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8/14/2019 Chemistry Elmi-Ziraii G11 P2
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s b wU W WOKL qOUL suJ s b _ uB W vK u WFd buqOULK WFU u UM dO_ YU qOUL eOd
s b wU Wd UOLOJ f iF dF _ sOKB s bu c uJ WU buUNUO d d uL w dOG UJ
tU WFAL UudbON qOBH s wA dF _ B bu c w WU buWFA dOG UudbON s bO wU U UNM UUJ
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q???????OU?????L? qOU; u W WOKL _ qBH uK; d W WOKL
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WuCF UOLOJ WFA* UudbON _ qBH udJ c bdH u)
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q????O?U??L?
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qO?UL u W WOKL _ qBHWOzUeO UH pc XU wzUOLO VOd UL Ud XU dBMWOIM UL UIU XLKFVM uL s UdO l WeL hU Vc w U u UL WOI UL wQ b b WOzUOLO
UMU w uuL uL rEF UuK vL UbM Vc WJO w U u UL WHK UJsJL U jOUL s jOU WIOI w w VOK UL uN q wu qJA UNU w pK YO dU dJFL UL w U u UL od `Od WId q WDO WOzUeO dD tUuJ qB WOzUeO dD r uKL UuJ qB U U fUL dOG WU c w uKL nu fULU nu uKL S b d UO w U u UL VOd dODI q WU WOzUOLOUdO d WK_ c WOKL UIOD t q dOC sJL nO uKL u UL uK vL
vK U uJ qBH cN p bF UNM WU s sJLuKL uKL dF
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8/14/2019 Chemistry Elmi-Ziraii G11 P2
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H1 WUDU Ube VKD c UNCF s VcL ozU bU v uD
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8/14/2019 Chemistry Elmi-Ziraii G11 P2
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ROL WU VcL ozU sO U WU cL ozU sO U WU uKL dH
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WODI Ue' 5 WU* uI
uuL pK UNOK WK_ s ULNMO WUL l UOJ WMA WLO l Ud VUM UC cCHCl
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Q uI sJL WU uBVcL ozU sO uuL pK cL ozU sO uuL U"Like Dissolves Like" UNNO Vc UL
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W bMF uKL uJ WOKL w dRL WUL uIK WOM WLOI vK uKL d WLO bLFULNUe sO jd _ p uLK qJA WUDK WOKLF c VUB seM w uuKJw uUOL uO_ U bM sJ UO WU uKL d vI tOK uI w WUI WHOF{WOL uJ tOK uKL suJ q UNUe sO jd s u WU u ULNUe sO QAM UL qJA WUM uKL d W UH w UOK dNE c dO W WOKL s WUM WUD
UL w dJ W WOKL sO
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WU fO wD dO uO vK uO uK dOH sJL u[UL WOU uJ sO tMO jd u uJ tULO qBH dO WU vs d UL Ue sO jd u S UL w U uJ w W WOKL
uJ s q UL w WOz uJ tOK uO UL sO jd uu vK bLF W WOKL U _U WOu U cL U Ud WN s VcL `KL Uu sO WN s uK w WOu_ WDdj qOJA vK WOU b UN w UcL w c _ cN
Uu W vK tbI w UL WOuB UM d Uu_ pK l WuuK WU w _ UH YO qJ ROL WOKL WUu `KL b w `{u u UL UNU d nK wUU ROL WU
w??? u???K W???U qUHK W???UBL WUDw
A+(g)
+ X-(g)
AX(s)
rKF q
UL w `KL U WOKL qJ
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UL w _ iF W uKL d b`KLLiClNaClKClLiBrNaBrKBrKI
uuuKO uK WU
uuuKO ROL WU WdEM uKL duuuKO
r w UOKLF iF WUBL WUD s dJ UMODF UN w uKL d WOL sLJuK WU q dU uB UNUO sJL w pK UuB W WOKL
uKL d U UA
NaCl Na2S2O3.5H2O CaCl2 MgSO4 d eO wzUdN dF _ uLqLF uD
UL d W f U r dFL w l{ d W f dFL w uuL UL WOL w NaCl r
ucL s `K q l WOU uD d WOU WO{Ud WF bU s `K qJ uKL d V U ZzU s
ULK WOuM d UL WK `KLK WOuL WKJ`KL WK u u uKL dru [ ULK WOuM d YO
WOzc vK qB WMOF d W bM UL s sOF r w dJ q WK U s WKOK WOL W bM
U v W WOKL dL qB c UL uKL v cL s bb UOL UMH{ S uKnu uKL UMd ULN UL w c UCL dJ iF UM dNE cL s beL UMH{b v uKL qB UbM d s Wb pK bM U b v q tQ WU c w uKLWE q w UM YO uJ WU w UN wMF c sJ Uc s WKB UL nu UWcL UL ozU s UU b S Xu fH w uKL w c WKB UL ozU s bwJOUM e WU vL UL WU c nu Vd U dF w WOIL WKB ULU bDB
