the material tools that have mediated the progressively morecomplex and diverse activities in which humans have engaged over the course ofthe speciesrsquo history However bearing in mind that what has been the drivingforce of human development is joint activity an equally ndashif not morendash impor-tant determinant of this history is the development of the modes of representa-tion through which humans have communicated and developed their unders-tanding of the world Table I presents the developmental sequence proposed byDonald (1991) based on archeological neuroanatomical historical and othertypes of evidence The table also includes the stages in the historical develop-ment of ways of knowing that were proposed by Wartofsky (1979)

The first stage in this sequence corresponds to the phase in which proto-humans began to diverge from other primate species In this phase as in thebehavior of contemporary higher primates practical action was the predomi-nant form of communication as ndashnot necessarily deliberatelyndash participants sig-naled their intentions in a shared situation and these intentions were interpre-ted and responded to by their co-participants in the activity In the secondmimetic phase which must have developed gradually over many millenniacommunication became somewhat differentiated from the activity to which itreferred as humans deliberately used gestures mime facial expression andvarious types of phonation to comment on as well as to coordinate action and theobjects to which it was directed Later still with the gradual modification of thevocal tract and of the primate brain there emerged the ability to communicatethrough speech and hence the ability to refer not only to particular objects andactions but also to generalized classes and to express observed and intendedrelationships between objects actions and events thus allowing participants toplan for and reflect on the outcomes of joint activity Finally the invention ofwriting which ushered in the final phase in Donaldrsquos proposed sequence occu-rred extremely recently in the long trajectory of phylogenetic development Yetas with those that preceded it enormously increased the human repertoire ofmeans for making and communicating meaning Essentially what it added wasan ldquoexternal memoryrdquo By creating a (relatively) permanent representation oflinguistic meaning it made possible the compilation and distillation of repor-ted information from many sources including the writerrsquos own verbalizedthoughts It also allowed the writer and those who read his or her written textto review critique and revise the meanings expressed and to make the resultsavailable to people in later times and other places for further constructive debateand improvement

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

However action gesture speech and writing are not simply progressivelymore powerful modes of communication They are also progressively morepowerful mediators of thinking This is most obvious with respect to the lin-guistic modes of communication But even before the emergence of speechaction and ndashto an even greater extentndash mimesis enabled humans to think toget-her and thereby to create a shared interpretation of their joint activities In fact ithas been argued that the emergence of language was not simply the result ofbrain and vocal tract development but rather was part of a more general patternof adaptation that building upon the cognitive achievements of mimetic kno-wing strove to integrate the unconnected bits of information in a more compre-hensive and coherent account of being-in-the-world (Deacon 1997) Neverthe-less it is also true that the availability of language greatly enhanced both com-munication and thinking together for as Halliday observed

the grammar of every natural language is (among other things) a theory of human experienceit is through our acts of meaning that we transform experience into the coherent -though farfrom consistent- patchwork that we learn to project as lsquorealityrsquo (1993 p 46)

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

TABLE IModes Of Knowing Phylogenetic And Cultural Development (from Wells 1999)

Time Mode of Participants Donald(1991) Wartofsky(1979)Years BP Knowing

2 million Instrumental Individual in action Episodic Primary artifactsyears material tools

1 -- 15 million Procedural Between individuals while Mimetic Secondaryyears engaged in action artifacts tools

and practicesmimeticinteraction

50000 Substantive Among members of a (Linguistic) Secondaryyears cultural group reflecting on artifacts

action and as a basis for representations ofplanning further action tools and

practices spokeninteraction

50000 Aesthetic Among members of a Mythic Tertiary artifactsyears cultural group making sense artistic represent-

of the human predicament ations in mythnarrative graphicand musical modes

2500 Theoretical Among members of a Theoretic Tertiary artifactsyears specialist community decontextualized

seeking to explain the natural representationsand human world such as

taxonomiestheories models etc

Meta Among members of a Tertiary artifacts cultural group also representations ofindividuals seeking to mental andunderstand and control their semioticown mental activity processes

In sum what Donald and other scholars argue is that contemporary mentalabilities are the outcome of the development over time of a series of progressi-vely more powerful and flexible modes of representation ndashor in Vygotskyanterms of semiotic mediators of higher mental functions- that have made possi-ble the rational theoretically oriented modes of knowing that underpin theachievements of modern science and its technological applications In the philo-sopher Wartofskyrsquos words

our own perceptual and cognitive understanding of the world is in large part shaped andchanged by the representational artifacts we ourselves create We are in effect the products ofour own activity in this way we transform our own perceptual and cognitive modes our waysof seeing and of understanding by means of the representations we make (1979 p xxiii)

There is however one further important aspect of Donaldrsquos (1991) thesis thatis crucial for the argument that I wish to develop Although the semiotic sys-tems of mimesis speech and writing each powered a new mode of cognitiveactivity they did not replace those that preceded but were additive in theireffects The result is that contemporary humans have a variety of modes of kno-wing at their disposal as they engage in joint activity Furthermore most suchactivities call for more than one mode of knowing and require the complemen-tary and interdependent use of more than one mode of representation

Joint Activity as the Site of Ontogenetic Learning and Development

Two important implications follow from the multi-level historical concep-tion of development just outlined First on any occasion the type of activitythat is undertaken and the specific manner in which it is enacted are necessarilydependent on the particular cultural-historical antecedents of the participantsboth human and artefactual that come together in its realization In particularthe manner in which the situation is interpreted ndashin terms of what action goalsare appropriate and how they can be achievedndash depends on the motives valuesand knowledgeable skills of the human participants and on the affordances ofthe technologies available in the situation And second every instance of an acti-vity provides an occasion for a triple transformation of the situation in whichthe activity is carried out of the artefacts and practices that mediate its enact-ment and most importantly of the knowledge and skills of the human partici-pants Taken together these propositions clarify the way in which cultural andindividual development are both interdependent and rooted in particular situa-ted occasions of joint activity As Rogoff (1994) argues

People of each generation as they engage in sociocultural endeavors with other people makeuse of and extend cultural tools and practices inherited from previous generations As peopledevelop through their shared use of cultural tools and practices they simultaneously contribu-te to the transformation of cultural tools practices and institutions (p 52)

Potentially therefore every occasion of joint activity provides an opportunityfor development on the part of all participants This is a point to which I shallreturn But first I want to consider more carefully the concept of developmentitself

Clearly built into the concept of development is the implication of change andtypically of change in the direction of increasing complexity and effectiveness Inother words development is typically taken to imply improvement or progresstoward some ideal end state or capability However in the light of the previousdiscussion such a progression while it may be meaningful to (some of the) partici-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

pants in any particular situation cannot be understood in any absolute sense butmust be seen as relative to the unfolding historical trajectory of the species of aparticular culture and of the immediate community ndashits values its dominantactivities and the knowledgeable skills that form its resources Furthermore just asthese have changed in the past they will continue to change in the future in res-ponse to the changing demands of the larger environment So while ontogeneticdevelopment does indeed involve increasing complexity and effectiveness of indi-vidualsrsquo participation in the activity systems in which they are involved in theirdaily lives the overall trajectory of development is emergent and its endpoint cannever be specified in advance even in terms of an ideal to be attained

Nevertheless this does not mean that there are not strong regularities in thesequence of ontogenetic development particularly in the early years Indeed asNelson (1996) has suggested during the preschool years children follow a trajec-tory very similar to the sequence of phylogenetic development proposed byDonald (1991) (see Table I above) as they appropriate the semiotic tools of repre-sentation afforded by action mimesis speech and writing Of course this is not asimple recapitulation children growing up in a contemporary literate culture forexample are surrounded from birth by artifacts and practices that result from andembody all the available modes of knowing (Cole 1996) Appropriating existingcultural tools is thus very different from inventing them ex novo as Scribner (1985)points out Nevertheless given the combination of biological and cultural inheri-tance it is not surprising that in most if not all cultures children follow the samesequence as did the species as a whole over the course of history

In the first weeks of life infants act on their immediate surroundings bothanimate and inanimate and begin to develop what Piaget (1970) called sensori-motor intelligence However although this most basic form of activity mayappear to be instinctual it is nevertheless also inherently social First all infantsare born into an environment that is cultural in the sense of having been shapedby countless preceding generations and second the infantrsquos actions are treatedas being intentional and are responded to as such So from the beginning theinfant is caught up in social interaction (Newson 1978) In the second phasewhich typically begins in the first few months the infant also begins to engagein mimetic communication through gaze facial expression and rudimentarygesture (Bruner 1990) Couched in terms of primary and secondary intersubjec-tivity this phase has been described in considerable detail by Trevarthen (19781979) Primary intersubjectivity develops as the infant and parent engage inmutual gaze thereby communicating that they are attending to and respondingto each other In secondary intersubjectivity third parties are brought into jointattention as the parent through gaze directs the infantrsquos attention to an object ofpotential interest or follows the childrsquos direction of gaze and signals that he orshe is also attending to the same object

It is on this basis of joint action and attention that towards the end of thefirst year the child begins to exploit his or her growing command of vocaliza-tion often accompanied by gesture to begin to communicate through speechFrom research predominantly involving children in ldquoWesternrdquo societies it hasbeen established that at first the childrsquos utterances are idiosyncratic drawingonly partially ndashif at allndash on the speech of those around him or her neverthelessparents and other family members have little difficulty in interpreting them incontext and once again they respond in a manner that is contingent on theirinterpretation thereby establishing spoken communication as a joint interactiveactivity By the end of the second year however children appear to abandon thisidiosyncratic ldquoprotolanguagerdquo form of communication and begin to construct a

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

linguistic meaning potential that is systematically related to the language thatis addressed to them in the oft-repeated activities of family life (Bruner 1990Halliday 1975 Wells 1986) Significantly within particular language com-munities the sequence in which children master the basic meanings and thelexicogrammatical forms in which they are realized tends to be very similar fromchild to child (Wells 1985)

The developmental sequence just described ndashaction mimesis speechndash is com-mon to children in all cultures and in all cases takes place in and through jointactivity and interaction with other family and community members Howeveralthough the sequence is universal the manner and pace at which it proceeds varyvery considerably across cultures These differences depend upon many culturally-determined factors such as adult expectations about their childrenrsquos developmentthe position in which the infant is typically held or carried facing the caregiver orturned outwards to face in the same direction as the caregiver the makeup and sizeof the interactional groups in which communication typically occurs and whetherthese events are part of family and community life more generally or are delibera-tely arranged and structured for the presumed benefit of the child (Rogoff 2003)In the later stages of language development the range and extent of the meaningpotential that children construct begins to vary even more widely depending onthe activities in which they engage the linguistic registers that are used in thoseactivities and the stances typically adopted by interlocutors toward the use of lan-guage in their interactions with children (Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

So far the ontogenetic developmental sequence I have described is funda-mentally similar across cultures and follows the phylogenetic sequence in whichhumans have progressively added new semiotic mediational means to theircommunicative repertoires In an important sense therefore the final mode ofrepresentation in Donaldrsquos scheme that of writing is an optional extra sincemany cultures have survived and prospered without a written mode of represen-ting meaning Moreover even in cultures that have a writing system the extentand scope of literacy that individuals attain varies very considerably dependingon the activity systems in which they participate the value that is placed onwritten texts by those communmities the purposes to which they are put andthe genres that are used for those purposes However since literacy and its usesare so strongly associated with schooling I shall leave further discussion of thismode of semiotic mediation to a later part of this paper

Before concluding this section however I want to explore further the con-cept of semiotic mediation In one of the better known passages in Vygotskyrsquoswritings where he argued for the social and cultural origin of higher mentalfunctions he wrote that every function occurs on two planes first in activity andinteraction between people and then within the individual learner (Vygotsky1981) What bridges between these two planes as is clear from his other wri-tings is semiotic mediation To recall Leontrsquoevrsquos formulation of this argument

hellip it is impossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in anyway other than a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words hig-her psychological processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction withothers that is through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried outindependently by the individual (1981 pp 55-56)

In other words when people engage in joint activity their actions gesturesand speech not only mediate the coordination of participation but they alsomake overt the mental activities involved and so render them available forappropriation by novice participants1 Halliday is very clear about this Alt-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

hough the following quotation refers only to language the term lsquolanguagersquocould justifiably be replaced by lsquosemiotic mediationrsquo

In the development of the child as a social being language has the central role Language is themain channel through which the patterns of living are transmitted to him through which helearns to act as a member of lsquosocietyrsquo ndashin and through the various social groups the family theneighbourhood and so onndash and to adopt its lsquoculturersquo its modes of thought and action itsbeliefs and its values (1978 p 9)

However as the child grows older language does become the predominantmode of semiotic mediation and as he wrote in a later paper ldquoLanguage is theessential condition of knowing the process by which experience becomes know-ledge (Halliday 1993 p 94 original emphasis)

Assistance for Learning in Joint Activitie

So far in the discussion of the role of joint activity in human development Ihave concentrated on the tools and particularly the semiotic modes of represen-tation that mediate the achievement of the outcome of activity In this sectionon the other hand I turn to the role of other people in this process both familymembers and the larger community

Until now I have referred to coparticipants in an activity in general termsbut clearly there are further distinctions to be made Particularly helpful in thisrespect is Engestroumlmrsquos model of an activity system which is shown in figure 1

What this model shows is that when we look at an ongoing activity from thepoint of view of an individual participant (t Subject) that individual is involvedin a nexus of other relationships that link him or her to other lsquoparticipantsrsquo theTools and artifacts to mediate action on the Object but also the Community of

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 1The Triangle of Activity

Artifactstools andpractices

Values rulesamp conventions

Community Divisioacutenof labor

Engestrom 1999

Object OutcomeSubject

others engaged in the activity together with the Division of Labor within thatcommunity and also the Rules and Conventions that govern the manner inwhich the activity is carried out (Engestroumlm 1999) What this latter category oflsquoparticipantrsquo underscores is the historical dimension of an activity system sincethese rules and conventions ndashas well as the tools and artifactsndash bring into thepresent the distilled practices of previous generations who have engaged in theactivity as these are interpreted and utilized by the current community

To illustrate the relevance of this model to the development of the youngchild we might compare two versions of a similar activity reported by WertschMinick and Arns (1984) In their study Brazilian children carried out a puzzletask on two occasions first with the mother and secondly with a primary tea-cher What the researchers found was that in general the mothers and teachersengaged in the activity in systematically different ways Whereas the motherstended to direct the childrenrsquos behavior or even carry out parts of the task them-selves in order to complete it in an efficient manner ndashjust as they would havedone if engaged in a household taskndash the teachers tended to encourage thechildrsquos autonomous performance and only provided hints and suggestions whenthey judged them to be necessary to advance the childrenrsquos understandingInterpreting these results the researchers suggested that the two groups ofadults belonged to two different communities (or activity systems) that had dif-ferent rules and conventions about engaging in this joint activity And this inturn led to the different divisions of labor that they observed Similarly Rogoff(2003) cites many examples of substantial differences between cultures inalmost all aspects of child rearing with respect to their ways of engaging chil-dren in the activities that they consider important

What is clear is that ldquobehindrdquo the particular adult ndashor older siblings in someculturesndash who are directly engaged with the child there is a wider communityof family members neighbors and others who have an interest in the upbrin-ging of children and who share beliefs about appropriate ways to involve themin the activities of daily life So whether in Spain Japan or the Peruvian High-lands although the actual practices vary across cultures in each those responsi-ble for childrenrsquos well-being and development act as agents of a wider commu-nity whose beliefs and practices are rooted in a long tradition concerning howactivities should be carried out But equally in all cultures practices also changein response to changes in the world beyond the particular community In manyWestern homes for example computer games or television programs haverecently taken the place of the bedtime story while in many indigenous com-munities crafts that until recently only supplied local needs are now exploitedcommercially for the tourist trade changing the rhythms of daily life and therelationships among family members and the activities in which children areinvolved As suggested earlier therefore in order to understand the activities inwhich children participate today we need to look not only at the immediatesituation but also at the wider community and the changes taking place on allthese time-scales

Microgenesis and the Zone of Proximal Development

It is nevertheless always the immediate microgenetic situation that isthe site of ontogenetic development ndashthe action and interaction between thelearner and those with whom he or she is engaged in the activity in pro-gress When we adopt this microgenetic perspective however we need tomodify the representation of an activity system presented in figure 1 Inthat representation the focus was on the goal-oriented nature of action

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Here we need to focus on the interaction among the participants ndashtheirattempt to attain intersubjectivity with respect to the common object andthe complementarity of the knowledgeable skills they bring to the cocons-truction of the intended outcome (see Figure 2) What figure 2 emphasizesis the fact that although the tools and artefacts that are available to mediatethe jointly undertaken action are the same for each participant each bringsa somewhat different familiarity with their use as a result of their differentlife trajectories and it is this variability in their expertise that makes it pos-sible for each to provide assistance to the others in at least some aspects ofthe joint action Viewed in this light it is clear why Vygotsky emphasizedthe role of joint activity in development and wrote of its potential to enablelearners ldquoto go beyond themselvesrdquo with the assistance of more expertothers

The metaphor Vygotsky used to characterize the potential for learning thatthis sort of activity creates was the ldquozone of proximal developmentrdquo As hewrote when another participant in the activity provides instruction that isappropriately pitched beyond what the learner can manage to do on his or herown it ldquowakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturationlying in the zone of proximal developmentrdquo (1987 p 212) Vygotsky concep-tualized development as the formation of new functional systems (ldquoneoforma-tionsrdquo) and of changes in the relationships among systems which he consideredto occur as a succession of ldquocrises of developmentrdquo that are particularly facilitatedby engagement in the relevant ldquoleading activityrdquo at each stage for example playin childhood and learning to read and write in the early school yearsHowever itwould be a mistake to focus only on the periods of revolutionary change since ashe equally emphasized at any time there are also other more gradual processes ofgrowth

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 2Dialogue in Joint Activity(from Wells2002b)

Outcomematerial ampsemioticartefacts

Toolsartefacts

Subject

Rulesconventions

Community Divisionof labor

Subject

Toolsartefacts

Processes that are central lines of development at one age become peripheral lines of develop-ment at the following age and conversely peripheral lines of development of one age arebrought to the forefront and become central lines since their meaning and relative significancein the total structure of development changes (p 197)2

In developing his important concept of the zone of proximal developmentVygotsky tended to characterize the assistance given by others as ldquoinstructionrdquoand to see its value in ldquothe childrsquos potential to raise himself to a higher intellec-tual level of development through collaboration to move from what he has towhat he does not have through imitationrdquo (1987 p 210) However manyrecent scholars who have built on his work have taken a broader view of thedevelopmental significance of collaboration in joint activities and have characte-rized the assistance that is provided within this relationship in terms such asldquoapprenticeshiprdquo (Lave amp Wenger 1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoguided participationrdquo(Rogoff 1994 2003) and ldquoscaffoldingrdquo (Wood et al 1976) Neverthelesswhile these different metaphors highlight different features of the relationshipwhat they all have in common is the inclusion of the learner in an activity inwhich there is provision of the assistance necessary to help the learner to comple-te an activity in which he or she is interested and to do so in such a way that heor she makes progress toward being able to participate more fully and autono-mously in the future (Maybin Mercer and Stierer 1992)

In many joint activities such as for example traditional forms of craftapprenticeship assistance is only provided when needed and the ldquomasterrdquo doesso with no deliberate didactic intention beyond that of involving the novice inthe completion of the particular task in hand (Lave 1996) Similarly in sociali-zation into activities around the home no explicit instruction is necessary fornovices can learn a great deal by simply watching and listening (cf Rogoff2003) This is what Lave and Wenger (1991) mean when they insist that lear-ning is not an independent activity but an intrinsic aspect of ldquolegitimate perip-heral participationrdquo in a communityrsquos activities From their perspective therefo-re formal education in which learning is the sole purpose of the activity issomething of an anomaly particularly when the only form of assistance providedis the expert teacherrsquos direct instruction and subsequent evaluation of the extentof the studentsrsquo learning

In many recent discussions it has also been recognized that it is not only aldquoteacherrdquo who can provide assistance in the zpd On the one hand in a com-plex activity many participants are more expert than others in some aspectsand therefore on some occasions are able to help those who are less expert(Rogoff 1994) and on the other hand those who provide assistance do nothave to be physically present texts and other artifacts can equally well helpa participant ldquoto go beyond himherselfrdquo as is often the case in intellectualwork such as research and writ ing (Wells 1999) Furthermore asEngestroumlm (1999) and others ndashbuilding on other aspects of Vygotskyrsquos theo-retical writingsndash have noted the material and symbolic tools that have beendeveloped by previous participants in the activity can also provide the samesort of assistance However perhaps the most important point to emphasizeis that there are many situations in which no-one is an expert yet as eachbrings his or her own past experience to the solution of a common problemthe group together is able to achieve more than any single member couldhave done alone Clearly it is such collaboration that has made possible theinventions that have led to the major advances of great civilizations over thecourse of cultural history

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Development in the Pre-School Years

As noted above the responsibility for caring for children in early childhoodvaries very considerably from one society to another Nevertheless in all socie-ties children are involved in joint activities with others in which they receiveassistance with respect to their participation however that may be locally achie-ved For the most part as already mentioned these are activities that are regu-larly repeated in the taken-for-granted routines of daily life The expectation isthat the child will learn to fit in and is simply helped to do so Often referred toas ldquoenculturationrdquo this form of apprenticeship ensures the continuity of the cul-turersquos way of life from one generation to the next and as Donald (1991) arguedit probably occurred even before the emergence of speech

However in all activities there are occasions when problems arise that callfor some level of deliberate decision-making In these situations spoken interac-tion makes possible a degree of reflection and forward planning in which therelations of cause and effect intention action and outcome are made explicitand open to question and discussion The talk that occurs on these occasionsthus plays a particularly important role in helping children to attend to andunderstand the world around them in terms of the culturersquos ways of ldquomakingsenserdquo of it However these occasions can also open up possibilities for changeboth in the form of the activity and in the participantsrsquo understanding of itHow caregivers habitually take up these opportunities is particularly importantfor it plays an important part in shaping the intellectual dispositions withwhich children enter school (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo amp Sterponi2002)

In this section I include some representative examples of kinds of talk thatarise from joint activities in the home These examples are drawn from observa-tions made in settings in England (Wells 1986) and Australia (Hasan 2002) inwhich the young children observed spent most of their time at home with oneparent sometimes with one or more siblings some of the time they entertainedthemselves with occasional adult involvement but they also frequently watchedand ldquohelpedrdquo the parent with household tasks of various kinds

In the first example James (aged 3 12 years) has been playing alone in thegarden and as he reenters the house his mother tries to get him to take off hismuddy shoes However at that moment he sees a bird outside which interestshim more than changing his shoes

Example 1Mother There we are there one slipper onJames I can see a birdMother A what loveJames See a bird Mother (whispering) Is there OutsideJames (pointing and whispering) Yes see

(both continue to speak very softly)Mother Is he eating anythingJames NoMother Where Oh yes hersquos getting- do you know what hersquos doingJames NoMother Hersquos going to the- the paper sack to try to pick out some pieces-

Oh hersquos got some food there and I expect hersquoll pick out somepieces of thread from the sack to go and make his nest under the roofJames Wait a minute and Irsquoll-[James now wants to go out to see more closely but at that moment thebird flies away]

James That birdrsquos gone

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

In the second example Elizabeth (aged 4 years) who is helping with thehouse cleaning watches with interest as her mother shovels wood ash from thefireplace into a bucket

Example 2Elizabeth What are you doing that forMother Irsquom gathering it up and putting it outside so that Daddy can put it on the gardenElizabeth Why does he have to put it on the gardenMother To make the compost rightElizabeth Does that make the grass growMother YesElizabeth Why does itMother You know how I tell you that you need to eat different things like eggs and cab-

bage and rice pudding to make you grow into a big girlElizabeth YesMother Well plants need different foods too and ash is one of the things thatrsquos

good for them

The third example involves James again now eighteen months older Earlierin the afternoon he had been helping his mother with the baking Now hecomes back into the kitchen as his mother is taking the baking trays out of theoven He hears a loud metallic ldquocrackrdquo and asks for an explanation

Example 3James Who did thatMother I expect it was the tin contractingJames Which tinMother The one with your pastry inJames Why did it make that noiseMother Well when it was in the oven it got very hot and stretched a bit Irsquove just taken

it out of the oven and itrsquos cooling down very quickly you see and that noisehappens when it gets smaller again and goes back to its normal shape

James Oh was it a different shape in the ovenMother Oh not very different just a little biggerJames Naughty little tin you might get smacked if you do it again

In all three of these examples the mother willingly responds to the childrsquosinterest and provides information to explain the significance of what the child isseeing or hearing even when in the first this interrupts the motherrsquos plan Allthree cases show how the childrsquos participation in the activity with the adult assu-res that there is intersubjectivity of attention to what interests the child and thisenables the mother to provide relevant information Clearly this is a form ofldquoinstructionrdquo however it is spontaneous and contingent on the childrsquos interestrather than presented as part of a pre-planned curriculum

The third example is particularly interesting from this point of view as thephenomenon of interest to James requires a somewhat technical explanation Atsome point in the future no doubt the expansion of metal when heated and itssubsequent contraction when removed from the heat will figure in the schoolscience curriculum in relation to the systematic study of heat here however itis an interesting side-effect of baking and the motherrsquos explanation while tech-nical in content is couched in everyday language rather than in the abstractterms of scientific generalization As Hasan (2002) has observed

the discourse of quasi specialised knowledge occurs in the lsquomiddle ofrsquo daily activities and bynecessity it calls for a readiness on the motherrsquos part to entertain contextual shifts to bewilling to reclassify the context of the on-going discourse The tendency to move with thechildrsquos moving discourse the readiness to re-classify context is a discourse characteristic of thesame group of mothers who frequently ask questions made precise by qualification and whoattend to their childrenrsquos questions and provide them with well developed answers (p 123)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 24: Actividad y Aprendizaje

Original text

Introduction

Compared with other species the characteristic that distinguishes humans isthe ability and proclivity to engage in tool-mediated joint activity with otherhumans It is this characteristic that accounts for the development of human cul-tures over the course of history as they invented artefacts of various kinds inorder to adapt to and exploit the ecological niches in which they found themsel-ves It also accounts for the diversity of individual personsrsquo development whichdepend on the particular activities in which they participate As Vygotsky(1978 1981) was one of the first to point out the lsquohigherrsquo mental functions thatmake us human are not biologically given but are developmentally constructedthrough the appropriation of historically developed tools and practices that aremade manifest to the child and lsquoscaffoldedrsquo in the meaningful actions and utte-rances of the coparticipants in joint activity

Before continuing readers might find it interesting to reflect on their owndevelopmental trajectories to who they are today I suspect that they may findthemselves agreeing that Who we become depends on the company we keep and what wedo together

A Brief History of the Development of Joint Activity

Leontrsquoev provides a succinct account of Vygotskyrsquos insight in the followingsummary

The initial ideas that led Vygotsky to investigate the genesis of internal mental activity fromexternal activity are fundamentally different from the theoretical approaches of other modernauthors These ideas came from the analysis of the features unique to human productive laboractivity which is mediated by tools This activity is initially social in nature that is it is deve-loped under the conditions of cooperation and social interaction among people Vygotskyidentified two main interconnected features [of this activity] that are necessarily fundamentalfor psychology its tool-like (lsquoinstrumentalrsquo) structure and its inclusion in a system of interre-lations with other people It is these features that define the nature of human psychologicalprocesses The tool mediates activity and thus connects humans not only with the world ofobjects but also with other people Because of this humanrsquos activity assimilates the experience ofhumankind This means that humansrsquo mental processes (their lsquohigher psychological functionsrsquo)acquire a structure necessarily tied to the sociohistorically formed means and methods trans-mitted to them by others in the process of cooperative labor and social interaction But it isimpossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in any way otherthan a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words higher psycho-logical processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction with others thatis through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried out indepen-dently by the individual (Leontrsquoev 1981 pp 55-56 emphases in the original)

As well as emphasizing the social and cooperative nature of human activity thisquotation is important with respect to the arguments that I want to develop inthis paper as it highlights the central role of semiotic mediation in developmentKnowledge is created as well as appropriated in the discourse among peoplewho are working together in a specific situation in order to create or improve anartefact or to solve a problem of importance to the group However Leontrsquoevalso alludes to another of Vygotskyrsquos key insights namely that in order tounderstand current activity it is necessary to investigate the history of that acti-vity It is to this that I next turn

In analyzing the history of human development at least four different time-scales need to be considered The longest is the history of the cultural evolution of

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

the species (the phylogenetic level) next is the historical development of particu-lar cultures The third level (ontogenetic) traces the developmental trajectory ofindividual humans over the course of the lifespan Finally the microgenetic levelis concerned with the development of an instance of a particular activity

In practice it is the latter that has been explored in most detail for usingcontemporary technology it is relatively easy to observe and record the sequenceof actions through which an activity is enacted and the specific operations inwhich the participants engage making use of the relevant artefacts that are avai-lable in the situation (Leontrsquoev 1981) These artefacts may be either material(knives pencils automobiles) or symbolic (utterances maps theories) ndashthoughas Cole (1996) has pointed out to function as mediators of joint activity all arte-facts must have some form of material embodiment as well as a symbolic mea-ning that is to say they must be ready to hand and also have a cultural signifi-cance relevant to the situation

However the form in which a particular instance of activity is realizeddepends not only on the artefacts that are to hand in the situation but also onthe participantsrsquo past experiences with the practices in which the artefacts areused to mediate achievement of the action goals that contribute to the joint acti-vity Thus the microgenesis of a particular instance of activity is necessarilydependent upon the ontogenetic development of the participants that is to sayupon the opportunities their life trajectories have afforded them to appropriatethe relevant cultural knowledge through participation in instances of similaractions and operations

But on the time-scale of ontogenetic development each individualrsquos trajectoryof development is itself strongly influenced by the culture in which he or she isgrowing up and on the historical development of that culture As Rogoff (2003)illustrates in considerable detail cultures vary considerably both over time andacross ecological niches in what mediating artefacts and practices are available andin the relative value accorded to each Moreover within each culture at any parti-cular historical moment participants in activities both incorporate the ways ofprevious generations and adapt them to the exigencies of current conditions

Stepping up one further level the historical development of a particular cul-tures is itself shaped by development on the even larger timescale of the culturaland biological evolution of the species This is the most difficult timescale todescribe in detail for lack of the necessary evidence But certain broad distinc-tions between human communities can be made in terms of their modes of sub-sistence and of the mediating means available for joint activity (Diamond 1998Donald 1991) As recent research has shown our earliest ancestors some 5million years ago lived in small bands of hunter gatherers often on the edge oflakes and oceans Initially their tools were found in the surroundings but overseveral million years they invented ways of making more sophisticated artefactssuch as knives arrowheads baskets and clothing from flints bones skins andvegetable materials Then as some groups migrated to particularly fertile partsof the world they adopted a more settled agrarian way of life growing cropsand breeding animals The resulting ability to produce more food than imme-diately required led in turn to the emergence of trade and to a diversity of spe-cialist occupations such as potters and tailors who exchanged their products forfood and other necessities This stage also saw the development of much largerpopulation groupings with hierarchical class structures that included prieststax collectors and other religious and political functionaries

While migration had been a common feature of human existence from theearliest times the development of large settled populations and of weapons

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

made of bronze and iron led to the expansion of certain cultural groups throughterritorial conquest and colonization by sea and by land As a result during thelast few thousand years the latest phase of phylogenetic development has beencharacterized by the rise and fall of imperial cultures which have imposed theirtechnologies laws and administrative procedures as well as their religions artsknowledge and values on widely diverse subjugated populations Most recentlythe further development of the inventions that led to the first industrial revolu-tion has simply served to increase the scale and intensity of these imperialisttrends At the same time these inventions as well as those of the current indus-trial revolution have also led to a great increase in humansrsquo understanding oftheir social and material environment both through scientific and social rese-arch and through the dissemination of information about other times and placesresulting from travel and the use of print and electronic technologies

In presenting this very condensed account of phylogenetic development Ihave emphasized the material tools that have mediated the progressively morecomplex and diverse activities in which humans have engaged over the course ofthe speciesrsquo history However bearing in mind that what has been the drivingforce of human development is joint activity an equally ndashif not morendash impor-tant determinant of this history is the development of the modes of representa-tion through which humans have communicated and developed their unders-tanding of the world Table I presents the developmental sequence proposed byDonald (1991) based on archeological neuroanatomical historical and othertypes of evidence The table also includes the stages in the historical develop-ment of ways of knowing that were proposed by Wartofsky (1979)

