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N A S A T E C H N I C A LT R A N S L A T I O N

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FUNDAMENTALS OF AVIATION MEDICINEby A. A. LavnikovfMil i tury Press, Moscow , 19 7 1

N A T I O N A L A E R O N A U T I C S A N D S PA C E A D M I N I S T R A T I O N W A S H I N G T O N , D . C. J U L Y 1 9 7 2


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TECH LIBRARY KAFB, NM

FUNDAMENTALS O F AVIATION MEDICINE

By A. A. Lavnikov

Transla t ion of: "Osnovy Aviatsionnoy Meditsiny .? '"Military" Press, M o s c o w , 1 9 7 1

NA TIO NA L AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION~For sale by the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia 22151

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ANNOTATION The book traces the principal information on the historical development /2 *

of aviation medicine in our country, describes the structure of the Earth'satmosphere, gives a brief survey of human anatomy and physiology, and alsodiscusses the effect of various flight factors on man. It also specifies thephysiological and hygienic requirements for cabins of modern aircraft and theoxygen-respiration apparatus, discussing the influence of particular aspectsof flights under difficult meteorological conditions and at night on thepilot's body. The problems involved in feeding a flight crew are discussedat the end.

The book is intended for students at aviation academies, those studying at flight schools and pilots in the air force. It may also be valuable to f l i g h t surgeons, the engineering-technical crews of the air force and other fields of aviation, students at medical institutes, design organizations, dealing with aviation technology, and everyone who is interested in aviation and aviation medicine.

*Numbers in the margin indicate pagination in the original foreign text. iii


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TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

ANNOTAT I O N iii FOREWORD CHAPTER I. THE HISTORY OF AVIATION MEDICINE IN OUR COUNTRY CHAPTER 11. A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Structure of the Atmosphere Composition of Atmospheric Air Weight and Pressure of Atmospheric Air Air Density and Standard Atmosphere Solar Radiation Cosmic Radiation The Magnetic Field of the Earth and the Radiation Belts Temperature of the Atmosphere

CHAPTER 111. BRIEF SURVEY OF HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Cells and Tissues Organs and Organ Systems Nervous System Analyzers (Sense Organs) Respiratory System Circulatory System Support-Motor System Organs of Excretion Digestive System

CHAPTER IV. INnUENCE OF HIGH-ALTITUDE FLIGHTS ON THE HUMAN ORGANISM High-Altitude Flights and Oxygen Starvation Altitude Sickness Airsickness Influence of Oxygen Starvation on the Central Nervous System

ix 1 10 10 13 17 19 20 24 25 27 29 30 31 33 39 48 52 58 6061 66 66 69 72 73

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Influence of Oxygen Starvation on the Function of the Analyzers Effect of Oxygen Starvation on the Respiratory System Influence of Oxygen Starvation on the Circulatory System Influence of Oxygen Starvation on Metabolism Preventive Measures Changes in Barometric Pressure and Their Effect on the Human Organism Decompression Disorders Altitude Sickness Altitude Meteorism Altitude Tissue Emphysema Explosive Decompression

CHAPTER V. PRINCIPAL PHYSIOLOGICAL-HYGIENIC REQUIREIKEXTS FOR AIRCRAFT CABINS Principal Types of Pressurized Cabins Hygienic Requirements for Aircraft Cabins

CHAPTER VI . PHYSIOLOGICAL-HYGIENIC FUNDAMENTALS OF OXYGEN EQUIPMENT Aviation Oxygen Devices Oxygen Devices with Continuous Oxygen Feed Oxygen Device W - 2 2 Oxygen Device KP-32 Onboard Portable Oxygen Devices Parachute Oxygen Devices Oxygen Devices of the "Pulmonary Aatomatic" Type w k t h Periodic Oxygen Feed System of KP-18JC Oxygen Device Oxygen Devices of the "Pulmonary Automatic" Type for Breathing Oxygen Under Pressure System of Stationary Oxygen Device KP-24M System for Stationary Oxygen Device KP-28M High Altitude Equipment The KKO-1M System

76 79 81 83 89 97 100 101 111 113 115 120 121 128 150 150 151 154 154 f1.5f15

158 160 161 165 170 172 178

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System KKO-3 High-Altitude Equipment with a Combined Compensation System Flying Suits Oxygen and Its Properties

CHAPTER VII. ACCELERATION IN FLIGHT AND ITS EFFECT ON THEHUMAN ORGANISMGeneral Concepts Regarding Acceleration Linear Acceleration and Its Influence on the Human Organism Effect of Linear Acceleration During Ed'ection Upward Ejection Downward Ejection \\,Characteristics of Ejection at Low Altithe Characteristics of Ejection at High Altitude Ejection Training Effect of Accelerations in a Parachute Jump Catapulting an Aircraft from the Deck of a Ship Effect of Acceleration During a Crash Landing Radial Accelerations Influence of Radial Accelerations on the Human Organism Limit of Toleration to Radial Acceleration Measures which Increase Resistance of the Organism to Radial Acceleration Angular Acceleration and Coriolis Acceleration

CHAPTER VIII. INFLUENCE ON THE PILOT'S BODY OF FLIGHTS UNDER DIFFICULT COMDITIONS Flights Under Difficult Meteorological Conditions Night Flights

CHAPTER IX. DIET OF THE FLIGHT CREW Physiological Significance of Food Substances Proteins Fats Carbohydrates

180 183 185 189 193 194 198 201 203 211 212 213 214 215 220 221 223 225 228 231 235 236 236 241 249 249 250 253 255

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Vitamins Mineral Substances and Water Assimilation of Food Substances and General Hygienic Requirements Details of Diet for Flight Crews Caloric Content and Food Composition Preflight Nourishment Feeding Schedule Aspects of Nutritional Hygiene at the Airfield Feeding Aboard the Aircraft Emergency Food Supply R e f e r en ces

257 267 270 270 271 272 275 278 278 281 283

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I I 111 I I . I, 1,111111 I I 11 1111.111111 1 I1 I ..I 11111

This book i s d ed ica ted t o th e p eo p le whowork i n a h e r o i c p r o f e s s i o n - So v ie tp i l o t s . ............ AuthorFOMWORD

Avia t io n medic ine i s a sp ec ia l b r an ch of g en e ra l medic in e , f i rmly l in k ed /3t o th e development of av ia t ion . The scope of th e s c i e n t i f i c and p r a c t i c a lproblems solved by th i s branch of medicine i s constan t ly expanding .

Thanks t o th e t i r e l e s s e f f o r t s of th e Communist Pa r t y and our government,th e Sov ie t Union has th e most advanced av ia t i on technology i n th e wor ld . Ourm i l i t a r y a v i a t i o n c o n s i s t s of j e t a i r c r a f t , s u p e rs o n i c p l a n es , r o ck e t- c ar r yi n gand al l-w eather plan es.

Modern f ig h t e r p l an es h av e f l i g h t sp eeds f a r i n ex cess o f th e sp eed o fsound, and t h e i r maximum f l i g h t al t i t u d e s exceed 30 km. It w a s i n ourc o un tr y t h a t t h e f i r s t s u pe r s o n ic p as s en ge r a i r c r a f t , t h e TU-144, r o s e i n t oth e a i r i n December, 1968. I t s c r u i s i n g f l i g h t s p e e d i s 2500 km/hr. Modernt r a n s p o r t j e t plan es have cr ui si ng speeds of 900 t o 1000 km/hr .

A ir cr af t capab le of v e r t i c a l takeof f and land ing have been des igned andb u i l t i n many c o u n t r i e s , as w e l l as a i r c r a f t w i th wing g eomet ri e s wh ich canb e a l t e r e d i n f l i g h t . S o vi e t p la ne s of t h i s t y pe w e r e d is pl ay ed a t t h ec e l e b r a t i o n of A i r Force Day a t Domodedovo Ai rp or t ne ar Moscow ( i n 19 67).

Fu r th e r improvement i n a i r c r a f t w i l l i n vo l ve i n c re a s i ng t h e a l t i t u d e ,speed , range and dura t ion of f l i g h t . The development o f av i a t io n technologyal so compl ica tes t he work ing condi t io ns of those persons who a r e invo lved i nf l y i n g them. F l i g h t s a bo ar d modern a i r c r a f t , e s p e c i a l l y u nd er d i f f i c u l tmeteoro log ica l c ondi t ion s and esp ec ia l l y under combat condi t ion s , p lac eco n s id e rab le s t r e s s on th e men ta l .an d p h ys ica1 p ower s o f t h e p i l o t . Th e re fo re ,

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t h e f l i g h t crew must be i n good he a l th , possess con side rab l e work inga b i l i t y and e nd ur an ce , r a p i d p e r c ep t i o n and r e a c t i o n , e m o ti o na l s t a b i l i t yan d s t r en g th o f w i l l . Sp ec ia l demands on t he ph ysic a l and neuropsycholog ica ls t a t e of t h e f l i g h t c r e w are d et er mi ne d b y t h e s p e c i f i c o p e r a t i o n a l c on d i t io n su n d er th e s t r o n g in f lu en ce o f co n tin uo u s f ac to r s o f th e ex t e r n a l env iron ment .

These f a c t o r s in c lu d e th e fo l lo wing : acc e le r a t io n , ch an ges i n a tmosp he r i c /4p ressu re an d a i r t emp eratu r e , r ed u ced p a r t i a l p r e ssu re o f o xy gen i n th ei n s p i r e d a i r , n o i s e a nd v i b r a t i o n , l on g p e r i o d s o f t i m e s p en t i n a f ix edpo si t i on and h igh -a l t i tud e equipment. All o f t h e s e f a c t o r s l a r g e l y d e te rm in eth e p rob lems of av ia t i on medic ine and th e t re nd of i t s a c t i v i t y , i nv ol ve d i np r e s e r v i n g t h e h e a l t h , w o r ki ng a b i l i t y a nd s a f e t y o f t h e f l i g h t s made by t h ec r e w .

Modern a v i a t io n med ic in e d e a l s w i th the fo l lo win g p r in c i p a l p ro blems:

I t provides a s c i e n t i f i c s o l u t i o n f o r t h e p h y s i ol o g i ca l a nd hy g ie n icp ro bl em s a f f e c t i n g f l i g h t o f a i r c r a f t of d i f f e r e n t t yp es i n o r d er t o i n s u r et h e most f a v o ra b l e w or ki ng c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e f l i g h t c r e w s ;

To g eth er wi th t h e en g in ee r s , i t works ou t e f fe c t iv e means o f re scuei n t he event t h a t d ang erou s s i t u a t i o n s a r i s e i n t h e a i r ;

I t i n s u r e s t h e m ed ic al s e l e c t i o n i n a v i a t i o n of cont ingen ts whichcor respond to requ i red h ea l t h s tandards and works ou t methods o f s e l ec t i on ;

I t performs the s t u d y of p r o f e s s i o n a l d i s e a s e s of i n d i v i d u a l s on f l i g h tc r e w s and a t t e n d s t o t h e i r p r ev e nt i on .

The p r i n c i p a l b r a nc h e s of a v i a t i o n m e di ci ne a re physio logy , hyg iene i nf l i g h t o p e r a t i o n s , a v i a t i o n p sy ch ol og y and m e d i c a l- p i l ot e x p e r t i s e .

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A strong indication of how various factors involved in flight influence the human organism and the necessary recommendations worked out by aviation medicine guarantee preserving high combat skill of the pilots and increasing the safety of flights. Therefore, the flight crew must be familiar with the basic outlines of aviation medicine.


