Chap. 4 Recognition systems辨識系統

鄭先祐靜宜大學生態學系

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Recognition systems

4.1 Introduction4.2 辨識 (recognition) 的類型與功能4.3 Components of recognition systems

4.3.1 The central problem ( 核心問題 )4.3.2 The production component ( 產出的成分 )4.3.3 The perception component ( 接收的成分 )4.3.4 The action component ( 行動的成分 )

4.4 Current topics in recognition research4.4.1 Failures of kin recognition ( 親緣辨識 )4.4.2 Misunderstandings about kin recognition4.5 Conclusions

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4.1 Introduction

個體如何辨識是自體的，或是同種的，有親緣關係的，或是鄰居的？有何辨識機制？

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4.2 辨識 (recognition) 的類型與功能

Nepotism (nepotistic kin recognition) ：學習辨識親屬關係，以增加 outbreeding

Disease avoidance

Mate recognition

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4.3 Components of recognition systems

1. production: the nature and development of labels (cues) in recipients that actor use to recognize them.

2. perception: the sensory detection of labels by actors and subsequent phenotype matching

3. action: the nature and determinants of actions performed, depending on the similarity between actors’ templates and recipients’ lables.

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Fig. 4.1 Recognition systems comprise three components: production, perception and action.

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4.3.1 The central problem ( 核心問題 )

Acceptance errors vs. rejection errors

Accept undesirable recipients ( 接受不要的 ) vs. rejecting desirable recipients ( 拒絕想要的 )

Recipients’ cues and actor’s template

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Fig. 4.2 Evolution of recognition systems

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Experimental Problems

Logistic problems lead to low replication

Which leads to a Type I error; declaring that a hypothesis is false when in fact it is true. ( 否定 null 假說，但事實上是「 null 假說是成立的」 )

Low replications lead to greater standard error (SE) values.

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two types of error in measurement

type I error—the conclusion that there is an effect when in fact there is none, ( 否定 null 假說，但事實是「假說是成立的」 )

type II error—when an impact exists but is not detected. ( 接受 null 假說，但事實是「假說是錯誤的」 )

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two types of error

自然現象的研究，盡量的下降 type I error 。

盡量避免否定 null 假說。如此可以避免研究方向的錯誤。

然而，對於自然資源 ( 災害 ) 的研究，則需要選擇下降 type 2 error

譬如：漁業資源的耗減

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declining fish stocks

Current management focuses on reducing type I errors because maximizing fish catch is of primary economic importance (Paully et al., 1998; Williams, 1998).

However, scientific advice should be explicit about type II errors also, because the environmental consequences from type II errors are much more serious and take longer to recover from.

Type I errors usually result in only short-term economic costs.

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4.3.2 The production component

General principles

Actors should use recognition cues that maximize the separation of template-cue dissimilarity distributions for desirable and undesirable recipients.

使用 genetic and/or environmental cues環境單調，可使用 genetic cues

環境複雜，使用 environmental cues

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Fig. 4.3 An organism’s environment can influence whether labels produced by genetic loci or environmental cues are more reliable indicators of kinship.

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Wood frogs 授精卵聚集，區分 paternal half-sibs and Non-kin

Paternal half-siblings share their father’s genes by descent.

使用 genetic cues

American toads 區分 Siblings and paternal half-sibs.

可能再加上 environmental cues

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Fig. 4.3 (b) Wood frogs oviposit in communal clumps (left), presumably to insulate their eggs afainst the cold. American toads breed in warmer water and individual females often deposit strings of eggs separately (right).

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Mate recognition

Selection should always favour efficient recognition of mates through use of detectable ( 可偵測的 ), discriminable ( 可區分的 ) and memorable ( 可記憶的 ) cues.

In sex and species recognition, females should minimize acceptance errors by using U-absent cues and minimize rejection errors by favouring males whose cues deviate least from the population mean.

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U-absent cues

Stereotypic courtship sounds, odours and behaviours

These cues consist of heritable elements, and all of them must match the male-recognition template for copulation to occur.

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Mate-quality recognition

In many mate-quality recognition systems, females prefer signals that deviate most from the population mean.

對雌性有吸引力的特徵，會有誇大的演化現象。

‘good genes’ models

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Mate-resource recognition

The vehicle-enhancing qualities they signify depends on what feales are attempting to obtain from males.

Good spawning sites

Males’ nutritional offerings

Male body size

Courthip feeding rate

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4.3.3 The perception component

General principlesSelection may shape the perception component by modifying both the recognition template and the matching algorithm.

TemplatesTemplates are internal representations of the characteristics of desirable or undesirable recipients.Recognition occurs when phenotypes of recipients match these templates closely enough.

Belding’s ground squirrels usually give multiple-note trill ( 啼聲 )vocalization to terrestrial predators and single-note whistles( 鳴聲 ) to aerial predators. However, the squirrels trill at walking hawks and whistle at running coyotes.

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學習與參考者

Templates must be learned when the characteristics of desirable or undesirable recipients vary over space or time.When templates are learned, the objects or individuals that provide information about the characteristics of desirable or undesirable recipients are called referents.The timing of template learning dependa on when the most informative referents are available and when discrimination is first adaptive.

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Matching algorithms ( 規則 )

Optimally balance acceptance and rejection errors.If rejection errors are costly, cues that characterize nearly all desirable recipients (D-present cues) should be disproportionately weighted, even if some undesirable recipients also will match closely the template.If acceptance errors are costly, actors should disproportionately weight cues that are possessed rarely by undersirable recipients (U-absent cues), efen if some desirable recipients will not match closely the template.

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4.3.4 The action component

Individuals might perform a continuous range of actions ( 連續累積的行動 )Alternatively, actions may be all-or-none, as when there is a threshold above which all recipients are accepted and below which they are rejected.Many decision rules involve binary actions.

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4.4 current topics in recognition research

4.4.1 Failures of kin recognitionMany organisms occasionally make acceptance or rejection errors.There are at least three evolutionary reasons why this may be so1. Circumstances favouring recognition may be rar

e, or may have been rare until recently.2. Errors may persist because the error-related co

sts of kin-discrimination outweigh the benefits.3. When recipients benefit from the absence of dis

crimination they will be favoured to hide their true kinship by ‘muting; or ‘scrambling’ recognition lables.

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4.4.2 misunderstandings about kin recognition

1. Kin recognition favoured by kin selection must be mediated by genetic cues.

2. Non-phenotypic recognition is not ‘true’ kin recognition.

3. Kin recognition is an epiphenomenon of species or group recognition.

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4.5 conclusions (future research)1. Quantifying the fitness consequences of r

ecognition in nature, especially kin recognition.

2. Determining the occurrence of self-referent phenotype matching in the context of mate recognition and nepotism ( 偏袒親戚 ).

3. Determining how mechanisms underlying perception and action components develop.

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