The first stage in this sequence corresponds to the phase in which proto-humans began to diverge from other primate species In this phase as in thebehavior of contemporary higher primates practical action was the predomi-nant form of communication as ndashnot necessarily deliberatelyndash participants sig-naled their intentions in a shared situation and these intentions were interpre-ted and responded to by their co-participants in the activity In the secondmimetic phase which must have developed gradually over many millenniacommunication became somewhat differentiated from the activity to which itreferred as humans deliberately used gestures mime facial expression andvarious types of phonation to comment on as well as to coordinate action and theobjects to which it was directed Later still with the gradual modification of thevocal tract and of the primate brain there emerged the ability to communicatethrough speech and hence the ability to refer not only to particular objects andactions but also to generalized classes and to express observed and intendedrelationships between objects actions and events thus allowing participants toplan for and reflect on the outcomes of joint activity Finally the invention ofwriting which ushered in the final phase in Donaldrsquos proposed sequence occu-rred extremely recently in the long trajectory of phylogenetic development Yetas with those that preceded it enormously increased the human repertoire ofmeans for making and communicating meaning Essentially what it added wasan ldquoexternal memoryrdquo By creating a (relatively) permanent representation oflinguistic meaning it made possible the compilation and distillation of repor-ted information from many sources including the writerrsquos own verbalizedthoughts It also allowed the writer and those who read his or her written textto review critique and revise the meanings expressed and to make the resultsavailable to people in later times and other places for further constructive debateand improvement

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

However action gesture speech and writing are not simply progressivelymore powerful modes of communication They are also progressively morepowerful mediators of thinking This is most obvious with respect to the lin-guistic modes of communication But even before the emergence of speechaction and ndashto an even greater extentndash mimesis enabled humans to think toget-her and thereby to create a shared interpretation of their joint activities In fact ithas been argued that the emergence of language was not simply the result ofbrain and vocal tract development but rather was part of a more general patternof adaptation that building upon the cognitive achievements of mimetic kno-wing strove to integrate the unconnected bits of information in a more compre-hensive and coherent account of being-in-the-world (Deacon 1997) Neverthe-less it is also true that the availability of language greatly enhanced both com-munication and thinking together for as Halliday observed

the grammar of every natural language is (among other things) a theory of human experienceit is through our acts of meaning that we transform experience into the coherent -though farfrom consistent- patchwork that we learn to project as lsquorealityrsquo (1993 p 46)

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

TABLE IModes Of Knowing Phylogenetic And Cultural Development (from Wells 1999)

Time Mode of Participants Donald(1991) Wartofsky(1979)Years BP Knowing

2 million Instrumental Individual in action Episodic Primary artifactsyears material tools

1 -- 15 million Procedural Between individuals while Mimetic Secondaryyears engaged in action artifacts tools

and practicesmimeticinteraction

50000 Substantive Among members of a (Linguistic) Secondaryyears cultural group reflecting on artifacts

action and as a basis for representations ofplanning further action tools and

practices spokeninteraction

50000 Aesthetic Among members of a Mythic Tertiary artifactsyears cultural group making sense artistic represent-

of the human predicament ations in mythnarrative graphicand musical modes

2500 Theoretical Among members of a Theoretic Tertiary artifactsyears specialist community decontextualized

seeking to explain the natural representationsand human world such as

taxonomiestheories models etc

Meta Among members of a Tertiary artifacts cultural group also representations ofindividuals seeking to mental andunderstand and control their semioticown mental activity processes

In sum what Donald and other scholars argue is that contemporary mentalabilities are the outcome of the development over time of a series of progressi-vely more powerful and flexible modes of representation ndashor in Vygotskyanterms of semiotic mediators of higher mental functions- that have made possi-ble the rational theoretically oriented modes of knowing that underpin theachievements of modern science and its technological applications In the philo-sopher Wartofskyrsquos words

our own perceptual and cognitive understanding of the world is in large part shaped andchanged by the representational artifacts we ourselves create We are in effect the products ofour own activity in this way we transform our own perceptual and cognitive modes our waysof seeing and of understanding by means of the representations we make (1979 p xxiii)

There is however one further important aspect of Donaldrsquos (1991) thesis thatis crucial for the argument that I wish to develop Although the semiotic sys-tems of mimesis speech and writing each powered a new mode of cognitiveactivity they did not replace those that preceded but were additive in theireffects The result is that contemporary humans have a variety of modes of kno-wing at their disposal as they engage in joint activity Furthermore most suchactivities call for more than one mode of knowing and require the complemen-tary and interdependent use of more than one mode of representation

Joint Activity as the Site of Ontogenetic Learning and Development

Two important implications follow from the multi-level historical concep-tion of development just outlined First on any occasion the type of activitythat is undertaken and the specific manner in which it is enacted are necessarilydependent on the particular cultural-historical antecedents of the participantsboth human and artefactual that come together in its realization In particularthe manner in which the situation is interpreted ndashin terms of what action goalsare appropriate and how they can be achievedndash depends on the motives valuesand knowledgeable skills of the human participants and on the affordances ofthe technologies available in the situation And second every instance of an acti-vity provides an occasion for a triple transformation of the situation in whichthe activity is carried out of the artefacts and practices that mediate its enact-ment and most importantly of the knowledge and skills of the human partici-pants Taken together these propositions clarify the way in which cultural andindividual development are both interdependent and rooted in particular situa-ted occasions of joint activity As Rogoff (1994) argues

People of each generation as they engage in sociocultural endeavors with other people makeuse of and extend cultural tools and practices inherited from previous generations As peopledevelop through their shared use of cultural tools and practices they simultaneously contribu-te to the transformation of cultural tools practices and institutions (p 52)

Potentially therefore every occasion of joint activity provides an opportunityfor development on the part of all participants This is a point to which I shallreturn But first I want to consider more carefully the concept of developmentitself

Clearly built into the concept of development is the implication of change andtypically of change in the direction of increasing complexity and effectiveness Inother words development is typically taken to imply improvement or progresstoward some ideal end state or capability However in the light of the previousdiscussion such a progression while it may be meaningful to (some of the) partici-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

pants in any particular situation cannot be understood in any absolute sense butmust be seen as relative to the unfolding historical trajectory of the species of aparticular culture and of the immediate community ndashits values its dominantactivities and the knowledgeable skills that form its resources Furthermore just asthese have changed in the past they will continue to change in the future in res-ponse to the changing demands of the larger environment So while ontogeneticdevelopment does indeed involve increasing complexity and effectiveness of indi-vidualsrsquo participation in the activity systems in which they are involved in theirdaily lives the overall trajectory of development is emergent and its endpoint cannever be specified in advance even in terms of an ideal to be attained

Nevertheless this does not mean that there are not strong regularities in thesequence of ontogenetic development particularly in the early years Indeed asNelson (1996) has suggested during the preschool years children follow a trajec-tory very similar to the sequence of phylogenetic development proposed byDonald (1991) (see Table I above) as they appropriate the semiotic tools of repre-sentation afforded by action mimesis speech and writing Of course this is not asimple recapitulation children growing up in a contemporary literate culture forexample are surrounded from birth by artifacts and practices that result from andembody all the available modes of knowing (Cole 1996) Appropriating existingcultural tools is thus very different from inventing them ex novo as Scribner (1985)points out Nevertheless given the combination of biological and cultural inheri-tance it is not surprising that in most if not all cultures children follow the samesequence as did the species as a whole over the course of history

In the first weeks of life infants act on their immediate surroundings bothanimate and inanimate and begin to develop what Piaget (1970) called sensori-motor intelligence However although this most basic form of activity mayappear to be instinctual it is nevertheless also inherently social First all infantsare born into an environment that is cultural in the sense of having been shapedby countless preceding generations and second the infantrsquos actions are treatedas being intentional and are responded to as such So from the beginning theinfant is caught up in social interaction (Newson 1978) In the second phasewhich typically begins in the first few months the infant also begins to engagein mimetic communication through gaze facial expression and rudimentarygesture (Bruner 1990) Couched in terms of primary and secondary intersubjec-tivity this phase has been described in considerable detail by Trevarthen (19781979) Primary intersubjectivity develops as the infant and parent engage inmutual gaze thereby communicating that they are attending to and respondingto each other In secondary intersubjectivity third parties are brought into jointattention as the parent through gaze directs the infantrsquos attention to an object ofpotential interest or follows the childrsquos direction of gaze and signals that he orshe is also attending to the same object

It is on this basis of joint action and attention that towards the end of thefirst year the child begins to exploit his or her growing command of vocaliza-tion often accompanied by gesture to begin to communicate through speechFrom research predominantly involving children in ldquoWesternrdquo societies it hasbeen established that at first the childrsquos utterances are idiosyncratic drawingonly partially ndashif at allndash on the speech of those around him or her neverthelessparents and other family members have little difficulty in interpreting them incontext and once again they respond in a manner that is contingent on theirinterpretation thereby establishing spoken communication as a joint interactiveactivity By the end of the second year however children appear to abandon thisidiosyncratic ldquoprotolanguagerdquo form of communication and begin to construct a

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

linguistic meaning potential that is systematically related to the language thatis addressed to them in the oft-repeated activities of family life (Bruner 1990Halliday 1975 Wells 1986) Significantly within particular language com-munities the sequence in which children master the basic meanings and thelexicogrammatical forms in which they are realized tends to be very similar fromchild to child (Wells 1985)

The developmental sequence just described ndashaction mimesis speechndash is com-mon to children in all cultures and in all cases takes place in and through jointactivity and interaction with other family and community members Howeveralthough the sequence is universal the manner and pace at which it proceeds varyvery considerably across cultures These differences depend upon many culturally-determined factors such as adult expectations about their childrenrsquos developmentthe position in which the infant is typically held or carried facing the caregiver orturned outwards to face in the same direction as the caregiver the makeup and sizeof the interactional groups in which communication typically occurs and whetherthese events are part of family and community life more generally or are delibera-tely arranged and structured for the presumed benefit of the child (Rogoff 2003)In the later stages of language development the range and extent of the meaningpotential that children construct begins to vary even more widely depending onthe activities in which they engage the linguistic registers that are used in thoseactivities and the stances typically adopted by interlocutors toward the use of lan-guage in their interactions with children (Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

So far the ontogenetic developmental sequence I have described is funda-mentally similar across cultures and follows the phylogenetic sequence in whichhumans have progressively added new semiotic mediational means to theircommunicative repertoires In an important sense therefore the final mode ofrepresentation in Donaldrsquos scheme that of writing is an optional extra sincemany cultures have survived and prospered without a written mode of represen-ting meaning Moreover even in cultures that have a writing system the extentand scope of literacy that individuals attain varies very considerably dependingon the activity systems in which they participate the value that is placed onwritten texts by those communmities the purposes to which they are put andthe genres that are used for those purposes However since literacy and its usesare so strongly associated with schooling I shall leave further discussion of thismode of semiotic mediation to a later part of this paper

Before concluding this section however I want to explore further the con-cept of semiotic mediation In one of the better known passages in Vygotskyrsquoswritings where he argued for the social and cultural origin of higher mentalfunctions he wrote that every function occurs on two planes first in activity andinteraction between people and then within the individual learner (Vygotsky1981) What bridges between these two planes as is clear from his other wri-tings is semiotic mediation To recall Leontrsquoevrsquos formulation of this argument

hellip it is impossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in anyway other than a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words hig-her psychological processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction withothers that is through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried outindependently by the individual (1981 pp 55-56)

In other words when people engage in joint activity their actions gesturesand speech not only mediate the coordination of participation but they alsomake overt the mental activities involved and so render them available forappropriation by novice participants1 Halliday is very clear about this Alt-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

hough the following quotation refers only to language the term lsquolanguagersquocould justifiably be replaced by lsquosemiotic mediationrsquo

In the development of the child as a social being language has the central role Language is themain channel through which the patterns of living are transmitted to him through which helearns to act as a member of lsquosocietyrsquo ndashin and through the various social groups the family theneighbourhood and so onndash and to adopt its lsquoculturersquo its modes of thought and action itsbeliefs and its values (1978 p 9)

However as the child grows older language does become the predominantmode of semiotic mediation and as he wrote in a later paper ldquoLanguage is theessential condition of knowing the process by which experience becomes know-ledge (Halliday 1993 p 94 original emphasis)

Assistance for Learning in Joint Activitie

So far in the discussion of the role of joint activity in human development Ihave concentrated on the tools and particularly the semiotic modes of represen-tation that mediate the achievement of the outcome of activity In this sectionon the other hand I turn to the role of other people in this process both familymembers and the larger community

Until now I have referred to coparticipants in an activity in general termsbut clearly there are further distinctions to be made Particularly helpful in thisrespect is Engestroumlmrsquos model of an activity system which is shown in figure 1

What this model shows is that when we look at an ongoing activity from thepoint of view of an individual participant (t Subject) that individual is involvedin a nexus of other relationships that link him or her to other lsquoparticipantsrsquo theTools and artifacts to mediate action on the Object but also the Community of

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 1The Triangle of Activity

Artifactstools andpractices

Values rulesamp conventions

Community Divisioacutenof labor

Engestrom 1999

Object OutcomeSubject

others engaged in the activity together with the Division of Labor within thatcommunity and also the Rules and Conventions that govern the manner inwhich the activity is carried out (Engestroumlm 1999) What this latter category oflsquoparticipantrsquo underscores is the historical dimension of an activity system sincethese rules and conventions ndashas well as the tools and artifactsndash bring into thepresent the distilled practices of previous generations who have engaged in theactivity as these are interpreted and utilized by the current community

To illustrate the relevance of this model to the development of the youngchild we might compare two versions of a similar activity reported by WertschMinick and Arns (1984) In their study Brazilian children carried out a puzzletask on two occasions first with the mother and secondly with a primary tea-cher What the researchers found was that in general the mothers and teachersengaged in the activity in systematically different ways Whereas the motherstended to direct the childrenrsquos behavior or even carry out parts of the task them-selves in order to complete it in an efficient manner ndashjust as they would havedone if engaged in a household taskndash the teachers tended to encourage thechildrsquos autonomous performance and only provided hints and suggestions whenthey judged them to be necessary to advance the childrenrsquos understandingInterpreting these results the researchers suggested that the two groups ofadults belonged to two different communities (or activity systems) that had dif-ferent rules and conventions about engaging in this joint activity And this inturn led to the different divisions of labor that they observed Similarly Rogoff(2003) cites many examples of substantial differences between cultures inalmost all aspects of child rearing with respect to their ways of engaging chil-dren in the activities that they consider important

What is clear is that ldquobehindrdquo the particular adult ndashor older siblings in someculturesndash who are directly engaged with the child there is a wider communityof family members neighbors and others who have an interest in the upbrin-ging of children and who share beliefs about appropriate ways to involve themin the activities of daily life So whether in Spain Japan or the Peruvian High-lands although the actual practices vary across cultures in each those responsi-ble for childrenrsquos well-being and development act as agents of a wider commu-nity whose beliefs and practices are rooted in a long tradition concerning howactivities should be carried out But equally in all cultures practices also changein response to changes in the world beyond the particular community In manyWestern homes for example computer games or television programs haverecently taken the place of the bedtime story while in many indigenous com-munities crafts that until recently only supplied local needs are now exploitedcommercially for the tourist trade changing the rhythms of daily life and therelationships among family members and the activities in which children areinvolved As suggested earlier therefore in order to understand the activities inwhich children participate today we need to look not only at the immediatesituation but also at the wider community and the changes taking place on allthese time-scales

Microgenesis and the Zone of Proximal Development

It is nevertheless always the immediate microgenetic situation that isthe site of ontogenetic development ndashthe action and interaction between thelearner and those with whom he or she is engaged in the activity in pro-gress When we adopt this microgenetic perspective however we need tomodify the representation of an activity system presented in figure 1 Inthat representation the focus was on the goal-oriented nature of action

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Here we need to focus on the interaction among the participants ndashtheirattempt to attain intersubjectivity with respect to the common object andthe complementarity of the knowledgeable skills they bring to the cocons-truction of the intended outcome (see Figure 2) What figure 2 emphasizesis the fact that although the tools and artefacts that are available to mediatethe jointly undertaken action are the same for each participant each bringsa somewhat different familiarity with their use as a result of their differentlife trajectories and it is this variability in their expertise that makes it pos-sible for each to provide assistance to the others in at least some aspects ofthe joint action Viewed in this light it is clear why Vygotsky emphasizedthe role of joint activity in development and wrote of its potential to enablelearners ldquoto go beyond themselvesrdquo with the assistance of more expertothers

The metaphor Vygotsky used to characterize the potential for learning thatthis sort of activity creates was the ldquozone of proximal developmentrdquo As hewrote when another participant in the activity provides instruction that isappropriately pitched beyond what the learner can manage to do on his or herown it ldquowakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturationlying in the zone of proximal developmentrdquo (1987 p 212) Vygotsky concep-tualized development as the formation of new functional systems (ldquoneoforma-tionsrdquo) and of changes in the relationships among systems which he consideredto occur as a succession of ldquocrises of developmentrdquo that are particularly facilitatedby engagement in the relevant ldquoleading activityrdquo at each stage for example playin childhood and learning to read and write in the early school yearsHowever itwould be a mistake to focus only on the periods of revolutionary change since ashe equally emphasized at any time there are also other more gradual processes ofgrowth

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 2Dialogue in Joint Activity(from Wells2002b)

Outcomematerial ampsemioticartefacts

Toolsartefacts

Subject

Rulesconventions

Community Divisionof labor

Subject

Toolsartefacts

Processes that are central lines of development at one age become peripheral lines of develop-ment at the following age and conversely peripheral lines of development of one age arebrought to the forefront and become central lines since their meaning and relative significancein the total structure of development changes (p 197)2

In developing his important concept of the zone of proximal developmentVygotsky tended to characterize the assistance given by others as ldquoinstructionrdquoand to see its value in ldquothe childrsquos potential to raise himself to a higher intellec-tual level of development through collaboration to move from what he has towhat he does not have through imitationrdquo (1987 p 210) However manyrecent scholars who have built on his work have taken a broader view of thedevelopmental significance of collaboration in joint activities and have characte-rized the assistance that is provided within this relationship in terms such asldquoapprenticeshiprdquo (Lave amp Wenger 1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoguided participationrdquo(Rogoff 1994 2003) and ldquoscaffoldingrdquo (Wood et al 1976) Neverthelesswhile these different metaphors highlight different features of the relationshipwhat they all have in common is the inclusion of the learner in an activity inwhich there is provision of the assistance necessary to help the learner to comple-te an activity in which he or she is interested and to do so in such a way that heor she makes progress toward being able to participate more fully and autono-mously in the future (Maybin Mercer and Stierer 1992)

In many joint activities such as for example traditional forms of craftapprenticeship assistance is only provided when needed and the ldquomasterrdquo doesso with no deliberate didactic intention beyond that of involving the novice inthe completion of the particular task in hand (Lave 1996) Similarly in sociali-zation into activities around the home no explicit instruction is necessary fornovices can learn a great deal by simply watching and listening (cf Rogoff2003) This is what Lave and Wenger (1991) mean when they insist that lear-ning is not an independent activity but an intrinsic aspect of ldquolegitimate perip-heral participationrdquo in a communityrsquos activities From their perspective therefo-re formal education in which learning is the sole purpose of the activity issomething of an anomaly particularly when the only form of assistance providedis the expert teacherrsquos direct instruction and subsequent evaluation of the extentof the studentsrsquo learning

In many recent discussions it has also been recognized that it is not only aldquoteacherrdquo who can provide assistance in the zpd On the one hand in a com-plex activity many participants are more expert than others in some aspectsand therefore on some occasions are able to help those who are less expert(Rogoff 1994) and on the other hand those who provide assistance do nothave to be physically present texts and other artifacts can equally well helpa participant ldquoto go beyond himherselfrdquo as is often the case in intellectualwork such as research and writ ing (Wells 1999) Furthermore asEngestroumlm (1999) and others ndashbuilding on other aspects of Vygotskyrsquos theo-retical writingsndash have noted the material and symbolic tools that have beendeveloped by previous participants in the activity can also provide the samesort of assistance However perhaps the most important point to emphasizeis that there are many situations in which no-one is an expert yet as eachbrings his or her own past experience to the solution of a common problemthe group together is able to achieve more than any single member couldhave done alone Clearly it is such collaboration that has made possible theinventions that have led to the major advances of great civilizations over thecourse of cultural history

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Development in the Pre-School Years

As noted above the responsibility for caring for children in early childhoodvaries very considerably from one society to another Nevertheless in all socie-ties children are involved in joint activities with others in which they receiveassistance with respect to their participation however that may be locally achie-ved For the most part as already mentioned these are activities that are regu-larly repeated in the taken-for-granted routines of daily life The expectation isthat the child will learn to fit in and is simply helped to do so Often referred toas ldquoenculturationrdquo this form of apprenticeship ensures the continuity of the cul-turersquos way of life from one generation to the next and as Donald (1991) arguedit probably occurred even before the emergence of speech

However in all activities there are occasions when problems arise that callfor some level of deliberate decision-making In these situations spoken interac-tion makes possible a degree of reflection and forward planning in which therelations of cause and effect intention action and outcome are made explicitand open to question and discussion The talk that occurs on these occasionsthus plays a particularly important role in helping children to attend to andunderstand the world around them in terms of the culturersquos ways of ldquomakingsenserdquo of it However these occasions can also open up possibilities for changeboth in the form of the activity and in the participantsrsquo understanding of itHow caregivers habitually take up these opportunities is particularly importantfor it plays an important part in shaping the intellectual dispositions withwhich children enter school (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo amp Sterponi2002)

In this section I include some representative examples of kinds of talk thatarise from joint activities in the home These examples are drawn from observa-tions made in settings in England (Wells 1986) and Australia (Hasan 2002) inwhich the young children observed spent most of their time at home with oneparent sometimes with one or more siblings some of the time they entertainedthemselves with occasional adult involvement but they also frequently watchedand ldquohelpedrdquo the parent with household tasks of various kinds

In the first example James (aged 3 12 years) has been playing alone in thegarden and as he reenters the house his mother tries to get him to take off hismuddy shoes However at that moment he sees a bird outside which interestshim more than changing his shoes

Example 1Mother There we are there one slipper onJames I can see a birdMother A what loveJames See a bird Mother (whispering) Is there OutsideJames (pointing and whispering) Yes see

(both continue to speak very softly)Mother Is he eating anythingJames NoMother Where Oh yes hersquos getting- do you know what hersquos doingJames NoMother Hersquos going to the- the paper sack to try to pick out some pieces-

Oh hersquos got some food there and I expect hersquoll pick out somepieces of thread from the sack to go and make his nest under the roofJames Wait a minute and Irsquoll-[James now wants to go out to see more closely but at that moment thebird flies away]

James That birdrsquos gone

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

In the second example Elizabeth (aged 4 years) who is helping with thehouse cleaning watches with interest as her mother shovels wood ash from thefireplace into a bucket

Example 2Elizabeth What are you doing that forMother Irsquom gathering it up and putting it outside so that Daddy can put it on the gardenElizabeth Why does he have to put it on the gardenMother To make the compost rightElizabeth Does that make the grass growMother YesElizabeth Why does itMother You know how I tell you that you need to eat different things like eggs and cab-

bage and rice pudding to make you grow into a big girlElizabeth YesMother Well plants need different foods too and ash is one of the things thatrsquos

good for them

The third example involves James again now eighteen months older Earlierin the afternoon he had been helping his mother with the baking Now hecomes back into the kitchen as his mother is taking the baking trays out of theoven He hears a loud metallic ldquocrackrdquo and asks for an explanation

Example 3James Who did thatMother I expect it was the tin contractingJames Which tinMother The one with your pastry inJames Why did it make that noiseMother Well when it was in the oven it got very hot and stretched a bit Irsquove just taken

it out of the oven and itrsquos cooling down very quickly you see and that noisehappens when it gets smaller again and goes back to its normal shape

James Oh was it a different shape in the ovenMother Oh not very different just a little biggerJames Naughty little tin you might get smacked if you do it again

In all three of these examples the mother willingly responds to the childrsquosinterest and provides information to explain the significance of what the child isseeing or hearing even when in the first this interrupts the motherrsquos plan Allthree cases show how the childrsquos participation in the activity with the adult assu-res that there is intersubjectivity of attention to what interests the child and thisenables the mother to provide relevant information Clearly this is a form ofldquoinstructionrdquo however it is spontaneous and contingent on the childrsquos interestrather than presented as part of a pre-planned curriculum

The third example is particularly interesting from this point of view as thephenomenon of interest to James requires a somewhat technical explanation Atsome point in the future no doubt the expansion of metal when heated and itssubsequent contraction when removed from the heat will figure in the schoolscience curriculum in relation to the systematic study of heat here however itis an interesting side-effect of baking and the motherrsquos explanation while tech-nical in content is couched in everyday language rather than in the abstractterms of scientific generalization As Hasan (2002) has observed

the discourse of quasi specialised knowledge occurs in the lsquomiddle ofrsquo daily activities and bynecessity it calls for a readiness on the motherrsquos part to entertain contextual shifts to bewilling to reclassify the context of the on-going discourse The tendency to move with thechildrsquos moving discourse the readiness to re-classify context is a discourse characteristic of thesame group of mothers who frequently ask questions made precise by qualification and whoattend to their childrenrsquos questions and provide them with well developed answers (p 123)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 25: Actividad y Aprendizaje

the species (the phylogenetic level) next is the historical development of particu-lar cultures The third level (ontogenetic) traces the developmental trajectory ofindividual humans over the course of the lifespan Finally the microgenetic levelis concerned with the development of an instance of a particular activity

In practice it is the latter that has been explored in most detail for usingcontemporary technology it is relatively easy to observe and record the sequenceof actions through which an activity is enacted and the specific operations inwhich the participants engage making use of the relevant artefacts that are avai-lable in the situation (Leontrsquoev 1981) These artefacts may be either material(knives pencils automobiles) or symbolic (utterances maps theories) ndashthoughas Cole (1996) has pointed out to function as mediators of joint activity all arte-facts must have some form of material embodiment as well as a symbolic mea-ning that is to say they must be ready to hand and also have a cultural signifi-cance relevant to the situation

However the form in which a particular instance of activity is realizeddepends not only on the artefacts that are to hand in the situation but also onthe participantsrsquo past experiences with the practices in which the artefacts areused to mediate achievement of the action goals that contribute to the joint acti-vity Thus the microgenesis of a particular instance of activity is necessarilydependent upon the ontogenetic development of the participants that is to sayupon the opportunities their life trajectories have afforded them to appropriatethe relevant cultural knowledge through participation in instances of similaractions and operations

But on the time-scale of ontogenetic development each individualrsquos trajectoryof development is itself strongly influenced by the culture in which he or she isgrowing up and on the historical development of that culture As Rogoff (2003)illustrates in considerable detail cultures vary considerably both over time andacross ecological niches in what mediating artefacts and practices are available andin the relative value accorded to each Moreover within each culture at any parti-cular historical moment participants in activities both incorporate the ways ofprevious generations and adapt them to the exigencies of current conditions

Stepping up one further level the historical development of a particular cul-tures is itself shaped by development on the even larger timescale of the culturaland biological evolution of the species This is the most difficult timescale todescribe in detail for lack of the necessary evidence But certain broad distinc-tions between human communities can be made in terms of their modes of sub-sistence and of the mediating means available for joint activity (Diamond 1998Donald 1991) As recent research has shown our earliest ancestors some 5million years ago lived in small bands of hunter gatherers often on the edge oflakes and oceans Initially their tools were found in the surroundings but overseveral million years they invented ways of making more sophisticated artefactssuch as knives arrowheads baskets and clothing from flints bones skins andvegetable materials Then as some groups migrated to particularly fertile partsof the world they adopted a more settled agrarian way of life growing cropsand breeding animals The resulting ability to produce more food than imme-diately required led in turn to the emergence of trade and to a diversity of spe-cialist occupations such as potters and tailors who exchanged their products forfood and other necessities This stage also saw the development of much largerpopulation groupings with hierarchical class structures that included prieststax collectors and other religious and political functionaries

While migration had been a common feature of human existence from theearliest times the development of large settled populations and of weapons

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

made of bronze and iron led to the expansion of certain cultural groups throughterritorial conquest and colonization by sea and by land As a result during thelast few thousand years the latest phase of phylogenetic development has beencharacterized by the rise and fall of imperial cultures which have imposed theirtechnologies laws and administrative procedures as well as their religions artsknowledge and values on widely diverse subjugated populations Most recentlythe further development of the inventions that led to the first industrial revolu-tion has simply served to increase the scale and intensity of these imperialisttrends At the same time these inventions as well as those of the current indus-trial revolution have also led to a great increase in humansrsquo understanding oftheir social and material environment both through scientific and social rese-arch and through the dissemination of information about other times and placesresulting from travel and the use of print and electronic technologies

In presenting this very condensed account of phylogenetic development Ihave emphasized the material tools that have mediated the progressively morecomplex and diverse activities in which humans have engaged over the course ofthe speciesrsquo history However bearing in mind that what has been the drivingforce of human development is joint activity an equally ndashif not morendash impor-tant determinant of this history is the development of the modes of representa-tion through which humans have communicated and developed their unders-tanding of the world Table I presents the developmental sequence proposed byDonald (1991) based on archeological neuroanatomical historical and othertypes of evidence The table also includes the stages in the historical develop-ment of ways of knowing that were proposed by Wartofsky (1979)

The first stage in this sequence corresponds to the phase in which proto-humans began to diverge from other primate species In this phase as in thebehavior of contemporary higher primates practical action was the predomi-nant form of communication as ndashnot necessarily deliberatelyndash participants sig-naled their intentions in a shared situation and these intentions were interpre-ted and responded to by their co-participants in the activity In the secondmimetic phase which must have developed gradually over many millenniacommunication became somewhat differentiated from the activity to which itreferred as humans deliberately used gestures mime facial expression andvarious types of phonation to comment on as well as to coordinate action and theobjects to which it was directed Later still with the gradual modification of thevocal tract and of the primate brain there emerged the ability to communicatethrough speech and hence the ability to refer not only to particular objects andactions but also to generalized classes and to express observed and intendedrelationships between objects actions and events thus allowing participants toplan for and reflect on the outcomes of joint activity Finally the invention ofwriting which ushered in the final phase in Donaldrsquos proposed sequence occu-rred extremely recently in the long trajectory of phylogenetic development Yetas with those that preceded it enormously increased the human repertoire ofmeans for making and communicating meaning Essentially what it added wasan ldquoexternal memoryrdquo By creating a (relatively) permanent representation oflinguistic meaning it made possible the compilation and distillation of repor-ted information from many sources including the writerrsquos own verbalizedthoughts It also allowed the writer and those who read his or her written textto review critique and revise the meanings expressed and to make the resultsavailable to people in later times and other places for further constructive debateand improvement

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

However action gesture speech and writing are not simply progressivelymore powerful modes of communication They are also progressively morepowerful mediators of thinking This is most obvious with respect to the lin-guistic modes of communication But even before the emergence of speechaction and ndashto an even greater extentndash mimesis enabled humans to think toget-her and thereby to create a shared interpretation of their joint activities In fact ithas been argued that the emergence of language was not simply the result ofbrain and vocal tract development but rather was part of a more general patternof adaptation that building upon the cognitive achievements of mimetic kno-wing strove to integrate the unconnected bits of information in a more compre-hensive and coherent account of being-in-the-world (Deacon 1997) Neverthe-less it is also true that the availability of language greatly enhanced both com-munication and thinking together for as Halliday observed

the grammar of every natural language is (among other things) a theory of human experienceit is through our acts of meaning that we transform experience into the coherent -though farfrom consistent- patchwork that we learn to project as lsquorealityrsquo (1993 p 46)

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

TABLE IModes Of Knowing Phylogenetic And Cultural Development (from Wells 1999)

Time Mode of Participants Donald(1991) Wartofsky(1979)Years BP Knowing

2 million Instrumental Individual in action Episodic Primary artifactsyears material tools

1 -- 15 million Procedural Between individuals while Mimetic Secondaryyears engaged in action artifacts tools

and practicesmimeticinteraction

50000 Substantive Among members of a (Linguistic) Secondaryyears cultural group reflecting on artifacts

action and as a basis for representations ofplanning further action tools and

practices spokeninteraction

50000 Aesthetic Among members of a Mythic Tertiary artifactsyears cultural group making sense artistic represent-

of the human predicament ations in mythnarrative graphicand musical modes

2500 Theoretical Among members of a Theoretic Tertiary artifactsyears specialist community decontextualized

seeking to explain the natural representationsand human world such as

taxonomiestheories models etc

Meta Among members of a Tertiary artifacts cultural group also representations ofindividuals seeking to mental andunderstand and control their semioticown mental activity processes

In sum what Donald and other scholars argue is that contemporary mentalabilities are the outcome of the development over time of a series of progressi-vely more powerful and flexible modes of representation ndashor in Vygotskyanterms of semiotic mediators of higher mental functions- that have made possi-ble the rational theoretically oriented modes of knowing that underpin theachievements of modern science and its technological applications In the philo-sopher Wartofskyrsquos words

our own perceptual and cognitive understanding of the world is in large part shaped andchanged by the representational artifacts we ourselves create We are in effect the products ofour own activity in this way we transform our own perceptual and cognitive modes our waysof seeing and of understanding by means of the representations we make (1979 p xxiii)