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CHAPTER I

THE HISTORY O F AVIATION M E D IC I N E I N OUR COUNTRY

The b i r t h o f av i a t i o n med ic ine to ok p la ce d u r in g th e co n s t ru c t io n oft h e f i r s t f l y i n g m ac hi ne s. I n t h e dev elo pm ent of a e r o n a u t i c s and a v i a t i o n ,th e prob lem of th e e f f e c t o f v a r io u s f l ig h t f ac to r s o n th e human organ ism w a ss tu d ied con t inuously ( low tempera tures , p res sure decreases , la ck of oxygen,e t c . ) . Each new achievement i n ae ron aut ics and av ia t i on posed new problemsf o r medicine, making i t nec ess ary t o f i nd means and methods of el i mi na tin go r r e l i e v i n g t h e i n f l ue n c e o f t h e s e f a c t o r s on t h e p h y si c a l s t a t e an d h ea l thof th e people.

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I n R u ss i a, the s tu d y o f th e in f lu e n ce o f f l i g h t co n d i t io n s on th e humanorganism w a s begun by Academician Y a . D. Zakharov. I n accordance wi th th ei ns tr uc ti on s of th e Russian Academy of Scien ces, he made a f l i g h t i n ab a l lo o n o n 30 Ju n e 1 80 4. The f l i g h t l a s t ed more th an th r ee h o u r s , d u r in gwhich t i m e t h e b a ll o on r o se t o a n a l t i t u d e of a l i t t l e more than 2 0 0 0 m.During the f l i g h t , Zakharov made observa t ion s of th e weather a s w e l l a sc ha ng es i n h e a r in g , v i s i o n , a nd r e s p i r a t i o n .

The f i r s t R us s ia n d o c to r t o make f l i g h t s i n a b al l o o n was s t a f f d o c to rKashinskoy of th e Le for t Hospital ' ' ) . H e b u i l t t h e b a l l oo n hi m s el f , andascended i n i t from t h e Neskuchnvy Gardens i n Moscow on 2 4 September and1October 1805.

. . . . .

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Dr. Kashinskoy undoubtedly was aware of the cognitive value of the observations made by Ya. D. Zakharov during his flight and performed them himself. The data which he obtained were studied and evaluated by the medical community. It is claimed that the experience of Kashinskoy's flights later served as a basis for the participation of physicians in solving the problem of checking out pilots for flight.

The talented physicist, M. A . Rykachev, who began to make balloon flightsbeginning in 1868, along with meteorological observations, conducted tests ofvisibility and audibility in flight and also observed his own sensations.Rykachev was the first to enumerate the qual ties which must be possessed by aflier: "Controlling the balloon calls for the same qualities required of a sailor: rapidity of comprehension, self-control, retention of presence of mind, circumspection, attentiveness, nimbleness."

Many of the experiments performed and statements made by D. I. Mendeleyev are of considerable importance for aviation medicine in our country. Thus, in 1875, he was the first in the world to point out the necessity for having a hermetically sealed cabin when making flights into the higher layers of the atmosphere and worked out a system for a balloon with such a cabin. He also suggested compressing gas into steel cylinders, in which it could be stored and carried around. This method is used even today in the provision of oxygen supplies for flights. Mendeleyev also wrote about the need for a comfortablemotorized apparatus available to all. There is a basis for believing that itwas under the influence o f his ideas concerning "comfort" that the Russian airplane "Il'ya Muromets" (1914) became the first in the history of aviation tohave elementary hygenic comfort such as was not available on any foreign aircraft at the time. On 7 August 1887, Mendeleyev made a free flight in aballoon.

Other Russian scientists also made flights in balloons. Each such flight enriched science with new discoveries. It was not only the direct study of man under flight conditions which was important for the development of aviation 2


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medic in e , b u t a l so th e t e s t s which w e r e conducted i n the r e l a t e d b r a nc h e s ofmedic in e lo n g b e fo re th e co n s t ru c t io n o f the a i rp la n e an d even the bal loon .

I n t h e s ec on d h a l f o f t h e l a s t cen tu ry , when th e idea o f the conquest oft h e a i r became most popul ar , Russian do ct or s ca rr ie d ou t a number of th eo re t i c a l s t ud ie s which had an impor tan t in f lue nce on th e development o f a v i a t io nmadicine. Thus, f o r example, Doctor A . Kato l in sk iy p er fo rmed s ev e ra l p h ys io lo g i c a l and c l i n i c a l ex pe r im e nt s i n 1 862 in v o l v i ng t h e s t u d y of t h e e f f e c t o fraref ied and "compressed" a i r on th e human organ ism and prov ided l i t e r a t u r e ont h i s p roblem which w a s e x te n si v e f o r t h e t i m e . The o u t l i n e s of a "pneumoticchamber", the pro to ty pe of th e barochamber which w a s i n cl u d ed i n h i s w ork , i sof c o ns id e ra b le i n t e r e s t . I n a d di t io n , f u r t h e r s t u d i e s i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n w e r econducted by t he Russian doct ors , Smirnov (1866) , P. Kochanovskiy (1875) andL. N. Simonov (1876).

I n 1 87 3, th e famous R u ss ian t r a v e l l e r N . M . Przh ev a l ' sk iy ex p ressed th eo p in io n th a t t h e cau se o f a l t i t u d e s i ck n ess which d ev e lo p s d ur in g h ig h mou ntainclimbing i s o x y g en s t a rv a t io n .

In 1 8 7 5 , D r . N . Stroganov, stu dyi ng animals which had been placed i n ac lo sed sp ace , worked o n th e prob lem of r e sp i r a t io n and c i r cu la t i o n wi thp ro g ress iv e ly d ec reas in g o x y g en p re ssu re .

The experiments of M . Zhirmunskiy are of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t ; t h e i r r e s u l t sw e r e p ub li sh ed by him i n i t i a l l y i n a n a r t i c l e (1877) and th en i n h i s d i s se r t a t i o n "The In f lu en ce o f R a re f i ed A i r on t h e Human Organism".

However, t h e t h e o r e t i c a l f o u n da t io n o f a v i a t i o n m ed ic in e l i e s n o t on l y i nt h e s e w or ks , b u t a l s o l a r g e l y on t h e c l a s s i c a l wo rk s of I . P. Pavlov on th ephysio logy of c i rc u l a t io n (1874) and I . M. Sechenov on blood g as es (1857).

I n 1859, Sechenov w a s t h e f i r s t t o d e te rm i ne t h e c o m po si ti on and t h ec o n te n t o f g a se s i n t h e bl oo d a nd i n t h e a l v e o l a r a i r as a f u n c t i o n of t h e

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amount of oxygen in the inspired air. In addition, he drew a number of conclusions regarding the activity of various portions of the central nervous system under conditions of oxygen starvation. By using simple calculations, he was the first to show that the leading factor in difficulties which arise in the organism during ascent into rarefied atmospheres is the decrease in the partial pressure of oxygen in the alveolar air. Somewhat later, in 1880, he showed that respiration becomes impossible if the partial pressure of oxygen in the alveolar air drops below 14 mm of mercury.

The French physiologist, Paul Behr, determined experimentally that the I 8-principal cause of mountain and altitude sickness is the decrease in the partial pressure of oxygen in the surrounding atmosphere, and that the additional inspir ation of oxygen under conditions of a rarefied atmosphere will completely do away with its unfavorable influence. But he failed to study the composition of alveolar air in the lungs at all.

Physiologist V. V. Pashutin continued the work of I. M. Sechenov on aproblem that is of great importance to aviation medicine - the respiratoryfunction of the blood. In 1881, he was the first in Russia to carry out anumber of experiments involving the study of the influence of centrifugalforces on blood circulation. Similar studies were conducted by N. 0 . Tsybul'skiy(1879 - 1885), working in the laboratory of I. R. Tarkhanov.

The founder of cosmonautics, K. E. Tsiolkovskiy, performed experiments in1879 - 1878 which were intended to solve a number of problems related to theinfluence of acceleration on living organisms.

The work performed by the outstanding scientist V. I. Voyachek is fundamental to the study of the influence of accelerations on the vestibularapparatus in man. He developed a method of studying the vestibular apparatus(1909 - 1910).

Hence, the first experiments involving the study of the influence ofaccelerations on the animal and human organism in Russian medicine wereperformed long before the birth of aviation.4


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The' work of P. M. A l ' b i t s k i y i s e s p e c i a l l y i m p or t a nt f o r a v i a t i o n m e di ci ne ;i n 18 80 h e w a s t h e f i r s t t o work on a s tu d y of th e in f lu en ce o f p rolo ng edoxygen in s u f f i c i e n c y (up t o severa l days) on th e organism.

Doctor V. I . Grebenshchikov cor re la ted th e e x pe r ie n ce o f m ed ic al f l i g h ts a f e ty i n a bal loo n, which had been accumulated by the end of t h e l a s t c e nt ur y,a nd p r e s e n te d h i s f i n d i n g s a t a s e s s i o n of the a e r o n a u t i c a l b ra n ch o f t h eRussian Technica l Socie ty (1891) .

The f i r s t m ed ic al w ork er t o c a r ry o u t f l i g h t s i n a j o i n t a e r o n au t i c alo r g a n i z a t i o n w a s t h e m e di c al a s s i s t a n t Iv a n P e r f i l ' y e v ( 18 86 ).

I n August 1887, th e Main M il i t a r y Engineering Adminis t ra t io n , which super vi se d t h e Aer ona uti cal Command (founded i n 1885, and loc at ed a t Volkov Fi e l d i nS t . Pe te rs bu rg ) approached th e Main M i l i t a r y Medical Command w lt h a r e q u e s t t oname a f l i g h t d o c t o r t o p r o t e c t f l i g h t s . B eg in ni ng on 1 7 S ep te mb er 1887, t h e s e /9r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s f e l l t o t h e f or me r d o c to r o f t h e J a e g er R eg im en t, K a rp ys he v,who may th e re f o re b e co n s id e red t h e f i r s t R u ss i an av i a t io n d o c to r .

In 1 8 9 7 , a t t he I n s t r u ct i o n - A e ro n a u t i ca l P a rk , m i l i t a r y d o c t o r s , S . P. Muntw a s t h e f i r s t i n t h e w or ld t o be g in p h y s i o lo g i c a l and p s y ch o l og i ca l t e s t s ofa e ro n au ts i n f l i g h t u s i n g a sp ec ia l ly eq u ip p ed b a l lo o n . These experiments w e r every impor tan t fo r th e development o f av ia t i on medic ine .

An imp o r tan t r o l e i n th e so lu t i o n o f p rob lems of av ia t i o n med icin e wasa l s o p la y ed by c l i n i c a l s t u d i e s on t h e i n f l u e n c e o f h i g h - a l t i t u d e c o n d i t i o n s ont h e human organism.

The most i n t e r e s t i n g e xp er im en ts i n t h i s a r e a a r e t h e r e s u l t s of t h e pro longed obse rva tio ns made by t h e young physi cia n of t h e Second Turkesta nB a t t a l i o n , N. N. Tret 'y akov , ( f rom 1892 t o 1894) , on the co ndi t io ns o f a groupof s u b je c t s ( 11 0 p e r so n s ) l i v i n g a t a h e ig h t o f 3500 m.

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I n a d d it i on , im p o rt an t i n f o rm a t ion f o r av i a t i o n m edic in e r eg a r d in g t h ein f lu ence on t he human organism of r a re f i ed a i r w a s o b ta i ne d i n S o vi e t t i m e s(1930's ) i n a number of complex Elbrus and Pamir ex pe di ti on s organ ized by t h eAcademy of Sciences of the USSR, t h e S. M. Kir ov Mil itar y-M edic al Academy, th eAll -Union I n s t i t u t e o f Experimenta l Medic ine and the I n s t i t u t e of N u t r i t io n asw e l l as o t he r i n s t i t u t e s . The r e s u l t s o f t h e s e ex pe r im ent s , p u b l is h ed i n t h ework of G. Y e . Vladimirov, G. G. Gazenko, A. P. Zhukov, A. N. Kres tovnikov,N. N. S i r o t i n i n and o t h e r S o v ie t s c i e n t i s t s , s up pl em en t t h e d a t a o b t ai n edu nd er co n d i t i o n s o f l ab o r a to r y ( i n b ar ochamb er s) and n a t u r a l ( i n - f l i g h t )exper iments .