There is however one further important aspect of Donaldrsquos (1991) thesis thatis crucial for the argument that I wish to develop Although the semiotic sys-tems of mimesis speech and writing each powered a new mode of cognitiveactivity they did not replace those that preceded but were additive in theireffects The result is that contemporary humans have a variety of modes of kno-wing at their disposal as they engage in joint activity Furthermore most suchactivities call for more than one mode of knowing and require the complemen-tary and interdependent use of more than one mode of representation

Joint Activity as the Site of Ontogenetic Learning and Development

Two important implications follow from the multi-level historical concep-tion of development just outlined First on any occasion the type of activitythat is undertaken and the specific manner in which it is enacted are necessarilydependent on the particular cultural-historical antecedents of the participantsboth human and artefactual that come together in its realization In particularthe manner in which the situation is interpreted ndashin terms of what action goalsare appropriate and how they can be achievedndash depends on the motives valuesand knowledgeable skills of the human participants and on the affordances ofthe technologies available in the situation And second every instance of an acti-vity provides an occasion for a triple transformation of the situation in whichthe activity is carried out of the artefacts and practices that mediate its enact-ment and most importantly of the knowledge and skills of the human partici-pants Taken together these propositions clarify the way in which cultural andindividual development are both interdependent and rooted in particular situa-ted occasions of joint activity As Rogoff (1994) argues

People of each generation as they engage in sociocultural endeavors with other people makeuse of and extend cultural tools and practices inherited from previous generations As peopledevelop through their shared use of cultural tools and practices they simultaneously contribu-te to the transformation of cultural tools practices and institutions (p 52)

Potentially therefore every occasion of joint activity provides an opportunityfor development on the part of all participants This is a point to which I shallreturn But first I want to consider more carefully the concept of developmentitself

Clearly built into the concept of development is the implication of change andtypically of change in the direction of increasing complexity and effectiveness Inother words development is typically taken to imply improvement or progresstoward some ideal end state or capability However in the light of the previousdiscussion such a progression while it may be meaningful to (some of the) partici-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

pants in any particular situation cannot be understood in any absolute sense butmust be seen as relative to the unfolding historical trajectory of the species of aparticular culture and of the immediate community ndashits values its dominantactivities and the knowledgeable skills that form its resources Furthermore just asthese have changed in the past they will continue to change in the future in res-ponse to the changing demands of the larger environment So while ontogeneticdevelopment does indeed involve increasing complexity and effectiveness of indi-vidualsrsquo participation in the activity systems in which they are involved in theirdaily lives the overall trajectory of development is emergent and its endpoint cannever be specified in advance even in terms of an ideal to be attained

Nevertheless this does not mean that there are not strong regularities in thesequence of ontogenetic development particularly in the early years Indeed asNelson (1996) has suggested during the preschool years children follow a trajec-tory very similar to the sequence of phylogenetic development proposed byDonald (1991) (see Table I above) as they appropriate the semiotic tools of repre-sentation afforded by action mimesis speech and writing Of course this is not asimple recapitulation children growing up in a contemporary literate culture forexample are surrounded from birth by artifacts and practices that result from andembody all the available modes of knowing (Cole 1996) Appropriating existingcultural tools is thus very different from inventing them ex novo as Scribner (1985)points out Nevertheless given the combination of biological and cultural inheri-tance it is not surprising that in most if not all cultures children follow the samesequence as did the species as a whole over the course of history

In the first weeks of life infants act on their immediate surroundings bothanimate and inanimate and begin to develop what Piaget (1970) called sensori-motor intelligence However although this most basic form of activity mayappear to be instinctual it is nevertheless also inherently social First all infantsare born into an environment that is cultural in the sense of having been shapedby countless preceding generations and second the infantrsquos actions are treatedas being intentional and are responded to as such So from the beginning theinfant is caught up in social interaction (Newson 1978) In the second phasewhich typically begins in the first few months the infant also begins to engagein mimetic communication through gaze facial expression and rudimentarygesture (Bruner 1990) Couched in terms of primary and secondary intersubjec-tivity this phase has been described in considerable detail by Trevarthen (19781979) Primary intersubjectivity develops as the infant and parent engage inmutual gaze thereby communicating that they are attending to and respondingto each other In secondary intersubjectivity third parties are brought into jointattention as the parent through gaze directs the infantrsquos attention to an object ofpotential interest or follows the childrsquos direction of gaze and signals that he orshe is also attending to the same object

It is on this basis of joint action and attention that towards the end of thefirst year the child begins to exploit his or her growing command of vocaliza-tion often accompanied by gesture to begin to communicate through speechFrom research predominantly involving children in ldquoWesternrdquo societies it hasbeen established that at first the childrsquos utterances are idiosyncratic drawingonly partially ndashif at allndash on the speech of those around him or her neverthelessparents and other family members have little difficulty in interpreting them incontext and once again they respond in a manner that is contingent on theirinterpretation thereby establishing spoken communication as a joint interactiveactivity By the end of the second year however children appear to abandon thisidiosyncratic ldquoprotolanguagerdquo form of communication and begin to construct a

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

linguistic meaning potential that is systematically related to the language thatis addressed to them in the oft-repeated activities of family life (Bruner 1990Halliday 1975 Wells 1986) Significantly within particular language com-munities the sequence in which children master the basic meanings and thelexicogrammatical forms in which they are realized tends to be very similar fromchild to child (Wells 1985)

The developmental sequence just described ndashaction mimesis speechndash is com-mon to children in all cultures and in all cases takes place in and through jointactivity and interaction with other family and community members Howeveralthough the sequence is universal the manner and pace at which it proceeds varyvery considerably across cultures These differences depend upon many culturally-determined factors such as adult expectations about their childrenrsquos developmentthe position in which the infant is typically held or carried facing the caregiver orturned outwards to face in the same direction as the caregiver the makeup and sizeof the interactional groups in which communication typically occurs and whetherthese events are part of family and community life more generally or are delibera-tely arranged and structured for the presumed benefit of the child (Rogoff 2003)In the later stages of language development the range and extent of the meaningpotential that children construct begins to vary even more widely depending onthe activities in which they engage the linguistic registers that are used in thoseactivities and the stances typically adopted by interlocutors toward the use of lan-guage in their interactions with children (Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

So far the ontogenetic developmental sequence I have described is funda-mentally similar across cultures and follows the phylogenetic sequence in whichhumans have progressively added new semiotic mediational means to theircommunicative repertoires In an important sense therefore the final mode ofrepresentation in Donaldrsquos scheme that of writing is an optional extra sincemany cultures have survived and prospered without a written mode of represen-ting meaning Moreover even in cultures that have a writing system the extentand scope of literacy that individuals attain varies very considerably dependingon the activity systems in which they participate the value that is placed onwritten texts by those communmities the purposes to which they are put andthe genres that are used for those purposes However since literacy and its usesare so strongly associated with schooling I shall leave further discussion of thismode of semiotic mediation to a later part of this paper

Before concluding this section however I want to explore further the con-cept of semiotic mediation In one of the better known passages in Vygotskyrsquoswritings where he argued for the social and cultural origin of higher mentalfunctions he wrote that every function occurs on two planes first in activity andinteraction between people and then within the individual learner (Vygotsky1981) What bridges between these two planes as is clear from his other wri-tings is semiotic mediation To recall Leontrsquoevrsquos formulation of this argument

hellip it is impossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in anyway other than a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words hig-her psychological processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction withothers that is through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried outindependently by the individual (1981 pp 55-56)

In other words when people engage in joint activity their actions gesturesand speech not only mediate the coordination of participation but they alsomake overt the mental activities involved and so render them available forappropriation by novice participants1 Halliday is very clear about this Alt-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

hough the following quotation refers only to language the term lsquolanguagersquocould justifiably be replaced by lsquosemiotic mediationrsquo

In the development of the child as a social being language has the central role Language is themain channel through which the patterns of living are transmitted to him through which helearns to act as a member of lsquosocietyrsquo ndashin and through the various social groups the family theneighbourhood and so onndash and to adopt its lsquoculturersquo its modes of thought and action itsbeliefs and its values (1978 p 9)

However as the child grows older language does become the predominantmode of semiotic mediation and as he wrote in a later paper ldquoLanguage is theessential condition of knowing the process by which experience becomes know-ledge (Halliday 1993 p 94 original emphasis)

Assistance for Learning in Joint Activitie

So far in the discussion of the role of joint activity in human development Ihave concentrated on the tools and particularly the semiotic modes of represen-tation that mediate the achievement of the outcome of activity In this sectionon the other hand I turn to the role of other people in this process both familymembers and the larger community

Until now I have referred to coparticipants in an activity in general termsbut clearly there are further distinctions to be made Particularly helpful in thisrespect is Engestroumlmrsquos model of an activity system which is shown in figure 1

What this model shows is that when we look at an ongoing activity from thepoint of view of an individual participant (t Subject) that individual is involvedin a nexus of other relationships that link him or her to other lsquoparticipantsrsquo theTools and artifacts to mediate action on the Object but also the Community of

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 1The Triangle of Activity

Artifactstools andpractices

Values rulesamp conventions

Community Divisioacutenof labor

Engestrom 1999

Object OutcomeSubject

others engaged in the activity together with the Division of Labor within thatcommunity and also the Rules and Conventions that govern the manner inwhich the activity is carried out (Engestroumlm 1999) What this latter category oflsquoparticipantrsquo underscores is the historical dimension of an activity system sincethese rules and conventions ndashas well as the tools and artifactsndash bring into thepresent the distilled practices of previous generations who have engaged in theactivity as these are interpreted and utilized by the current community

To illustrate the relevance of this model to the development of the youngchild we might compare two versions of a similar activity reported by WertschMinick and Arns (1984) In their study Brazilian children carried out a puzzletask on two occasions first with the mother and secondly with a primary tea-cher What the researchers found was that in general the mothers and teachersengaged in the activity in systematically different ways Whereas the motherstended to direct the childrenrsquos behavior or even carry out parts of the task them-selves in order to complete it in an efficient manner ndashjust as they would havedone if engaged in a household taskndash the teachers tended to encourage thechildrsquos autonomous performance and only provided hints and suggestions whenthey judged them to be necessary to advance the childrenrsquos understandingInterpreting these results the researchers suggested that the two groups ofadults belonged to two different communities (or activity systems) that had dif-ferent rules and conventions about engaging in this joint activity And this inturn led to the different divisions of labor that they observed Similarly Rogoff(2003) cites many examples of substantial differences between cultures inalmost all aspects of child rearing with respect to their ways of engaging chil-dren in the activities that they consider important

What is clear is that ldquobehindrdquo the particular adult ndashor older siblings in someculturesndash who are directly engaged with the child there is a wider communityof family members neighbors and others who have an interest in the upbrin-ging of children and who share beliefs about appropriate ways to involve themin the activities of daily life So whether in Spain Japan or the Peruvian High-lands although the actual practices vary across cultures in each those responsi-ble for childrenrsquos well-being and development act as agents of a wider commu-nity whose beliefs and practices are rooted in a long tradition concerning howactivities should be carried out But equally in all cultures practices also changein response to changes in the world beyond the particular community In manyWestern homes for example computer games or television programs haverecently taken the place of the bedtime story while in many indigenous com-munities crafts that until recently only supplied local needs are now exploitedcommercially for the tourist trade changing the rhythms of daily life and therelationships among family members and the activities in which children areinvolved As suggested earlier therefore in order to understand the activities inwhich children participate today we need to look not only at the immediatesituation but also at the wider community and the changes taking place on allthese time-scales

Microgenesis and the Zone of Proximal Development

It is nevertheless always the immediate microgenetic situation that isthe site of ontogenetic development ndashthe action and interaction between thelearner and those with whom he or she is engaged in the activity in pro-gress When we adopt this microgenetic perspective however we need tomodify the representation of an activity system presented in figure 1 Inthat representation the focus was on the goal-oriented nature of action

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Here we need to focus on the interaction among the participants ndashtheirattempt to attain intersubjectivity with respect to the common object andthe complementarity of the knowledgeable skills they bring to the cocons-truction of the intended outcome (see Figure 2) What figure 2 emphasizesis the fact that although the tools and artefacts that are available to mediatethe jointly undertaken action are the same for each participant each bringsa somewhat different familiarity with their use as a result of their differentlife trajectories and it is this variability in their expertise that makes it pos-sible for each to provide assistance to the others in at least some aspects ofthe joint action Viewed in this light it is clear why Vygotsky emphasizedthe role of joint activity in development and wrote of its potential to enablelearners ldquoto go beyond themselvesrdquo with the assistance of more expertothers

The metaphor Vygotsky used to characterize the potential for learning thatthis sort of activity creates was the ldquozone of proximal developmentrdquo As hewrote when another participant in the activity provides instruction that isappropriately pitched beyond what the learner can manage to do on his or herown it ldquowakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturationlying in the zone of proximal developmentrdquo (1987 p 212) Vygotsky concep-tualized development as the formation of new functional systems (ldquoneoforma-tionsrdquo) and of changes in the relationships among systems which he consideredto occur as a succession of ldquocrises of developmentrdquo that are particularly facilitatedby engagement in the relevant ldquoleading activityrdquo at each stage for example playin childhood and learning to read and write in the early school yearsHowever itwould be a mistake to focus only on the periods of revolutionary change since ashe equally emphasized at any time there are also other more gradual processes ofgrowth

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 2Dialogue in Joint Activity(from Wells2002b)

Outcomematerial ampsemioticartefacts

Toolsartefacts

Subject

Rulesconventions

Community Divisionof labor

Subject

Toolsartefacts

Processes that are central lines of development at one age become peripheral lines of develop-ment at the following age and conversely peripheral lines of development of one age arebrought to the forefront and become central lines since their meaning and relative significancein the total structure of development changes (p 197)2

In developing his important concept of the zone of proximal developmentVygotsky tended to characterize the assistance given by others as ldquoinstructionrdquoand to see its value in ldquothe childrsquos potential to raise himself to a higher intellec-tual level of development through collaboration to move from what he has towhat he does not have through imitationrdquo (1987 p 210) However manyrecent scholars who have built on his work have taken a broader view of thedevelopmental significance of collaboration in joint activities and have characte-rized the assistance that is provided within this relationship in terms such asldquoapprenticeshiprdquo (Lave amp Wenger 1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoguided participationrdquo(Rogoff 1994 2003) and ldquoscaffoldingrdquo (Wood et al 1976) Neverthelesswhile these different metaphors highlight different features of the relationshipwhat they all have in common is the inclusion of the learner in an activity inwhich there is provision of the assistance necessary to help the learner to comple-te an activity in which he or she is interested and to do so in such a way that heor she makes progress toward being able to participate more fully and autono-mously in the future (Maybin Mercer and Stierer 1992)

In many joint activities such as for example traditional forms of craftapprenticeship assistance is only provided when needed and the ldquomasterrdquo doesso with no deliberate didactic intention beyond that of involving the novice inthe completion of the particular task in hand (Lave 1996) Similarly in sociali-zation into activities around the home no explicit instruction is necessary fornovices can learn a great deal by simply watching and listening (cf Rogoff2003) This is what Lave and Wenger (1991) mean when they insist that lear-ning is not an independent activity but an intrinsic aspect of ldquolegitimate perip-heral participationrdquo in a communityrsquos activities From their perspective therefo-re formal education in which learning is the sole purpose of the activity issomething of an anomaly particularly when the only form of assistance providedis the expert teacherrsquos direct instruction and subsequent evaluation of the extentof the studentsrsquo learning

In many recent discussions it has also been recognized that it is not only aldquoteacherrdquo who can provide assistance in the zpd On the one hand in a com-plex activity many participants are more expert than others in some aspectsand therefore on some occasions are able to help those who are less expert(Rogoff 1994) and on the other hand those who provide assistance do nothave to be physically present texts and other artifacts can equally well helpa participant ldquoto go beyond himherselfrdquo as is often the case in intellectualwork such as research and writ ing (Wells 1999) Furthermore asEngestroumlm (1999) and others ndashbuilding on other aspects of Vygotskyrsquos theo-retical writingsndash have noted the material and symbolic tools that have beendeveloped by previous participants in the activity can also provide the samesort of assistance However perhaps the most important point to emphasizeis that there are many situations in which no-one is an expert yet as eachbrings his or her own past experience to the solution of a common problemthe group together is able to achieve more than any single member couldhave done alone Clearly it is such collaboration that has made possible theinventions that have led to the major advances of great civilizations over thecourse of cultural history

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Development in the Pre-School Years

As noted above the responsibility for caring for children in early childhoodvaries very considerably from one society to another Nevertheless in all socie-ties children are involved in joint activities with others in which they receiveassistance with respect to their participation however that may be locally achie-ved For the most part as already mentioned these are activities that are regu-larly repeated in the taken-for-granted routines of daily life The expectation isthat the child will learn to fit in and is simply helped to do so Often referred toas ldquoenculturationrdquo this form of apprenticeship ensures the continuity of the cul-turersquos way of life from one generation to the next and as Donald (1991) arguedit probably occurred even before the emergence of speech

However in all activities there are occasions when problems arise that callfor some level of deliberate decision-making In these situations spoken interac-tion makes possible a degree of reflection and forward planning in which therelations of cause and effect intention action and outcome are made explicitand open to question and discussion The talk that occurs on these occasionsthus plays a particularly important role in helping children to attend to andunderstand the world around them in terms of the culturersquos ways of ldquomakingsenserdquo of it However these occasions can also open up possibilities for changeboth in the form of the activity and in the participantsrsquo understanding of itHow caregivers habitually take up these opportunities is particularly importantfor it plays an important part in shaping the intellectual dispositions withwhich children enter school (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo amp Sterponi2002)

In this section I include some representative examples of kinds of talk thatarise from joint activities in the home These examples are drawn from observa-tions made in settings in England (Wells 1986) and Australia (Hasan 2002) inwhich the young children observed spent most of their time at home with oneparent sometimes with one or more siblings some of the time they entertainedthemselves with occasional adult involvement but they also frequently watchedand ldquohelpedrdquo the parent with household tasks of various kinds

In the first example James (aged 3 12 years) has been playing alone in thegarden and as he reenters the house his mother tries to get him to take off hismuddy shoes However at that moment he sees a bird outside which interestshim more than changing his shoes

Example 1Mother There we are there one slipper onJames I can see a birdMother A what loveJames See a bird Mother (whispering) Is there OutsideJames (pointing and whispering) Yes see

(both continue to speak very softly)Mother Is he eating anythingJames NoMother Where Oh yes hersquos getting- do you know what hersquos doingJames NoMother Hersquos going to the- the paper sack to try to pick out some pieces-

Oh hersquos got some food there and I expect hersquoll pick out somepieces of thread from the sack to go and make his nest under the roofJames Wait a minute and Irsquoll-[James now wants to go out to see more closely but at that moment thebird flies away]

James That birdrsquos gone

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

In the second example Elizabeth (aged 4 years) who is helping with thehouse cleaning watches with interest as her mother shovels wood ash from thefireplace into a bucket

Example 2Elizabeth What are you doing that forMother Irsquom gathering it up and putting it outside so that Daddy can put it on the gardenElizabeth Why does he have to put it on the gardenMother To make the compost rightElizabeth Does that make the grass growMother YesElizabeth Why does itMother You know how I tell you that you need to eat different things like eggs and cab-

bage and rice pudding to make you grow into a big girlElizabeth YesMother Well plants need different foods too and ash is one of the things thatrsquos

good for them

The third example involves James again now eighteen months older Earlierin the afternoon he had been helping his mother with the baking Now hecomes back into the kitchen as his mother is taking the baking trays out of theoven He hears a loud metallic ldquocrackrdquo and asks for an explanation

Example 3James Who did thatMother I expect it was the tin contractingJames Which tinMother The one with your pastry inJames Why did it make that noiseMother Well when it was in the oven it got very hot and stretched a bit Irsquove just taken

it out of the oven and itrsquos cooling down very quickly you see and that noisehappens when it gets smaller again and goes back to its normal shape

James Oh was it a different shape in the ovenMother Oh not very different just a little biggerJames Naughty little tin you might get smacked if you do it again

In all three of these examples the mother willingly responds to the childrsquosinterest and provides information to explain the significance of what the child isseeing or hearing even when in the first this interrupts the motherrsquos plan Allthree cases show how the childrsquos participation in the activity with the adult assu-res that there is intersubjectivity of attention to what interests the child and thisenables the mother to provide relevant information Clearly this is a form ofldquoinstructionrdquo however it is spontaneous and contingent on the childrsquos interestrather than presented as part of a pre-planned curriculum

The third example is particularly interesting from this point of view as thephenomenon of interest to James requires a somewhat technical explanation Atsome point in the future no doubt the expansion of metal when heated and itssubsequent contraction when removed from the heat will figure in the schoolscience curriculum in relation to the systematic study of heat here however itis an interesting side-effect of baking and the motherrsquos explanation while tech-nical in content is couched in everyday language rather than in the abstractterms of scientific generalization As Hasan (2002) has observed

the discourse of quasi specialised knowledge occurs in the lsquomiddle ofrsquo daily activities and bynecessity it calls for a readiness on the motherrsquos part to entertain contextual shifts to bewilling to reclassify the context of the on-going discourse The tendency to move with thechildrsquos moving discourse the readiness to re-classify context is a discourse characteristic of thesame group of mothers who frequently ask questions made precise by qualification and whoattend to their childrenrsquos questions and provide them with well developed answers (p 123)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 26: Actividad y Aprendizaje

made of bronze and iron led to the expansion of certain cultural groups throughterritorial conquest and colonization by sea and by land As a result during thelast few thousand years the latest phase of phylogenetic development has beencharacterized by the rise and fall of imperial cultures which have imposed theirtechnologies laws and administrative procedures as well as their religions artsknowledge and values on widely diverse subjugated populations Most recentlythe further development of the inventions that led to the first industrial revolu-tion has simply served to increase the scale and intensity of these imperialisttrends At the same time these inventions as well as those of the current indus-trial revolution have also led to a great increase in humansrsquo understanding oftheir social and material environment both through scientific and social rese-arch and through the dissemination of information about other times and placesresulting from travel and the use of print and electronic technologies

In presenting this very condensed account of phylogenetic development Ihave emphasized the material tools that have mediated the progressively morecomplex and diverse activities in which humans have engaged over the course ofthe speciesrsquo history However bearing in mind that what has been the drivingforce of human development is joint activity an equally ndashif not morendash impor-tant determinant of this history is the development of the modes of representa-tion through which humans have communicated and developed their unders-tanding of the world Table I presents the developmental sequence proposed byDonald (1991) based on archeological neuroanatomical historical and othertypes of evidence The table also includes the stages in the historical develop-ment of ways of knowing that were proposed by Wartofsky (1979)

The first stage in this sequence corresponds to the phase in which proto-humans began to diverge from other primate species In this phase as in thebehavior of contemporary higher primates practical action was the predomi-nant form of communication as ndashnot necessarily deliberatelyndash participants sig-naled their intentions in a shared situation and these intentions were interpre-ted and responded to by their co-participants in the activity In the secondmimetic phase which must have developed gradually over many millenniacommunication became somewhat differentiated from the activity to which itreferred as humans deliberately used gestures mime facial expression andvarious types of phonation to comment on as well as to coordinate action and theobjects to which it was directed Later still with the gradual modification of thevocal tract and of the primate brain there emerged the ability to communicatethrough speech and hence the ability to refer not only to particular objects andactions but also to generalized classes and to express observed and intendedrelationships between objects actions and events thus allowing participants toplan for and reflect on the outcomes of joint activity Finally the invention ofwriting which ushered in the final phase in Donaldrsquos proposed sequence occu-rred extremely recently in the long trajectory of phylogenetic development Yetas with those that preceded it enormously increased the human repertoire ofmeans for making and communicating meaning Essentially what it added wasan ldquoexternal memoryrdquo By creating a (relatively) permanent representation oflinguistic meaning it made possible the compilation and distillation of repor-ted information from many sources including the writerrsquos own verbalizedthoughts It also allowed the writer and those who read his or her written textto review critique and revise the meanings expressed and to make the resultsavailable to people in later times and other places for further constructive debateand improvement

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

However action gesture speech and writing are not simply progressivelymore powerful modes of communication They are also progressively morepowerful mediators of thinking This is most obvious with respect to the lin-guistic modes of communication But even before the emergence of speechaction and ndashto an even greater extentndash mimesis enabled humans to think toget-her and thereby to create a shared interpretation of their joint activities In fact ithas been argued that the emergence of language was not simply the result ofbrain and vocal tract development but rather was part of a more general patternof adaptation that building upon the cognitive achievements of mimetic kno-wing strove to integrate the unconnected bits of information in a more compre-hensive and coherent account of being-in-the-world (Deacon 1997) Neverthe-less it is also true that the availability of language greatly enhanced both com-munication and thinking together for as Halliday observed

the grammar of every natural language is (among other things) a theory of human experienceit is through our acts of meaning that we transform experience into the coherent -though farfrom consistent- patchwork that we learn to project as lsquorealityrsquo (1993 p 46)

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

TABLE IModes Of Knowing Phylogenetic And Cultural Development (from Wells 1999)

Time Mode of Participants Donald(1991) Wartofsky(1979)Years BP Knowing

2 million Instrumental Individual in action Episodic Primary artifactsyears material tools

1 -- 15 million Procedural Between individuals while Mimetic Secondaryyears engaged in action artifacts tools

and practicesmimeticinteraction

50000 Substantive Among members of a (Linguistic) Secondaryyears cultural group reflecting on artifacts

action and as a basis for representations ofplanning further action tools and

practices spokeninteraction

50000 Aesthetic Among members of a Mythic Tertiary artifactsyears cultural group making sense artistic represent-

of the human predicament ations in mythnarrative graphicand musical modes

2500 Theoretical Among members of a Theoretic Tertiary artifactsyears specialist community decontextualized

seeking to explain the natural representationsand human world such as

taxonomiestheories models etc

Meta Among members of a Tertiary artifacts cultural group also representations ofindividuals seeking to mental andunderstand and control their semioticown mental activity processes

In sum what Donald and other scholars argue is that contemporary mentalabilities are the outcome of the development over time of a series of progressi-vely more powerful and flexible modes of representation ndashor in Vygotskyanterms of semiotic mediators of higher mental functions- that have made possi-ble the rational theoretically oriented modes of knowing that underpin theachievements of modern science and its technological applications In the philo-sopher Wartofskyrsquos words

our own perceptual and cognitive understanding of the world is in large part shaped andchanged by the representational artifacts we ourselves create We are in effect the products ofour own activity in this way we transform our own perceptual and cognitive modes our waysof seeing and of understanding by means of the representations we make (1979 p xxiii)

There is however one further important aspect of Donaldrsquos (1991) thesis thatis crucial for the argument that I wish to develop Although the semiotic sys-tems of mimesis speech and writing each powered a new mode of cognitiveactivity they did not replace those that preceded but were additive in theireffects The result is that contemporary humans have a variety of modes of kno-wing at their disposal as they engage in joint activity Furthermore most suchactivities call for more than one mode of knowing and require the complemen-tary and interdependent use of more than one mode of representation

Joint Activity as the Site of Ontogenetic Learning and Development

Two important implications follow from the multi-level historical concep-tion of development just outlined First on any occasion the type of activitythat is undertaken and the specific manner in which it is enacted are necessarilydependent on the particular cultural-historical antecedents of the participantsboth human and artefactual that come together in its realization In particularthe manner in which the situation is interpreted ndashin terms of what action goalsare appropriate and how they can be achievedndash depends on the motives valuesand knowledgeable skills of the human participants and on the affordances ofthe technologies available in the situation And second every instance of an acti-vity provides an occasion for a triple transformation of the situation in whichthe activity is carried out of the artefacts and practices that mediate its enact-ment and most importantly of the knowledge and skills of the human partici-pants Taken together these propositions clarify the way in which cultural andindividual development are both interdependent and rooted in particular situa-ted occasions of joint activity As Rogoff (1994) argues

People of each generation as they engage in sociocultural endeavors with other people makeuse of and extend cultural tools and practices inherited from previous generations As peopledevelop through their shared use of cultural tools and practices they simultaneously contribu-te to the transformation of cultural tools practices and institutions (p 52)

Potentially therefore every occasion of joint activity provides an opportunityfor development on the part of all participants This is a point to which I shallreturn But first I want to consider more carefully the concept of developmentitself

Clearly built into the concept of development is the implication of change andtypically of change in the direction of increasing complexity and effectiveness Inother words development is typically taken to imply improvement or progresstoward some ideal end state or capability However in the light of the previousdiscussion such a progression while it may be meaningful to (some of the) partici-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

pants in any particular situation cannot be understood in any absolute sense butmust be seen as relative to the unfolding historical trajectory of the species of aparticular culture and of the immediate community ndashits values its dominantactivities and the knowledgeable skills that form its resources Furthermore just asthese have changed in the past they will continue to change in the future in res-ponse to the changing demands of the larger environment So while ontogeneticdevelopment does indeed involve increasing complexity and effectiveness of indi-vidualsrsquo participation in the activity systems in which they are involved in theirdaily lives the overall trajectory of development is emergent and its endpoint cannever be specified in advance even in terms of an ideal to be attained

Nevertheless this does not mean that there are not strong regularities in thesequence of ontogenetic development particularly in the early years Indeed asNelson (1996) has suggested during the preschool years children follow a trajec-tory very similar to the sequence of phylogenetic development proposed byDonald (1991) (see Table I above) as they appropriate the semiotic tools of repre-sentation afforded by action mimesis speech and writing Of course this is not asimple recapitulation children growing up in a contemporary literate culture forexample are surrounded from birth by artifacts and practices that result from andembody all the available modes of knowing (Cole 1996) Appropriating existingcultural tools is thus very different from inventing them ex novo as Scribner (1985)points out Nevertheless given the combination of biological and cultural inheri-tance it is not surprising that in most if not all cultures children follow the samesequence as did the species as a whole over the course of history

In the first weeks of life infants act on their immediate surroundings bothanimate and inanimate and begin to develop what Piaget (1970) called sensori-motor intelligence However although this most basic form of activity mayappear to be instinctual it is nevertheless also inherently social First all infantsare born into an environment that is cultural in the sense of having been shapedby countless preceding generations and second the infantrsquos actions are treatedas being intentional and are responded to as such So from the beginning theinfant is caught up in social interaction (Newson 1978) In the second phasewhich typically begins in the first few months the infant also begins to engagein mimetic communication through gaze facial expression and rudimentarygesture (Bruner 1990) Couched in terms of primary and secondary intersubjec-tivity this phase has been described in considerable detail by Trevarthen (19781979) Primary intersubjectivity develops as the infant and parent engage inmutual gaze thereby communicating that they are attending to and respondingto each other In secondary intersubjectivity third parties are brought into jointattention as the parent through gaze directs the infantrsquos attention to an object ofpotential interest or follows the childrsquos direction of gaze and signals that he orshe is also attending to the same object

It is on this basis of joint action and attention that towards the end of thefirst year the child begins to exploit his or her growing command of vocaliza-tion often accompanied by gesture to begin to communicate through speechFrom research predominantly involving children in ldquoWesternrdquo societies it hasbeen established that at first the childrsquos utterances are idiosyncratic drawingonly partially ndashif at allndash on the speech of those around him or her neverthelessparents and other family members have little difficulty in interpreting them incontext and once again they respond in a manner that is contingent on theirinterpretation thereby establishing spoken communication as a joint interactiveactivity By the end of the second year however children appear to abandon thisidiosyncratic ldquoprotolanguagerdquo form of communication and begin to construct a

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

linguistic meaning potential that is systematically related to the language thatis addressed to them in the oft-repeated activities of family life (Bruner 1990Halliday 1975 Wells 1986) Significantly within particular language com-munities the sequence in which children master the basic meanings and thelexicogrammatical forms in which they are realized tends to be very similar fromchild to child (Wells 1985)

The developmental sequence just described ndashaction mimesis speechndash is com-mon to children in all cultures and in all cases takes place in and through jointactivity and interaction with other family and community members Howeveralthough the sequence is universal the manner and pace at which it proceeds varyvery considerably across cultures These differences depend upon many culturally-determined factors such as adult expectations about their childrenrsquos developmentthe position in which the infant is typically held or carried facing the caregiver orturned outwards to face in the same direction as the caregiver the makeup and sizeof the interactional groups in which communication typically occurs and whetherthese events are part of family and community life more generally or are delibera-tely arranged and structured for the presumed benefit of the child (Rogoff 2003)In the later stages of language development the range and extent of the meaningpotential that children construct begins to vary even more widely depending onthe activities in which they engage the linguistic registers that are used in thoseactivities and the stances typically adopted by interlocutors toward the use of lan-guage in their interactions with children (Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

So far the ontogenetic developmental sequence I have described is funda-mentally similar across cultures and follows the phylogenetic sequence in whichhumans have progressively added new semiotic mediational means to theircommunicative repertoires In an important sense therefore the final mode ofrepresentation in Donaldrsquos scheme that of writing is an optional extra sincemany cultures have survived and prospered without a written mode of represen-ting meaning Moreover even in cultures that have a writing system the extentand scope of literacy that individuals attain varies very considerably dependingon the activity systems in which they participate the value that is placed onwritten texts by those communmities the purposes to which they are put andthe genres that are used for those purposes However since literacy and its usesare so strongly associated with schooling I shall leave further discussion of thismode of semiotic mediation to a later part of this paper

Before concluding this section however I want to explore further the con-cept of semiotic mediation In one of the better known passages in Vygotskyrsquoswritings where he argued for the social and cultural origin of higher mentalfunctions he wrote that every function occurs on two planes first in activity andinteraction between people and then within the individual learner (Vygotsky1981) What bridges between these two planes as is clear from his other wri-tings is semiotic mediation To recall Leontrsquoevrsquos formulation of this argument

hellip it is impossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in anyway other than a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words hig-her psychological processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction withothers that is through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried outindependently by the individual (1981 pp 55-56)

In other words when people engage in joint activity their actions gesturesand speech not only mediate the coordination of participation but they alsomake overt the mental activities involved and so render them available forappropriation by novice participants1 Halliday is very clear about this Alt-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

hough the following quotation refers only to language the term lsquolanguagersquocould justifiably be replaced by lsquosemiotic mediationrsquo

In the development of the child as a social being language has the central role Language is themain channel through which the patterns of living are transmitted to him through which helearns to act as a member of lsquosocietyrsquo ndashin and through the various social groups the family theneighbourhood and so onndash and to adopt its lsquoculturersquo its modes of thought and action itsbeliefs and its values (1978 p 9)

However as the child grows older language does become the predominantmode of semiotic mediation and as he wrote in a later paper ldquoLanguage is theessential condition of knowing the process by which experience becomes know-ledge (Halliday 1993 p 94 original emphasis)

Assistance for Learning in Joint Activitie

So far in the discussion of the role of joint activity in human development Ihave concentrated on the tools and particularly the semiotic modes of represen-tation that mediate the achievement of the outcome of activity In this sectionon the other hand I turn to the role of other people in this process both familymembers and the larger community

Until now I have referred to coparticipants in an activity in general termsbut clearly there are further distinctions to be made Particularly helpful in thisrespect is Engestroumlmrsquos model of an activity system which is shown in figure 1

What this model shows is that when we look at an ongoing activity from thepoint of view of an individual participant (t Subject) that individual is involvedin a nexus of other relationships that link him or her to other lsquoparticipantsrsquo theTools and artifacts to mediate action on the Object but also the Community of

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 1The Triangle of Activity

Artifactstools andpractices

Values rulesamp conventions

Community Divisioacutenof labor

Engestrom 1999

Object OutcomeSubject

others engaged in the activity together with the Division of Labor within thatcommunity and also the Rules and Conventions that govern the manner inwhich the activity is carried out (Engestroumlm 1999) What this latter category oflsquoparticipantrsquo underscores is the historical dimension of an activity system sincethese rules and conventions ndashas well as the tools and artifactsndash bring into thepresent the distilled practices of previous generations who have engaged in theactivity as these are interpreted and utilized by the current community

To illustrate the relevance of this model to the development of the youngchild we might compare two versions of a similar activity reported by WertschMinick and Arns (1984) In their study Brazilian children carried out a puzzletask on two occasions first with the mother and secondly with a primary tea-cher What the researchers found was that in general the mothers and teachersengaged in the activity in systematically different ways Whereas the motherstended to direct the childrenrsquos behavior or even carry out parts of the task them-selves in order to complete it in an efficient manner ndashjust as they would havedone if engaged in a household taskndash the teachers tended to encourage thechildrsquos autonomous performance and only provided hints and suggestions whenthey judged them to be necessary to advance the childrenrsquos understandingInterpreting these results the researchers suggested that the two groups ofadults belonged to two different communities (or activity systems) that had dif-ferent rules and conventions about engaging in this joint activity And this inturn led to the different divisions of labor that they observed Similarly Rogoff(2003) cites many examples of substantial differences between cultures inalmost all aspects of child rearing with respect to their ways of engaging chil-dren in the activities that they consider important

What is clear is that ldquobehindrdquo the particular adult ndashor older siblings in someculturesndash who are directly engaged with the child there is a wider communityof family members neighbors and others who have an interest in the upbrin-ging of children and who share beliefs about appropriate ways to involve themin the activities of daily life So whether in Spain Japan or the Peruvian High-lands although the actual practices vary across cultures in each those responsi-ble for childrenrsquos well-being and development act as agents of a wider commu-nity whose beliefs and practices are rooted in a long tradition concerning howactivities should be carried out But equally in all cultures practices also changein response to changes in the world beyond the particular community In manyWestern homes for example computer games or television programs haverecently taken the place of the bedtime story while in many indigenous com-munities crafts that until recently only supplied local needs are now exploitedcommercially for the tourist trade changing the rhythms of daily life and therelationships among family members and the activities in which children areinvolved As suggested earlier therefore in order to understand the activities inwhich children participate today we need to look not only at the immediatesituation but also at the wider community and the changes taking place on allthese time-scales

Microgenesis and the Zone of Proximal Development

It is nevertheless always the immediate microgenetic situation that isthe site of ontogenetic development ndashthe action and interaction between thelearner and those with whom he or she is engaged in the activity in pro-gress When we adopt this microgenetic perspective however we need tomodify the representation of an activity system presented in figure 1 Inthat representation the focus was on the goal-oriented nature of action

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Here we need to focus on the interaction among the participants ndashtheirattempt to attain intersubjectivity with respect to the common object andthe complementarity of the knowledgeable skills they bring to the cocons-truction of the intended outcome (see Figure 2) What figure 2 emphasizesis the fact that although the tools and artefacts that are available to mediatethe jointly undertaken action are the same for each participant each bringsa somewhat different familiarity with their use as a result of their differentlife trajectories and it is this variability in their expertise that makes it pos-sible for each to provide assistance to the others in at least some aspects ofthe joint action Viewed in this light it is clear why Vygotsky emphasizedthe role of joint activity in development and wrote of its potential to enablelearners ldquoto go beyond themselvesrdquo with the assistance of more expertothers

The metaphor Vygotsky used to characterize the potential for learning thatthis sort of activity creates was the ldquozone of proximal developmentrdquo As hewrote when another participant in the activity provides instruction that isappropriately pitched beyond what the learner can manage to do on his or herown it ldquowakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturationlying in the zone of proximal developmentrdquo (1987 p 212) Vygotsky concep-tualized development as the formation of new functional systems (ldquoneoforma-tionsrdquo) and of changes in the relationships among systems which he consideredto occur as a succession of ldquocrises of developmentrdquo that are particularly facilitatedby engagement in the relevant ldquoleading activityrdquo at each stage for example playin childhood and learning to read and write in the early school yearsHowever itwould be a mistake to focus only on the periods of revolutionary change since ashe equally emphasized at any time there are also other more gradual processes ofgrowth

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 2Dialogue in Joint Activity(from Wells2002b)

Outcomematerial ampsemioticartefacts

Toolsartefacts

Subject

Rulesconventions

Community Divisionof labor

Subject

Toolsartefacts

Processes that are central lines of development at one age become peripheral lines of develop-ment at the following age and conversely peripheral lines of development of one age arebrought to the forefront and become central lines since their meaning and relative significancein the total structure of development changes (p 197)2

In developing his important concept of the zone of proximal developmentVygotsky tended to characterize the assistance given by others as ldquoinstructionrdquoand to see its value in ldquothe childrsquos potential to raise himself to a higher intellec-tual level of development through collaboration to move from what he has towhat he does not have through imitationrdquo (1987 p 210) However manyrecent scholars who have built on his work have taken a broader view of thedevelopmental significance of collaboration in joint activities and have characte-rized the assistance that is provided within this relationship in terms such asldquoapprenticeshiprdquo (Lave amp Wenger 1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoguided participationrdquo(Rogoff 1994 2003) and ldquoscaffoldingrdquo (Wood et al 1976) Neverthelesswhile these different metaphors highlight different features of the relationshipwhat they all have in common is the inclusion of the learner in an activity inwhich there is provision of the assistance necessary to help the learner to comple-te an activity in which he or she is interested and to do so in such a way that heor she makes progress toward being able to participate more fully and autono-mously in the future (Maybin Mercer and Stierer 1992)

In many joint activities such as for example traditional forms of craftapprenticeship assistance is only provided when needed and the ldquomasterrdquo doesso with no deliberate didactic intention beyond that of involving the novice inthe completion of the particular task in hand (Lave 1996) Similarly in sociali-zation into activities around the home no explicit instruction is necessary fornovices can learn a great deal by simply watching and listening (cf Rogoff2003) This is what Lave and Wenger (1991) mean when they insist that lear-ning is not an independent activity but an intrinsic aspect of ldquolegitimate perip-heral participationrdquo in a communityrsquos activities From their perspective therefo-re formal education in which learning is the sole purpose of the activity issomething of an anomaly particularly when the only form of assistance providedis the expert teacherrsquos direct instruction and subsequent evaluation of the extentof the studentsrsquo learning

In many recent discussions it has also been recognized that it is not only aldquoteacherrdquo who can provide assistance in the zpd On the one hand in a com-plex activity many participants are more expert than others in some aspectsand therefore on some occasions are able to help those who are less expert(Rogoff 1994) and on the other hand those who provide assistance do nothave to be physically present texts and other artifacts can equally well helpa participant ldquoto go beyond himherselfrdquo as is often the case in intellectualwork such as research and writ ing (Wells 1999) Furthermore asEngestroumlm (1999) and others ndashbuilding on other aspects of Vygotskyrsquos theo-retical writingsndash have noted the material and symbolic tools that have beendeveloped by previous participants in the activity can also provide the samesort of assistance However perhaps the most important point to emphasizeis that there are many situations in which no-one is an expert yet as eachbrings his or her own past experience to the solution of a common problemthe group together is able to achieve more than any single member couldhave done alone Clearly it is such collaboration that has made possible theinventions that have led to the major advances of great civilizations over thecourse of cultural history

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Development in the Pre-School Years

As noted above the responsibility for caring for children in early childhoodvaries very considerably from one society to another Nevertheless in all socie-ties children are involved in joint activities with others in which they receiveassistance with respect to their participation however that may be locally achie-ved For the most part as already mentioned these are activities that are regu-larly repeated in the taken-for-granted routines of daily life The expectation isthat the child will learn to fit in and is simply helped to do so Often referred toas ldquoenculturationrdquo this form of apprenticeship ensures the continuity of the cul-turersquos way of life from one generation to the next and as Donald (1991) arguedit probably occurred even before the emergence of speech

However in all activities there are occasions when problems arise that callfor some level of deliberate decision-making In these situations spoken interac-tion makes possible a degree of reflection and forward planning in which therelations of cause and effect intention action and outcome are made explicitand open to question and discussion The talk that occurs on these occasionsthus plays a particularly important role in helping children to attend to andunderstand the world around them in terms of the culturersquos ways of ldquomakingsenserdquo of it However these occasions can also open up possibilities for changeboth in the form of the activity and in the participantsrsquo understanding of itHow caregivers habitually take up these opportunities is particularly importantfor it plays an important part in shaping the intellectual dispositions withwhich children enter school (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo amp Sterponi2002)

In this section I include some representative examples of kinds of talk thatarise from joint activities in the home These examples are drawn from observa-tions made in settings in England (Wells 1986) and Australia (Hasan 2002) inwhich the young children observed spent most of their time at home with oneparent sometimes with one or more siblings some of the time they entertainedthemselves with occasional adult involvement but they also frequently watchedand ldquohelpedrdquo the parent with household tasks of various kinds

In the first example James (aged 3 12 years) has been playing alone in thegarden and as he reenters the house his mother tries to get him to take off hismuddy shoes However at that moment he sees a bird outside which interestshim more than changing his shoes

Example 1Mother There we are there one slipper onJames I can see a birdMother A what loveJames See a bird Mother (whispering) Is there OutsideJames (pointing and whispering) Yes see

(both continue to speak very softly)Mother Is he eating anythingJames NoMother Where Oh yes hersquos getting- do you know what hersquos doingJames NoMother Hersquos going to the- the paper sack to try to pick out some pieces-

Oh hersquos got some food there and I expect hersquoll pick out somepieces of thread from the sack to go and make his nest under the roofJames Wait a minute and Irsquoll-[James now wants to go out to see more closely but at that moment thebird flies away]

James That birdrsquos gone

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

In the second example Elizabeth (aged 4 years) who is helping with thehouse cleaning watches with interest as her mother shovels wood ash from thefireplace into a bucket

Example 2Elizabeth What are you doing that forMother Irsquom gathering it up and putting it outside so that Daddy can put it on the gardenElizabeth Why does he have to put it on the gardenMother To make the compost rightElizabeth Does that make the grass growMother YesElizabeth Why does itMother You know how I tell you that you need to eat different things like eggs and cab-

bage and rice pudding to make you grow into a big girlElizabeth YesMother Well plants need different foods too and ash is one of the things thatrsquos

good for them

The third example involves James again now eighteen months older Earlierin the afternoon he had been helping his mother with the baking Now hecomes back into the kitchen as his mother is taking the baking trays out of theoven He hears a loud metallic ldquocrackrdquo and asks for an explanation

Example 3James Who did thatMother I expect it was the tin contractingJames Which tinMother The one with your pastry inJames Why did it make that noiseMother Well when it was in the oven it got very hot and stretched a bit Irsquove just taken

it out of the oven and itrsquos cooling down very quickly you see and that noisehappens when it gets smaller again and goes back to its normal shape

James Oh was it a different shape in the ovenMother Oh not very different just a little biggerJames Naughty little tin you might get smacked if you do it again

In all three of these examples the mother willingly responds to the childrsquosinterest and provides information to explain the significance of what the child isseeing or hearing even when in the first this interrupts the motherrsquos plan Allthree cases show how the childrsquos participation in the activity with the adult assu-res that there is intersubjectivity of attention to what interests the child and thisenables the mother to provide relevant information Clearly this is a form ofldquoinstructionrdquo however it is spontaneous and contingent on the childrsquos interestrather than presented as part of a pre-planned curriculum

The third example is particularly interesting from this point of view as thephenomenon of interest to James requires a somewhat technical explanation Atsome point in the future no doubt the expansion of metal when heated and itssubsequent contraction when removed from the heat will figure in the schoolscience curriculum in relation to the systematic study of heat here however itis an interesting side-effect of baking and the motherrsquos explanation while tech-nical in content is couched in everyday language rather than in the abstractterms of scientific generalization As Hasan (2002) has observed

the discourse of quasi specialised knowledge occurs in the lsquomiddle ofrsquo daily activities and bynecessity it calls for a readiness on the motherrsquos part to entertain contextual shifts to bewilling to reclassify the context of the on-going discourse The tendency to move with thechildrsquos moving discourse the readiness to re-classify context is a discourse characteristic of thesame group of mothers who frequently ask questions made precise by qualification and whoattend to their childrenrsquos questions and provide them with well developed answers (p 123)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 27: Actividad y Aprendizaje

However action gesture speech and writing are not simply progressivelymore powerful modes of communication They are also progressively morepowerful mediators of thinking This is most obvious with respect to the lin-guistic modes of communication But even before the emergence of speechaction and ndashto an even greater extentndash mimesis enabled humans to think toget-her and thereby to create a shared interpretation of their joint activities In fact ithas been argued that the emergence of language was not simply the result ofbrain and vocal tract development but rather was part of a more general patternof adaptation that building upon the cognitive achievements of mimetic kno-wing strove to integrate the unconnected bits of information in a more compre-hensive and coherent account of being-in-the-world (Deacon 1997) Neverthe-less it is also true that the availability of language greatly enhanced both com-munication and thinking together for as Halliday observed

the grammar of every natural language is (among other things) a theory of human experienceit is through our acts of meaning that we transform experience into the coherent -though farfrom consistent- patchwork that we learn to project as lsquorealityrsquo (1993 p 46)

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

TABLE IModes Of Knowing Phylogenetic And Cultural Development (from Wells 1999)

Time Mode of Participants Donald(1991) Wartofsky(1979)Years BP Knowing

2 million Instrumental Individual in action Episodic Primary artifactsyears material tools

1 -- 15 million Procedural Between individuals while Mimetic Secondaryyears engaged in action artifacts tools

and practicesmimeticinteraction

50000 Substantive Among members of a (Linguistic) Secondaryyears cultural group reflecting on artifacts

action and as a basis for representations ofplanning further action tools and

practices spokeninteraction

50000 Aesthetic Among members of a Mythic Tertiary artifactsyears cultural group making sense artistic represent-

of the human predicament ations in mythnarrative graphicand musical modes

2500 Theoretical Among members of a Theoretic Tertiary artifactsyears specialist community decontextualized

seeking to explain the natural representationsand human world such as

taxonomiestheories models etc

Meta Among members of a Tertiary artifacts cultural group also representations ofindividuals seeking to mental andunderstand and control their semioticown mental activity processes

In sum what Donald and other scholars argue is that contemporary mentalabilities are the outcome of the development over time of a series of progressi-vely more powerful and flexible modes of representation ndashor in Vygotskyanterms of semiotic mediators of higher mental functions- that have made possi-ble the rational theoretically oriented modes of knowing that underpin theachievements of modern science and its technological applications In the philo-sopher Wartofskyrsquos words

our own perceptual and cognitive understanding of the world is in large part shaped andchanged by the representational artifacts we ourselves create We are in effect the products ofour own activity in this way we transform our own perceptual and cognitive modes our waysof seeing and of understanding by means of the representations we make (1979 p xxiii)

There is however one further important aspect of Donaldrsquos (1991) thesis thatis crucial for the argument that I wish to develop Although the semiotic sys-tems of mimesis speech and writing each powered a new mode of cognitiveactivity they did not replace those that preceded but were additive in theireffects The result is that contemporary humans have a variety of modes of kno-wing at their disposal as they engage in joint activity Furthermore most suchactivities call for more than one mode of knowing and require the complemen-tary and interdependent use of more than one mode of representation

Joint Activity as the Site of Ontogenetic Learning and Development

Two important implications follow from the multi-level historical concep-tion of development just outlined First on any occasion the type of activitythat is undertaken and the specific manner in which it is enacted are necessarilydependent on the particular cultural-historical antecedents of the participantsboth human and artefactual that come together in its realization In particularthe manner in which the situation is interpreted ndashin terms of what action goalsare appropriate and how they can be achievedndash depends on the motives valuesand knowledgeable skills of the human participants and on the affordances ofthe technologies available in the situation And second every instance of an acti-vity provides an occasion for a triple transformation of the situation in whichthe activity is carried out of the artefacts and practices that mediate its enact-ment and most importantly of the knowledge and skills of the human partici-pants Taken together these propositions clarify the way in which cultural andindividual development are both interdependent and rooted in particular situa-ted occasions of joint activity As Rogoff (1994) argues

People of each generation as they engage in sociocultural endeavors with other people makeuse of and extend cultural tools and practices inherited from previous generations As peopledevelop through their shared use of cultural tools and practices they simultaneously contribu-te to the transformation of cultural tools practices and institutions (p 52)

Potentially therefore every occasion of joint activity provides an opportunityfor development on the part of all participants This is a point to which I shallreturn But first I want to consider more carefully the concept of developmentitself

Clearly built into the concept of development is the implication of change andtypically of change in the direction of increasing complexity and effectiveness Inother words development is typically taken to imply improvement or progresstoward some ideal end state or capability However in the light of the previousdiscussion such a progression while it may be meaningful to (some of the) partici-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

pants in any particular situation cannot be understood in any absolute sense butmust be seen as relative to the unfolding historical trajectory of the species of aparticular culture and of the immediate community ndashits values its dominantactivities and the knowledgeable skills that form its resources Furthermore just asthese have changed in the past they will continue to change in the future in res-ponse to the changing demands of the larger environment So while ontogeneticdevelopment does indeed involve increasing complexity and effectiveness of indi-vidualsrsquo participation in the activity systems in which they are involved in theirdaily lives the overall trajectory of development is emergent and its endpoint cannever be specified in advance even in terms of an ideal to be attained

Nevertheless this does not mean that there are not strong regularities in thesequence of ontogenetic development particularly in the early years Indeed asNelson (1996) has suggested during the preschool years children follow a trajec-tory very similar to the sequence of phylogenetic development proposed byDonald (1991) (see Table I above) as they appropriate the semiotic tools of repre-sentation afforded by action mimesis speech and writing Of course this is not asimple recapitulation children growing up in a contemporary literate culture forexample are surrounded from birth by artifacts and practices that result from andembody all the available modes of knowing (Cole 1996) Appropriating existingcultural tools is thus very different from inventing them ex novo as Scribner (1985)points out Nevertheless given the combination of biological and cultural inheri-tance it is not surprising that in most if not all cultures children follow the samesequence as did the species as a whole over the course of history

In the first weeks of life infants act on their immediate surroundings bothanimate and inanimate and begin to develop what Piaget (1970) called sensori-motor intelligence However although this most basic form of activity mayappear to be instinctual it is nevertheless also inherently social First all infantsare born into an environment that is cultural in the sense of having been shapedby countless preceding generations and second the infantrsquos actions are treatedas being intentional and are responded to as such So from the beginning theinfant is caught up in social interaction (Newson 1978) In the second phasewhich typically begins in the first few months the infant also begins to engagein mimetic communication through gaze facial expression and rudimentarygesture (Bruner 1990) Couched in terms of primary and secondary intersubjec-tivity this phase has been described in considerable detail by Trevarthen (19781979) Primary intersubjectivity develops as the infant and parent engage inmutual gaze thereby communicating that they are attending to and respondingto each other In secondary intersubjectivity third parties are brought into jointattention as the parent through gaze directs the infantrsquos attention to an object ofpotential interest or follows the childrsquos direction of gaze and signals that he orshe is also attending to the same object

It is on this basis of joint action and attention that towards the end of thefirst year the child begins to exploit his or her growing command of vocaliza-tion often accompanied by gesture to begin to communicate through speechFrom research predominantly involving children in ldquoWesternrdquo societies it hasbeen established that at first the childrsquos utterances are idiosyncratic drawingonly partially ndashif at allndash on the speech of those around him or her neverthelessparents and other family members have little difficulty in interpreting them incontext and once again they respond in a manner that is contingent on theirinterpretation thereby establishing spoken communication as a joint interactiveactivity By the end of the second year however children appear to abandon thisidiosyncratic ldquoprotolanguagerdquo form of communication and begin to construct a

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

linguistic meaning potential that is systematically related to the language thatis addressed to them in the oft-repeated activities of family life (Bruner 1990Halliday 1975 Wells 1986) Significantly within particular language com-munities the sequence in which children master the basic meanings and thelexicogrammatical forms in which they are realized tends to be very similar fromchild to child (Wells 1985)

The developmental sequence just described ndashaction mimesis speechndash is com-mon to children in all cultures and in all cases takes place in and through jointactivity and interaction with other family and community members Howeveralthough the sequence is universal the manner and pace at which it proceeds varyvery considerably across cultures These differences depend upon many culturally-determined factors such as adult expectations about their childrenrsquos developmentthe position in which the infant is typically held or carried facing the caregiver orturned outwards to face in the same direction as the caregiver the makeup and sizeof the interactional groups in which communication typically occurs and whetherthese events are part of family and community life more generally or are delibera-tely arranged and structured for the presumed benefit of the child (Rogoff 2003)In the later stages of language development the range and extent of the meaningpotential that children construct begins to vary even more widely depending onthe activities in which they engage the linguistic registers that are used in thoseactivities and the stances typically adopted by interlocutors toward the use of lan-guage in their interactions with children (Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

So far the ontogenetic developmental sequence I have described is funda-mentally similar across cultures and follows the phylogenetic sequence in whichhumans have progressively added new semiotic mediational means to theircommunicative repertoires In an important sense therefore the final mode ofrepresentation in Donaldrsquos scheme that of writing is an optional extra sincemany cultures have survived and prospered without a written mode of represen-ting meaning Moreover even in cultures that have a writing system the extentand scope of literacy that individuals attain varies very considerably dependingon the activity systems in which they participate the value that is placed onwritten texts by those communmities the purposes to which they are put andthe genres that are used for those purposes However since literacy and its usesare so strongly associated with schooling I shall leave further discussion of thismode of semiotic mediation to a later part of this paper

Before concluding this section however I want to explore further the con-cept of semiotic mediation In one of the better known passages in Vygotskyrsquoswritings where he argued for the social and cultural origin of higher mentalfunctions he wrote that every function occurs on two planes first in activity andinteraction between people and then within the individual learner (Vygotsky1981) What bridges between these two planes as is clear from his other wri-tings is semiotic mediation To recall Leontrsquoevrsquos formulation of this argument

hellip it is impossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in anyway other than a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words hig-her psychological processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction withothers that is through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried outindependently by the individual (1981 pp 55-56)

In other words when people engage in joint activity their actions gesturesand speech not only mediate the coordination of participation but they alsomake overt the mental activities involved and so render them available forappropriation by novice participants1 Halliday is very clear about this Alt-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

hough the following quotation refers only to language the term lsquolanguagersquocould justifiably be replaced by lsquosemiotic mediationrsquo

In the development of the child as a social being language has the central role Language is themain channel through which the patterns of living are transmitted to him through which helearns to act as a member of lsquosocietyrsquo ndashin and through the various social groups the family theneighbourhood and so onndash and to adopt its lsquoculturersquo its modes of thought and action itsbeliefs and its values (1978 p 9)

However as the child grows older language does become the predominantmode of semiotic mediation and as he wrote in a later paper ldquoLanguage is theessential condition of knowing the process by which experience becomes know-ledge (Halliday 1993 p 94 original emphasis)

Assistance for Learning in Joint Activitie

So far in the discussion of the role of joint activity in human development Ihave concentrated on the tools and particularly the semiotic modes of represen-tation that mediate the achievement of the outcome of activity In this sectionon the other hand I turn to the role of other people in this process both familymembers and the larger community

Until now I have referred to coparticipants in an activity in general termsbut clearly there are further distinctions to be made Particularly helpful in thisrespect is Engestroumlmrsquos model of an activity system which is shown in figure 1

What this model shows is that when we look at an ongoing activity from thepoint of view of an individual participant (t Subject) that individual is involvedin a nexus of other relationships that link him or her to other lsquoparticipantsrsquo theTools and artifacts to mediate action on the Object but also the Community of

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 1The Triangle of Activity

Artifactstools andpractices

Values rulesamp conventions

Community Divisioacutenof labor

Engestrom 1999

Object OutcomeSubject

others engaged in the activity together with the Division of Labor within thatcommunity and also the Rules and Conventions that govern the manner inwhich the activity is carried out (Engestroumlm 1999) What this latter category oflsquoparticipantrsquo underscores is the historical dimension of an activity system sincethese rules and conventions ndashas well as the tools and artifactsndash bring into thepresent the distilled practices of previous generations who have engaged in theactivity as these are interpreted and utilized by the current community

To illustrate the relevance of this model to the development of the youngchild we might compare two versions of a similar activity reported by WertschMinick and Arns (1984) In their study Brazilian children carried out a puzzletask on two occasions first with the mother and secondly with a primary tea-cher What the researchers found was that in general the mothers and teachersengaged in the activity in systematically different ways Whereas the motherstended to direct the childrenrsquos behavior or even carry out parts of the task them-selves in order to complete it in an efficient manner ndashjust as they would havedone if engaged in a household taskndash the teachers tended to encourage thechildrsquos autonomous performance and only provided hints and suggestions whenthey judged them to be necessary to advance the childrenrsquos understandingInterpreting these results the researchers suggested that the two groups ofadults belonged to two different communities (or activity systems) that had dif-ferent rules and conventions about engaging in this joint activity And this inturn led to the different divisions of labor that they observed Similarly Rogoff(2003) cites many examples of substantial differences between cultures inalmost all aspects of child rearing with respect to their ways of engaging chil-dren in the activities that they consider important

What is clear is that ldquobehindrdquo the particular adult ndashor older siblings in someculturesndash who are directly engaged with the child there is a wider communityof family members neighbors and others who have an interest in the upbrin-ging of children and who share beliefs about appropriate ways to involve themin the activities of daily life So whether in Spain Japan or the Peruvian High-lands although the actual practices vary across cultures in each those responsi-ble for childrenrsquos well-being and development act as agents of a wider commu-nity whose beliefs and practices are rooted in a long tradition concerning howactivities should be carried out But equally in all cultures practices also changein response to changes in the world beyond the particular community In manyWestern homes for example computer games or television programs haverecently taken the place of the bedtime story while in many indigenous com-munities crafts that until recently only supplied local needs are now exploitedcommercially for the tourist trade changing the rhythms of daily life and therelationships among family members and the activities in which children areinvolved As suggested earlier therefore in order to understand the activities inwhich children participate today we need to look not only at the immediatesituation but also at the wider community and the changes taking place on allthese time-scales

Microgenesis and the Zone of Proximal Development

It is nevertheless always the immediate microgenetic situation that isthe site of ontogenetic development ndashthe action and interaction between thelearner and those with whom he or she is engaged in the activity in pro-gress When we adopt this microgenetic perspective however we need tomodify the representation of an activity system presented in figure 1 Inthat representation the focus was on the goal-oriented nature of action

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Here we need to focus on the interaction among the participants ndashtheirattempt to attain intersubjectivity with respect to the common object andthe complementarity of the knowledgeable skills they bring to the cocons-truction of the intended outcome (see Figure 2) What figure 2 emphasizesis the fact that although the tools and artefacts that are available to mediatethe jointly undertaken action are the same for each participant each bringsa somewhat different familiarity with their use as a result of their differentlife trajectories and it is this variability in their expertise that makes it pos-sible for each to provide assistance to the others in at least some aspects ofthe joint action Viewed in this light it is clear why Vygotsky emphasizedthe role of joint activity in development and wrote of its potential to enablelearners ldquoto go beyond themselvesrdquo with the assistance of more expertothers

The metaphor Vygotsky used to characterize the potential for learning thatthis sort of activity creates was the ldquozone of proximal developmentrdquo As hewrote when another participant in the activity provides instruction that isappropriately pitched beyond what the learner can manage to do on his or herown it ldquowakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturationlying in the zone of proximal developmentrdquo (1987 p 212) Vygotsky concep-tualized development as the formation of new functional systems (ldquoneoforma-tionsrdquo) and of changes in the relationships among systems which he consideredto occur as a succession of ldquocrises of developmentrdquo that are particularly facilitatedby engagement in the relevant ldquoleading activityrdquo at each stage for example playin childhood and learning to read and write in the early school yearsHowever itwould be a mistake to focus only on the periods of revolutionary change since ashe equally emphasized at any time there are also other more gradual processes ofgrowth

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 2Dialogue in Joint Activity(from Wells2002b)

Outcomematerial ampsemioticartefacts

Toolsartefacts

Subject

Rulesconventions

Community Divisionof labor

Subject

Toolsartefacts

Processes that are central lines of development at one age become peripheral lines of develop-ment at the following age and conversely peripheral lines of development of one age arebrought to the forefront and become central lines since their meaning and relative significancein the total structure of development changes (p 197)2

In developing his important concept of the zone of proximal developmentVygotsky tended to characterize the assistance given by others as ldquoinstructionrdquoand to see its value in ldquothe childrsquos potential to raise himself to a higher intellec-tual level of development through collaboration to move from what he has towhat he does not have through imitationrdquo (1987 p 210) However manyrecent scholars who have built on his work have taken a broader view of thedevelopmental significance of collaboration in joint activities and have characte-rized the assistance that is provided within this relationship in terms such asldquoapprenticeshiprdquo (Lave amp Wenger 1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoguided participationrdquo(Rogoff 1994 2003) and ldquoscaffoldingrdquo (Wood et al 1976) Neverthelesswhile these different metaphors highlight different features of the relationshipwhat they all have in common is the inclusion of the learner in an activity inwhich there is provision of the assistance necessary to help the learner to comple-te an activity in which he or she is interested and to do so in such a way that heor she makes progress toward being able to participate more fully and autono-mously in the future (Maybin Mercer and Stierer 1992)