The o f f i c i a l d a t e o f t h e s t a r t of Russ ian av ia t i on medicine may be cons id e red t o b e 14 Ju ly 1909, when th e cou nci l of th e All-Russ ian Aeroclub decidedon a compulsory medical examination of a l l p i l o t s .

I n 1 9 1 1 , t h e f i r s t e x p e rt o r de r f o r t h e m i l i t a r y d ep ar tm en t, No. 481 , w a si s sued ; i t es ta b l i s he d the annual r e -examina t ion of t h e s t a t e of h ea l t h o fp i l o t s on s p e c i a l co mm is sion s and l i s t e d t h e d i s e a s e s and p h y s i ca l d e f i c i e n c i e swhich would pre clu de service as a p i l o t .

I t w a s a pp ro xi ma te ly a t t h i s t i m e (1910) t h a t very t ime ly exper iments i n /10t h e f i e l d o f a v i a t i o n m ed ic in e w e r e performed. These in cl ud e t h e work ofV . N. Okunev on the in f luenc e o f f l i g h t on the o rgan o f hear in g and those ofS . Gruzon o n t h e p h y s io lo g i ca l r e a c t i o n s t o h e ig h t , e t c .

Russian a v i a ti o n medicine e nte red World War I w i t h co n s id e r ab l e ex p e ri en cei n t h e med ica l s a f e t y of f l i g h t s a n d t h e d ev elop ment of m edical and f l i g h texpertise. However, c rea t ive medical thought was seve rel y re ta rde d a t th e beg inn ing o f t he w a r as f a r as i t s development w a s concerned, p r im ar i ly due t oa l a c k o f s p e c i a l i s t s - av ia t i on phys ic ians . From 1914 t o 1918 , on ly th re eworks were p u bl i sh e d w hich d e a l t w i t h p i l o t a c t i v i t y ( E . I . Dombrovskiy andN. Kostyamin, 1915, A. N. Sokolov, 1917).

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A ft er World War I, s p e c i a l i n s t i t u t e s a nd l a b o r a t o r i e s o f a v i a t i o n m ed ic in ew e r e founded i n many cou nt r ies , and th e l e a d i n g p h y s i o l o g i s t s , h y g i e n i s t s , andpsyc holo gis t s worked i n them.

I n o u r c o u n t r y , a v i a t i o n m e di c in e b eg an t o d e ve l op r a p i d l y o n l y d u r i n gt h e y e a rs of Soviet power. A s e a r l y as th e end of 1917, a specia l commiss iont o s t u d y t h e work o f p i l o t s w a s founded i n S t . P e te r sbu rg a t t h e M i l i t a r y -Medical Soc ie ty of th e Mil i tary-M edical Academy (Chairman- p s y c h i a t r i s t andP r o f e s s o r V. P. Osipov). A p ro m in en t r o l e i n t h e d ev el op me nt o f a v i a t i o nmedic ine w a s played by S. Y e . Mints (1889 - 1925). Working from 1919 t o 1924as t h e head doc to r o f the Moscow Aviation School, he s t u d i e d t h e c o n d i t io n so f f l i g h t d u r a t io n and c a r r i e d o n a c t i v e s c i e n t i f i c research work. I n June of1921, a t th e Four th Al l -Russ ian Congress of A i r Travel , S. Y e . Mint s , g iv ing ap a pe r o n t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f the w or ki ng a b i l i t y and h e a l t h o f th e p i l o t s ,proposed the e s ta b l is h m e nt o f p s yc h ot ec h ni ca l l a b o r a t o r i e s i n f l i g h t s c h o ol s .The p rob lems t hey d e a l t w i th i nc luded t h e s t udy o f working co nd i t i o ns and thei n d i vi d u a l q u a l i t i e s o f p i l o t s .

In acco rdance w i t h the proposa l o f S . Y e . Mints , the o r d e r s o f t h eRevolu t ionary Mi l i t ary Sovie t Numbers 837 and 8 7 4 i n 192 4 e s t a b l is h e d t h eC e n t ra l P sychophys io log i ca l Labora to ry fo r t h e S tudy o f Mi l it a ry -Ai r S e rv i ce -11( on t h e b a s i s o f t he s choo l l ab o ra to ry o f Min t s , wh ich w a s a l r e a d y a t w or k) .I t s head was N . M . D o b ro t vo r sk i y, w h i l e h i s a s s i s t a n t and t h e head o f t h emedical-pilot commission w a s S . Y e . Mints .

It w a s i n t h i s l a b o r a t or y t h a t t h e o u t st a n di n g S o v ie t a v i a t i o n p h y si c ia n sV . V . Andreyev, A . V . Lebedinsk iy , A . P. Apollonov, Yu. A. Vasi l yev , P . I.Yegorov, N . A. Vishnevskiy , G. G. Kul ikovskiy , V. G. Mirolyubov, I . K .Sobennikov, V . V. S t r e l t s o v and o t h e r s beg an t h e i r a c t i v i t y .

T h e c o l l e c t i v e of workers a t the l abo r a to ry ceased t o app ly t h e psycho-t e ch n i ca l me thods i n t roduced by s. Y e . M i nt s f o r s e l e c t i o n of c a n d i d a t e s f o rf l i g h t s c h o o l s and was o cc u pi e d w i t h t h e s tu d y o f t h e f u n c t i o n s o f

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I I I I I I I

ana lyze r s ( s ense o rgans ) w h i c h p l a y a n i m po r ta n t r o l e i n the p i l o t ' s p r o f e s s i o n .A t t h e same t i m e , the l a b o r a t o r y s t u d i e d the c ha ng es i n t h e c a r d i o v a s c u l a r andre sp i r a t o r y syst ems i n p i l o t s and phenomena o f f a t i gu e , deve loped p roposa l sf o r mo de rn iz in g f l i g h t s u i t s a nd t h e p i l o t ' s w or ki ng area i n the a i r c r a f t , anda l s o s t ud i e d the i mp or ta nc e o f t h e p e r so n a l f a c t o r i n a v i a t i o n a c c i d e n t s. Animpor t an t i n f l ue nce on t he developmen t o f S ov i e t av i a t i on med ic ine w a s e x e r t e dby N. M. Dobrotvorsk iy . H i s book e n t i t l e d "Letnyy Trud" (F l i gh t Labor) ,p u b l is h e d i n 1 9 30 , w a s the f i r s t S o v i e t h andbook o n a v i a t i o n m e di ci ne . I t i sof i n t e r e s t to some de gre e even today. For severa l year s , Dobro tvo r sk iyl e c t u r e d o n a v i a t i o n m e d ic in e a t t h e N . Y e . Zhukovskiy Mili tary -Me dica l Academy.I t i s i m po r ta n t t o n o t e t h a t i n t h o s e d ay s n o t a s i n g l e on e o f t h e m i l i t a r ya v i a t i o n t e ac h in g i n s t i t u t i o n s i n Europe o r A m e r i c a w a s g iv ing cou rses ona v i a t i o n m e di ci ne .

I n 1 93 0, the C en t ra l P sychophys io log i ca l Labora to ry was r eo rgan i zed i n tot h e a v i a t i o n s e c t o r o f the S c i e n t i f i c Re se ar ch S a n i t a r y I n s t i t u t e of t h eWor kers' and P ea sa n ts ' Red Army. The head of the s e c t o r w a s th e young e nerg e t i c s c i e n t i s t , V. V . S tr e l ' t s o v (1931) , who had done a g r ea t d e a l i n t h ef i e l d o f a v i a t i o n m e di ci ne . U si ng as a bas i s t he t each ings o f Academic i anI . P . P av lov rega rd ing h igher ne rvous ac t i v i t y and t h e evo lu t i ona ry -phys io lo g ic a l concept of Academician L. A . O r b e l i , h e t oo k a new approach t o th es o l u t i o n o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t pr ob le ms i n a v i a t i o n m e d ic i ne , e s p e c i a l l y t h ep ro ble m of h i g h a l t i t u d e t r a i n i n g .

I n 1930, ex t e ns ive exper imen ta l work began t o be pe rfo rmed i n ou r coun t ryi n t he barochamber on t h e s t udy of t h e i n f l uen ce o f a l t i t u d e on t he humanorganism, the development of methods o f ba rochamber t r a i n in g and t e s t i n g oft h e f i r s t oxygen a p p a r a t u s . I n 1 93 2, V. V. S t r e l ' t s o v w a s t he f i r s t i n t h eUSSR t o make an "ascen t" i n a barochamber t o a he ig ht of 13 ,000 m. On h i si n i t i a t i v e , massive c o n s t r u c t i o n o f b ar oc ha mb er s f o r h i g h a l t i t u d e t r a i n i n g o ff l i g h t crews w a s organ i zed . Phy sio log ica l ap pro bat ion and improvement ofoxygen dev i ces i n t h e pe r i od f rom 1931 t o 1954 w a s accomplished by a le ad in gs p e c i a l i s t i n t h i s f i e l d , A . P. Apollonov.

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I n c o n ju n c ti o n with the r ap id d eve lo pmen t of av ia t i o n i n 1935, o n t h eb a se o f t h e a v i a t i o n s e c t o r of t h e S c i e n t i f i c R e se ar ch S an i t a ry I n s t i t u t e ,t h e S c i e n t i f i c Research S a n i ta r y I n s t i t u t e of the Pe opl e 's Commissar iat ofDefense was founded, which had sh or t l y th er ea f t e r rece i ved th e name ofAcademician I. P. P avl ov . T hi s i n s t i t u t e d e a l t w i t h studying numerous problemsof av ia t i on physio logy and hygiene . O ut st an di ng s p e c i a l i s t s i n t h e f i e l d o fa v i a t i o n m ed ic in e p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e work of the i n s t i t u t e : D . Y e . Rozenblyum,V. V. S t r e l ' t s o v , A . P. Popov, V. A . Spassk iy , V . G. Mirolyubov, P. K. I sakov ,0 . G. Gazenko, A . M . Genin, D. I . Ivanov, I . Y a . Borshchevskiy, V . V . Levashovand o thers .

The departments of the S. M . Kirov M il i t a r y Medica l Academy a l so d ea l twi th p roblems of av ia t i on medicine i n the p re-war yea rs ; they w e r e l ed b yL. A. Orb e l i , V . I . Voyachek, K . L. Khilov , M . P . B res tk in , G . Y e . Vladimirov,M. I . Arink in , I . R . P e t r o v , P. I . Yegorov.

Thanks t o t h e d e t a i l e d s t u d i e s c a r r i e d o u t by S o v i e t p h y s i o l o g i s t s ,h y g i e n i s t s , p s y c h o l og i s t s a nd p r a c t i c a l a v i a t i o n d o c t o r s , o ur a v i a t i o n m e di ci nehad a c q u ir ed c o n s i de r ab l e s c i e n t i f i c d a t a p r i o r t o t h e o u tb re a k of World War I1and o r g a ni z e d m e di ca l f l i g h t s a f e t y on t h i s b a s i s , k e e p i n g i t a t a highs c i e n t i f i c l e v e l .

During World War 11, a p p ro p ri a te s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h s e c t i o n s d e a l t w i t ha w i d e range of problems of av ia t i on medic ine which had main ly th eo re t i ca l ande s p e c i a l l y p r a c t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e .

During the postwar per iod , th e s co pe of s c i e n t i f i c s t u d i e s i n the f i e l d /13of av ia t i on medic ine has undergone conside rab le expansion .

Avia t ion medic ine , based on the achievemen t s o f So v ie t m a t e r i a l i s tphysiology and biology, i s suc ces sfu l ly so l v in g prob lems which a re posed bya v i a t i o n s c i e n ce and p r a c t i c e .