In many joint activities such as for example traditional forms of craftapprenticeship assistance is only provided when needed and the ldquomasterrdquo doesso with no deliberate didactic intention beyond that of involving the novice inthe completion of the particular task in hand (Lave 1996) Similarly in sociali-zation into activities around the home no explicit instruction is necessary fornovices can learn a great deal by simply watching and listening (cf Rogoff2003) This is what Lave and Wenger (1991) mean when they insist that lear-ning is not an independent activity but an intrinsic aspect of ldquolegitimate perip-heral participationrdquo in a communityrsquos activities From their perspective therefo-re formal education in which learning is the sole purpose of the activity issomething of an anomaly particularly when the only form of assistance providedis the expert teacherrsquos direct instruction and subsequent evaluation of the extentof the studentsrsquo learning

In many recent discussions it has also been recognized that it is not only aldquoteacherrdquo who can provide assistance in the zpd On the one hand in a com-plex activity many participants are more expert than others in some aspectsand therefore on some occasions are able to help those who are less expert(Rogoff 1994) and on the other hand those who provide assistance do nothave to be physically present texts and other artifacts can equally well helpa participant ldquoto go beyond himherselfrdquo as is often the case in intellectualwork such as research and writ ing (Wells 1999) Furthermore asEngestroumlm (1999) and others ndashbuilding on other aspects of Vygotskyrsquos theo-retical writingsndash have noted the material and symbolic tools that have beendeveloped by previous participants in the activity can also provide the samesort of assistance However perhaps the most important point to emphasizeis that there are many situations in which no-one is an expert yet as eachbrings his or her own past experience to the solution of a common problemthe group together is able to achieve more than any single member couldhave done alone Clearly it is such collaboration that has made possible theinventions that have led to the major advances of great civilizations over thecourse of cultural history

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Development in the Pre-School Years

As noted above the responsibility for caring for children in early childhoodvaries very considerably from one society to another Nevertheless in all socie-ties children are involved in joint activities with others in which they receiveassistance with respect to their participation however that may be locally achie-ved For the most part as already mentioned these are activities that are regu-larly repeated in the taken-for-granted routines of daily life The expectation isthat the child will learn to fit in and is simply helped to do so Often referred toas ldquoenculturationrdquo this form of apprenticeship ensures the continuity of the cul-turersquos way of life from one generation to the next and as Donald (1991) arguedit probably occurred even before the emergence of speech

However in all activities there are occasions when problems arise that callfor some level of deliberate decision-making In these situations spoken interac-tion makes possible a degree of reflection and forward planning in which therelations of cause and effect intention action and outcome are made explicitand open to question and discussion The talk that occurs on these occasionsthus plays a particularly important role in helping children to attend to andunderstand the world around them in terms of the culturersquos ways of ldquomakingsenserdquo of it However these occasions can also open up possibilities for changeboth in the form of the activity and in the participantsrsquo understanding of itHow caregivers habitually take up these opportunities is particularly importantfor it plays an important part in shaping the intellectual dispositions withwhich children enter school (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo amp Sterponi2002)

In this section I include some representative examples of kinds of talk thatarise from joint activities in the home These examples are drawn from observa-tions made in settings in England (Wells 1986) and Australia (Hasan 2002) inwhich the young children observed spent most of their time at home with oneparent sometimes with one or more siblings some of the time they entertainedthemselves with occasional adult involvement but they also frequently watchedand ldquohelpedrdquo the parent with household tasks of various kinds

In the first example James (aged 3 12 years) has been playing alone in thegarden and as he reenters the house his mother tries to get him to take off hismuddy shoes However at that moment he sees a bird outside which interestshim more than changing his shoes

Example 1Mother There we are there one slipper onJames I can see a birdMother A what loveJames See a bird Mother (whispering) Is there OutsideJames (pointing and whispering) Yes see

(both continue to speak very softly)Mother Is he eating anythingJames NoMother Where Oh yes hersquos getting- do you know what hersquos doingJames NoMother Hersquos going to the- the paper sack to try to pick out some pieces-

Oh hersquos got some food there and I expect hersquoll pick out somepieces of thread from the sack to go and make his nest under the roofJames Wait a minute and Irsquoll-[James now wants to go out to see more closely but at that moment thebird flies away]

James That birdrsquos gone

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

In the second example Elizabeth (aged 4 years) who is helping with thehouse cleaning watches with interest as her mother shovels wood ash from thefireplace into a bucket

Example 2Elizabeth What are you doing that forMother Irsquom gathering it up and putting it outside so that Daddy can put it on the gardenElizabeth Why does he have to put it on the gardenMother To make the compost rightElizabeth Does that make the grass growMother YesElizabeth Why does itMother You know how I tell you that you need to eat different things like eggs and cab-

bage and rice pudding to make you grow into a big girlElizabeth YesMother Well plants need different foods too and ash is one of the things thatrsquos

good for them

The third example involves James again now eighteen months older Earlierin the afternoon he had been helping his mother with the baking Now hecomes back into the kitchen as his mother is taking the baking trays out of theoven He hears a loud metallic ldquocrackrdquo and asks for an explanation

Example 3James Who did thatMother I expect it was the tin contractingJames Which tinMother The one with your pastry inJames Why did it make that noiseMother Well when it was in the oven it got very hot and stretched a bit Irsquove just taken

it out of the oven and itrsquos cooling down very quickly you see and that noisehappens when it gets smaller again and goes back to its normal shape

James Oh was it a different shape in the ovenMother Oh not very different just a little biggerJames Naughty little tin you might get smacked if you do it again

In all three of these examples the mother willingly responds to the childrsquosinterest and provides information to explain the significance of what the child isseeing or hearing even when in the first this interrupts the motherrsquos plan Allthree cases show how the childrsquos participation in the activity with the adult assu-res that there is intersubjectivity of attention to what interests the child and thisenables the mother to provide relevant information Clearly this is a form ofldquoinstructionrdquo however it is spontaneous and contingent on the childrsquos interestrather than presented as part of a pre-planned curriculum

The third example is particularly interesting from this point of view as thephenomenon of interest to James requires a somewhat technical explanation Atsome point in the future no doubt the expansion of metal when heated and itssubsequent contraction when removed from the heat will figure in the schoolscience curriculum in relation to the systematic study of heat here however itis an interesting side-effect of baking and the motherrsquos explanation while tech-nical in content is couched in everyday language rather than in the abstractterms of scientific generalization As Hasan (2002) has observed

the discourse of quasi specialised knowledge occurs in the lsquomiddle ofrsquo daily activities and bynecessity it calls for a readiness on the motherrsquos part to entertain contextual shifts to bewilling to reclassify the context of the on-going discourse The tendency to move with thechildrsquos moving discourse the readiness to re-classify context is a discourse characteristic of thesame group of mothers who frequently ask questions made precise by qualification and whoattend to their childrenrsquos questions and provide them with well developed answers (p 123)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 28: Actividad y Aprendizaje

In sum what Donald and other scholars argue is that contemporary mentalabilities are the outcome of the development over time of a series of progressi-vely more powerful and flexible modes of representation ndashor in Vygotskyanterms of semiotic mediators of higher mental functions- that have made possi-ble the rational theoretically oriented modes of knowing that underpin theachievements of modern science and its technological applications In the philo-sopher Wartofskyrsquos words

our own perceptual and cognitive understanding of the world is in large part shaped andchanged by the representational artifacts we ourselves create We are in effect the products ofour own activity in this way we transform our own perceptual and cognitive modes our waysof seeing and of understanding by means of the representations we make (1979 p xxiii)

There is however one further important aspect of Donaldrsquos (1991) thesis thatis crucial for the argument that I wish to develop Although the semiotic sys-tems of mimesis speech and writing each powered a new mode of cognitiveactivity they did not replace those that preceded but were additive in theireffects The result is that contemporary humans have a variety of modes of kno-wing at their disposal as they engage in joint activity Furthermore most suchactivities call for more than one mode of knowing and require the complemen-tary and interdependent use of more than one mode of representation

Joint Activity as the Site of Ontogenetic Learning and Development

Two important implications follow from the multi-level historical concep-tion of development just outlined First on any occasion the type of activitythat is undertaken and the specific manner in which it is enacted are necessarilydependent on the particular cultural-historical antecedents of the participantsboth human and artefactual that come together in its realization In particularthe manner in which the situation is interpreted ndashin terms of what action goalsare appropriate and how they can be achievedndash depends on the motives valuesand knowledgeable skills of the human participants and on the affordances ofthe technologies available in the situation And second every instance of an acti-vity provides an occasion for a triple transformation of the situation in whichthe activity is carried out of the artefacts and practices that mediate its enact-ment and most importantly of the knowledge and skills of the human partici-pants Taken together these propositions clarify the way in which cultural andindividual development are both interdependent and rooted in particular situa-ted occasions of joint activity As Rogoff (1994) argues

People of each generation as they engage in sociocultural endeavors with other people makeuse of and extend cultural tools and practices inherited from previous generations As peopledevelop through their shared use of cultural tools and practices they simultaneously contribu-te to the transformation of cultural tools practices and institutions (p 52)

Potentially therefore every occasion of joint activity provides an opportunityfor development on the part of all participants This is a point to which I shallreturn But first I want to consider more carefully the concept of developmentitself

Clearly built into the concept of development is the implication of change andtypically of change in the direction of increasing complexity and effectiveness Inother words development is typically taken to imply improvement or progresstoward some ideal end state or capability However in the light of the previousdiscussion such a progression while it may be meaningful to (some of the) partici-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

pants in any particular situation cannot be understood in any absolute sense butmust be seen as relative to the unfolding historical trajectory of the species of aparticular culture and of the immediate community ndashits values its dominantactivities and the knowledgeable skills that form its resources Furthermore just asthese have changed in the past they will continue to change in the future in res-ponse to the changing demands of the larger environment So while ontogeneticdevelopment does indeed involve increasing complexity and effectiveness of indi-vidualsrsquo participation in the activity systems in which they are involved in theirdaily lives the overall trajectory of development is emergent and its endpoint cannever be specified in advance even in terms of an ideal to be attained

Nevertheless this does not mean that there are not strong regularities in thesequence of ontogenetic development particularly in the early years Indeed asNelson (1996) has suggested during the preschool years children follow a trajec-tory very similar to the sequence of phylogenetic development proposed byDonald (1991) (see Table I above) as they appropriate the semiotic tools of repre-sentation afforded by action mimesis speech and writing Of course this is not asimple recapitulation children growing up in a contemporary literate culture forexample are surrounded from birth by artifacts and practices that result from andembody all the available modes of knowing (Cole 1996) Appropriating existingcultural tools is thus very different from inventing them ex novo as Scribner (1985)points out Nevertheless given the combination of biological and cultural inheri-tance it is not surprising that in most if not all cultures children follow the samesequence as did the species as a whole over the course of history

In the first weeks of life infants act on their immediate surroundings bothanimate and inanimate and begin to develop what Piaget (1970) called sensori-motor intelligence However although this most basic form of activity mayappear to be instinctual it is nevertheless also inherently social First all infantsare born into an environment that is cultural in the sense of having been shapedby countless preceding generations and second the infantrsquos actions are treatedas being intentional and are responded to as such So from the beginning theinfant is caught up in social interaction (Newson 1978) In the second phasewhich typically begins in the first few months the infant also begins to engagein mimetic communication through gaze facial expression and rudimentarygesture (Bruner 1990) Couched in terms of primary and secondary intersubjec-tivity this phase has been described in considerable detail by Trevarthen (19781979) Primary intersubjectivity develops as the infant and parent engage inmutual gaze thereby communicating that they are attending to and respondingto each other In secondary intersubjectivity third parties are brought into jointattention as the parent through gaze directs the infantrsquos attention to an object ofpotential interest or follows the childrsquos direction of gaze and signals that he orshe is also attending to the same object

It is on this basis of joint action and attention that towards the end of thefirst year the child begins to exploit his or her growing command of vocaliza-tion often accompanied by gesture to begin to communicate through speechFrom research predominantly involving children in ldquoWesternrdquo societies it hasbeen established that at first the childrsquos utterances are idiosyncratic drawingonly partially ndashif at allndash on the speech of those around him or her neverthelessparents and other family members have little difficulty in interpreting them incontext and once again they respond in a manner that is contingent on theirinterpretation thereby establishing spoken communication as a joint interactiveactivity By the end of the second year however children appear to abandon thisidiosyncratic ldquoprotolanguagerdquo form of communication and begin to construct a

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

linguistic meaning potential that is systematically related to the language thatis addressed to them in the oft-repeated activities of family life (Bruner 1990Halliday 1975 Wells 1986) Significantly within particular language com-munities the sequence in which children master the basic meanings and thelexicogrammatical forms in which they are realized tends to be very similar fromchild to child (Wells 1985)

The developmental sequence just described ndashaction mimesis speechndash is com-mon to children in all cultures and in all cases takes place in and through jointactivity and interaction with other family and community members Howeveralthough the sequence is universal the manner and pace at which it proceeds varyvery considerably across cultures These differences depend upon many culturally-determined factors such as adult expectations about their childrenrsquos developmentthe position in which the infant is typically held or carried facing the caregiver orturned outwards to face in the same direction as the caregiver the makeup and sizeof the interactional groups in which communication typically occurs and whetherthese events are part of family and community life more generally or are delibera-tely arranged and structured for the presumed benefit of the child (Rogoff 2003)In the later stages of language development the range and extent of the meaningpotential that children construct begins to vary even more widely depending onthe activities in which they engage the linguistic registers that are used in thoseactivities and the stances typically adopted by interlocutors toward the use of lan-guage in their interactions with children (Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

So far the ontogenetic developmental sequence I have described is funda-mentally similar across cultures and follows the phylogenetic sequence in whichhumans have progressively added new semiotic mediational means to theircommunicative repertoires In an important sense therefore the final mode ofrepresentation in Donaldrsquos scheme that of writing is an optional extra sincemany cultures have survived and prospered without a written mode of represen-ting meaning Moreover even in cultures that have a writing system the extentand scope of literacy that individuals attain varies very considerably dependingon the activity systems in which they participate the value that is placed onwritten texts by those communmities the purposes to which they are put andthe genres that are used for those purposes However since literacy and its usesare so strongly associated with schooling I shall leave further discussion of thismode of semiotic mediation to a later part of this paper

Before concluding this section however I want to explore further the con-cept of semiotic mediation In one of the better known passages in Vygotskyrsquoswritings where he argued for the social and cultural origin of higher mentalfunctions he wrote that every function occurs on two planes first in activity andinteraction between people and then within the individual learner (Vygotsky1981) What bridges between these two planes as is clear from his other wri-tings is semiotic mediation To recall Leontrsquoevrsquos formulation of this argument

hellip it is impossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in anyway other than a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words hig-her psychological processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction withothers that is through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried outindependently by the individual (1981 pp 55-56)

In other words when people engage in joint activity their actions gesturesand speech not only mediate the coordination of participation but they alsomake overt the mental activities involved and so render them available forappropriation by novice participants1 Halliday is very clear about this Alt-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

hough the following quotation refers only to language the term lsquolanguagersquocould justifiably be replaced by lsquosemiotic mediationrsquo

In the development of the child as a social being language has the central role Language is themain channel through which the patterns of living are transmitted to him through which helearns to act as a member of lsquosocietyrsquo ndashin and through the various social groups the family theneighbourhood and so onndash and to adopt its lsquoculturersquo its modes of thought and action itsbeliefs and its values (1978 p 9)

However as the child grows older language does become the predominantmode of semiotic mediation and as he wrote in a later paper ldquoLanguage is theessential condition of knowing the process by which experience becomes know-ledge (Halliday 1993 p 94 original emphasis)

Assistance for Learning in Joint Activitie

So far in the discussion of the role of joint activity in human development Ihave concentrated on the tools and particularly the semiotic modes of represen-tation that mediate the achievement of the outcome of activity In this sectionon the other hand I turn to the role of other people in this process both familymembers and the larger community

Until now I have referred to coparticipants in an activity in general termsbut clearly there are further distinctions to be made Particularly helpful in thisrespect is Engestroumlmrsquos model of an activity system which is shown in figure 1

What this model shows is that when we look at an ongoing activity from thepoint of view of an individual participant (t Subject) that individual is involvedin a nexus of other relationships that link him or her to other lsquoparticipantsrsquo theTools and artifacts to mediate action on the Object but also the Community of

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 1The Triangle of Activity

Artifactstools andpractices

Values rulesamp conventions

Community Divisioacutenof labor

Engestrom 1999

Object OutcomeSubject

others engaged in the activity together with the Division of Labor within thatcommunity and also the Rules and Conventions that govern the manner inwhich the activity is carried out (Engestroumlm 1999) What this latter category oflsquoparticipantrsquo underscores is the historical dimension of an activity system sincethese rules and conventions ndashas well as the tools and artifactsndash bring into thepresent the distilled practices of previous generations who have engaged in theactivity as these are interpreted and utilized by the current community

To illustrate the relevance of this model to the development of the youngchild we might compare two versions of a similar activity reported by WertschMinick and Arns (1984) In their study Brazilian children carried out a puzzletask on two occasions first with the mother and secondly with a primary tea-cher What the researchers found was that in general the mothers and teachersengaged in the activity in systematically different ways Whereas the motherstended to direct the childrenrsquos behavior or even carry out parts of the task them-selves in order to complete it in an efficient manner ndashjust as they would havedone if engaged in a household taskndash the teachers tended to encourage thechildrsquos autonomous performance and only provided hints and suggestions whenthey judged them to be necessary to advance the childrenrsquos understandingInterpreting these results the researchers suggested that the two groups ofadults belonged to two different communities (or activity systems) that had dif-ferent rules and conventions about engaging in this joint activity And this inturn led to the different divisions of labor that they observed Similarly Rogoff(2003) cites many examples of substantial differences between cultures inalmost all aspects of child rearing with respect to their ways of engaging chil-dren in the activities that they consider important

What is clear is that ldquobehindrdquo the particular adult ndashor older siblings in someculturesndash who are directly engaged with the child there is a wider communityof family members neighbors and others who have an interest in the upbrin-ging of children and who share beliefs about appropriate ways to involve themin the activities of daily life So whether in Spain Japan or the Peruvian High-lands although the actual practices vary across cultures in each those responsi-ble for childrenrsquos well-being and development act as agents of a wider commu-nity whose beliefs and practices are rooted in a long tradition concerning howactivities should be carried out But equally in all cultures practices also changein response to changes in the world beyond the particular community In manyWestern homes for example computer games or television programs haverecently taken the place of the bedtime story while in many indigenous com-munities crafts that until recently only supplied local needs are now exploitedcommercially for the tourist trade changing the rhythms of daily life and therelationships among family members and the activities in which children areinvolved As suggested earlier therefore in order to understand the activities inwhich children participate today we need to look not only at the immediatesituation but also at the wider community and the changes taking place on allthese time-scales

Microgenesis and the Zone of Proximal Development

It is nevertheless always the immediate microgenetic situation that isthe site of ontogenetic development ndashthe action and interaction between thelearner and those with whom he or she is engaged in the activity in pro-gress When we adopt this microgenetic perspective however we need tomodify the representation of an activity system presented in figure 1 Inthat representation the focus was on the goal-oriented nature of action

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Here we need to focus on the interaction among the participants ndashtheirattempt to attain intersubjectivity with respect to the common object andthe complementarity of the knowledgeable skills they bring to the cocons-truction of the intended outcome (see Figure 2) What figure 2 emphasizesis the fact that although the tools and artefacts that are available to mediatethe jointly undertaken action are the same for each participant each bringsa somewhat different familiarity with their use as a result of their differentlife trajectories and it is this variability in their expertise that makes it pos-sible for each to provide assistance to the others in at least some aspects ofthe joint action Viewed in this light it is clear why Vygotsky emphasizedthe role of joint activity in development and wrote of its potential to enablelearners ldquoto go beyond themselvesrdquo with the assistance of more expertothers

The metaphor Vygotsky used to characterize the potential for learning thatthis sort of activity creates was the ldquozone of proximal developmentrdquo As hewrote when another participant in the activity provides instruction that isappropriately pitched beyond what the learner can manage to do on his or herown it ldquowakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturationlying in the zone of proximal developmentrdquo (1987 p 212) Vygotsky concep-tualized development as the formation of new functional systems (ldquoneoforma-tionsrdquo) and of changes in the relationships among systems which he consideredto occur as a succession of ldquocrises of developmentrdquo that are particularly facilitatedby engagement in the relevant ldquoleading activityrdquo at each stage for example playin childhood and learning to read and write in the early school yearsHowever itwould be a mistake to focus only on the periods of revolutionary change since ashe equally emphasized at any time there are also other more gradual processes ofgrowth

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 2Dialogue in Joint Activity(from Wells2002b)

Outcomematerial ampsemioticartefacts

Toolsartefacts

Subject

Rulesconventions

Community Divisionof labor

Subject

Toolsartefacts

Processes that are central lines of development at one age become peripheral lines of develop-ment at the following age and conversely peripheral lines of development of one age arebrought to the forefront and become central lines since their meaning and relative significancein the total structure of development changes (p 197)2

In developing his important concept of the zone of proximal developmentVygotsky tended to characterize the assistance given by others as ldquoinstructionrdquoand to see its value in ldquothe childrsquos potential to raise himself to a higher intellec-tual level of development through collaboration to move from what he has towhat he does not have through imitationrdquo (1987 p 210) However manyrecent scholars who have built on his work have taken a broader view of thedevelopmental significance of collaboration in joint activities and have characte-rized the assistance that is provided within this relationship in terms such asldquoapprenticeshiprdquo (Lave amp Wenger 1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoguided participationrdquo(Rogoff 1994 2003) and ldquoscaffoldingrdquo (Wood et al 1976) Neverthelesswhile these different metaphors highlight different features of the relationshipwhat they all have in common is the inclusion of the learner in an activity inwhich there is provision of the assistance necessary to help the learner to comple-te an activity in which he or she is interested and to do so in such a way that heor she makes progress toward being able to participate more fully and autono-mously in the future (Maybin Mercer and Stierer 1992)

In many joint activities such as for example traditional forms of craftapprenticeship assistance is only provided when needed and the ldquomasterrdquo doesso with no deliberate didactic intention beyond that of involving the novice inthe completion of the particular task in hand (Lave 1996) Similarly in sociali-zation into activities around the home no explicit instruction is necessary fornovices can learn a great deal by simply watching and listening (cf Rogoff2003) This is what Lave and Wenger (1991) mean when they insist that lear-ning is not an independent activity but an intrinsic aspect of ldquolegitimate perip-heral participationrdquo in a communityrsquos activities From their perspective therefo-re formal education in which learning is the sole purpose of the activity issomething of an anomaly particularly when the only form of assistance providedis the expert teacherrsquos direct instruction and subsequent evaluation of the extentof the studentsrsquo learning

In many recent discussions it has also been recognized that it is not only aldquoteacherrdquo who can provide assistance in the zpd On the one hand in a com-plex activity many participants are more expert than others in some aspectsand therefore on some occasions are able to help those who are less expert(Rogoff 1994) and on the other hand those who provide assistance do nothave to be physically present texts and other artifacts can equally well helpa participant ldquoto go beyond himherselfrdquo as is often the case in intellectualwork such as research and writ ing (Wells 1999) Furthermore asEngestroumlm (1999) and others ndashbuilding on other aspects of Vygotskyrsquos theo-retical writingsndash have noted the material and symbolic tools that have beendeveloped by previous participants in the activity can also provide the samesort of assistance However perhaps the most important point to emphasizeis that there are many situations in which no-one is an expert yet as eachbrings his or her own past experience to the solution of a common problemthe group together is able to achieve more than any single member couldhave done alone Clearly it is such collaboration that has made possible theinventions that have led to the major advances of great civilizations over thecourse of cultural history

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Development in the Pre-School Years

As noted above the responsibility for caring for children in early childhoodvaries very considerably from one society to another Nevertheless in all socie-ties children are involved in joint activities with others in which they receiveassistance with respect to their participation however that may be locally achie-ved For the most part as already mentioned these are activities that are regu-larly repeated in the taken-for-granted routines of daily life The expectation isthat the child will learn to fit in and is simply helped to do so Often referred toas ldquoenculturationrdquo this form of apprenticeship ensures the continuity of the cul-turersquos way of life from one generation to the next and as Donald (1991) arguedit probably occurred even before the emergence of speech

However in all activities there are occasions when problems arise that callfor some level of deliberate decision-making In these situations spoken interac-tion makes possible a degree of reflection and forward planning in which therelations of cause and effect intention action and outcome are made explicitand open to question and discussion The talk that occurs on these occasionsthus plays a particularly important role in helping children to attend to andunderstand the world around them in terms of the culturersquos ways of ldquomakingsenserdquo of it However these occasions can also open up possibilities for changeboth in the form of the activity and in the participantsrsquo understanding of itHow caregivers habitually take up these opportunities is particularly importantfor it plays an important part in shaping the intellectual dispositions withwhich children enter school (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo amp Sterponi2002)

In this section I include some representative examples of kinds of talk thatarise from joint activities in the home These examples are drawn from observa-tions made in settings in England (Wells 1986) and Australia (Hasan 2002) inwhich the young children observed spent most of their time at home with oneparent sometimes with one or more siblings some of the time they entertainedthemselves with occasional adult involvement but they also frequently watchedand ldquohelpedrdquo the parent with household tasks of various kinds

In the first example James (aged 3 12 years) has been playing alone in thegarden and as he reenters the house his mother tries to get him to take off hismuddy shoes However at that moment he sees a bird outside which interestshim more than changing his shoes

Example 1Mother There we are there one slipper onJames I can see a birdMother A what loveJames See a bird Mother (whispering) Is there OutsideJames (pointing and whispering) Yes see

(both continue to speak very softly)Mother Is he eating anythingJames NoMother Where Oh yes hersquos getting- do you know what hersquos doingJames NoMother Hersquos going to the- the paper sack to try to pick out some pieces-

Oh hersquos got some food there and I expect hersquoll pick out somepieces of thread from the sack to go and make his nest under the roofJames Wait a minute and Irsquoll-[James now wants to go out to see more closely but at that moment thebird flies away]

James That birdrsquos gone

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

In the second example Elizabeth (aged 4 years) who is helping with thehouse cleaning watches with interest as her mother shovels wood ash from thefireplace into a bucket

Example 2Elizabeth What are you doing that forMother Irsquom gathering it up and putting it outside so that Daddy can put it on the gardenElizabeth Why does he have to put it on the gardenMother To make the compost rightElizabeth Does that make the grass growMother YesElizabeth Why does itMother You know how I tell you that you need to eat different things like eggs and cab-

bage and rice pudding to make you grow into a big girlElizabeth YesMother Well plants need different foods too and ash is one of the things thatrsquos

good for them

The third example involves James again now eighteen months older Earlierin the afternoon he had been helping his mother with the baking Now hecomes back into the kitchen as his mother is taking the baking trays out of theoven He hears a loud metallic ldquocrackrdquo and asks for an explanation

Example 3James Who did thatMother I expect it was the tin contractingJames Which tinMother The one with your pastry inJames Why did it make that noiseMother Well when it was in the oven it got very hot and stretched a bit Irsquove just taken

it out of the oven and itrsquos cooling down very quickly you see and that noisehappens when it gets smaller again and goes back to its normal shape

James Oh was it a different shape in the ovenMother Oh not very different just a little biggerJames Naughty little tin you might get smacked if you do it again

In all three of these examples the mother willingly responds to the childrsquosinterest and provides information to explain the significance of what the child isseeing or hearing even when in the first this interrupts the motherrsquos plan Allthree cases show how the childrsquos participation in the activity with the adult assu-res that there is intersubjectivity of attention to what interests the child and thisenables the mother to provide relevant information Clearly this is a form ofldquoinstructionrdquo however it is spontaneous and contingent on the childrsquos interestrather than presented as part of a pre-planned curriculum

The third example is particularly interesting from this point of view as thephenomenon of interest to James requires a somewhat technical explanation Atsome point in the future no doubt the expansion of metal when heated and itssubsequent contraction when removed from the heat will figure in the schoolscience curriculum in relation to the systematic study of heat here however itis an interesting side-effect of baking and the motherrsquos explanation while tech-nical in content is couched in everyday language rather than in the abstractterms of scientific generalization As Hasan (2002) has observed

the discourse of quasi specialised knowledge occurs in the lsquomiddle ofrsquo daily activities and bynecessity it calls for a readiness on the motherrsquos part to entertain contextual shifts to bewilling to reclassify the context of the on-going discourse The tendency to move with thechildrsquos moving discourse the readiness to re-classify context is a discourse characteristic of thesame group of mothers who frequently ask questions made precise by qualification and whoattend to their childrenrsquos questions and provide them with well developed answers (p 123)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 29: Actividad y Aprendizaje

pants in any particular situation cannot be understood in any absolute sense butmust be seen as relative to the unfolding historical trajectory of the species of aparticular culture and of the immediate community ndashits values its dominantactivities and the knowledgeable skills that form its resources Furthermore just asthese have changed in the past they will continue to change in the future in res-ponse to the changing demands of the larger environment So while ontogeneticdevelopment does indeed involve increasing complexity and effectiveness of indi-vidualsrsquo participation in the activity systems in which they are involved in theirdaily lives the overall trajectory of development is emergent and its endpoint cannever be specified in advance even in terms of an ideal to be attained

Nevertheless this does not mean that there are not strong regularities in thesequence of ontogenetic development particularly in the early years Indeed asNelson (1996) has suggested during the preschool years children follow a trajec-tory very similar to the sequence of phylogenetic development proposed byDonald (1991) (see Table I above) as they appropriate the semiotic tools of repre-sentation afforded by action mimesis speech and writing Of course this is not asimple recapitulation children growing up in a contemporary literate culture forexample are surrounded from birth by artifacts and practices that result from andembody all the available modes of knowing (Cole 1996) Appropriating existingcultural tools is thus very different from inventing them ex novo as Scribner (1985)points out Nevertheless given the combination of biological and cultural inheri-tance it is not surprising that in most if not all cultures children follow the samesequence as did the species as a whole over the course of history

In the first weeks of life infants act on their immediate surroundings bothanimate and inanimate and begin to develop what Piaget (1970) called sensori-motor intelligence However although this most basic form of activity mayappear to be instinctual it is nevertheless also inherently social First all infantsare born into an environment that is cultural in the sense of having been shapedby countless preceding generations and second the infantrsquos actions are treatedas being intentional and are responded to as such So from the beginning theinfant is caught up in social interaction (Newson 1978) In the second phasewhich typically begins in the first few months the infant also begins to engagein mimetic communication through gaze facial expression and rudimentarygesture (Bruner 1990) Couched in terms of primary and secondary intersubjec-tivity this phase has been described in considerable detail by Trevarthen (19781979) Primary intersubjectivity develops as the infant and parent engage inmutual gaze thereby communicating that they are attending to and respondingto each other In secondary intersubjectivity third parties are brought into jointattention as the parent through gaze directs the infantrsquos attention to an object ofpotential interest or follows the childrsquos direction of gaze and signals that he orshe is also attending to the same object

It is on this basis of joint action and attention that towards the end of thefirst year the child begins to exploit his or her growing command of vocaliza-tion often accompanied by gesture to begin to communicate through speechFrom research predominantly involving children in ldquoWesternrdquo societies it hasbeen established that at first the childrsquos utterances are idiosyncratic drawingonly partially ndashif at allndash on the speech of those around him or her neverthelessparents and other family members have little difficulty in interpreting them incontext and once again they respond in a manner that is contingent on theirinterpretation thereby establishing spoken communication as a joint interactiveactivity By the end of the second year however children appear to abandon thisidiosyncratic ldquoprotolanguagerdquo form of communication and begin to construct a

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

linguistic meaning potential that is systematically related to the language thatis addressed to them in the oft-repeated activities of family life (Bruner 1990Halliday 1975 Wells 1986) Significantly within particular language com-munities the sequence in which children master the basic meanings and thelexicogrammatical forms in which they are realized tends to be very similar fromchild to child (Wells 1985)

The developmental sequence just described ndashaction mimesis speechndash is com-mon to children in all cultures and in all cases takes place in and through jointactivity and interaction with other family and community members Howeveralthough the sequence is universal the manner and pace at which it proceeds varyvery considerably across cultures These differences depend upon many culturally-determined factors such as adult expectations about their childrenrsquos developmentthe position in which the infant is typically held or carried facing the caregiver orturned outwards to face in the same direction as the caregiver the makeup and sizeof the interactional groups in which communication typically occurs and whetherthese events are part of family and community life more generally or are delibera-tely arranged and structured for the presumed benefit of the child (Rogoff 2003)In the later stages of language development the range and extent of the meaningpotential that children construct begins to vary even more widely depending onthe activities in which they engage the linguistic registers that are used in thoseactivities and the stances typically adopted by interlocutors toward the use of lan-guage in their interactions with children (Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

So far the ontogenetic developmental sequence I have described is funda-mentally similar across cultures and follows the phylogenetic sequence in whichhumans have progressively added new semiotic mediational means to theircommunicative repertoires In an important sense therefore the final mode ofrepresentation in Donaldrsquos scheme that of writing is an optional extra sincemany cultures have survived and prospered without a written mode of represen-ting meaning Moreover even in cultures that have a writing system the extentand scope of literacy that individuals attain varies very considerably dependingon the activity systems in which they participate the value that is placed onwritten texts by those communmities the purposes to which they are put andthe genres that are used for those purposes However since literacy and its usesare so strongly associated with schooling I shall leave further discussion of thismode of semiotic mediation to a later part of this paper