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CHAPTER I1 A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

S t ru c t u r e of t h e Atmosphere

The globe i s surrounde d by a n envelope of a i r c a l l e d t h e a t mo sp he re . 14S t u d i e s co nd uc te d w i t h ra d i os o n d es , r o c k e t s , a nd a r t i f i c i a l E a r t h s a t e l l i t e shave p rov ided ex t ens ive i n fo rmat ion r ega rd ing the changes i n t h e composi ti ono f t h e at mo sp he re w i t h a l t i t u d e , i t s d e n s i t y , t e m p e r a t u r e , e l e c t r i c a l s t a t eand s o on. A t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , the a tmosphere i s c o n d i t i o n a l l y d i v id e d ont h e b a s i s of t h e c ha nge i n t e mp er at ur e w i th a l t i t u d e i n t o f i v e p r i n c i p a l l a y e r s(F igure 1): the t roposphere , s t ra to sp he re , mesosphere, thermosphere andexosphere.

The t roposphere i s t h e l owes t and dens es t l a ye r o f t h e Ear th ' s a tmosphere .I t s t h i cknes s i s n o t t h e s a m e over a l l p a r t s of the globe: I t i s 1 0 t o 1 2 15k i lomete r s a t m i d d l e l a t i t u d e s , 7 t o 10 km above t he po l es , and 1 6 - 18 kmabove th e Equator .

The p r i n c i p a l m a s s of the a i r and p r a c t i c a l l y a l l of t h e w a t e r vapor i sc o n c en t r at e d i n th e t roposphere . A c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e of the t ropospherei s t h e d e c r e a s e of t e m p er a t ur e and a t mo s ph e ri c m o i s t u r e w i t h a l t i t u d e , as w e l las t h e p resence of r i s i n g and descend ing cu r re n t s and the condensat ion ofwater vapor. I n t h i s l a ye r of a tmosphere, c l ouds and fogs a r e fo rmed , p re c ip i t a t i o n f a l l s ( r a i n , snow), thunders torms develop , the humidi ty i s c o n s t a n t l ychanging, as w e l l as t h e p res su re and t empera tu re , i . e . , a l l of t h e phenomenawhich govern t he weather .

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s o q Exosphere I

Fig u re 1. Diagram of v e r t i c a ls t r u c t u r e of atmosphere.

The co nd i t io na l boundary be tweenthe t roposphere and the s t r a t o s p h e r ei s assumed t o b e the a l t i t u d e a b o v esea l e v e l a t which a f u r t h e r d e c r e a s ei n t e m pe r at u re ceases. There i s a nin te rme dia t e laye r be tween them ca l le dth e t ropopause , f rom 1 t o 3 km i nt h ic k ne s s . I n t h i s l a y e r , t h e t em pe ra t u r e o f t h e a i r may in cr ea se o r remainconsta n t . The he ig h t o f th e t ropopausei s n o t co n s tan t . It var ies dependingon the t i m e of year ; i t i s h i gh e r i nsummer than i n win ter . The d i ur na lv a r i a t i o n s i n t h e h ei g ht of t h e t r o p o p au se a r e a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t . I n ad d it i on ,t h e h e i g h t of the t ropopause i sdependent on t he na t ur e o f the developin g a tmospheric p rocess es : above t heareas wi th lo w a i r p ressu re ( cy c lo n es )the t ropopause i s lower, w hile abovea reas wi th h ig h p re ssu re ( an t i cy c lo n es )i t i s h ig h e r .

T h e s t r a t o s p h e r e i s th e l a y e r o f the atmosphere which l i e s above thet ro p o sp h e re and ex ten d s up t o an a l t i t u d e of 50 t o 60 km. T h e s t r a t o s p h e r e i sc h a r a c t e r i z e d by a c o n s id e r a b le r a r e f a c t i o n of the a i r , n e g l i g i b l e m o i st u re ,almost complete absence of clouds, a h ig h l e v e l of u l t r a v i o l e t r a d i a t i on ,absence of du st of t e r r e s t r i a l o r i g i n , c o ns t an t d i r e c t i o n of main a i r c u r r e n t s ,and an a t te nu at io n of a tmospher ic tu rbu le nce . Somet imes nacreous c louds a reobserved here .

The t e mp e ra t ur e ch an ge s s l i g h t l y i n t h e s t r a t o s p h e r e up t o a l t i t u d e s o f25 t o 30 k m , b u t t h e n i n c r e a s e s g r a d u al l y . T h e p r i n c i p a l r e as o n f o r the temperat u r e i n c r e a s e i s t h e f a c t t h a t o z o n e h a s i t s maximum co nc en tr at io n i n th e upper

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p a r t o f th e s t r a t o s p h e r e . I n m id dl e l a t i t u d e s , the tempera ture a t the upperl i m i t of t h e s t r a t o s p h e r e i s e q u a l t o -11 t o - 12"C , o n th e av e rag e .

The mesosphere i s the a tmo sp h e ri c l ay e r wh ich i s l o c a t e d a t a l t i t u d e sfrom 50 t o 60 t o 80 t o 90 km. I n this l a y e r , the t emp era tu r e d ec reases w i t hi n c r e a s i n g a l t i t u d e f rom v a lu e s c l o s e t o 0" C t o -80 t o -90" C . T h i s i s whereargen tous c louds are observed.

The mesosphere i s sep a ra ted fr om t h e s t r a t o s p h e r e b y a n i n t e r m e d i a t e l a y e rc a l l e d t h e s t r a t o p a u s e .

The thermosphere i s the a tmo sp h e ri c l ay e r wh ich exten ds f ro m an a l t i t u d e /16of 80 t o 90 km t o a p pr o xi m at e ly 800 km . I n t h i s l a y e r , t e m p er a tu r e i n c r e a s e sr a p i d l y w i t h in c re a s in g a l t i t u d e . O b s e r v a t i o n s i n d i c a t e tha t a t 300 t o 400 kmi t can reach 1,000" C and more(2). A u ro ra s a r e f r e q u e n t l y o bs er ve d i n t h i sl a y e r .

The boundary between t h e mesosphere and t h e therm osphere i s c a l l e d themesopause.

Above t h e thermosp here i s t h e ex osp h e re , o r the s p h er e o f s c a t t e r i n g . I nt h i s l a y e r , t h e g as es a r e so r a r i f i e d t h a t t h e i r p a r t i c l e s a r e lo ca te d a t g r e a td i s t an ce s f rom one ano th er . The r a t e s o f movement o f gas molecu les i n thes c a t t e r i n g s ph e re a r e s o g r ea t th a t t h e mo lecu le s so me times ove rcome t h e Ea r th ' sg r a v i t a t i o n and f l y o u t i n t o i n t e r p l a n e t a r y s p ac e . Thus , t h e r e i s , a l e ak ag eof g ases in to o u te r sp ace wh ich t ak es p lace v e ry s lo wly b u t co n t in u o us ly . I ti s t h e p a r t i c l e s of t h e l i g h t g a se s w hic h a re s c a t t e r e d most i n t h i s f a sh i o n-hydrogen, hel ium, neon. The exosphere does no t have a de f i n i t e upper l i m i t ,s i n c e i t g r a d u a l ly m erg es w i t h i n t e r p l a n e t a r y s p a c e. On t h e b a s i s o f s c i e n t i f i cd a t a o b t ai n ed i n r e c e n t y e a r s , w e can say rou g h ly t h a t i t e x t en d s t o a na l t i t u d e of about 3,000 km.

. ~~ . . . . . . . . . - - . . -.. . . ~-(2 )D ue t o t h e h i g h r a r e f a c t i o n o f t h e a i r , t h e t emp era tu r e of the medium here

i s p u re l y c o n d i t i o na l and c h a r a c t e r i z e s on ly t h e v e l o c i t y o f i n d i v i d u a lmolecu les .

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T h e ' e n t i r e mass of a tmospher ic a i r is d i s t r i b u t e d as fo l lows: approx i mate ly 80% i s i n the t roposphere , about 20% i n the s t r a t o s p h e r e , no more than0.3% i n t h e meso sp he re , an d l ess than 0.05% i n t he thermosphere and exosphere .

On t h e b a s i s o f e l e c t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s , i . e . , t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of e l e c t r i c a l l y ch arged p a r t i c l e s th ro ug h th e a tmo sph e re ( io n s ) , w e c an d i v i d e t h ea tmo sph e re i n t o the n eu t ro sp h e re and t h e io n o sp h e re (F ig u re 1). I o n i z a t i o nt a k e s p l a c e as t h e r e s u l t of t h e a c t i o n o f s o l a r and c os mic r a d i a t i o n onmole cule s and atoms of gas es which make up t h e a i r . When th e de ns it y of t h ea i r i s s t i l l r a t h e r h i g h, th e c o l l i s i o n o f g as p a r t i c l e s c a rr y in g p o s i t i v e andneg at i ve charges fo rms uncharged or neu t r a l molecu les and atoms. This p ro- 17cess t a k e s p l a c e a t a l t i t u d e s up t o 80 t o 100 km. The la ye r o f th e atmospherefn w hich t h e n e u t r a l p a r t i c l e s are formed i s c a l l e d the neutrosphere .

A t a l t i t u d e s a b o v e 1 0 0 km , where the a i r i s h i gh l y r a r e f i e d , c o l l i s i o n sof gas p ar t i c le s tak e p lace much more ra re ly , and many p a r t i c l e s r e t a i n t h e i rcharges . Th is area of t he a tmosphere i s c a l l e d t.he i o n osp h e re . The p r in c i p a lf e a t u r e of the ionosphere i s t h e i n c r e a s ed c o n t a c t o f i o n s and f r e e e l e c t r o n si n t h e medium as w e l l a s t h e hi g h e l e c t r i c a l c o n du c t iv i ty of t h e a i r i n t h i sl a y e r . T he p r in c i p a l io n i za t i o n maximum i s l o c a t e d a t a n a l t i t u d e of approximately 300 km.

Composition of Atmospheric Air

Atmospheric a i r i s a p h y s i c a l m i xt u re o f d i f f e r e n t g a se s . It c o n t a i n st h e f o l lo w i ng : n i t r o g e n (78.08% of t h e t o t a l volume), oxygen (20.95%), argon(0.93%), carb on di ox id e (0.03%) hydrogen (0.005%), neon (0.0018%), helium(0.00015%), a s w e l l as t r aces of k ryp ton and xenon . Thanks t o th e con sta n tmovement of t h e a i r , t .h is gas composi t ion i s r e t a i n e d up t o a n a l t i t u d e o fapprox imate ly 110 km.

The l ay e r o f th e a tmo sph e re wi th a co n s tan t g as co mp o s i t io n i s c a l l e dt he homosphere. Above th e homosphere, th e gas molecules b reak down i n t o atoms,

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I l l 1 I l l I I

and there i s s t r a t i f i c a t i o n of the gases under t h e i n f l u en ce of g r av i t y . Heret h e a i r becomes a mixture of vary ing composi t ion. T h i s l a ye r of th e a tmospherei s ca l l e d t h e h e t e r o s p h e re .

There i s a l so an ozonosphere , a l a y e r o f the atmosphere which i s l o ca t eda t a l t i t u d e s f r o m 20 t o 70 k m and i s r i c h i n ozone.

I t h as b een e s t ab l i s h ed i n r e c e n t y e a r s t h a t a t a l t i t u d e s f r o m 100 t o 200km the ionosphere co ns i s t s of ions o f oxygen ( 0 2 f ) , n i t r o u s o x i d e (NO+), andatomic oxygen ( W ) . Beginning a t a l t i t u d e s of 1 40 t o 160 km, predominat ion ofa tomic oxygen ions beg i ns , whi le above a l t i tu de s o f 200 t o 250 t o 1,000 km t h eionosphere co ns is ts a lmost completely of a tomic oxygen ( M I . Beginning a t ah e ig h t o f 500 km, i ns ig ni f i ca n t amounts of ion s of a tomic ni t ro ge n (N+) arefound i n th e ionosphere .

The a i r a lw ays co n t a in s m o i s tu r e i n th e form of w a t e r vapor (about 1%y /18volume ). Depending on the c l imat ic zone and the t i m e of year , the amount ofwater vapor i n the a i r can vary i n volume from 0.01% t o 4% . Water which i sevapora ted from the su r fa ce o f the oceans , seas , r i v e r s , l a k e s , and t h e s o i len te rs t he a tmosphere . The atmosphere a lways con tai ns more than 10,000 b i l l i o ntons o f w a t e r i n the fo rm of vapor . Condensa t ion o f wate r vapor l eads t o theformation of c louds and pr ec ip i t a t io n. Hence, t he re i s a c o n s t a n t c i r c u l a t i o nof w a t e r g oing o n i n n a tu r e .

The amount of w a t e r vapor which determines the degree of humidity of t h ea i r depends p r ima r i ly on th e tempera tu re o f th e a i r . Usual ly , the h igher thea i r t em p er a tur e u nd er s p e c i f i c co n d i t i o n s , the g r ea te r t he amount of watervapor which i t can hold .

Such values as ab s o l u t e and r e l a t i v e h u m id i ty a re u se d t o c h a r a c t e r i z ethe mois tu re o f the a i r .

The abs o lu te h imi d i ty o f the a i r is the amount of w a t e r vapor ( i n grams)con ta ined i n one cub ic m e t e r of a i r . A t a s p e c i f i c t e m p e r a t u r e , t h e a i r14


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w i l l c o n t a i n o n l y a ce r t a i n amount of w a t e r vapor. Air w5th a m a x i m c o n t e n tof w a t e r vapor is c a l l e d s a t u r at e d . Ln &e equatorial zone, a b s o l u t e b n & i t yr eaches abou t 20 g / m3; a t middle lati-es 5n summer it. reaches 5 t o 7 g/m3,w h i l e i n w in te r d u r k g severe frosts Zt can be: l e s s than P g / m3.

Relat ive humi&ty of the a5r is the r a t i o O B th e amount of w a t e r vapor i nthe a i r a t a g5vi-s "ent t o the m a x i m poss ib le amount a t t h a t t e m p e r a t u r e .ReEatZve huimdldfty of the & is e x pr e ss e d i n p e r c e n t .

The a " t oh water v a po r i n the air decreases w i t h a l t i t u d e . T hus, a ta EreiLghlt of 1.5 t o 2 km, i t i s o n l y h a l f Cand a t 5 km - 1/10 h ) as much as a tsea level!, The r e la t iv e humidi ty of t h e zone of c l oud fo rmat ion r eaches 100%.

The p r i n c i p a l m a s s of t he wa t e r vapo r i s c o n ce n t ra t e d i n t h e l ow e st l a y e rof th e a tmosphere , whose th ick nes s i s L O - 1 2 km.

Ozone i s formed i n t h e s t r a t o s p h e r e as a r e s u l t o f d i s a s s o c i a t i o n o fa x y g e m m o le c ul es u n de r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f u l t r a v i o l e t r a d i a t i o n from t h e S un andc " L c rays. I n t h e l ow e r l a y e r s o f the a tmosphere , a s m a l l amount of ozo ne i sformed dur ing l igb tm ing d i sc har ges . Ozone i s found i n t he a tmosphere i n ascat tered s ta te in . a l a y e r which ex t ends app rox imate ly up t o a n a l t i t u d e of 19TO km. If a l l af rhe ozone cont a ined i n the atmosphere w e r e c o n c e n t r a t e d ( a ta pressure of 7 6 0 mm Eg and a t empera tu re of 0" C)% a layer measuring no morethan 3 mm t h i ck m d d b e o bt a ine d.

The p r i n c i p a l q u a n t i t y o f ozone i s concen t ra t ed a t he igh t s f rom 20 t o60 km, a d fts ma- c o n c e n t r a t i o n (O.OQUQQ4Z by volume) i s found a t h e i g h t sfrom 45 to 55 knr.

T h e r o l e of ozone i n the a tmosphere , r ega rd l es s of its n e g l i g i b l e q u a n t it y ,is ex t remely impor t an t . It a b s o r b s t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e u l t r a v i o l e t rays frontth e Sun which have wavelengths less than 290 mi l l im ic rons and have an extremelypronounced b io log i ca l e f f e c t , as w e l l as a ce r t a i n amount of v i s i b l e andi n f r a r e d r a y s .

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The amount of ozo ne i n th e a i r changes w i t h l a t i t u d e a nd t i m e o f y e a r .The minimum i s a t the Equator and the maximum i n the p o l a r r e g i o ns . As f a r ast h e t i m e of year i s concerned, th e maximum ozone con ten t o ccu rs i n spr i ng , andt h e minimum i n autumn.

Man can wi ths tand an ozone concen t ra t ion i n the a i r e qu al t o 0.0001 mg/z.H ig he r co n c en t ra t io n s c a u s e i r r i t a t i o n of th e u p p e r r e s p i r a t o r y t r a c t s andlungs .

Rubber i s dest royed and metals are co n s id e rab ly co r ro d ed a t ozone concent ra t io ns o f thousandths and hundred ths o f a p e rcen t .

Carbon dioxide i s formed a t t h e E a r t h 's s u r f a c e as a r e s u l t o f t h e v i t a la c t i v i t y of a n i m al s , b a c t e r i a , and t o some e x t e n t p l a n t s , as w e l l as on burn ingand decay. The co nt en t of t h i s gas i n t he a i r var ies and depends on l o c a l cond i t i o n s . Due t o t h e v e r t i c a l movement of t h e a i r , th e amount of carbon d iox ideremains the same up t o a l t i t u d e s o f 20 km as a t th e Earth 's s u r f a c e . There i snone above tha t . It i s b e l i e v e d t h a t i t disap pears due to photochemica ldecomposit ion.

C arbon d i o x i d e p l a y s a n i m p o r t an t r o l e i n the r e g u l a t i o n o f the thermalreg ime of th e lower la ye rs o f th e a tmosphere ; i t i n t e n s e l y ab so rb s th e long-waver a d i a t i o n , so t h a t t h e a i r i s heated .

The a tmo sp h e re a l so co n ta in s a s m a l l amount o f suspend ed so l i d p a r t i c l e si n t h e fo rm o f d u s t o f i n o r g a ni c and o r ga n i c o r i g i n . T h i s d u s t e n t e r s t h e 20a tmosphere f rom th e Ear th ' s su r fa ce . Most of t h e d u s t i s a t t h e E ar t h ' s s u r f a ce .The amount decreases w i t h a l t i t u d e . A t a l t i t u d e s of 7 t o 8 km, there i s a lmostno du st of t e r r e s t r i a l o r i g i n ( T a b l e 1).

I n the u p p e r l ay e r s of the atmosphere, w e f i n d v o l c a n i c d u s t as w e l l ascosmic and meteor dust, which comes i n from in t e r p la n e ta r y sp ace an d fo rms asa result of breakdown of meteors.

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--

TABLE 1_ _ ~~ .-. - -

Height abovesea l eve l , m 10 1000 2000 3000 4000 7000

- - . ~ ._ PNumber of dust

p a r t i c l e s ,1 cm3 of a i r 45 $000 6000 700 200 100 5 0 20

-~__Weight and Pre.sEure o f Atmospheric A i r

T h e atmospher ic a i r , l i k e any s u b s t a n c e , ha? weight . A t sea l e v e l , a t at emperature of 0" C and a p r e s s u r e of 760 mm Hg, one cu bi c meter o f d r y a i rweighs 1293 g; a t a n a l t i t u d e of 1 2 !a i t weighs 319 g, while a t 40 km i tweighs a t o t a l of 4 g ( a t s t andard t empera tu re ) .

The m a s s of a i r l o c a t e d a bo ve th e s u r f a c e of t h e E a r th i s a t t r a c t e d t o w a r di t s c e n t e r , p r od u ci ng p r e s s u r e b o t h on the Earth ' s su r fa ce and on any ob j ec twhich i s l o c a t e d on t h i s s u r f a c e and i n t h e a i r . T h is p r e ss u re i s c a l l e d 2atmospher ic . A t sea l e v e l , a tmospher i c p res su re i s equa l t o 1 .033 kgf /cm .

The weight of a column of a i r whose height i s e q u a l t o t h e h e i g ht o f theEa rt h 's atmosphere and measures 1 cm 2 a t t h e ba se a t 0" C and i s a t a l a t i t u d eof 45" would be equ a l t o t h e we ight o f a column of mercury 760 mm h i g h w i t ht h e same base area and under the same con di t i ons . Atmospher ic (baromet r ic )p r e s s u r e i s u s u a l l y e x p r es se d i n m i l l i m e t e r s of a mercury column. Thus, a tsea l eve l atmospher ic (ba romet r ic) p re ssu re would be equ al t o 760 mm Hg. A tv a r i o u s l o c a t i o n s , a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s o f y e a r a nd i n d i f f e r e n t k in d s ofweather , i t w i l l change . The ex treme va lue s fo r ba romet r i c p res su r e t h a t havebeen reco rded t hus f a r a r e 680 and 802 mm Hg.

17

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The t o t a l a t m os p he ri c p r e s s u r e i s made up of the p a r t i a l p re s su re s of t h egases t ha t make u p th e a i r . 21

The p a r t i a l p r e s s u r e of a gas i s the f r a c t i o n of t h e p r e s s u re of a givengas i n t h e t o t a l p r es s ur e of a gas mix ture , i . e . , th e p r e s s u r e w hi ch t h e g a sw ould h av e i n t h e e v e n t t h a t i t a lo n e f i l l e d t h e e n t i r e volume occupied byt h i s m i x t u r e .

A s a l t i t u d e i n c r e a s e s , t h e t o t a l ba ro m et ri c p r e s s u r e d ro p s, so s i n c e t h e r ei s a d e c r e a s e i n t h e h e i g h t of t h e column of a i r and t h e d e n s i t y o f t h e a i r .

I f w e assume t h a t t h e t o t a l b a ro m e tr i c p r e s s u r e of the a i r a t the s u r f a c eof t h e E a r th t o b e u n i t y (1 a tm o sp h er e) , t h e c ha ng e i n t h i s p r e s s u r e w i t hc ha ng in g a l t i t u d e w i l l b e c h a r a c te r i z ed b y t h e d a t a g i v en i n Ta bl e 2 .

TABLE 2

Al t i t u d e , km 0 16 32 48 6 4 80 96P r e s s u r e , a t m 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001 0.00001 0.000001

With a d e c re a s e i n the t o t a l b a ro m et ri c p r e s s u r e with i n c r e a s i n g a l t i t u d e ,t h e r e i s a co r r e sp on d in g d ec rease i n th e p a r t i a l p r e s s u re of th e gases whichgo t o make up t h e a i r . I f w e know t h e t o t a l b a ro m e t r i c p r e s s u r e a t a givena l t i t u d e , a n d the p e r c e n t i l e c o n te n t o f g a s e s, w e can de termine th e p a r t i a lp re ssu re o f any gas a t a n y a l t i t u d e . To do t h i s , w e u se th e fo l lo win g fo rmu la :

CB =100 where p - i s the p a r t i a l p r e s su r e of the gas;

C - i s the p e r c e n t i l e c o n t e n t of the g as i n t h e a i r ;and B - i s t h e t o t a l b a r om e t ri c p r e ss u r e.18

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Of a l l the gases , oxygen i s t h e o ne t h a t i s most impor t an t fo r t h e v i t a la c t i v i t y of man. I t s p a r t i a l p re ss ur e a t s e a l e v e l i s 159 nun Hg. P e rc en t i l eco nt en t of oxygen i n th e atmosphere remains f ixed with a l t i t u d e , b u t i t spar t i a l . p re s su re dec reases . The l a t t e r ha s a c r i t i c a l i n f l ue n c e on t h e p rov i s i on of t h e o rgan ism w i t h oxygen du r ing t h e r e sp i r a t i o n p rocess .