Before concluding this section however I want to explore further the con-cept of semiotic mediation In one of the better known passages in Vygotskyrsquoswritings where he argued for the social and cultural origin of higher mentalfunctions he wrote that every function occurs on two planes first in activity andinteraction between people and then within the individual learner (Vygotsky1981) What bridges between these two planes as is clear from his other wri-tings is semiotic mediation To recall Leontrsquoevrsquos formulation of this argument

hellip it is impossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in anyway other than a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words hig-her psychological processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction withothers that is through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried outindependently by the individual (1981 pp 55-56)

In other words when people engage in joint activity their actions gesturesand speech not only mediate the coordination of participation but they alsomake overt the mental activities involved and so render them available forappropriation by novice participants1 Halliday is very clear about this Alt-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

hough the following quotation refers only to language the term lsquolanguagersquocould justifiably be replaced by lsquosemiotic mediationrsquo

In the development of the child as a social being language has the central role Language is themain channel through which the patterns of living are transmitted to him through which helearns to act as a member of lsquosocietyrsquo ndashin and through the various social groups the family theneighbourhood and so onndash and to adopt its lsquoculturersquo its modes of thought and action itsbeliefs and its values (1978 p 9)

However as the child grows older language does become the predominantmode of semiotic mediation and as he wrote in a later paper ldquoLanguage is theessential condition of knowing the process by which experience becomes know-ledge (Halliday 1993 p 94 original emphasis)

Assistance for Learning in Joint Activitie

So far in the discussion of the role of joint activity in human development Ihave concentrated on the tools and particularly the semiotic modes of represen-tation that mediate the achievement of the outcome of activity In this sectionon the other hand I turn to the role of other people in this process both familymembers and the larger community

Until now I have referred to coparticipants in an activity in general termsbut clearly there are further distinctions to be made Particularly helpful in thisrespect is Engestroumlmrsquos model of an activity system which is shown in figure 1

What this model shows is that when we look at an ongoing activity from thepoint of view of an individual participant (t Subject) that individual is involvedin a nexus of other relationships that link him or her to other lsquoparticipantsrsquo theTools and artifacts to mediate action on the Object but also the Community of

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 1The Triangle of Activity

Artifactstools andpractices

Values rulesamp conventions

Community Divisioacutenof labor

Engestrom 1999

Object OutcomeSubject

others engaged in the activity together with the Division of Labor within thatcommunity and also the Rules and Conventions that govern the manner inwhich the activity is carried out (Engestroumlm 1999) What this latter category oflsquoparticipantrsquo underscores is the historical dimension of an activity system sincethese rules and conventions ndashas well as the tools and artifactsndash bring into thepresent the distilled practices of previous generations who have engaged in theactivity as these are interpreted and utilized by the current community

To illustrate the relevance of this model to the development of the youngchild we might compare two versions of a similar activity reported by WertschMinick and Arns (1984) In their study Brazilian children carried out a puzzletask on two occasions first with the mother and secondly with a primary tea-cher What the researchers found was that in general the mothers and teachersengaged in the activity in systematically different ways Whereas the motherstended to direct the childrenrsquos behavior or even carry out parts of the task them-selves in order to complete it in an efficient manner ndashjust as they would havedone if engaged in a household taskndash the teachers tended to encourage thechildrsquos autonomous performance and only provided hints and suggestions whenthey judged them to be necessary to advance the childrenrsquos understandingInterpreting these results the researchers suggested that the two groups ofadults belonged to two different communities (or activity systems) that had dif-ferent rules and conventions about engaging in this joint activity And this inturn led to the different divisions of labor that they observed Similarly Rogoff(2003) cites many examples of substantial differences between cultures inalmost all aspects of child rearing with respect to their ways of engaging chil-dren in the activities that they consider important

What is clear is that ldquobehindrdquo the particular adult ndashor older siblings in someculturesndash who are directly engaged with the child there is a wider communityof family members neighbors and others who have an interest in the upbrin-ging of children and who share beliefs about appropriate ways to involve themin the activities of daily life So whether in Spain Japan or the Peruvian High-lands although the actual practices vary across cultures in each those responsi-ble for childrenrsquos well-being and development act as agents of a wider commu-nity whose beliefs and practices are rooted in a long tradition concerning howactivities should be carried out But equally in all cultures practices also changein response to changes in the world beyond the particular community In manyWestern homes for example computer games or television programs haverecently taken the place of the bedtime story while in many indigenous com-munities crafts that until recently only supplied local needs are now exploitedcommercially for the tourist trade changing the rhythms of daily life and therelationships among family members and the activities in which children areinvolved As suggested earlier therefore in order to understand the activities inwhich children participate today we need to look not only at the immediatesituation but also at the wider community and the changes taking place on allthese time-scales

Microgenesis and the Zone of Proximal Development

It is nevertheless always the immediate microgenetic situation that isthe site of ontogenetic development ndashthe action and interaction between thelearner and those with whom he or she is engaged in the activity in pro-gress When we adopt this microgenetic perspective however we need tomodify the representation of an activity system presented in figure 1 Inthat representation the focus was on the goal-oriented nature of action

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Here we need to focus on the interaction among the participants ndashtheirattempt to attain intersubjectivity with respect to the common object andthe complementarity of the knowledgeable skills they bring to the cocons-truction of the intended outcome (see Figure 2) What figure 2 emphasizesis the fact that although the tools and artefacts that are available to mediatethe jointly undertaken action are the same for each participant each bringsa somewhat different familiarity with their use as a result of their differentlife trajectories and it is this variability in their expertise that makes it pos-sible for each to provide assistance to the others in at least some aspects ofthe joint action Viewed in this light it is clear why Vygotsky emphasizedthe role of joint activity in development and wrote of its potential to enablelearners ldquoto go beyond themselvesrdquo with the assistance of more expertothers

The metaphor Vygotsky used to characterize the potential for learning thatthis sort of activity creates was the ldquozone of proximal developmentrdquo As hewrote when another participant in the activity provides instruction that isappropriately pitched beyond what the learner can manage to do on his or herown it ldquowakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturationlying in the zone of proximal developmentrdquo (1987 p 212) Vygotsky concep-tualized development as the formation of new functional systems (ldquoneoforma-tionsrdquo) and of changes in the relationships among systems which he consideredto occur as a succession of ldquocrises of developmentrdquo that are particularly facilitatedby engagement in the relevant ldquoleading activityrdquo at each stage for example playin childhood and learning to read and write in the early school yearsHowever itwould be a mistake to focus only on the periods of revolutionary change since ashe equally emphasized at any time there are also other more gradual processes ofgrowth

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 2Dialogue in Joint Activity(from Wells2002b)

Outcomematerial ampsemioticartefacts

Toolsartefacts

Subject

Rulesconventions

Community Divisionof labor

Subject

Toolsartefacts

Processes that are central lines of development at one age become peripheral lines of develop-ment at the following age and conversely peripheral lines of development of one age arebrought to the forefront and become central lines since their meaning and relative significancein the total structure of development changes (p 197)2

In developing his important concept of the zone of proximal developmentVygotsky tended to characterize the assistance given by others as ldquoinstructionrdquoand to see its value in ldquothe childrsquos potential to raise himself to a higher intellec-tual level of development through collaboration to move from what he has towhat he does not have through imitationrdquo (1987 p 210) However manyrecent scholars who have built on his work have taken a broader view of thedevelopmental significance of collaboration in joint activities and have characte-rized the assistance that is provided within this relationship in terms such asldquoapprenticeshiprdquo (Lave amp Wenger 1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoguided participationrdquo(Rogoff 1994 2003) and ldquoscaffoldingrdquo (Wood et al 1976) Neverthelesswhile these different metaphors highlight different features of the relationshipwhat they all have in common is the inclusion of the learner in an activity inwhich there is provision of the assistance necessary to help the learner to comple-te an activity in which he or she is interested and to do so in such a way that heor she makes progress toward being able to participate more fully and autono-mously in the future (Maybin Mercer and Stierer 1992)

In many joint activities such as for example traditional forms of craftapprenticeship assistance is only provided when needed and the ldquomasterrdquo doesso with no deliberate didactic intention beyond that of involving the novice inthe completion of the particular task in hand (Lave 1996) Similarly in sociali-zation into activities around the home no explicit instruction is necessary fornovices can learn a great deal by simply watching and listening (cf Rogoff2003) This is what Lave and Wenger (1991) mean when they insist that lear-ning is not an independent activity but an intrinsic aspect of ldquolegitimate perip-heral participationrdquo in a communityrsquos activities From their perspective therefo-re formal education in which learning is the sole purpose of the activity issomething of an anomaly particularly when the only form of assistance providedis the expert teacherrsquos direct instruction and subsequent evaluation of the extentof the studentsrsquo learning

In many recent discussions it has also been recognized that it is not only aldquoteacherrdquo who can provide assistance in the zpd On the one hand in a com-plex activity many participants are more expert than others in some aspectsand therefore on some occasions are able to help those who are less expert(Rogoff 1994) and on the other hand those who provide assistance do nothave to be physically present texts and other artifacts can equally well helpa participant ldquoto go beyond himherselfrdquo as is often the case in intellectualwork such as research and writ ing (Wells 1999) Furthermore asEngestroumlm (1999) and others ndashbuilding on other aspects of Vygotskyrsquos theo-retical writingsndash have noted the material and symbolic tools that have beendeveloped by previous participants in the activity can also provide the samesort of assistance However perhaps the most important point to emphasizeis that there are many situations in which no-one is an expert yet as eachbrings his or her own past experience to the solution of a common problemthe group together is able to achieve more than any single member couldhave done alone Clearly it is such collaboration that has made possible theinventions that have led to the major advances of great civilizations over thecourse of cultural history

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Development in the Pre-School Years

As noted above the responsibility for caring for children in early childhoodvaries very considerably from one society to another Nevertheless in all socie-ties children are involved in joint activities with others in which they receiveassistance with respect to their participation however that may be locally achie-ved For the most part as already mentioned these are activities that are regu-larly repeated in the taken-for-granted routines of daily life The expectation isthat the child will learn to fit in and is simply helped to do so Often referred toas ldquoenculturationrdquo this form of apprenticeship ensures the continuity of the cul-turersquos way of life from one generation to the next and as Donald (1991) arguedit probably occurred even before the emergence of speech

However in all activities there are occasions when problems arise that callfor some level of deliberate decision-making In these situations spoken interac-tion makes possible a degree of reflection and forward planning in which therelations of cause and effect intention action and outcome are made explicitand open to question and discussion The talk that occurs on these occasionsthus plays a particularly important role in helping children to attend to andunderstand the world around them in terms of the culturersquos ways of ldquomakingsenserdquo of it However these occasions can also open up possibilities for changeboth in the form of the activity and in the participantsrsquo understanding of itHow caregivers habitually take up these opportunities is particularly importantfor it plays an important part in shaping the intellectual dispositions withwhich children enter school (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo amp Sterponi2002)

In this section I include some representative examples of kinds of talk thatarise from joint activities in the home These examples are drawn from observa-tions made in settings in England (Wells 1986) and Australia (Hasan 2002) inwhich the young children observed spent most of their time at home with oneparent sometimes with one or more siblings some of the time they entertainedthemselves with occasional adult involvement but they also frequently watchedand ldquohelpedrdquo the parent with household tasks of various kinds

In the first example James (aged 3 12 years) has been playing alone in thegarden and as he reenters the house his mother tries to get him to take off hismuddy shoes However at that moment he sees a bird outside which interestshim more than changing his shoes

Example 1Mother There we are there one slipper onJames I can see a birdMother A what loveJames See a bird Mother (whispering) Is there OutsideJames (pointing and whispering) Yes see

(both continue to speak very softly)Mother Is he eating anythingJames NoMother Where Oh yes hersquos getting- do you know what hersquos doingJames NoMother Hersquos going to the- the paper sack to try to pick out some pieces-

Oh hersquos got some food there and I expect hersquoll pick out somepieces of thread from the sack to go and make his nest under the roofJames Wait a minute and Irsquoll-[James now wants to go out to see more closely but at that moment thebird flies away]

James That birdrsquos gone

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

In the second example Elizabeth (aged 4 years) who is helping with thehouse cleaning watches with interest as her mother shovels wood ash from thefireplace into a bucket

Example 2Elizabeth What are you doing that forMother Irsquom gathering it up and putting it outside so that Daddy can put it on the gardenElizabeth Why does he have to put it on the gardenMother To make the compost rightElizabeth Does that make the grass growMother YesElizabeth Why does itMother You know how I tell you that you need to eat different things like eggs and cab-

bage and rice pudding to make you grow into a big girlElizabeth YesMother Well plants need different foods too and ash is one of the things thatrsquos

good for them

The third example involves James again now eighteen months older Earlierin the afternoon he had been helping his mother with the baking Now hecomes back into the kitchen as his mother is taking the baking trays out of theoven He hears a loud metallic ldquocrackrdquo and asks for an explanation

Example 3James Who did thatMother I expect it was the tin contractingJames Which tinMother The one with your pastry inJames Why did it make that noiseMother Well when it was in the oven it got very hot and stretched a bit Irsquove just taken

it out of the oven and itrsquos cooling down very quickly you see and that noisehappens when it gets smaller again and goes back to its normal shape

James Oh was it a different shape in the ovenMother Oh not very different just a little biggerJames Naughty little tin you might get smacked if you do it again

In all three of these examples the mother willingly responds to the childrsquosinterest and provides information to explain the significance of what the child isseeing or hearing even when in the first this interrupts the motherrsquos plan Allthree cases show how the childrsquos participation in the activity with the adult assu-res that there is intersubjectivity of attention to what interests the child and thisenables the mother to provide relevant information Clearly this is a form ofldquoinstructionrdquo however it is spontaneous and contingent on the childrsquos interestrather than presented as part of a pre-planned curriculum

The third example is particularly interesting from this point of view as thephenomenon of interest to James requires a somewhat technical explanation Atsome point in the future no doubt the expansion of metal when heated and itssubsequent contraction when removed from the heat will figure in the schoolscience curriculum in relation to the systematic study of heat here however itis an interesting side-effect of baking and the motherrsquos explanation while tech-nical in content is couched in everyday language rather than in the abstractterms of scientific generalization As Hasan (2002) has observed

the discourse of quasi specialised knowledge occurs in the lsquomiddle ofrsquo daily activities and bynecessity it calls for a readiness on the motherrsquos part to entertain contextual shifts to bewilling to reclassify the context of the on-going discourse The tendency to move with thechildrsquos moving discourse the readiness to re-classify context is a discourse characteristic of thesame group of mothers who frequently ask questions made precise by qualification and whoattend to their childrenrsquos questions and provide them with well developed answers (p 123)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 30: Actividad y Aprendizaje

linguistic meaning potential that is systematically related to the language thatis addressed to them in the oft-repeated activities of family life (Bruner 1990Halliday 1975 Wells 1986) Significantly within particular language com-munities the sequence in which children master the basic meanings and thelexicogrammatical forms in which they are realized tends to be very similar fromchild to child (Wells 1985)

The developmental sequence just described ndashaction mimesis speechndash is com-mon to children in all cultures and in all cases takes place in and through jointactivity and interaction with other family and community members Howeveralthough the sequence is universal the manner and pace at which it proceeds varyvery considerably across cultures These differences depend upon many culturally-determined factors such as adult expectations about their childrenrsquos developmentthe position in which the infant is typically held or carried facing the caregiver orturned outwards to face in the same direction as the caregiver the makeup and sizeof the interactional groups in which communication typically occurs and whetherthese events are part of family and community life more generally or are delibera-tely arranged and structured for the presumed benefit of the child (Rogoff 2003)In the later stages of language development the range and extent of the meaningpotential that children construct begins to vary even more widely depending onthe activities in which they engage the linguistic registers that are used in thoseactivities and the stances typically adopted by interlocutors toward the use of lan-guage in their interactions with children (Hasan 2002 Heath 1983)

So far the ontogenetic developmental sequence I have described is funda-mentally similar across cultures and follows the phylogenetic sequence in whichhumans have progressively added new semiotic mediational means to theircommunicative repertoires In an important sense therefore the final mode ofrepresentation in Donaldrsquos scheme that of writing is an optional extra sincemany cultures have survived and prospered without a written mode of represen-ting meaning Moreover even in cultures that have a writing system the extentand scope of literacy that individuals attain varies very considerably dependingon the activity systems in which they participate the value that is placed onwritten texts by those communmities the purposes to which they are put andthe genres that are used for those purposes However since literacy and its usesare so strongly associated with schooling I shall leave further discussion of thismode of semiotic mediation to a later part of this paper

Before concluding this section however I want to explore further the con-cept of semiotic mediation In one of the better known passages in Vygotskyrsquoswritings where he argued for the social and cultural origin of higher mentalfunctions he wrote that every function occurs on two planes first in activity andinteraction between people and then within the individual learner (Vygotsky1981) What bridges between these two planes as is clear from his other wri-tings is semiotic mediation To recall Leontrsquoevrsquos formulation of this argument

hellip it is impossible to transmit the means and methods needed to carry out a process in anyway other than a social form ndashin the form of an action or external speech In other words hig-her psychological processes unique to humans can be acquired only through interaction withothers that is through interpsychological processes that only later will begin to be carried outindependently by the individual (1981 pp 55-56)

In other words when people engage in joint activity their actions gesturesand speech not only mediate the coordination of participation but they alsomake overt the mental activities involved and so render them available forappropriation by novice participants1 Halliday is very clear about this Alt-

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

hough the following quotation refers only to language the term lsquolanguagersquocould justifiably be replaced by lsquosemiotic mediationrsquo

In the development of the child as a social being language has the central role Language is themain channel through which the patterns of living are transmitted to him through which helearns to act as a member of lsquosocietyrsquo ndashin and through the various social groups the family theneighbourhood and so onndash and to adopt its lsquoculturersquo its modes of thought and action itsbeliefs and its values (1978 p 9)

However as the child grows older language does become the predominantmode of semiotic mediation and as he wrote in a later paper ldquoLanguage is theessential condition of knowing the process by which experience becomes know-ledge (Halliday 1993 p 94 original emphasis)

Assistance for Learning in Joint Activitie

So far in the discussion of the role of joint activity in human development Ihave concentrated on the tools and particularly the semiotic modes of represen-tation that mediate the achievement of the outcome of activity In this sectionon the other hand I turn to the role of other people in this process both familymembers and the larger community

Until now I have referred to coparticipants in an activity in general termsbut clearly there are further distinctions to be made Particularly helpful in thisrespect is Engestroumlmrsquos model of an activity system which is shown in figure 1

What this model shows is that when we look at an ongoing activity from thepoint of view of an individual participant (t Subject) that individual is involvedin a nexus of other relationships that link him or her to other lsquoparticipantsrsquo theTools and artifacts to mediate action on the Object but also the Community of

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 1The Triangle of Activity

Artifactstools andpractices

Values rulesamp conventions

Community Divisioacutenof labor

Engestrom 1999

Object OutcomeSubject

others engaged in the activity together with the Division of Labor within thatcommunity and also the Rules and Conventions that govern the manner inwhich the activity is carried out (Engestroumlm 1999) What this latter category oflsquoparticipantrsquo underscores is the historical dimension of an activity system sincethese rules and conventions ndashas well as the tools and artifactsndash bring into thepresent the distilled practices of previous generations who have engaged in theactivity as these are interpreted and utilized by the current community

To illustrate the relevance of this model to the development of the youngchild we might compare two versions of a similar activity reported by WertschMinick and Arns (1984) In their study Brazilian children carried out a puzzletask on two occasions first with the mother and secondly with a primary tea-cher What the researchers found was that in general the mothers and teachersengaged in the activity in systematically different ways Whereas the motherstended to direct the childrenrsquos behavior or even carry out parts of the task them-selves in order to complete it in an efficient manner ndashjust as they would havedone if engaged in a household taskndash the teachers tended to encourage thechildrsquos autonomous performance and only provided hints and suggestions whenthey judged them to be necessary to advance the childrenrsquos understandingInterpreting these results the researchers suggested that the two groups ofadults belonged to two different communities (or activity systems) that had dif-ferent rules and conventions about engaging in this joint activity And this inturn led to the different divisions of labor that they observed Similarly Rogoff(2003) cites many examples of substantial differences between cultures inalmost all aspects of child rearing with respect to their ways of engaging chil-dren in the activities that they consider important

What is clear is that ldquobehindrdquo the particular adult ndashor older siblings in someculturesndash who are directly engaged with the child there is a wider communityof family members neighbors and others who have an interest in the upbrin-ging of children and who share beliefs about appropriate ways to involve themin the activities of daily life So whether in Spain Japan or the Peruvian High-lands although the actual practices vary across cultures in each those responsi-ble for childrenrsquos well-being and development act as agents of a wider commu-nity whose beliefs and practices are rooted in a long tradition concerning howactivities should be carried out But equally in all cultures practices also changein response to changes in the world beyond the particular community In manyWestern homes for example computer games or television programs haverecently taken the place of the bedtime story while in many indigenous com-munities crafts that until recently only supplied local needs are now exploitedcommercially for the tourist trade changing the rhythms of daily life and therelationships among family members and the activities in which children areinvolved As suggested earlier therefore in order to understand the activities inwhich children participate today we need to look not only at the immediatesituation but also at the wider community and the changes taking place on allthese time-scales

Microgenesis and the Zone of Proximal Development

It is nevertheless always the immediate microgenetic situation that isthe site of ontogenetic development ndashthe action and interaction between thelearner and those with whom he or she is engaged in the activity in pro-gress When we adopt this microgenetic perspective however we need tomodify the representation of an activity system presented in figure 1 Inthat representation the focus was on the goal-oriented nature of action

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Here we need to focus on the interaction among the participants ndashtheirattempt to attain intersubjectivity with respect to the common object andthe complementarity of the knowledgeable skills they bring to the cocons-truction of the intended outcome (see Figure 2) What figure 2 emphasizesis the fact that although the tools and artefacts that are available to mediatethe jointly undertaken action are the same for each participant each bringsa somewhat different familiarity with their use as a result of their differentlife trajectories and it is this variability in their expertise that makes it pos-sible for each to provide assistance to the others in at least some aspects ofthe joint action Viewed in this light it is clear why Vygotsky emphasizedthe role of joint activity in development and wrote of its potential to enablelearners ldquoto go beyond themselvesrdquo with the assistance of more expertothers

The metaphor Vygotsky used to characterize the potential for learning thatthis sort of activity creates was the ldquozone of proximal developmentrdquo As hewrote when another participant in the activity provides instruction that isappropriately pitched beyond what the learner can manage to do on his or herown it ldquowakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturationlying in the zone of proximal developmentrdquo (1987 p 212) Vygotsky concep-tualized development as the formation of new functional systems (ldquoneoforma-tionsrdquo) and of changes in the relationships among systems which he consideredto occur as a succession of ldquocrises of developmentrdquo that are particularly facilitatedby engagement in the relevant ldquoleading activityrdquo at each stage for example playin childhood and learning to read and write in the early school yearsHowever itwould be a mistake to focus only on the periods of revolutionary change since ashe equally emphasized at any time there are also other more gradual processes ofgrowth

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 2Dialogue in Joint Activity(from Wells2002b)

Outcomematerial ampsemioticartefacts

Toolsartefacts

Subject

Rulesconventions

Community Divisionof labor

Subject

Toolsartefacts

Processes that are central lines of development at one age become peripheral lines of develop-ment at the following age and conversely peripheral lines of development of one age arebrought to the forefront and become central lines since their meaning and relative significancein the total structure of development changes (p 197)2

In developing his important concept of the zone of proximal developmentVygotsky tended to characterize the assistance given by others as ldquoinstructionrdquoand to see its value in ldquothe childrsquos potential to raise himself to a higher intellec-tual level of development through collaboration to move from what he has towhat he does not have through imitationrdquo (1987 p 210) However manyrecent scholars who have built on his work have taken a broader view of thedevelopmental significance of collaboration in joint activities and have characte-rized the assistance that is provided within this relationship in terms such asldquoapprenticeshiprdquo (Lave amp Wenger 1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoguided participationrdquo(Rogoff 1994 2003) and ldquoscaffoldingrdquo (Wood et al 1976) Neverthelesswhile these different metaphors highlight different features of the relationshipwhat they all have in common is the inclusion of the learner in an activity inwhich there is provision of the assistance necessary to help the learner to comple-te an activity in which he or she is interested and to do so in such a way that heor she makes progress toward being able to participate more fully and autono-mously in the future (Maybin Mercer and Stierer 1992)

In many joint activities such as for example traditional forms of craftapprenticeship assistance is only provided when needed and the ldquomasterrdquo doesso with no deliberate didactic intention beyond that of involving the novice inthe completion of the particular task in hand (Lave 1996) Similarly in sociali-zation into activities around the home no explicit instruction is necessary fornovices can learn a great deal by simply watching and listening (cf Rogoff2003) This is what Lave and Wenger (1991) mean when they insist that lear-ning is not an independent activity but an intrinsic aspect of ldquolegitimate perip-heral participationrdquo in a communityrsquos activities From their perspective therefo-re formal education in which learning is the sole purpose of the activity issomething of an anomaly particularly when the only form of assistance providedis the expert teacherrsquos direct instruction and subsequent evaluation of the extentof the studentsrsquo learning

In many recent discussions it has also been recognized that it is not only aldquoteacherrdquo who can provide assistance in the zpd On the one hand in a com-plex activity many participants are more expert than others in some aspectsand therefore on some occasions are able to help those who are less expert(Rogoff 1994) and on the other hand those who provide assistance do nothave to be physically present texts and other artifacts can equally well helpa participant ldquoto go beyond himherselfrdquo as is often the case in intellectualwork such as research and writ ing (Wells 1999) Furthermore asEngestroumlm (1999) and others ndashbuilding on other aspects of Vygotskyrsquos theo-retical writingsndash have noted the material and symbolic tools that have beendeveloped by previous participants in the activity can also provide the samesort of assistance However perhaps the most important point to emphasizeis that there are many situations in which no-one is an expert yet as eachbrings his or her own past experience to the solution of a common problemthe group together is able to achieve more than any single member couldhave done alone Clearly it is such collaboration that has made possible theinventions that have led to the major advances of great civilizations over thecourse of cultural history

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Development in the Pre-School Years

As noted above the responsibility for caring for children in early childhoodvaries very considerably from one society to another Nevertheless in all socie-ties children are involved in joint activities with others in which they receiveassistance with respect to their participation however that may be locally achie-ved For the most part as already mentioned these are activities that are regu-larly repeated in the taken-for-granted routines of daily life The expectation isthat the child will learn to fit in and is simply helped to do so Often referred toas ldquoenculturationrdquo this form of apprenticeship ensures the continuity of the cul-turersquos way of life from one generation to the next and as Donald (1991) arguedit probably occurred even before the emergence of speech

However in all activities there are occasions when problems arise that callfor some level of deliberate decision-making In these situations spoken interac-tion makes possible a degree of reflection and forward planning in which therelations of cause and effect intention action and outcome are made explicitand open to question and discussion The talk that occurs on these occasionsthus plays a particularly important role in helping children to attend to andunderstand the world around them in terms of the culturersquos ways of ldquomakingsenserdquo of it However these occasions can also open up possibilities for changeboth in the form of the activity and in the participantsrsquo understanding of itHow caregivers habitually take up these opportunities is particularly importantfor it plays an important part in shaping the intellectual dispositions withwhich children enter school (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo amp Sterponi2002)

In this section I include some representative examples of kinds of talk thatarise from joint activities in the home These examples are drawn from observa-tions made in settings in England (Wells 1986) and Australia (Hasan 2002) inwhich the young children observed spent most of their time at home with oneparent sometimes with one or more siblings some of the time they entertainedthemselves with occasional adult involvement but they also frequently watchedand ldquohelpedrdquo the parent with household tasks of various kinds

In the first example James (aged 3 12 years) has been playing alone in thegarden and as he reenters the house his mother tries to get him to take off hismuddy shoes However at that moment he sees a bird outside which interestshim more than changing his shoes

Example 1Mother There we are there one slipper onJames I can see a birdMother A what loveJames See a bird Mother (whispering) Is there OutsideJames (pointing and whispering) Yes see

(both continue to speak very softly)Mother Is he eating anythingJames NoMother Where Oh yes hersquos getting- do you know what hersquos doingJames NoMother Hersquos going to the- the paper sack to try to pick out some pieces-

Oh hersquos got some food there and I expect hersquoll pick out somepieces of thread from the sack to go and make his nest under the roofJames Wait a minute and Irsquoll-[James now wants to go out to see more closely but at that moment thebird flies away]

James That birdrsquos gone

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

In the second example Elizabeth (aged 4 years) who is helping with thehouse cleaning watches with interest as her mother shovels wood ash from thefireplace into a bucket

Example 2Elizabeth What are you doing that forMother Irsquom gathering it up and putting it outside so that Daddy can put it on the gardenElizabeth Why does he have to put it on the gardenMother To make the compost rightElizabeth Does that make the grass growMother YesElizabeth Why does itMother You know how I tell you that you need to eat different things like eggs and cab-

bage and rice pudding to make you grow into a big girlElizabeth YesMother Well plants need different foods too and ash is one of the things thatrsquos

good for them

The third example involves James again now eighteen months older Earlierin the afternoon he had been helping his mother with the baking Now hecomes back into the kitchen as his mother is taking the baking trays out of theoven He hears a loud metallic ldquocrackrdquo and asks for an explanation

Example 3James Who did thatMother I expect it was the tin contractingJames Which tinMother The one with your pastry inJames Why did it make that noiseMother Well when it was in the oven it got very hot and stretched a bit Irsquove just taken

it out of the oven and itrsquos cooling down very quickly you see and that noisehappens when it gets smaller again and goes back to its normal shape

James Oh was it a different shape in the ovenMother Oh not very different just a little biggerJames Naughty little tin you might get smacked if you do it again

In all three of these examples the mother willingly responds to the childrsquosinterest and provides information to explain the significance of what the child isseeing or hearing even when in the first this interrupts the motherrsquos plan Allthree cases show how the childrsquos participation in the activity with the adult assu-res that there is intersubjectivity of attention to what interests the child and thisenables the mother to provide relevant information Clearly this is a form ofldquoinstructionrdquo however it is spontaneous and contingent on the childrsquos interestrather than presented as part of a pre-planned curriculum

The third example is particularly interesting from this point of view as thephenomenon of interest to James requires a somewhat technical explanation Atsome point in the future no doubt the expansion of metal when heated and itssubsequent contraction when removed from the heat will figure in the schoolscience curriculum in relation to the systematic study of heat here however itis an interesting side-effect of baking and the motherrsquos explanation while tech-nical in content is couched in everyday language rather than in the abstractterms of scientific generalization As Hasan (2002) has observed

the discourse of quasi specialised knowledge occurs in the lsquomiddle ofrsquo daily activities and bynecessity it calls for a readiness on the motherrsquos part to entertain contextual shifts to bewilling to reclassify the context of the on-going discourse The tendency to move with thechildrsquos moving discourse the readiness to re-classify context is a discourse characteristic of thesame group of mothers who frequently ask questions made precise by qualification and whoattend to their childrenrsquos questions and provide them with well developed answers (p 123)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 31: Actividad y Aprendizaje

hough the following quotation refers only to language the term lsquolanguagersquocould justifiably be replaced by lsquosemiotic mediationrsquo

In the development of the child as a social being language has the central role Language is themain channel through which the patterns of living are transmitted to him through which helearns to act as a member of lsquosocietyrsquo ndashin and through the various social groups the family theneighbourhood and so onndash and to adopt its lsquoculturersquo its modes of thought and action itsbeliefs and its values (1978 p 9)

However as the child grows older language does become the predominantmode of semiotic mediation and as he wrote in a later paper ldquoLanguage is theessential condition of knowing the process by which experience becomes know-ledge (Halliday 1993 p 94 original emphasis)

Assistance for Learning in Joint Activitie

So far in the discussion of the role of joint activity in human development Ihave concentrated on the tools and particularly the semiotic modes of represen-tation that mediate the achievement of the outcome of activity In this sectionon the other hand I turn to the role of other people in this process both familymembers and the larger community

Until now I have referred to coparticipants in an activity in general termsbut clearly there are further distinctions to be made Particularly helpful in thisrespect is Engestroumlmrsquos model of an activity system which is shown in figure 1

What this model shows is that when we look at an ongoing activity from thepoint of view of an individual participant (t Subject) that individual is involvedin a nexus of other relationships that link him or her to other lsquoparticipantsrsquo theTools and artifacts to mediate action on the Object but also the Community of