An example of the c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e p a r t i a l p r es s ur e of oxygen i s a sfol lows :

f o r t h e Earth:

f o r a n a l t i t u d e o f 6,000 m:

po t= - - -21 . 354 2 74 Hg;IO0f o r a n a l t i t u d e o f 10,000 m:

21 . 198 ~ 42 nun Hg.Po,=--10 0A i r De nsi ty and Standar d Atmosphere

The a i r d e n s i t y i s t h e r a t i o of t h e mass of a i r to the volume which itoccupies . Lower la ye rs of the a tmosphere a re much dens er tha n the upper ones.Th i s i s e x pl ai ne d by t h e f a c t t h a t a i r l i k e any gas can be compressed undert h e i n f l u e n c e of p r e s s ur e .

The dens i ty of t h e a i r i n c r e a s e s w i t h d e c r e a s in g t e m pe r a tu r e an d i n c r e a s i n gpress ure . This a l so depends on th e amount of w a t e r v ap or i n t h e a i r : t h emore there i s , th e l e s s t h e d e n s i t y of t h e a i r .

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T h e a i r d e n s i t y d e c r e as e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g a l t i t u d e . A t a n a l t i t u d e of1 0 km , i t i s a lmost 1 / 4 t h a t a t sea l eve l .

With the a i d of r o ck e ts a nd a r t i f i c i a l E a rt h s a t e l l i t e s , i t has beenp o s s i b l e t o d e t er m in e th e d e n s i t y of t h e a tm os ph er e up t o v e r y g r e a t a l t i t u d e s .The d a ta o b ta in ed are v e ry imp o r tan t f o r av ia t i o n and co smon au ti c s . Fo r aviat i o n c a l c u l a t i o n s , i t i s n e c e s s a ry t o h av e d a t a o n t h e a v e r a ge c h an ge i n p r es su re , d en s i ty , and t emp era tu re of the a i r and t h e s p e ed o f s ou nd w i t h a l t i t u d e .The c o n d it i o n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e s e d a t a w i t h a l t i t u d e f o r d r y p ur e a i r i sca l l e d th e s t an d a rd a tmosp he re.

I n t h e USSR, t h e s t an d a rd a tmo sp h e re fo r 1 9 6 4 i s val id (Al l -Union S t a t eStandard 4 4 0 1 - 6 4 ) . A s t h e o r i g i n a l d a t a f o r i t s c a l c u l a t i o n , t h e b a ro m e tr i ca i r p r e s s u r e o f 760 mm H g and the tempera ture o f 15" C a t sea l e v e l w e r e used.

The s t an d a rd a tmo sph e re fo r a l t i t u d e s f rom 0 t o 200 km i s g iv e n i nTab le 3 .

S o l a r R a d i a t i on

S o l a r r a d i a t i o n i s a cont inuous f low of r ad ian t en e rg y f ro m the Sun.S o l ar r a d i a t i o n c o n s i s t s of var iou s fo rms of e lec t ro magn et ic (wave-type) andc o r p u s c u l a r r a d i a t i o n .

The e l ec t ro mag n e t i c r a d i a t io n f rom th e Sun in c lu d es i n f r a r e d r ay s, v i s i b l er ay s of l i g h t , u l t r a v i o l e t , X- and gamma r ay s . In f r a r ed r ay s h av e wav e len g th sof 2 ,300 - 800, v i s i b l e l i g h t r ay s 800 - 4 0 0 , u l t r a v i o l e t r a y s 400 -2 , andx-rays 2 - 0 . 0 0 6 mil l imic ro n s . I n 1 9 4 2 , s o l a r r a d i a t i o n w it h a wavelength frommillimeters t o s e v e r a l meters w a s discovered .

The so u rces o f co rp u sc u la r r a d i a t io n a re the s o l a r co ro na ( t h e e x t e r n a ll a y e r of t h e s o l a r a tmosp he re) and t h e ch ro mo sp h er ic f l a r e s , d u r in g wh ich

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-

0 15.OO 288.15500 11,75 284.901000 8.50 281 -651500 5 -25 278.402000 1.99 275.142500 -1.26 271.893000 -4.51 268,643500 -7.77 265.384000 - 1 I .02 262.134500 -14.27 258.885000 -17.52 255.635500 -20.77 252.386000 -24.02 249.136500 -27.27 245.887000 -30.52 242.637500 -33.77 239.388000 -37.02 236.1 48500 -40.26 232.899000 -43.5 1 229.649500 -46.75 226.40I O 000 -50.00 223.1510.500 -53.25 219.90I 1 000 -56.49 216.66I I 500 -56.49 2 16.6612 000 -56.49 216.6612 500 -56.49 216.66I3 000 -56.49 216.66I3 500 7-56449 216,6614 090 -56 -49 216.661 4 300 -56 -49 216.661 5 003 -56.49 216.66I 5 500 -56.49 216.6616 030 -56.49 216.6616500 -56.40 216.6617 003 -56.49 216.6617 500 -56 &9 216.66

CABLE 3

Barometric pressure, - Hg760.00715.96674.12634.30596.28560 3 4525.984932 5462.46433.15405.37379.04354,13330.54308-26287.20267 3 8248.62230.95214.36198.7018388170,19157.33145p 4134.46124$0114.92I06 2 498.22190.81083,95477.61671,76366.35061,345

Airdensity,kgf /m3

1,22501 .I6721.11171,05821.00669,5706 * IO-'9,0941 * 10-I8.6345 . IO-'8,1942 . lo-'7,7714 . IO-'7.3654. lo-'6,9758 . IO-6,6022 . IO-'6.244 1 . IO-'5.9010 . IO-'5,5725 . IO-'52591 . 10-14,9585. 10-14,6712. 10-14,3977. 10-14.1357. IO-'3.8859 . IO-'3,6485 . IO-'3 3728 * IO-'3.1 180 IO-'2 -8825 . IO-'2,6648 . IO-'2.4636 * IO-'2.2776 . O-'2,1056 . lo-'1.9467 . IO-'1.7998. IO-'1.6640 * IO-'1.5384 - IO-1.4224 * IO-'1,3151 . lo-'

-peed of sound, km/hr 1225.O1218.11211.11204.11197.11190,o1182.81175.61168.41161-11153.81146.51139.11131.61124.11 1 16.61109.01101,31093.61085.91078.0107031062.21062.21062.21062.21062.21062.21062.21062.21062.21062.21062.2I06221062921062.2

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a.)

-a l 1 .A.d+Id 4

18000185001903 919 50 020 03321 00022 03323 00024 03325 00326 03327 00328 03329 0303303032 03035 00040 00045 00050 00055 00060 03065 00070 00073 00980 00085 00096 00095 030100 00 0I10000120003I50 000200 000

22

TABLE 3 (continued)

~~ ~ ..A i rTemperature Barometric dens i ty , Speed ofQ K pressure, sound,O C mm Hg' Ikgf m3 km/hr-

-88.15

-56.49 216-66 56,719 1,2159 * IO-' 1062.2-56.49 216.66 52,413 1-1242 . 10-1 1062.2-56-49 216.66 48.489 1,0395 . O-' 1062,2-56.49 216.66 44.834 9 6 1 14 . IO-' 1062.2--56,49 216-66 41.455 8.8870 . IO-' 1062.2-56.49 216-66 35,443 7,5983 . 10- 1062+2-56.49 216.66 30,305 6,4966 . IO-: 1062.2-56.49 216.66 25,912 5,5550 * IO-' 1062,2-56 -49 216.66 22.158 4,750 1 * 10" 1062,2-56.49 216.66 18.948 4.0621 . IO-' 1062,2-53.73 219.40 16,219 34336 * IO-' 1068.9-51.01 222.14 13.910 2,9085 . IO- 1075,6-48-28 22-1-87 11.959 2,470 1 . 10- 10322-45-54 227.61 10-2% 2.1007. 1088.7-42.80 2303 5 8,8777 1,7901 - IO-' 1095.3-37.33 235.82 6,6401 1.3078. lo-' 1108.2-29.14 244.01 413522 8.2842 1127.3-15.49 257.66 2.2191 4,0003 . 1158.4-1.87 271 -28 1,1732 2,0086. 1188.60.85 274.00 6,3441 . O-' I . o m 1194.6-2.59 270.56 3,4326. IO-' 5,8928 . 1187.1-19.75 253.40 1.8092 . IO-' 3,3162 IOd4 1148.8-36 $39 236,26 9.1245. IO-' 1,7937 . 1109,3

-5400 219.15 4.3761 . 9,2747. IO-' 1068.3-71.09-88.15 202.06185.00 1.9790. IO-*8,3564 . 4,5490. IO-'2,0979 - 1025.8981.6-88.15 185.00 3,3976 8 3303 . 981.6-88.15 185.00 1,3834 * 3,4733. 981.6-85,OO 5,6108 . 1,4170 .-63.93 209.22 2.4310 * 5.3993 . IO-^ -15.79 257.36 5,8671 . 10-5 1,0583 - IO-? -+59,09 232 ;24 1,9165. IO-' 2&586-706.90 980.05 3.8428 . 1.7682 lo-' --953.61 226.8 1,0226 3,6109 * lo-''


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mater ia l i s thrown out from the l ow e r l a y e r s o f the so l a r a tmosphere . T h er a d i a t i o n of t h e f i r s t t yp e i s c a l l e d s o l a r w in d , w h i c h i s a cont inuous f lowo f p la sm a c o n s i s t i n g p r i m a r i l y o f p r o to n s a nd e l e c t r o n s .

The chromospher ic f l a r e s on the Sun a r e accompanied by e rup t ion s ofstreams o f i o n i z e d p la sm a, c ha rg ed p a r t i c l e s ( p r o to n s , a l p h a p a r t i c l e s , elect ro ns) , nu cl e i o f he lium, oxygen and o t he r e lements , as w e l l as a n i n c re a s e i nt h e i n t e n s i t y of v i s i b l e u l t r a v i o l e t an d X - ra d ia ti o n, gamma r a y s , r a d i o n o i s e ,e tc . T h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e co rpuscu l a r r ad i a t i o n may i nc r ea se up t o hundreds o ft h ou s an d s o f p a r t i c l e s p e r s q u a r e c e n ti m e t e r . It i s a t t h i s t i m e t h a t p o w e r f u lmagnet ic s torms occur on Ear th , d i s r up t i ng shor twave ra d i o communications;b r i l l i a n t d i s p l a y s o f a ur o ra a re obse rved , t he re i s a weakening of g a l a c t i cr a d i o n o i s e , e t c . The composi t ion of t he co rpu scu l a r r ad i a t i o n i n chromospheri cf l a r e s i s no t un ifo rm . Thus, f o r example, t he co rpuscu l a r r a d i a t i o n whicha cc om pa nie d t h e f l a r e t h a t t o ok p l a c e o n 23 F ebruary 1956 cons i s t ed e n t i r e l yof pro tons .

The f r equency and i n t e ns i t y o f ch romospher i c f l a r e s i nc re as e wi th i nc reas i n g s o l a r a c t i v i t y and r e ac h a maximum approximately every 11 year s . Chromos p h e r i c f l a r e s o f h ig h i n t e n s i t y are r e l a t i v e l y r a r e . A t o t a l of f i v e s uc hf l a r e s w e r e obse rved f rom 1942 t o 1956. I n r e ce n t yea r s , w i th t he a id o fs a t e l l i t e s , i t h a s b ee n d e te r mi n ed t h a t s o l a r f l a r e s of low i n t e n s i t y t a k e /26p l a c e on t he ave rage once a month. However, due to the s l i g h t r ig id i t y of th er a d i a t i o n sp e ct ru m o f t h e s e f l a r e s , t h ey a r e n o t re c o rd e d on t h e E a r th . Thech romospher ic f l a r e s on t h e S un a r e very complex processes and have s t i l l beens t u d i e d v e r y l i t t l e .