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 1The Triangle of Activity

Artifactstools andpractices

Values rulesamp conventions

Community Divisioacutenof labor

Engestrom 1999

Object OutcomeSubject

others engaged in the activity together with the Division of Labor within thatcommunity and also the Rules and Conventions that govern the manner inwhich the activity is carried out (Engestroumlm 1999) What this latter category oflsquoparticipantrsquo underscores is the historical dimension of an activity system sincethese rules and conventions ndashas well as the tools and artifactsndash bring into thepresent the distilled practices of previous generations who have engaged in theactivity as these are interpreted and utilized by the current community

To illustrate the relevance of this model to the development of the youngchild we might compare two versions of a similar activity reported by WertschMinick and Arns (1984) In their study Brazilian children carried out a puzzletask on two occasions first with the mother and secondly with a primary tea-cher What the researchers found was that in general the mothers and teachersengaged in the activity in systematically different ways Whereas the motherstended to direct the childrenrsquos behavior or even carry out parts of the task them-selves in order to complete it in an efficient manner ndashjust as they would havedone if engaged in a household taskndash the teachers tended to encourage thechildrsquos autonomous performance and only provided hints and suggestions whenthey judged them to be necessary to advance the childrenrsquos understandingInterpreting these results the researchers suggested that the two groups ofadults belonged to two different communities (or activity systems) that had dif-ferent rules and conventions about engaging in this joint activity And this inturn led to the different divisions of labor that they observed Similarly Rogoff(2003) cites many examples of substantial differences between cultures inalmost all aspects of child rearing with respect to their ways of engaging chil-dren in the activities that they consider important

What is clear is that ldquobehindrdquo the particular adult ndashor older siblings in someculturesndash who are directly engaged with the child there is a wider communityof family members neighbors and others who have an interest in the upbrin-ging of children and who share beliefs about appropriate ways to involve themin the activities of daily life So whether in Spain Japan or the Peruvian High-lands although the actual practices vary across cultures in each those responsi-ble for childrenrsquos well-being and development act as agents of a wider commu-nity whose beliefs and practices are rooted in a long tradition concerning howactivities should be carried out But equally in all cultures practices also changein response to changes in the world beyond the particular community In manyWestern homes for example computer games or television programs haverecently taken the place of the bedtime story while in many indigenous com-munities crafts that until recently only supplied local needs are now exploitedcommercially for the tourist trade changing the rhythms of daily life and therelationships among family members and the activities in which children areinvolved As suggested earlier therefore in order to understand the activities inwhich children participate today we need to look not only at the immediatesituation but also at the wider community and the changes taking place on allthese time-scales

Microgenesis and the Zone of Proximal Development

It is nevertheless always the immediate microgenetic situation that isthe site of ontogenetic development ndashthe action and interaction between thelearner and those with whom he or she is engaged in the activity in pro-gress When we adopt this microgenetic perspective however we need tomodify the representation of an activity system presented in figure 1 Inthat representation the focus was on the goal-oriented nature of action

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Here we need to focus on the interaction among the participants ndashtheirattempt to attain intersubjectivity with respect to the common object andthe complementarity of the knowledgeable skills they bring to the cocons-truction of the intended outcome (see Figure 2) What figure 2 emphasizesis the fact that although the tools and artefacts that are available to mediatethe jointly undertaken action are the same for each participant each bringsa somewhat different familiarity with their use as a result of their differentlife trajectories and it is this variability in their expertise that makes it pos-sible for each to provide assistance to the others in at least some aspects ofthe joint action Viewed in this light it is clear why Vygotsky emphasizedthe role of joint activity in development and wrote of its potential to enablelearners ldquoto go beyond themselvesrdquo with the assistance of more expertothers

The metaphor Vygotsky used to characterize the potential for learning thatthis sort of activity creates was the ldquozone of proximal developmentrdquo As hewrote when another participant in the activity provides instruction that isappropriately pitched beyond what the learner can manage to do on his or herown it ldquowakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturationlying in the zone of proximal developmentrdquo (1987 p 212) Vygotsky concep-tualized development as the formation of new functional systems (ldquoneoforma-tionsrdquo) and of changes in the relationships among systems which he consideredto occur as a succession of ldquocrises of developmentrdquo that are particularly facilitatedby engagement in the relevant ldquoleading activityrdquo at each stage for example playin childhood and learning to read and write in the early school yearsHowever itwould be a mistake to focus only on the periods of revolutionary change since ashe equally emphasized at any time there are also other more gradual processes ofgrowth

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 2Dialogue in Joint Activity(from Wells2002b)

Outcomematerial ampsemioticartefacts

Toolsartefacts

Subject

Rulesconventions

Community Divisionof labor

Subject

Toolsartefacts

Processes that are central lines of development at one age become peripheral lines of develop-ment at the following age and conversely peripheral lines of development of one age arebrought to the forefront and become central lines since their meaning and relative significancein the total structure of development changes (p 197)2

In developing his important concept of the zone of proximal developmentVygotsky tended to characterize the assistance given by others as ldquoinstructionrdquoand to see its value in ldquothe childrsquos potential to raise himself to a higher intellec-tual level of development through collaboration to move from what he has towhat he does not have through imitationrdquo (1987 p 210) However manyrecent scholars who have built on his work have taken a broader view of thedevelopmental significance of collaboration in joint activities and have characte-rized the assistance that is provided within this relationship in terms such asldquoapprenticeshiprdquo (Lave amp Wenger 1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoguided participationrdquo(Rogoff 1994 2003) and ldquoscaffoldingrdquo (Wood et al 1976) Neverthelesswhile these different metaphors highlight different features of the relationshipwhat they all have in common is the inclusion of the learner in an activity inwhich there is provision of the assistance necessary to help the learner to comple-te an activity in which he or she is interested and to do so in such a way that heor she makes progress toward being able to participate more fully and autono-mously in the future (Maybin Mercer and Stierer 1992)

In many joint activities such as for example traditional forms of craftapprenticeship assistance is only provided when needed and the ldquomasterrdquo doesso with no deliberate didactic intention beyond that of involving the novice inthe completion of the particular task in hand (Lave 1996) Similarly in sociali-zation into activities around the home no explicit instruction is necessary fornovices can learn a great deal by simply watching and listening (cf Rogoff2003) This is what Lave and Wenger (1991) mean when they insist that lear-ning is not an independent activity but an intrinsic aspect of ldquolegitimate perip-heral participationrdquo in a communityrsquos activities From their perspective therefo-re formal education in which learning is the sole purpose of the activity issomething of an anomaly particularly when the only form of assistance providedis the expert teacherrsquos direct instruction and subsequent evaluation of the extentof the studentsrsquo learning

In many recent discussions it has also been recognized that it is not only aldquoteacherrdquo who can provide assistance in the zpd On the one hand in a com-plex activity many participants are more expert than others in some aspectsand therefore on some occasions are able to help those who are less expert(Rogoff 1994) and on the other hand those who provide assistance do nothave to be physically present texts and other artifacts can equally well helpa participant ldquoto go beyond himherselfrdquo as is often the case in intellectualwork such as research and writ ing (Wells 1999) Furthermore asEngestroumlm (1999) and others ndashbuilding on other aspects of Vygotskyrsquos theo-retical writingsndash have noted the material and symbolic tools that have beendeveloped by previous participants in the activity can also provide the samesort of assistance However perhaps the most important point to emphasizeis that there are many situations in which no-one is an expert yet as eachbrings his or her own past experience to the solution of a common problemthe group together is able to achieve more than any single member couldhave done alone Clearly it is such collaboration that has made possible theinventions that have led to the major advances of great civilizations over thecourse of cultural history

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Development in the Pre-School Years

As noted above the responsibility for caring for children in early childhoodvaries very considerably from one society to another Nevertheless in all socie-ties children are involved in joint activities with others in which they receiveassistance with respect to their participation however that may be locally achie-ved For the most part as already mentioned these are activities that are regu-larly repeated in the taken-for-granted routines of daily life The expectation isthat the child will learn to fit in and is simply helped to do so Often referred toas ldquoenculturationrdquo this form of apprenticeship ensures the continuity of the cul-turersquos way of life from one generation to the next and as Donald (1991) arguedit probably occurred even before the emergence of speech

However in all activities there are occasions when problems arise that callfor some level of deliberate decision-making In these situations spoken interac-tion makes possible a degree of reflection and forward planning in which therelations of cause and effect intention action and outcome are made explicitand open to question and discussion The talk that occurs on these occasionsthus plays a particularly important role in helping children to attend to andunderstand the world around them in terms of the culturersquos ways of ldquomakingsenserdquo of it However these occasions can also open up possibilities for changeboth in the form of the activity and in the participantsrsquo understanding of itHow caregivers habitually take up these opportunities is particularly importantfor it plays an important part in shaping the intellectual dispositions withwhich children enter school (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo amp Sterponi2002)

In this section I include some representative examples of kinds of talk thatarise from joint activities in the home These examples are drawn from observa-tions made in settings in England (Wells 1986) and Australia (Hasan 2002) inwhich the young children observed spent most of their time at home with oneparent sometimes with one or more siblings some of the time they entertainedthemselves with occasional adult involvement but they also frequently watchedand ldquohelpedrdquo the parent with household tasks of various kinds

In the first example James (aged 3 12 years) has been playing alone in thegarden and as he reenters the house his mother tries to get him to take off hismuddy shoes However at that moment he sees a bird outside which interestshim more than changing his shoes

Example 1Mother There we are there one slipper onJames I can see a birdMother A what loveJames See a bird Mother (whispering) Is there OutsideJames (pointing and whispering) Yes see

(both continue to speak very softly)Mother Is he eating anythingJames NoMother Where Oh yes hersquos getting- do you know what hersquos doingJames NoMother Hersquos going to the- the paper sack to try to pick out some pieces-

Oh hersquos got some food there and I expect hersquoll pick out somepieces of thread from the sack to go and make his nest under the roofJames Wait a minute and Irsquoll-[James now wants to go out to see more closely but at that moment thebird flies away]

James That birdrsquos gone

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

In the second example Elizabeth (aged 4 years) who is helping with thehouse cleaning watches with interest as her mother shovels wood ash from thefireplace into a bucket

Example 2Elizabeth What are you doing that forMother Irsquom gathering it up and putting it outside so that Daddy can put it on the gardenElizabeth Why does he have to put it on the gardenMother To make the compost rightElizabeth Does that make the grass growMother YesElizabeth Why does itMother You know how I tell you that you need to eat different things like eggs and cab-

bage and rice pudding to make you grow into a big girlElizabeth YesMother Well plants need different foods too and ash is one of the things thatrsquos

good for them

The third example involves James again now eighteen months older Earlierin the afternoon he had been helping his mother with the baking Now hecomes back into the kitchen as his mother is taking the baking trays out of theoven He hears a loud metallic ldquocrackrdquo and asks for an explanation

Example 3James Who did thatMother I expect it was the tin contractingJames Which tinMother The one with your pastry inJames Why did it make that noiseMother Well when it was in the oven it got very hot and stretched a bit Irsquove just taken

it out of the oven and itrsquos cooling down very quickly you see and that noisehappens when it gets smaller again and goes back to its normal shape

James Oh was it a different shape in the ovenMother Oh not very different just a little biggerJames Naughty little tin you might get smacked if you do it again

In all three of these examples the mother willingly responds to the childrsquosinterest and provides information to explain the significance of what the child isseeing or hearing even when in the first this interrupts the motherrsquos plan Allthree cases show how the childrsquos participation in the activity with the adult assu-res that there is intersubjectivity of attention to what interests the child and thisenables the mother to provide relevant information Clearly this is a form ofldquoinstructionrdquo however it is spontaneous and contingent on the childrsquos interestrather than presented as part of a pre-planned curriculum

The third example is particularly interesting from this point of view as thephenomenon of interest to James requires a somewhat technical explanation Atsome point in the future no doubt the expansion of metal when heated and itssubsequent contraction when removed from the heat will figure in the schoolscience curriculum in relation to the systematic study of heat here however itis an interesting side-effect of baking and the motherrsquos explanation while tech-nical in content is couched in everyday language rather than in the abstractterms of scientific generalization As Hasan (2002) has observed

the discourse of quasi specialised knowledge occurs in the lsquomiddle ofrsquo daily activities and bynecessity it calls for a readiness on the motherrsquos part to entertain contextual shifts to bewilling to reclassify the context of the on-going discourse The tendency to move with thechildrsquos moving discourse the readiness to re-classify context is a discourse characteristic of thesame group of mothers who frequently ask questions made precise by qualification and whoattend to their childrenrsquos questions and provide them with well developed answers (p 123)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 32: Actividad y Aprendizaje

others engaged in the activity together with the Division of Labor within thatcommunity and also the Rules and Conventions that govern the manner inwhich the activity is carried out (Engestroumlm 1999) What this latter category oflsquoparticipantrsquo underscores is the historical dimension of an activity system sincethese rules and conventions ndashas well as the tools and artifactsndash bring into thepresent the distilled practices of previous generations who have engaged in theactivity as these are interpreted and utilized by the current community

To illustrate the relevance of this model to the development of the youngchild we might compare two versions of a similar activity reported by WertschMinick and Arns (1984) In their study Brazilian children carried out a puzzletask on two occasions first with the mother and secondly with a primary tea-cher What the researchers found was that in general the mothers and teachersengaged in the activity in systematically different ways Whereas the motherstended to direct the childrenrsquos behavior or even carry out parts of the task them-selves in order to complete it in an efficient manner ndashjust as they would havedone if engaged in a household taskndash the teachers tended to encourage thechildrsquos autonomous performance and only provided hints and suggestions whenthey judged them to be necessary to advance the childrenrsquos understandingInterpreting these results the researchers suggested that the two groups ofadults belonged to two different communities (or activity systems) that had dif-ferent rules and conventions about engaging in this joint activity And this inturn led to the different divisions of labor that they observed Similarly Rogoff(2003) cites many examples of substantial differences between cultures inalmost all aspects of child rearing with respect to their ways of engaging chil-dren in the activities that they consider important

What is clear is that ldquobehindrdquo the particular adult ndashor older siblings in someculturesndash who are directly engaged with the child there is a wider communityof family members neighbors and others who have an interest in the upbrin-ging of children and who share beliefs about appropriate ways to involve themin the activities of daily life So whether in Spain Japan or the Peruvian High-lands although the actual practices vary across cultures in each those responsi-ble for childrenrsquos well-being and development act as agents of a wider commu-nity whose beliefs and practices are rooted in a long tradition concerning howactivities should be carried out But equally in all cultures practices also changein response to changes in the world beyond the particular community In manyWestern homes for example computer games or television programs haverecently taken the place of the bedtime story while in many indigenous com-munities crafts that until recently only supplied local needs are now exploitedcommercially for the tourist trade changing the rhythms of daily life and therelationships among family members and the activities in which children areinvolved As suggested earlier therefore in order to understand the activities inwhich children participate today we need to look not only at the immediatesituation but also at the wider community and the changes taking place on allthese time-scales

Microgenesis and the Zone of Proximal Development

It is nevertheless always the immediate microgenetic situation that isthe site of ontogenetic development ndashthe action and interaction between thelearner and those with whom he or she is engaged in the activity in pro-gress When we adopt this microgenetic perspective however we need tomodify the representation of an activity system presented in figure 1 Inthat representation the focus was on the goal-oriented nature of action

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Here we need to focus on the interaction among the participants ndashtheirattempt to attain intersubjectivity with respect to the common object andthe complementarity of the knowledgeable skills they bring to the cocons-truction of the intended outcome (see Figure 2) What figure 2 emphasizesis the fact that although the tools and artefacts that are available to mediatethe jointly undertaken action are the same for each participant each bringsa somewhat different familiarity with their use as a result of their differentlife trajectories and it is this variability in their expertise that makes it pos-sible for each to provide assistance to the others in at least some aspects ofthe joint action Viewed in this light it is clear why Vygotsky emphasizedthe role of joint activity in development and wrote of its potential to enablelearners ldquoto go beyond themselvesrdquo with the assistance of more expertothers

The metaphor Vygotsky used to characterize the potential for learning thatthis sort of activity creates was the ldquozone of proximal developmentrdquo As hewrote when another participant in the activity provides instruction that isappropriately pitched beyond what the learner can manage to do on his or herown it ldquowakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturationlying in the zone of proximal developmentrdquo (1987 p 212) Vygotsky concep-tualized development as the formation of new functional systems (ldquoneoforma-tionsrdquo) and of changes in the relationships among systems which he consideredto occur as a succession of ldquocrises of developmentrdquo that are particularly facilitatedby engagement in the relevant ldquoleading activityrdquo at each stage for example playin childhood and learning to read and write in the early school yearsHowever itwould be a mistake to focus only on the periods of revolutionary change since ashe equally emphasized at any time there are also other more gradual processes ofgrowth

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 2Dialogue in Joint Activity(from Wells2002b)

Outcomematerial ampsemioticartefacts

Toolsartefacts

Subject

Rulesconventions

Community Divisionof labor

Subject

Toolsartefacts

Processes that are central lines of development at one age become peripheral lines of develop-ment at the following age and conversely peripheral lines of development of one age arebrought to the forefront and become central lines since their meaning and relative significancein the total structure of development changes (p 197)2

In developing his important concept of the zone of proximal developmentVygotsky tended to characterize the assistance given by others as ldquoinstructionrdquoand to see its value in ldquothe childrsquos potential to raise himself to a higher intellec-tual level of development through collaboration to move from what he has towhat he does not have through imitationrdquo (1987 p 210) However manyrecent scholars who have built on his work have taken a broader view of thedevelopmental significance of collaboration in joint activities and have characte-rized the assistance that is provided within this relationship in terms such asldquoapprenticeshiprdquo (Lave amp Wenger 1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoguided participationrdquo(Rogoff 1994 2003) and ldquoscaffoldingrdquo (Wood et al 1976) Neverthelesswhile these different metaphors highlight different features of the relationshipwhat they all have in common is the inclusion of the learner in an activity inwhich there is provision of the assistance necessary to help the learner to comple-te an activity in which he or she is interested and to do so in such a way that heor she makes progress toward being able to participate more fully and autono-mously in the future (Maybin Mercer and Stierer 1992)

In many joint activities such as for example traditional forms of craftapprenticeship assistance is only provided when needed and the ldquomasterrdquo doesso with no deliberate didactic intention beyond that of involving the novice inthe completion of the particular task in hand (Lave 1996) Similarly in sociali-zation into activities around the home no explicit instruction is necessary fornovices can learn a great deal by simply watching and listening (cf Rogoff2003) This is what Lave and Wenger (1991) mean when they insist that lear-ning is not an independent activity but an intrinsic aspect of ldquolegitimate perip-heral participationrdquo in a communityrsquos activities From their perspective therefo-re formal education in which learning is the sole purpose of the activity issomething of an anomaly particularly when the only form of assistance providedis the expert teacherrsquos direct instruction and subsequent evaluation of the extentof the studentsrsquo learning

In many recent discussions it has also been recognized that it is not only aldquoteacherrdquo who can provide assistance in the zpd On the one hand in a com-plex activity many participants are more expert than others in some aspectsand therefore on some occasions are able to help those who are less expert(Rogoff 1994) and on the other hand those who provide assistance do nothave to be physically present texts and other artifacts can equally well helpa participant ldquoto go beyond himherselfrdquo as is often the case in intellectualwork such as research and writ ing (Wells 1999) Furthermore asEngestroumlm (1999) and others ndashbuilding on other aspects of Vygotskyrsquos theo-retical writingsndash have noted the material and symbolic tools that have beendeveloped by previous participants in the activity can also provide the samesort of assistance However perhaps the most important point to emphasizeis that there are many situations in which no-one is an expert yet as eachbrings his or her own past experience to the solution of a common problemthe group together is able to achieve more than any single member couldhave done alone Clearly it is such collaboration that has made possible theinventions that have led to the major advances of great civilizations over thecourse of cultural history

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Development in the Pre-School Years

As noted above the responsibility for caring for children in early childhoodvaries very considerably from one society to another Nevertheless in all socie-ties children are involved in joint activities with others in which they receiveassistance with respect to their participation however that may be locally achie-ved For the most part as already mentioned these are activities that are regu-larly repeated in the taken-for-granted routines of daily life The expectation isthat the child will learn to fit in and is simply helped to do so Often referred toas ldquoenculturationrdquo this form of apprenticeship ensures the continuity of the cul-turersquos way of life from one generation to the next and as Donald (1991) arguedit probably occurred even before the emergence of speech

However in all activities there are occasions when problems arise that callfor some level of deliberate decision-making In these situations spoken interac-tion makes possible a degree of reflection and forward planning in which therelations of cause and effect intention action and outcome are made explicitand open to question and discussion The talk that occurs on these occasionsthus plays a particularly important role in helping children to attend to andunderstand the world around them in terms of the culturersquos ways of ldquomakingsenserdquo of it However these occasions can also open up possibilities for changeboth in the form of the activity and in the participantsrsquo understanding of itHow caregivers habitually take up these opportunities is particularly importantfor it plays an important part in shaping the intellectual dispositions withwhich children enter school (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo amp Sterponi2002)

In this section I include some representative examples of kinds of talk thatarise from joint activities in the home These examples are drawn from observa-tions made in settings in England (Wells 1986) and Australia (Hasan 2002) inwhich the young children observed spent most of their time at home with oneparent sometimes with one or more siblings some of the time they entertainedthemselves with occasional adult involvement but they also frequently watchedand ldquohelpedrdquo the parent with household tasks of various kinds

In the first example James (aged 3 12 years) has been playing alone in thegarden and as he reenters the house his mother tries to get him to take off hismuddy shoes However at that moment he sees a bird outside which interestshim more than changing his shoes

Example 1Mother There we are there one slipper onJames I can see a birdMother A what loveJames See a bird Mother (whispering) Is there OutsideJames (pointing and whispering) Yes see

(both continue to speak very softly)Mother Is he eating anythingJames NoMother Where Oh yes hersquos getting- do you know what hersquos doingJames NoMother Hersquos going to the- the paper sack to try to pick out some pieces-

Oh hersquos got some food there and I expect hersquoll pick out somepieces of thread from the sack to go and make his nest under the roofJames Wait a minute and Irsquoll-[James now wants to go out to see more closely but at that moment thebird flies away]

James That birdrsquos gone

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

In the second example Elizabeth (aged 4 years) who is helping with thehouse cleaning watches with interest as her mother shovels wood ash from thefireplace into a bucket

Example 2Elizabeth What are you doing that forMother Irsquom gathering it up and putting it outside so that Daddy can put it on the gardenElizabeth Why does he have to put it on the gardenMother To make the compost rightElizabeth Does that make the grass growMother YesElizabeth Why does itMother You know how I tell you that you need to eat different things like eggs and cab-

bage and rice pudding to make you grow into a big girlElizabeth YesMother Well plants need different foods too and ash is one of the things thatrsquos

good for them

The third example involves James again now eighteen months older Earlierin the afternoon he had been helping his mother with the baking Now hecomes back into the kitchen as his mother is taking the baking trays out of theoven He hears a loud metallic ldquocrackrdquo and asks for an explanation

Example 3James Who did thatMother I expect it was the tin contractingJames Which tinMother The one with your pastry inJames Why did it make that noiseMother Well when it was in the oven it got very hot and stretched a bit Irsquove just taken

it out of the oven and itrsquos cooling down very quickly you see and that noisehappens when it gets smaller again and goes back to its normal shape

James Oh was it a different shape in the ovenMother Oh not very different just a little biggerJames Naughty little tin you might get smacked if you do it again

In all three of these examples the mother willingly responds to the childrsquosinterest and provides information to explain the significance of what the child isseeing or hearing even when in the first this interrupts the motherrsquos plan Allthree cases show how the childrsquos participation in the activity with the adult assu-res that there is intersubjectivity of attention to what interests the child and thisenables the mother to provide relevant information Clearly this is a form ofldquoinstructionrdquo however it is spontaneous and contingent on the childrsquos interestrather than presented as part of a pre-planned curriculum

The third example is particularly interesting from this point of view as thephenomenon of interest to James requires a somewhat technical explanation Atsome point in the future no doubt the expansion of metal when heated and itssubsequent contraction when removed from the heat will figure in the schoolscience curriculum in relation to the systematic study of heat here however itis an interesting side-effect of baking and the motherrsquos explanation while tech-nical in content is couched in everyday language rather than in the abstractterms of scientific generalization As Hasan (2002) has observed

the discourse of quasi specialised knowledge occurs in the lsquomiddle ofrsquo daily activities and bynecessity it calls for a readiness on the motherrsquos part to entertain contextual shifts to bewilling to reclassify the context of the on-going discourse The tendency to move with thechildrsquos moving discourse the readiness to re-classify context is a discourse characteristic of thesame group of mothers who frequently ask questions made precise by qualification and whoattend to their childrenrsquos questions and provide them with well developed answers (p 123)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 33: Actividad y Aprendizaje

Here we need to focus on the interaction among the participants ndashtheirattempt to attain intersubjectivity with respect to the common object andthe complementarity of the knowledgeable skills they bring to the cocons-truction of the intended outcome (see Figure 2) What figure 2 emphasizesis the fact that although the tools and artefacts that are available to mediatethe jointly undertaken action are the same for each participant each bringsa somewhat different familiarity with their use as a result of their differentlife trajectories and it is this variability in their expertise that makes it pos-sible for each to provide assistance to the others in at least some aspects ofthe joint action Viewed in this light it is clear why Vygotsky emphasizedthe role of joint activity in development and wrote of its potential to enablelearners ldquoto go beyond themselvesrdquo with the assistance of more expertothers

The metaphor Vygotsky used to characterize the potential for learning thatthis sort of activity creates was the ldquozone of proximal developmentrdquo As hewrote when another participant in the activity provides instruction that isappropriately pitched beyond what the learner can manage to do on his or herown it ldquowakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturationlying in the zone of proximal developmentrdquo (1987 p 212) Vygotsky concep-tualized development as the formation of new functional systems (ldquoneoforma-tionsrdquo) and of changes in the relationships among systems which he consideredto occur as a succession of ldquocrises of developmentrdquo that are particularly facilitatedby engagement in the relevant ldquoleading activityrdquo at each stage for example playin childhood and learning to read and write in the early school yearsHowever itwould be a mistake to focus only on the periods of revolutionary change since ashe equally emphasized at any time there are also other more gradual processes ofgrowth

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 2Dialogue in Joint Activity(from Wells2002b)

Outcomematerial ampsemioticartefacts

Toolsartefacts

Subject

Rulesconventions

Community Divisionof labor

Subject

Toolsartefacts

Processes that are central lines of development at one age become peripheral lines of develop-ment at the following age and conversely peripheral lines of development of one age arebrought to the forefront and become central lines since their meaning and relative significancein the total structure of development changes (p 197)2

In developing his important concept of the zone of proximal developmentVygotsky tended to characterize the assistance given by others as ldquoinstructionrdquoand to see its value in ldquothe childrsquos potential to raise himself to a higher intellec-tual level of development through collaboration to move from what he has towhat he does not have through imitationrdquo (1987 p 210) However manyrecent scholars who have built on his work have taken a broader view of thedevelopmental significance of collaboration in joint activities and have characte-rized the assistance that is provided within this relationship in terms such asldquoapprenticeshiprdquo (Lave amp Wenger 1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoguided participationrdquo(Rogoff 1994 2003) and ldquoscaffoldingrdquo (Wood et al 1976) Neverthelesswhile these different metaphors highlight different features of the relationshipwhat they all have in common is the inclusion of the learner in an activity inwhich there is provision of the assistance necessary to help the learner to comple-te an activity in which he or she is interested and to do so in such a way that heor she makes progress toward being able to participate more fully and autono-mously in the future (Maybin Mercer and Stierer 1992)

In many joint activities such as for example traditional forms of craftapprenticeship assistance is only provided when needed and the ldquomasterrdquo doesso with no deliberate didactic intention beyond that of involving the novice inthe completion of the particular task in hand (Lave 1996) Similarly in sociali-zation into activities around the home no explicit instruction is necessary fornovices can learn a great deal by simply watching and listening (cf Rogoff2003) This is what Lave and Wenger (1991) mean when they insist that lear-ning is not an independent activity but an intrinsic aspect of ldquolegitimate perip-heral participationrdquo in a communityrsquos activities From their perspective therefo-re formal education in which learning is the sole purpose of the activity issomething of an anomaly particularly when the only form of assistance providedis the expert teacherrsquos direct instruction and subsequent evaluation of the extentof the studentsrsquo learning

In many recent discussions it has also been recognized that it is not only aldquoteacherrdquo who can provide assistance in the zpd On the one hand in a com-plex activity many participants are more expert than others in some aspectsand therefore on some occasions are able to help those who are less expert(Rogoff 1994) and on the other hand those who provide assistance do nothave to be physically present texts and other artifacts can equally well helpa participant ldquoto go beyond himherselfrdquo as is often the case in intellectualwork such as research and writ ing (Wells 1999) Furthermore asEngestroumlm (1999) and others ndashbuilding on other aspects of Vygotskyrsquos theo-retical writingsndash have noted the material and symbolic tools that have beendeveloped by previous participants in the activity can also provide the samesort of assistance However perhaps the most important point to emphasizeis that there are many situations in which no-one is an expert yet as eachbrings his or her own past experience to the solution of a common problemthe group together is able to achieve more than any single member couldhave done alone Clearly it is such collaboration that has made possible theinventions that have led to the major advances of great civilizations over thecourse of cultural history

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Development in the Pre-School Years

As noted above the responsibility for caring for children in early childhoodvaries very considerably from one society to another Nevertheless in all socie-ties children are involved in joint activities with others in which they receiveassistance with respect to their participation however that may be locally achie-ved For the most part as already mentioned these are activities that are regu-larly repeated in the taken-for-granted routines of daily life The expectation isthat the child will learn to fit in and is simply helped to do so Often referred toas ldquoenculturationrdquo this form of apprenticeship ensures the continuity of the cul-turersquos way of life from one generation to the next and as Donald (1991) arguedit probably occurred even before the emergence of speech

However in all activities there are occasions when problems arise that callfor some level of deliberate decision-making In these situations spoken interac-tion makes possible a degree of reflection and forward planning in which therelations of cause and effect intention action and outcome are made explicitand open to question and discussion The talk that occurs on these occasionsthus plays a particularly important role in helping children to attend to andunderstand the world around them in terms of the culturersquos ways of ldquomakingsenserdquo of it However these occasions can also open up possibilities for changeboth in the form of the activity and in the participantsrsquo understanding of itHow caregivers habitually take up these opportunities is particularly importantfor it plays an important part in shaping the intellectual dispositions withwhich children enter school (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo amp Sterponi2002)

In this section I include some representative examples of kinds of talk thatarise from joint activities in the home These examples are drawn from observa-tions made in settings in England (Wells 1986) and Australia (Hasan 2002) inwhich the young children observed spent most of their time at home with oneparent sometimes with one or more siblings some of the time they entertainedthemselves with occasional adult involvement but they also frequently watchedand ldquohelpedrdquo the parent with household tasks of various kinds

In the first example James (aged 3 12 years) has been playing alone in thegarden and as he reenters the house his mother tries to get him to take off hismuddy shoes However at that moment he sees a bird outside which interestshim more than changing his shoes

Example 1Mother There we are there one slipper onJames I can see a birdMother A what loveJames See a bird Mother (whispering) Is there OutsideJames (pointing and whispering) Yes see

(both continue to speak very softly)Mother Is he eating anythingJames NoMother Where Oh yes hersquos getting- do you know what hersquos doingJames NoMother Hersquos going to the- the paper sack to try to pick out some pieces-

Oh hersquos got some food there and I expect hersquoll pick out somepieces of thread from the sack to go and make his nest under the roofJames Wait a minute and Irsquoll-[James now wants to go out to see more closely but at that moment thebird flies away]

James That birdrsquos gone

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

In the second example Elizabeth (aged 4 years) who is helping with thehouse cleaning watches with interest as her mother shovels wood ash from thefireplace into a bucket

Example 2Elizabeth What are you doing that forMother Irsquom gathering it up and putting it outside so that Daddy can put it on the gardenElizabeth Why does he have to put it on the gardenMother To make the compost rightElizabeth Does that make the grass growMother YesElizabeth Why does itMother You know how I tell you that you need to eat different things like eggs and cab-

bage and rice pudding to make you grow into a big girlElizabeth YesMother Well plants need different foods too and ash is one of the things thatrsquos

good for them

The third example involves James again now eighteen months older Earlierin the afternoon he had been helping his mother with the baking Now hecomes back into the kitchen as his mother is taking the baking trays out of theoven He hears a loud metallic ldquocrackrdquo and asks for an explanation

Example 3James Who did thatMother I expect it was the tin contractingJames Which tinMother The one with your pastry inJames Why did it make that noiseMother Well when it was in the oven it got very hot and stretched a bit Irsquove just taken

it out of the oven and itrsquos cooling down very quickly you see and that noisehappens when it gets smaller again and goes back to its normal shape