I n p a ss in g th rough t he E ar th s a tmosphere , the s o l a r r a d i a n t e n e rg y i sp a r t i a l l y r e f l e c t e d , s c a t t e r e d an d ab so rb ed by mo le c ul e s o f t h e g a se s t h a t makeup the a i r , w a t e r v a po r , a n d d u s t p a r t i c l e s . The s h o r t e s t r a y s ( w i t h w a ve l en g th sfrom 0.06 t o 290 m i l l im i c r o n s ) d o n o t r e a c h t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e E a r th an d arecomplete ly absorbed by t h e o zo ne l a y e r . I n f r a r e d r a y s a re absorbed pr imar i lyby w a t e r vapor i n th e a tmosphere. Consequently , th e more w a t e r v ap or i n t h e

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a tmosphere , t h e f ewer i n f r a r ed r ays reach th e Ear th ' s s u r f a c e . The i n t e n s i t yof t h e s o l a r r a d i a t i o n a t t h e u p pe r l i m i t of the atmosphere i s e q u a l t o 1 .9 4

2o n t h e a v e r a g e and does no t exceed 1.52 cal/cm /minute a t t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e .W i t h i n c r e a s i n g a l t i t u d e , the i n t e n s i t y of u l t r a v i o l e t and i n f r a r e d r a d i a t i o nincreases. U l t r a v i o l e t r a d i a t i o n i n c r ea s e s o n the a v e r a g e b y 3 t o 4% f o revery 100 m o f a l t i t u d e .

Wi th in a l lowable l imi ts , s o l a r r a d i a t i o n c an h av e a f a v o r a b l e e f f e c t on t h ehuman organism, s t im ul a t in g normal phy s io log ica l p rocess es . Under i t s i n f l u ence, t h e r e i s a considerable improvement i n the gene ra l f e e l i n g o f man, h isa t t i t u d e and performance of work. E s p ec i a ll y v a lu a b le i n t h i s r e s p e c t i s t h e" b i o l o g i c a l l y active' ' s h or tw a v e p o r t i o n o f t h e s o l a r s pe c tr u m ( w i t h wavelengthsfrom 300 to 365 mi l l im ic rons ) .

I n a d d it io n t o s o l a r r a d i a t i on , the atmosphere and th e s u r f a c e of theE a r t h are continuously bombarded by cosmic rays.

Cosmic Radiation

Cosmic space i s s a t u r a t e d w i t h v a ri o u s k in d s o f r a d i a t i o n . Here t h e r eare streams of c ha rg ed and n e u t r a l p a r t i c l e s as w e l l as e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c wavesi n t h e r a d io r e gi o n, l i g h t waves, u l t r a v i o le t ra ys , X-rays and gamma rays .

Cosmic r a y s o f g a l a c t i c a nd s o l a r o r i g i n as w e l l a s t h e s h o r t w a v e r a d i a t i o nfrom the Sun are t y p es o f r a d i a t i o n w h ic h are of enormous impo rtan ce undertoday ' s cond i t i ons . -2 7

Galact ic c os mic r a d i a t i o n c o n s i s t s p r i m a r i l y of p r o to n s and a l p h a p a r t i c l e s(98%). The remaining 2% i s made up of the n u c l e i o f l i t h i u m , b e r y ll i u m , b o ro n,ca rbon, oxygen, n i t ro gen , f l u o r in e , e tc . Near t h e Earth, i t i s l a r g e l ysc reened by t h e l a t t e r ' s geomagnet ic f i e l d and the atmosphere. There fo re , t hei n t e n s i t y of g a l a c t i c ( pr im ar y) c os mi c r a d i a t i o n o n Ear th i s about 20 t i m e sless t h an i n i n t e r p l a n e t a r y s pa ce .

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O ut er r a d i a t i o n b e l t

I n ne r r a d i a t i o n b e l tF ig u re 2. R a d ia t io n b e l t s of the Ear th .

The in n e r r a d i a t i o n b e l t of t h e E a r t h c o r ~ s L s t sp r f h a z i l y of high-energypro tons . I n th e Western Hemisphere , th e lower U m i t af t he b e l t passes a t ana l t i t u d e of 500 t o 600 km, w h i l e i n t h e E a s t e r n & mi sp he re i t i s a t an a l t i t u d eof approx imat ely 1600 km. T hi s d i ff e re n c e i n a l t i t u d e i s explai ned by thep e c u l i a r i t i e s of t h e magnetic f i e l d . The o u t e r l i m i t of t h i s r a d i a t i o n b e l t i sabout 7,000 t o 10,000 km f ro m th e s u r f a ce of th e Ea r th .

The m a x h r a d i a t io n i n t e n s i t y i n t h e i n ne r b e l t i s observed a t d t i t u d e sof 2500 t o 3600 km. A cc or di ng t o t h e l a t e s t d a t a , t h e r e i s a l s o a secondradtation maximum a t an a l t i t u d e of 7,000 t o 8,(MO lan.

The o u t e r r a d i a t i o n b e l t o f t h e Ear th is l o c a t e d 10,QUO t o 75,000 h f rmt h e E a r t h s s u rf a ce . T h is r a d i a t i o n b e l t is formed p r i m a r i l y b y e l e c t r o n s .The intensity maximum of t h e e l e c t r o n flux is observed i n the e q u a t o r i a l p l a n ea t 15,000 t o 20,000 Jan.

The r ad ia t io n b e l t s i n t e r se c t o n e an o th er , f ormin g co n t inu o u s f lu x es o fch arged p a r t i c l e s ma in ta ined by th e mag n et ic f i e l d of th e Ea r th . The maximumco n cen t r a t io n of p ro to n f l u x i s observed a t a l t i t u d e s o f 2500 t o 3500 km . For /29f l i g h t s i n t h i s r e gio n of space near t he Ear th , c rews must have sp ec ia l p ro tec t ion .

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Temperature of the Atmosphere

The p r i n c i p a l s o u r c e of t h e h e a t r e c e i ve d by t h e E a r t h i s th e Sun. Foreach sq u a re meter of the Ear th ' s su r f ac e , an av e rag e o f 1 4 t o 18 l a r g e c a l o r i e sof hea t a re requ i red each minute .

A l a r g e p o r t i o n of t h e s o l a r r a d i a t i o n which r ea c he s t h e E a r th ' s s u r f a c ei s absorbed by th e l a t t e r and conver ted i n t o thermal energy . From th e su r f ac eo f t h e E ar th , t h e h e a t i s t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e l a y e r o f a i r a d j a c e n t t o i t . Theheated a i r , being less d en se and l ig h t e r , r i ses upward and cold a i r comes t ot a k e i t s p lace . The w a r m a i r , e n t e r i n g a reg ion of reduced pres sure , expands .To perform t h i s work, a c e r t a i n amount of therm al energy i s used , s o t h a t thetempera ture o f th e a i r f a l l s ; w i t h in th e l imi ts of th e t roposphere , th e temperat u r e of t h e a i r d ec reases o n an av e rag e by 0.65" C f o r e v er y 100 m o f a l t i t u d e .Th i s v a lu e i s c a l l e d t h e v e r t i c a l t em pe ra tu re g r a d ie n t .

The d ec rease i n t emp era tu r e i s n o t a lway s r eg u la r : a t a n a l t i t u d e up t o2 km, w e f i n d d e v i a t i o n s f rom t h e t e m p e ra t ur e c a l c u la t e d o n t h e b a s i s o f t h ev e r t i c a l t e m pe r at u re g r a d i e n t . Sometimes, when r i s i n g t o t h i s a l t i t u d e , w edo n o t f i n d a d ec r ea s e b u t r a t h e r a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e a i r tempera ture . Th isphenomenon i s c a l l e d i n v e r s i o n. I n v e r s i o n t a k es p l a c e d ue t o i r r e g u l a r h e a t i n gof t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e a nd v i o l e n t mi xi ng o f a i r masses.

A s a l t i t u d e i n cr e as e s, t h e a i r cools and a t a c e r t a i n a l t i t u d e t h e tem perat u r e d e cr e as e ceases. T h i s a l t i t u d e i s ca l l ed th e boundary between th e t ropos p h e re and t h e s t r a t o s p h e r e . I n m id dl e l a t i t u d e s , a t t h i s t e m p e r a t u r eboundary, t h e a i r tempera ture decre ases t o -56" C and a t t h e e q u a t o r - t o-7Otc-80OC. This tempera ture i n th e s t ra to sp he re i s m ai nt ai ne d t o a n a l t i t u d eof approximately 25 km, a f t e r which i t b e g i ns t o i n c r e a s e , r e a c h in g a maximuma t an a l t i t u d e o f a pp ro x im a te ly 5 0 km .

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The t empera tu re dec reases i n the mesosphere a t a l t i t u d e s from 50 t o 9 0 km .In the thermosphere , i t i n c r e a s e s , a n d a t a n a l t i t u d e o f 200 km i t r e a c h e s954, while a t an a l t i t u d e o f 500 km, i t reaches 1500' C . Above th i s , the 30t empera tu re remains c ons t a n t . A s w e have a l r ea dy po in t ed o u t above , undert h e s e c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e at mo sp he re , t h e t e m p e r a tu r e r e f l e c t s o n l y t h e r a t e ofmovement of gas pa r t i c le s . The heat ing of b o d i e s w i l l t a k e p l a c e d u e t oa b s o r p t i o n of s o l a r r a d i a ti o n .

The temperature of t h e a i r a t t h e s u r f a c e of the E a r t h v a r F e s considerablydepending on t h e g e o g ra p h ic a l l a t i t u d e , t i m e of y e a r , and t i m e of day. Formerly,the "co ld pole" w a s cons ide red t o be the c i t y of Ver&yanskS where a temperat u r e of -68" C w a s r eco rded . Later , a t empera tu re o f -21" C w a s recorded a tt h e s e t t le m e n t of Oymyakon in t h e Y a k u t Autonomus SSR. And qu i t e r e ce n t l y ,S o v i e t m e t e o r o l o g i s t s a t t h e ' rVostok" Stat icm ia A n t a r c t i c a r e c o r d e d a temperat u r e dr op t o -88.3" C. The highest known t e m p e r a t u r e (+58O C) w a s r eco rded i nA f r i c a near t h e c i t y of T r i p o l i .

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CHAPTER I11

BRIEF SURVEY O F HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY -31Anatomy and physio logy be long t o t he b io lo g i ca l sc ie nce s which s tudy

l i v i n g organisms. Anatomy i s t h e s c i e n c e of t h e e x t e r n a l s ha p es a nd i n t e r n a ls t ru c t u r e s o f t h e o rg ani sm, wh i l e p h y sio lo g y i s t h e s c i e n c e o f f u n c t io n s o rac t io n s o f i n d i v id u a l o rg an s and th e o rgan ism as a whole.

A l l o f t h e c e l l s , t i s s u e s , and o rg a ns of t h e body a r e f u n c t i o n a l l y i n t e r r e l a t e d . The l e a di n g r o l e i n t h i s l i n k a ge and i n t h e c o n t r o l a nd r e g u l a t io n o fa l l l i f e pr oc e ss e s o f t h e or ga ni sm i s played by th e nervous system. S t imu la t io no f th e n erv e en d in gs i n on e org an, t r a n s m i t t e d t hr ou g h t h e c e n t r a l n er vo uss ys te m , h a s a n e f f e c t o n t h e a c t i v i t y of an o th e r . Th us , f o r examp le , p a in f u ls t imu la t io n o f th e n e rv e en d in g s o f some p a r t o f t h e sk in cau ses co n t r ac t io n o fa ce r t a i n grou p o f mu scle s and may l ea d t o a ch an ge i n th e ac t io n o f th e h ea r t ,d i s r u p t i o n of r e s p i r a t i o n , e t c .