James Oh was it a different shape in the ovenMother Oh not very different just a little biggerJames Naughty little tin you might get smacked if you do it again

In all three of these examples the mother willingly responds to the childrsquosinterest and provides information to explain the significance of what the child isseeing or hearing even when in the first this interrupts the motherrsquos plan Allthree cases show how the childrsquos participation in the activity with the adult assu-res that there is intersubjectivity of attention to what interests the child and thisenables the mother to provide relevant information Clearly this is a form ofldquoinstructionrdquo however it is spontaneous and contingent on the childrsquos interestrather than presented as part of a pre-planned curriculum

The third example is particularly interesting from this point of view as thephenomenon of interest to James requires a somewhat technical explanation Atsome point in the future no doubt the expansion of metal when heated and itssubsequent contraction when removed from the heat will figure in the schoolscience curriculum in relation to the systematic study of heat here however itis an interesting side-effect of baking and the motherrsquos explanation while tech-nical in content is couched in everyday language rather than in the abstractterms of scientific generalization As Hasan (2002) has observed

the discourse of quasi specialised knowledge occurs in the lsquomiddle ofrsquo daily activities and bynecessity it calls for a readiness on the motherrsquos part to entertain contextual shifts to bewilling to reclassify the context of the on-going discourse The tendency to move with thechildrsquos moving discourse the readiness to re-classify context is a discourse characteristic of thesame group of mothers who frequently ask questions made precise by qualification and whoattend to their childrenrsquos questions and provide them with well developed answers (p 123)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 34: Actividad y Aprendizaje

Processes that are central lines of development at one age become peripheral lines of develop-ment at the following age and conversely peripheral lines of development of one age arebrought to the forefront and become central lines since their meaning and relative significancein the total structure of development changes (p 197)2

In developing his important concept of the zone of proximal developmentVygotsky tended to characterize the assistance given by others as ldquoinstructionrdquoand to see its value in ldquothe childrsquos potential to raise himself to a higher intellec-tual level of development through collaboration to move from what he has towhat he does not have through imitationrdquo (1987 p 210) However manyrecent scholars who have built on his work have taken a broader view of thedevelopmental significance of collaboration in joint activities and have characte-rized the assistance that is provided within this relationship in terms such asldquoapprenticeshiprdquo (Lave amp Wenger 1991 Rogoff 1990) ldquoguided participationrdquo(Rogoff 1994 2003) and ldquoscaffoldingrdquo (Wood et al 1976) Neverthelesswhile these different metaphors highlight different features of the relationshipwhat they all have in common is the inclusion of the learner in an activity inwhich there is provision of the assistance necessary to help the learner to comple-te an activity in which he or she is interested and to do so in such a way that heor she makes progress toward being able to participate more fully and autono-mously in the future (Maybin Mercer and Stierer 1992)

In many joint activities such as for example traditional forms of craftapprenticeship assistance is only provided when needed and the ldquomasterrdquo doesso with no deliberate didactic intention beyond that of involving the novice inthe completion of the particular task in hand (Lave 1996) Similarly in sociali-zation into activities around the home no explicit instruction is necessary fornovices can learn a great deal by simply watching and listening (cf Rogoff2003) This is what Lave and Wenger (1991) mean when they insist that lear-ning is not an independent activity but an intrinsic aspect of ldquolegitimate perip-heral participationrdquo in a communityrsquos activities From their perspective therefo-re formal education in which learning is the sole purpose of the activity issomething of an anomaly particularly when the only form of assistance providedis the expert teacherrsquos direct instruction and subsequent evaluation of the extentof the studentsrsquo learning

In many recent discussions it has also been recognized that it is not only aldquoteacherrdquo who can provide assistance in the zpd On the one hand in a com-plex activity many participants are more expert than others in some aspectsand therefore on some occasions are able to help those who are less expert(Rogoff 1994) and on the other hand those who provide assistance do nothave to be physically present texts and other artifacts can equally well helpa participant ldquoto go beyond himherselfrdquo as is often the case in intellectualwork such as research and writ ing (Wells 1999) Furthermore asEngestroumlm (1999) and others ndashbuilding on other aspects of Vygotskyrsquos theo-retical writingsndash have noted the material and symbolic tools that have beendeveloped by previous participants in the activity can also provide the samesort of assistance However perhaps the most important point to emphasizeis that there are many situations in which no-one is an expert yet as eachbrings his or her own past experience to the solution of a common problemthe group together is able to achieve more than any single member couldhave done alone Clearly it is such collaboration that has made possible theinventions that have led to the major advances of great civilizations over thecourse of cultural history

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Development in the Pre-School Years

As noted above the responsibility for caring for children in early childhoodvaries very considerably from one society to another Nevertheless in all socie-ties children are involved in joint activities with others in which they receiveassistance with respect to their participation however that may be locally achie-ved For the most part as already mentioned these are activities that are regu-larly repeated in the taken-for-granted routines of daily life The expectation isthat the child will learn to fit in and is simply helped to do so Often referred toas ldquoenculturationrdquo this form of apprenticeship ensures the continuity of the cul-turersquos way of life from one generation to the next and as Donald (1991) arguedit probably occurred even before the emergence of speech

However in all activities there are occasions when problems arise that callfor some level of deliberate decision-making In these situations spoken interac-tion makes possible a degree of reflection and forward planning in which therelations of cause and effect intention action and outcome are made explicitand open to question and discussion The talk that occurs on these occasionsthus plays a particularly important role in helping children to attend to andunderstand the world around them in terms of the culturersquos ways of ldquomakingsenserdquo of it However these occasions can also open up possibilities for changeboth in the form of the activity and in the participantsrsquo understanding of itHow caregivers habitually take up these opportunities is particularly importantfor it plays an important part in shaping the intellectual dispositions withwhich children enter school (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo amp Sterponi2002)

In this section I include some representative examples of kinds of talk thatarise from joint activities in the home These examples are drawn from observa-tions made in settings in England (Wells 1986) and Australia (Hasan 2002) inwhich the young children observed spent most of their time at home with oneparent sometimes with one or more siblings some of the time they entertainedthemselves with occasional adult involvement but they also frequently watchedand ldquohelpedrdquo the parent with household tasks of various kinds

In the first example James (aged 3 12 years) has been playing alone in thegarden and as he reenters the house his mother tries to get him to take off hismuddy shoes However at that moment he sees a bird outside which interestshim more than changing his shoes

Example 1Mother There we are there one slipper onJames I can see a birdMother A what loveJames See a bird Mother (whispering) Is there OutsideJames (pointing and whispering) Yes see

(both continue to speak very softly)Mother Is he eating anythingJames NoMother Where Oh yes hersquos getting- do you know what hersquos doingJames NoMother Hersquos going to the- the paper sack to try to pick out some pieces-

Oh hersquos got some food there and I expect hersquoll pick out somepieces of thread from the sack to go and make his nest under the roofJames Wait a minute and Irsquoll-[James now wants to go out to see more closely but at that moment thebird flies away]

James That birdrsquos gone

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

In the second example Elizabeth (aged 4 years) who is helping with thehouse cleaning watches with interest as her mother shovels wood ash from thefireplace into a bucket

Example 2Elizabeth What are you doing that forMother Irsquom gathering it up and putting it outside so that Daddy can put it on the gardenElizabeth Why does he have to put it on the gardenMother To make the compost rightElizabeth Does that make the grass growMother YesElizabeth Why does itMother You know how I tell you that you need to eat different things like eggs and cab-

bage and rice pudding to make you grow into a big girlElizabeth YesMother Well plants need different foods too and ash is one of the things thatrsquos

good for them

The third example involves James again now eighteen months older Earlierin the afternoon he had been helping his mother with the baking Now hecomes back into the kitchen as his mother is taking the baking trays out of theoven He hears a loud metallic ldquocrackrdquo and asks for an explanation

Example 3James Who did thatMother I expect it was the tin contractingJames Which tinMother The one with your pastry inJames Why did it make that noiseMother Well when it was in the oven it got very hot and stretched a bit Irsquove just taken

it out of the oven and itrsquos cooling down very quickly you see and that noisehappens when it gets smaller again and goes back to its normal shape

James Oh was it a different shape in the ovenMother Oh not very different just a little biggerJames Naughty little tin you might get smacked if you do it again

In all three of these examples the mother willingly responds to the childrsquosinterest and provides information to explain the significance of what the child isseeing or hearing even when in the first this interrupts the motherrsquos plan Allthree cases show how the childrsquos participation in the activity with the adult assu-res that there is intersubjectivity of attention to what interests the child and thisenables the mother to provide relevant information Clearly this is a form ofldquoinstructionrdquo however it is spontaneous and contingent on the childrsquos interestrather than presented as part of a pre-planned curriculum

The third example is particularly interesting from this point of view as thephenomenon of interest to James requires a somewhat technical explanation Atsome point in the future no doubt the expansion of metal when heated and itssubsequent contraction when removed from the heat will figure in the schoolscience curriculum in relation to the systematic study of heat here however itis an interesting side-effect of baking and the motherrsquos explanation while tech-nical in content is couched in everyday language rather than in the abstractterms of scientific generalization As Hasan (2002) has observed

the discourse of quasi specialised knowledge occurs in the lsquomiddle ofrsquo daily activities and bynecessity it calls for a readiness on the motherrsquos part to entertain contextual shifts to bewilling to reclassify the context of the on-going discourse The tendency to move with thechildrsquos moving discourse the readiness to re-classify context is a discourse characteristic of thesame group of mothers who frequently ask questions made precise by qualification and whoattend to their childrenrsquos questions and provide them with well developed answers (p 123)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 35: Actividad y Aprendizaje

Development in the Pre-School Years

As noted above the responsibility for caring for children in early childhoodvaries very considerably from one society to another Nevertheless in all socie-ties children are involved in joint activities with others in which they receiveassistance with respect to their participation however that may be locally achie-ved For the most part as already mentioned these are activities that are regu-larly repeated in the taken-for-granted routines of daily life The expectation isthat the child will learn to fit in and is simply helped to do so Often referred toas ldquoenculturationrdquo this form of apprenticeship ensures the continuity of the cul-turersquos way of life from one generation to the next and as Donald (1991) arguedit probably occurred even before the emergence of speech

However in all activities there are occasions when problems arise that callfor some level of deliberate decision-making In these situations spoken interac-tion makes possible a degree of reflection and forward planning in which therelations of cause and effect intention action and outcome are made explicitand open to question and discussion The talk that occurs on these occasionsthus plays a particularly important role in helping children to attend to andunderstand the world around them in terms of the culturersquos ways of ldquomakingsenserdquo of it However these occasions can also open up possibilities for changeboth in the form of the activity and in the participantsrsquo understanding of itHow caregivers habitually take up these opportunities is particularly importantfor it plays an important part in shaping the intellectual dispositions withwhich children enter school (Carr 2002 Hasan 2002 Pontecorvo amp Sterponi2002)

In this section I include some representative examples of kinds of talk thatarise from joint activities in the home These examples are drawn from observa-tions made in settings in England (Wells 1986) and Australia (Hasan 2002) inwhich the young children observed spent most of their time at home with oneparent sometimes with one or more siblings some of the time they entertainedthemselves with occasional adult involvement but they also frequently watchedand ldquohelpedrdquo the parent with household tasks of various kinds

In the first example James (aged 3 12 years) has been playing alone in thegarden and as he reenters the house his mother tries to get him to take off hismuddy shoes However at that moment he sees a bird outside which interestshim more than changing his shoes

Example 1Mother There we are there one slipper onJames I can see a birdMother A what loveJames See a bird Mother (whispering) Is there OutsideJames (pointing and whispering) Yes see

(both continue to speak very softly)Mother Is he eating anythingJames NoMother Where Oh yes hersquos getting- do you know what hersquos doingJames NoMother Hersquos going to the- the paper sack to try to pick out some pieces-

Oh hersquos got some food there and I expect hersquoll pick out somepieces of thread from the sack to go and make his nest under the roofJames Wait a minute and Irsquoll-[James now wants to go out to see more closely but at that moment thebird flies away]

James That birdrsquos gone

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

In the second example Elizabeth (aged 4 years) who is helping with thehouse cleaning watches with interest as her mother shovels wood ash from thefireplace into a bucket

Example 2Elizabeth What are you doing that forMother Irsquom gathering it up and putting it outside so that Daddy can put it on the gardenElizabeth Why does he have to put it on the gardenMother To make the compost rightElizabeth Does that make the grass growMother YesElizabeth Why does itMother You know how I tell you that you need to eat different things like eggs and cab-

bage and rice pudding to make you grow into a big girlElizabeth YesMother Well plants need different foods too and ash is one of the things thatrsquos

good for them

The third example involves James again now eighteen months older Earlierin the afternoon he had been helping his mother with the baking Now hecomes back into the kitchen as his mother is taking the baking trays out of theoven He hears a loud metallic ldquocrackrdquo and asks for an explanation

Example 3James Who did thatMother I expect it was the tin contractingJames Which tinMother The one with your pastry inJames Why did it make that noiseMother Well when it was in the oven it got very hot and stretched a bit Irsquove just taken

it out of the oven and itrsquos cooling down very quickly you see and that noisehappens when it gets smaller again and goes back to its normal shape

James Oh was it a different shape in the ovenMother Oh not very different just a little biggerJames Naughty little tin you might get smacked if you do it again

In all three of these examples the mother willingly responds to the childrsquosinterest and provides information to explain the significance of what the child isseeing or hearing even when in the first this interrupts the motherrsquos plan Allthree cases show how the childrsquos participation in the activity with the adult assu-res that there is intersubjectivity of attention to what interests the child and thisenables the mother to provide relevant information Clearly this is a form ofldquoinstructionrdquo however it is spontaneous and contingent on the childrsquos interestrather than presented as part of a pre-planned curriculum

The third example is particularly interesting from this point of view as thephenomenon of interest to James requires a somewhat technical explanation Atsome point in the future no doubt the expansion of metal when heated and itssubsequent contraction when removed from the heat will figure in the schoolscience curriculum in relation to the systematic study of heat here however itis an interesting side-effect of baking and the motherrsquos explanation while tech-nical in content is couched in everyday language rather than in the abstractterms of scientific generalization As Hasan (2002) has observed

the discourse of quasi specialised knowledge occurs in the lsquomiddle ofrsquo daily activities and bynecessity it calls for a readiness on the motherrsquos part to entertain contextual shifts to bewilling to reclassify the context of the on-going discourse The tendency to move with thechildrsquos moving discourse the readiness to re-classify context is a discourse characteristic of thesame group of mothers who frequently ask questions made precise by qualification and whoattend to their childrenrsquos questions and provide them with well developed answers (p 123)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 36: Actividad y Aprendizaje

In the second example Elizabeth (aged 4 years) who is helping with thehouse cleaning watches with interest as her mother shovels wood ash from thefireplace into a bucket

Example 2Elizabeth What are you doing that forMother Irsquom gathering it up and putting it outside so that Daddy can put it on the gardenElizabeth Why does he have to put it on the gardenMother To make the compost rightElizabeth Does that make the grass growMother YesElizabeth Why does itMother You know how I tell you that you need to eat different things like eggs and cab-

bage and rice pudding to make you grow into a big girlElizabeth YesMother Well plants need different foods too and ash is one of the things thatrsquos

good for them

The third example involves James again now eighteen months older Earlierin the afternoon he had been helping his mother with the baking Now hecomes back into the kitchen as his mother is taking the baking trays out of theoven He hears a loud metallic ldquocrackrdquo and asks for an explanation

Example 3James Who did thatMother I expect it was the tin contractingJames Which tinMother The one with your pastry inJames Why did it make that noiseMother Well when it was in the oven it got very hot and stretched a bit Irsquove just taken

it out of the oven and itrsquos cooling down very quickly you see and that noisehappens when it gets smaller again and goes back to its normal shape

James Oh was it a different shape in the ovenMother Oh not very different just a little biggerJames Naughty little tin you might get smacked if you do it again

In all three of these examples the mother willingly responds to the childrsquosinterest and provides information to explain the significance of what the child isseeing or hearing even when in the first this interrupts the motherrsquos plan Allthree cases show how the childrsquos participation in the activity with the adult assu-res that there is intersubjectivity of attention to what interests the child and thisenables the mother to provide relevant information Clearly this is a form ofldquoinstructionrdquo however it is spontaneous and contingent on the childrsquos interestrather than presented as part of a pre-planned curriculum

The third example is particularly interesting from this point of view as thephenomenon of interest to James requires a somewhat technical explanation Atsome point in the future no doubt the expansion of metal when heated and itssubsequent contraction when removed from the heat will figure in the schoolscience curriculum in relation to the systematic study of heat here however itis an interesting side-effect of baking and the motherrsquos explanation while tech-nical in content is couched in everyday language rather than in the abstractterms of scientific generalization As Hasan (2002) has observed

the discourse of quasi specialised knowledge occurs in the lsquomiddle ofrsquo daily activities and bynecessity it calls for a readiness on the motherrsquos part to entertain contextual shifts to bewilling to reclassify the context of the on-going discourse The tendency to move with thechildrsquos moving discourse the readiness to re-classify context is a discourse characteristic of thesame group of mothers who frequently ask questions made precise by qualification and whoattend to their childrenrsquos questions and provide them with well developed answers (p 123)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 37: Actividad y Aprendizaje

Not all children experience this sort of highly informative response to theirinterests of course On the basis of a substantial corpus of mother-child interac-tion Hasan (2002) following Bernstein (1982) distinguishes between ldquovisibleldquo and ldquoinvisiblerdquo semiotic mediation Whereas the examples quoted above alltreat the joint activity and the childrsquos question as deserving of further explora-tion in an explicit ldquovisiblerdquo mode the topics of many other childrenrsquo contribu-tions to activity and interaction are treated by the parent as ldquoobviousrdquo and the-refore as not requiring explanation In this sense the mediation of the culturersquosbeliefs and practices remains ldquoinvisiblerdquo this is the way the world is and thetopic does not merit further discussion Example 4 below provides a good illus-tration

Example 4Mother Put it up on the stove and leave it thereKaren WhyMother rsquocause Karen Thatrsquos where it goesMother YeahAnd a little laterKaren How did you get that you didnrsquot get out of []Mother I walked over and got it didnrsquot you see me Karen NupMother You must be blind

(from Hasan 2002)

The two brief extracts in example 4 are typical of a very different style of inte-raction from those considered earlier Here the parentrsquos emphasis on getting thechild to conform to the local culturersquos ways of acting and thinking effectivelysuppresses the childrsquos curiosity and desire to understand it also makes it lesslikely that the child will grow up questioning the status quo and participating inefforts to change and improve it

Finally before leaving the topic of learning through talk in joint activities itis important to consider joint activity in the context of play Vygotsky (1978)considered play to be the leading activity in the pre-school years as it encoura-ges the child to explore the possibilities of semiotic mediation through the useof present objects that can be made to represent other non-present objects andthrough role play in which language creates an imaginary world In example 5James now aged 3 years and nine months is sitting on the arm of a sofa drivingan imaginary train with his mother as a passenger

Example 5Mother There we are Irsquoll sit to the side Right are you ready All set

Right off with the brakeJames Irsquoll start it upMother Oh sorry RightJames Mum you donrsquot steer it yetMother Oh wellJames [makes a noise pretending to start the engine]Mother Oh Thatrsquos a quick starting engine very good Got enough coal at the

back Have you shoveled enough coal on JamesJames YesMother Good away we go then Wave goodbye to your friendsJames [Engine noises accelerate He chuckles and makes the sound for the

engine whistle]Mother Wersquore going very fast now Can you feel the carriages swayingJames YesMother Oh theyrsquore rolling me about oh all my breakfast is rumbling in my

tummy oh oh ohJames [Makes engine noises]

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 38: Actividad y Aprendizaje

Mother I think wersquoll have to slow down donrsquot youJames Mm (agreeing)Mother I think wersquore going a bit too fast hellip

Thatrsquos better thatrsquos easier now isnrsquot itJames Mm (agreeing)Mother [Hums] Look at the cows in the field JamesJames MmMother And therersquos a farmer look the farmerrsquos waving to you

Like shared storying which is another important joint activity at this ageimaginary play also has an important function in preparing the child to exploitthe power of language ldquoto create a world through wordsrdquo As will be discussedbelow this use of language to represent non-present objects and events and therelationships among them takes on very great significance in the context of typi-cal public schooling where it provides the principle mediational means throughwhich much of the curriculum is encountered (Wells 1986)

In sum with the exception of extract 4 all the preceding extracts areclear examples of an adult ldquoworking in the childrsquos zone of proximal develop-mentrdquo (Vygotsky 1987) as they engage in interaction in the process of carr-ying out the activity in which they are jointly engaged As Vygotsky (1987)emphasized in collaborative joint activity the child can always do morethan he can independently The activity provides the organizing frameworkwithin which some of the talk directs and comments on the activity andsome explores issues to which it gives rise In this context the adult makesavailable for the childrsquos appropriation not only specific information that isresponsive to the childrsquos interest but also a stance toward experience thatvalues an attitude of inquiry By treating the childrsquos questions as worthy ofexplicit response the adult supports the development of a disposition topose questions and to seek answers to them through further inquiry (Wells1999)

The Role of Activity in Education

Although ldquoeducationrdquo is often used synonymously with ldquoschoolingrdquo bro-adly interpreted education has been going on throughout the childrsquos earlyyears and indeed as was seen above there are many occasions when a copar-ticipant in ongoing activity provides explicit instruction However educa-tion ndashin the sense of schoolingndash tends to be very different from the sort ofactivities illustrated above Most importantly in schools the instruction isboth deliberate and systematic and is governed not by the studentsrsquo inte-rests but by a curriculum that has been designed by experts who are unfa-miliar with the students who are to be instructed As a result what istaught in school is often unrelated to what children are most interested inlearning and many fail to benefit from the opportunities that schoolingshould provide

In earlier sections of this paper it has been argued that learning is not an endin itself but an integral aspect of mastering new forms of activity that have mea-ning and value for the learnerrsquos development both as a member of a communityand as an autonomous unique individual As Vygotsky emphatically pointedout it is learning that leads development and instruction should be organized toassist this process

Instruction is only useful when it moves ahead of development When it does it impels orwakens a whole series of functions that are in a stage of maturation lying in the zone of proxi-mal development (1987 p 212)

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 39: Actividad y Aprendizaje

The central question for schooling must therefore be how to offer instructionso that it is relevant to studentsrsquo developmental trajectories and appropriatelypitched in their zones of proximal development And the second question is howto provide assistance to individual students so that their learning does indeedenable them to move ahead in their development

In attempting to provide answers to these questions the concept of lsquoleadingactivityrsquo together with that of recapitulation of the developmental sequence ofmodes of knowing can provide a useful beginning On entry to school childrenhave largely mastered the modes of knowing associated with action mimesisand speech (Nelson 1996) What they now need is an apprenticeship into themodes of knowing associated with written language and the various kinds ofsymbolic representation that are derived from it ndashmathematical scientificmusical etc That is to say they need to learn to use these forms of representa-tion as tools to mediate deliberate reflective communication and thinking andto appropriate the different domains of theoretical knowing that have beencumulatively constructed by previous generations with the aid of the affordan-ces of ldquoexternal memoryrdquo (Donald 1991)

The recapitulation of cultural historical development maps the long-termtrajectory for formal education in schools and tertiary institutions But evenmore important in attempting to answer the central questions posed above isto determine effective procedures for organizing the smaller steps that make upthe lessons curricular units and yearly syllabuses along this trajectory Buildingon the ideas presented in previous sections of this chapter two principles appearself-evident First educational encounters need to be recognized to be ldquojointactivitiesrdquo in which all participants contribute to the agreed upon goals to thebest of their abilities and second the giving and receiving of assistance by allparticipants should be the established norm A third principle that follows byimplication is that there can be no universal best way to engage with any aspectof the curriculum since every class varies in the experiences and interests that itsmembers bring and in the culturally learned values and practices that motivateand direct their engagement with the new knowledge and skills that they areexpected to master

Although it is always important the requirement to recognize value andbuild on studentsrsquo prior experiences has become even more necessary as migra-tion both within and between countries has grown in significance and as eth-nic class and religious differences between communities have led to ever morediverse school and classroom communities ndashand this is even more the case wherea substantial proportion of students is learning the language of the classroom asa second (or subsequent) language Such diversity in cultural background andprior experience is generally seen as a problem that needs to be overcome incountries where curriculum designers aim to standardize instruction in order toachieve identical outcomes for all students as is the case in the United Statestoday However when the differences among people in terms of experiencevalues and practices are recognized to be both normal and desirable this diver-sity can become an asset in the classroom since the alternative practices andpoints of view to which it gives rise can enrich the classroom community andlead to valuable discussions in which taken-for-granted beliefs are challengedand a deeper understanding achieved of the issues under consideration (Wells1999)

In this context I have found it helpful to think of school-based learning interms of a spiral of knowing where enhanced understanding is the intendedoutcome of each cycle through the spiral (Wells 1999) (see Figure 3) In the

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 40: Actividad y Aprendizaje

first phase as the class embarks on a new curricular topic it is important toencourage students to share their relevant prior experiences since as researchersin many different fields have shown (eg Freire Piaget Rosenblatt Vygotsky)these experiences provide the point of departure for their learning whether theyare publicly recognized or not By discovering what students already know andwhat they are interested in exploring further the teacher can also plan the unitin cooperation with the students (Donoahue 2003) The second phase in thespiral involves various encounters with new information ndashthrough teacher expo-sition print or media presentations or in the form of feedback to the studentsrsquoown actions and investigations It is important to recognize however that thereception of new information does not in itself ensure an enhancement ofunderstanding For that to occur the new information must be articulated withexisting understanding and with relevant past experience then put to the testthrough action into the world that produces feedback (further information)andor through dialogic knowledge building with others in which the aim is toarrive at a concensusal choice among alternative theories claims or interpreta-tions on the basis of a consideration of relevant evidence and argument Finallyto consolidate the new understandings gained it is valuable for the whole classto reflect together on what they have learned and on the knowledge buildingprocesses in which they have engaged on what implications their new unders-tanding has for their own actions ndashboth outside as well as inside the classroomndashand on what important questions they now have to drive their further inquiriesIn other words the final phase in the cycle involves the community in ldquogoinglsquometarsquordquo (Olson amp Bruner 1996) that is to say taking a metacognitive perspecti-ve on their own learning which over the millennia has probably played animportant role in the development of each of the modes of knowing in Donaldrsquos(1991) account of cultural historical development3

Several further points need to be made about this spiral The first has to dowith the incomplete and provisional nature of understanding it is always opento improvement through further cycles through the spiral The second concernsthe essentially social and interactional nature of individual and communitygrowth in understanding it occurs through participantsrsquo efforts to make theirown meanings clear to others and in turn to take account of and respond tothose of others (Bakhtin 1986) Third it needs to be emphasized that growth inunderstanding involves a further spiraling between the different modes of kno-wing since most of the challenges and problems that occur in settings beyondthe classroom call upon procedural substantive and aesthetic as well as theoreti-cal knowing and each mode has a contribution to make to the achievement ofcomprehensive solutions that significantly enhance understanding Finally inthe representation of these relationships in figure 3 the spiral also brings out theinterdependence of the individual and the community While experience andunderstanding are essentially individual in nature they grow out of and take ontheir significance from the individualrsquos participation in the exchange of informa-tion and engagement in knowledge building in the larger community of whichhe or she is a member

Unfortunately many educators do not understand these fundamental rela-tionships and so their instruction is not conceptualized and planned in ways thatare optimal for studentsrsquo development As several recent studies have shown(Langer amp Applebee 1987 Nystrand amp Gamoran 1991) in the majority ofclassrooms it is the banking conception of knowledge (Freire 1970) thatgoverns practice according to which the purpose of classroom-based instructionis for individual students to be prepared to score well on tests rather than to

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 41: Actividad y Aprendizaje

extend their understanding Given this orientation the activities in which stu-dents are asked to engage are determined by the curriculum guide or the textbo-ok rather than by the teachersrsquo knowledge of the interests and abilities of theparticular students for whom they are responsible and it is what Tharp andGallimore (1988) refer to as the ldquorecitation scriptrdquo interspersed with individualseatwork that dominates the daily routine Furthermore plans for how to pro-ceed are not surprisingly unilaterally imposed rather than being made on thebasis of decisions taken by the classroom community as a whole and the generalethos is one of competition rather than of collaboration

However as I have argued elsewhere (Wells 1986 1999 2002a) this is notthe only mode in which schooling can be conducted ndash despite the long history ofrecitation which goes back more than three thousand years to the earliest insti-tutions for training scribes and administrators to read and write (Cole 1996)But it is likely to be the default mode if schooling is seen to be a preparation forldquoadult liferdquo rather than a critical stage of development which is worthwhile andmeaningful in its own right As Vygotsky argued about the mastery of literacyldquoteaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are neces-sary for something hellip Writing should be incorporated into a task that is rele-vant and necessary for liferdquo (1978 pp 117-118) And by ldquoliferdquo he meant not lifein the future but the totality of the learnersrsquo current interests and concerns

In the last few years projects have been reported from a variety of countriesin which university educators have attempted to create conditions for ldquoauthenticlearningrdquo in classrooms In all of these projects a central place has been given tocollaborative activities which alternating between individual small group andwhole class participation formats involve students in exploring a central topicthrough practical as well as theoretical investigation and in critical and cons-tructive discussion about their findings and about the implications for furtheraction Space does not permit a discussion of these projects individually herebut what can be said about all of them is that in their different ways they bothhonor studentsrsquo interests and prior experiences and aim to assist them to develop

The role of activity in development and education G Wells

FIGURE 3The Spiral of Knowing

ACTIOacuteN Knowledge

BuildingUnderstandingSubstantive

Aesthetic

Theoretical

Procedural

Instrumental

Modes of Knowing

Experience Information

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)

Page 42: Actividad y Aprendizaje

the disposition to seek understanding rather than the simple accumulation ofinformation and to value collaboration rather than competition as the means forachieving this goal4

In this context it is worth drawing attention to various afterschool settingssuch as the Fifth Dimension where participation in self-chosen activities ndashoftencomputer-basedndash requires children to master skills that are also necessary forschooling and provides opportunities for them to interact with universityvolunteers on an equal footing (Brown amp Cole 2002) Similarly some museum-based programs (Leinhardt Crowley and Knutson 2002) and various forms ofoutdoor education also capitalize on studentsrsquo interests to engage them in cha-llenging activities that call for knowledge building dialogue and decision-making comparable to those found in the classroom settings referred to above

Finally if the practices that are being pioneered are to take root and influencepublic education more widely it is essential that teachers have similar opportu-nities to develop the dispositions and the expertise necessary to act as agents ofchange and leaders of reform in the institutions in which they work It is there-fore encouraging to see that despite the policy-makersrsquo emphasis on standardi-zed curricula and measurable outcomes some programs of teacher preparationand professional development encourage teachers on the basis of inquiries intotheir own practice to make their own decisions as to what should be taught andhow and to share the outcomes of their inquiries with colleagues This has beenthe thrust of my own work in recent years as I have engaged in collaborativeresearch with teachers to create and sustain communities of inquiry both inclassrooms and among the teachers themselves5

Infancia y Aprendizaje2004 27 (2) pp 165-187

Notes1 There has been much debate about the temporal sequence implied by this formulation and indeed about the implication ofmovement from outside to inside that it suggests My own understanding of what is involved in appropriation is much bettercaptured by the example of learning to dance through engaging in the activity with others (Wells 1999) In many cases there isno separation between earlier and later or between outer and inner and there is no need for demonstration or explanation Insteadby being involved in the joint activity the novice is literally physically entrained by the movements of coparticipants while atthe same time constructing an inner organization ndash and perhaps even a schematic representation ndash of the bodily movementsinvolved Over time this scheme is so well organized that the novice becomes an expert who is able in turn to induct others intothe activity This I take it is what Lave and Wenger (1991) and Rogoff (2003) mean by development through participation incultural activities

2 I am grateful to Natalia Gajdamaschko and Steve Gabosch for their helpful discussion of this distinction during the XMCA onli-ne course on cultural historical activity theory April 2003 (httpwwwclmercsulbedu8000xmcaCourse)

3 Although included in table 1 above this mode of knowing was not discussed there as the explicit recognition of this importantmode of knowing is extremely recent (Brown 1975) However that does not mean that it is in itself a new phenomenon

4 For some representative examples see Brown et al (1994) Lampert Rittenhouse and Crumbaugh (1996) McMahon RaphaelGoatley and Pardo (1997) Palincsar Magnusson Marano Ford and Brown (1998) Scardamalia Bereiter and Lamon (1994)

5 Together we form a collaborative research group DICEP (Developing Inquiring Communities in Education Project) (Wells(Ed) 2001)