I n a d d i t io n t o t h e f u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw ee n t h e c e l l s , t i s s u e s a n do r g a n s , t h e r e i s a l s o a ch emica l l i n k which o p e ra t e s th ro u g h th e b loo d andlymph. The e ss e nc e o f t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p c o n s i s t s of t h e f a c t t h a t s u b s ta n ce swhich a r e formed d u r i n g t h e a c t i v i t y o f c e r t a i n or g a ns e n t e r t h e bl oo d , w h ic hc a r r i e s i t t hr ou gh t h e e n t i r e o rg an is m, s t i m u l a t i n g o r s u p p r es s i ng t h e a c t i v i t yo f o t h e r org an s . Thu s, f o r examp le , su b s tan ces l i b e r a t e d b y th e ad ren a l g l an d se x e r t a n i n f l u e n ce on t h e a c t i o n of t h e h e a r t and t h e i n t e s t i n e . T h i s f or m o fcommunication i s a l so u n d er th e co n t ro l o f th e c en t r a l n e rv o u s sy st em. "Th erei s n o p a r t o f th e human organism which cou ld e x i s t a lone , wi tho ut any connect ion

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t o o t h e r p a r t s ; b u t n on e o f t h e p a r t s of o u r body i s l i n k e d so v i t a l l y w it ht h e o t h e r s as t h e b r a i n " (3) .

The theory of t he body a s a s i n g l e wh ole a l s o i n c l u d e s t h e a ss um pt io n /32o f an immu table l i n k b etween th e p sy ch ic and co rp o rea l . The p sy ch ic a c t i v i t yi s a fu n c t i o n of h ig h ly o rg an ized m a t t e r , t h e b r a i n .

The s t r u c t u r e a nd a c t i v i t y o f t h e b ody a r e al wa ys a d ap t ed t o c e r t a i nco n d i t io n s o f ex i s t en c e . Any chang e i n th ese co n d i t io n s cau ses a c ha ng e i n t h es t r u c t u r e a nd f u n c ti o n of i t s organs .

"The body," wrote I . M. Sechenov, ' lis imp o ss ib le wi th o u t an ex te r n a lmedium supporting i t s e x i s t en c e ; t h e r e fo r e , t h e s c i e n t i f i c d e t er m i na t i on o f abody must i nvol ve t he medium which a f f e c t s i t , s i n c e e x i s t e n c e of t h ebody without the l a t t e r i s i m p ~ s s i b l e " ( ~ ) . C o n seq uen tly , t h e s t ru c t u r e andv i t a l a c t iv i t y o f t h e b ody can o n ly b e u n d e rs to o d by s tu d y in g i t i nc o n j u n c ti o n w i t h t h e c o n d i t i o n s of e x i s t e n c e .

I n regard t o man, i t i s n e c es s a ry t o c o n s i de r n o t o n l y t h e b i o l o g i c a l ,b u t a l s o th e so c ia1 , laws wh ich to a l a rg e ex ten t d e te rmin e h i s d ev e lo p men t an da c t i v i t y .

C e l l s and Tissues

The human body has a c e l l u l a r s t r u c t u re , i . e . , i t c o n s i s t s of a l a r g enumber of c e l l s .

( 3 ) N . A. Dobrolyubov: I zb ran n yy e F i lo so f sk iy e P ro izv ed en iy a (Se lec tedPh i lo so p h ic a l Ex ce rp t s ) . Vol . 1, 1948, p. 249.

( 4 ) I . M . Sechenov: Medi ts ins k iy Vestn ik . S t . Pe te r sb u rg , N o . 26, 1861.p . 242.

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C e l l s d i f f e r c o ns id e ra b ly i n s ha pe , s i z e and s t r u c t u r e ( F i gu r e 3 ) .According t o modern views, t h e c e l l i s a microscop i ca l l y s m a l l organ of a comp l e x o r ga n is m, i n w hi ch c e r t a i n v i t a l p r o c e s s e s t a k e p l a c e. The l i v ing c e l lob ta in s neces sa ry n u t r i e n t subs t ances f rom the medium su r round ing i t as w e l l asoxygen and g ive s of f unnecessary sub s tanc es t o t h i s medium (carbon d ioxi de , e tc . ) .Hence, there i s a cont inuous exchange between th e c e l l and th e surroundin gmedium, w i t h o u t w hi ch l i f e would n o t b e p o s s i b l e . "Li fe", wrote Engels , "fst h e a b i l i t y of p r o t e i n bo d ie s t o s ur v iv e , w i t h t h e c r u c i a l f a c t o r be in g t h econs t an t exchange o f su bs t ances wi th e x t e r na l na tu re su r round ing them, s o t h a tc e s s a t i o n o f t h i s e xc ha ng e w i l l l e ad t o t er m in a ti on of l i f e i t s e l f , a nd t o abreakdown of t h e pro tei n" (5) .

The c e l l s w hic h c a r r y o u t c e r t a i n v i t a l f u n c ti o n s j o i n t o g e t h e r t o formf un da m en ta l t i s s u e s ( n er v ou s , c o n n e c t iv e t i s s u e , c a r t i l a g e , b o ne , m us cl e,e p i th e l iu m , e t c . ) w h i le t h e t i s s u e s i n t u r n fo rm o r ga n s.

Organs and Organ S y s t e m s

Each org an i n th e human body ha s a c e r t a i n f u n c t i o n t o p er fo rm : t h eh e a r t , c o n t r a c t i n g r h y t h m i c a ll y , moves t h e bl oo d t h r ou g h t h e v e s s e l s ; t h e lu n g sprov ide gas exchange between th e body and t he ex te rn al medium, e tc .

I n a cc or da nc e w i t h t h e i r b a s i c f u n c t i o n s , th e organs form organ sys tems .These sys tems inclu de t he nervous sys tem, th e sense organ sys tem, t h e r e s p i r a t o ry sys tem, t h e c i r c u l a t o r y sys tem, t he suppor t-motor sy st em, exc re to ry sys t em,d i g e s t i v e s y s t e m , as w e l l as sys tems of endocr ine g lands and reprod uct iv eo rgans .

The suppor t-motor sys tem co ns i s t s o f th e skele ton and t h e t r a n s v e r s e l ys t r i a t e d m u sc le s; t h e c i r c u l a t o r y s ys te m c o n s i s t s o f t h e h e a r t and t h e b lo odv e s s e l s ; t h e r e s p i r a t o r y s y st e m c o n s i s t s o f t h e n o s e , p ha ry nx , l a r y n x , t r a c h e a ,(5 )F r i ed r i ch Enge l s : D i a l e k t i k a P r i r o d y ( D i a l e c t i c s of N a t ur e ) .

"Go spol i t izda t" P re ss , 1952, p . 244.31

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4

Figure 3 . S t r u c t u r e of c e l l s a n d t i s s u e s .1 - cubo ida l ep i the l ium; 2 - c y l i n d r i c a l e p i th e li u m;3 - co n n ec t i v e t i s s u e ; 4 - c a r t i l a g e t i s su e ; 5 - b o n e t i s s u e ;6 - muscle t i s sue ; 7 - nerve c e l l ; 8 - blood: a - e r y th r o cy t e s ,b - lymphocytes, c - n eu t r o p h i l e s , d - eos inoph i les , e - bloodp l a t e l e t s ( t h r o m b o cy t e s ) .

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b r o n c h i a nd l un g s; t h e d i g e s t i v e s y st em c o n s i s t s of the o r a l c a v i t y , p ha ry nx ,esophagus, s t omach , i n t e s t i ne , pancreas , and l i v e r ; th e exc re tor y sys tem cons i s t s of t h e k id n ey s , u r e t e r s , a nd u r i n a r y b l a d d e r ; t h e ne rv ou s s ys te m c o n s i s t so f t h e b r a i n a nd s p i n a l co r d , as w e l l as sensory and motor nerves.

D i f f e r e n t i a t e d i n s t r u c t u r e and p ur po se , p o s se s s in g a c e r t a i n d e gr e e ofindependence, a l l of th e sys tems and organs s t i l l f u n c t io n i n a v e r y c l o s ei n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p .

Neryous System

The ide a of th e dominant r o l e p layed by th e nervous sy ste m i n t h e e n t i r er e a c t i o n o f t h e o rg an is m t o t h e i n f l u e n c e o f e x t e r n a l o r i n t e r n a l m ed ia , i . e . ,th e id ea of nerv i sm, was developed mos t complete ly i n th e teachin gs of I . P .P a vl o v r e g a r d i n g h i g h e r n er vo us a c t i v i t y , w hic h f or ms t h e n a t u r a l s c i e n t i f i c -3 6m a t e r i a l i s t i c b a s i s o f S o v i e t b i o l o g y and m ed ic in e.

N er ve c e l l s a nd t h e i r b r a nc h e s fo rm t h e b a s i s o f n e r v e t i s s u e .

The nervous system (Figure 4 ) i s d iv id ed i n t o t h e c e n t r a l ( b r a i n ands p i n a l c o rd ) and p e r i p h e r a l ( c r a n i o c e r e b r a l a nd c e r e b r a l s p i n a l n e r v es ) s e c t i o n s .

A gr ea t many ne rve f i b e r s run from the b r a i n and sp in a l co rd . There a r emoto r and s enso ry ne rve f i b e r s . The fo rmer ca r ry impul ses f rom th e ce n t ra lne rvous sys tem to t he o rgans and t i s s ue s , caus ing them to a c t , wh i l e t h e s econdh av e t h e o p p o s it e e f f e c t : t he y r u n from t h e or ga ns and t i s s u e s t o t h e c e n t r a ln e rv o us s ys te m . I n a d d i t i o n t o the motor and sensory fun ct io ns , th e nervouss y st e m a l s o h a s a so -ca l l ed t ro ph i c func t i o n ( f rom th e word " t roph i cs " -nour i shment ) . I t a f f e c t s t h e m et ab ol is m i n t h e o r ga ni sm an d r e g u l a t e s t h enour ishment of t i s s u e s and organs .

The b r a i n c o n s i s t s o f f i v e p a r t s : two h em is ph er es ( r i g h t and l e f t ) , t h ed iencephalon , mesencephalon and t h e medul la ob longata as w e l l a s t he ce rebe l l um.

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The largest p a r t i s made up of th e hemispheres . The su rf a ce of the br ai n i ss t re ake d wi t h fur rows and convolu t ions . The outer l a ye r of the cerebrum i sc a l l e d t h e c o r t e x . The c o r t e x c o n t a i n s a l l of th e furrows and conv olut io ns oft h e b r a i n . It i s 20 m2 i n s i z e . The c o r t e x c o n s i s t s o f a b ou t 1 6 b i l l i o n n e rv ec e l l s , d i f f e r i n g i n s t r u c t u r e and f u n c ti o n. The c e r e b r a l c or t e x i s the mostimpor t an t pa r t of t he ce n t ra l ne rvous sys tem; wi thou t i t , p sy ch ic a c t i v i t y o fthe human being i s imposs ib le .

The co r te x has areas o r cen ter s , each of which performs a s p e c i f i cfunc t i on . F or example , t he v i su a l ce n t e r i s l o ca t e d i n t h e o c c i p i t a l r e gi on ,t h e a u d i t o r y c e n t e r i s l o c a t e d i n the t emporal reg io n , and so on .

To c o n t r o l t h e a c t i v i t y of t h e o rg an is m, i t i s n e ce s sa r y f o r c e r t a i n(va r ious ) s t i m u l i t o r e a c h t h e c e r e b r a l c o r t e x ( s i g n a l s ) from t h e s ur r o un d i ngmedium and from th e in te rn a l o rgans . These s t im ul i are d e t e c t e d by s p e c i a l l yequipped nerve endings i n the t i s s ue s and organs . These a r e c a l l e d r e c e p t o r s .

The r e c e p t o r s of t h e o rg a n s o f v i s i o n , h e a r i n g , o l f a c t i o n and t a s t e a sw e l l as t h e r e c e p t o rs i n t h e s k i n p e r c ei v e p a i n, t e mp e ra t ur e , t a c t i l e

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