td bFL UUL UU cL U bF UNO uJ w WU u
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u [ jG{ d W bM VcL s r w UN sJL cL s WK d WOzcu W v sb jG{ d W bM UNU W V qOUL nOMB sJL
bM VOd b cL s WOU{ WOL Vu c uKLu lAL dO uKL WMOF d W
bM cL s WOU{ WOL Vd YO WU v q c uKL u lAL uKL WMOF d W
U W vK t sJL UL d cL s WOL vK u c uKL u lAL u uKL WUu VcL s WMOF WK w cL s bz WOL W WUu lAL u uKL dOC sJLW v uKL qB UbM pd uJ w td W iHM uKL d r sOU WOzc s d WOL vK u uKL bze cL WOL s r Vd tMOF d
uKL pd cL s WKOK WOL WU{S lAL u uKL lAL uKL sO eOOL sJL lAL u uKL uJ cL s beL Vd S
WOzc w dR* quF
w W qu vK WOzc bLF
Vc* c* WFO uuL pK l WUI uKL ozU sO WUL uI sO ou bL uKL d dQ v WU{UcL Ue r UNM W WOKL w dR d qu UM wIM VcL wIM cL ozU sOWKJ ULK t uI sJL WHKL UcL w UL WOz vK dO dOQ UN WOuL tKUL w (CH
3CH
2CH
2CH
2CH
2OH) uUM WOz p vK U sOF Vc w tOz XK cLK WOuL
WOzc dQ pc WOudJ WKK u V p b WOU UL w (CH3CH
2OH) uU WOz ULMO WKOK
L we VOd w UNNUA w qzu w c WKzU uLU VcL cLK we VOdUULb c sOU UL sJ C8H18 u wOzd tuJ sOU UL s q w uU csO WOKOJ WuL Uc uJ UL sO WdA qObO WuL u v p ld d w UL sOU sO WdA WOOd WuL bu ULMO Uc C
8H
8 sOU CH
3CH
2OH uJ
b u jG{ d W bM U r w uL iF WOz b hKUc
fL nOEM vK uUB qLF nO Y YK WOC
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b u jG{ d W bM U r w uL iF WOz bVdL WGOVdL rr WOzc
AgNO3WCH d[
NH4NO
3
uOu_ d[ AgClWCH buK[xK
2CO
3uOUu Uudx
Ca(OH)2
uOUJ bObO[NaCluuB buK[
C12
H22
O11dJ
Na2CO
3.10H
2OWOzUL uuB Uud
NH3
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W u???J U???L d???U? ??L w?? ? u???LW???OL ???S W???uB
WUD s dO
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qzU UG s q WFOD dU UNS qzu w UG WOzc WMU UsOdOM q UL w UNOz s d uU w UNOz U UMNsObON buK UOu_ WOz ULMO udJ bO wU sO_qUH b V puJ w UNM d UL w sObON bOdUL w sQ HCl UG UL (H
2S) , (HCI) , (NH
3) s q sO wzUOLO
uObON Uu uJ UL Ue l b Wu sObO Uu vuOu_ Uu UuJ UL l UOu_ U qUH pc buKJ Uu
(OH-)
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4
+)
BsOUO s q U Vr S UL wCsOUOpc WUM b ULN kH U???u u??? q???CH
UMOUO ULMO ULNOK WOuOr w e UNS (A,D,E,K)w UNU V??? W???Ku b???Lpc W???OMb r??? W???WU s r wL wNq hI UN w d_Use UMOUOH cV??? b???z U???OLJ U???NCF
rK dC
rKF q
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UL w NH3
HCl s q WOz UFLU q Rw UN bM qI UL w WKB UL WOz dcU db sU u UL sQ dO sQ WHK WFO c vK u uK
UNOz S UGK WMU UUL w dJ uK v UFD `K WU{ wsQ UbM _ p dOH WMQ U u uKL U qIu_ qB sQ WOKL w UbU VcL Ue s dO b UN jOUG Uc vI c VcL WOL hIM pc VU s VuL
UG WOz qI wUU
uU Ud `K
WOKL `O{u w bW???OLCN U???MI d???uBv???K x WF??? WU???uWOUF WOL??? s r???dUu w c t_
U WOLCN UMI
rKF q
d( W UOU
d U vK U Vc w UL WOz vK d W dOQ bLFW WOKL S UIU XLKF UL cL WFO UU U uKLdOQ UL dK U UNCF dK WU uJ UL w _ iF
UNO _ WOz vK qOUL c q bd sOsO S U WJ lAL wKL uKL d XU U v uKL t YO cL `KL WOz s be u uKLWOzc tO e c U w d W U dOQ s nH c
bM bb U WU v uuK `KL s WOU{ WOL c wUUbb d W
DDT d???A bOL w??? d???O U???OLJ c???U???MzUJ W??? u???tULF ` pc WOv???K U???MU w??? u???E
WUJ w tOUF s rddA
rKF q
lA uK c Vc WU
d W
duLKWOzc
d WUr`KrWOz
c
UG iF WOz vK d W d qJ d W _ WOz sO WF qJ
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WOz s qKI u uKL sO S U uIH lAL wKL uKL d XU Uc U w d W U dOQ s nH c U v uKL t YO cL `KL
bb d W vK bb U WU v uuK bze WOLJ Vd WOzc tO qI
WU lA uK c Vc_ rEF WOz WE sJL uKL d W dOG _ WOz dOG qJA sOq uKLd W UHU UNOz qI _ iF UM UL uKL d W UHU eUG WOz qI tOK dK U WOKL wN UL w UG Uc oKF ULO U udO UdvK sOdOM sO_ q UG c d YO qJA UN{u UL d U UHU
uKL q s UUI qJ
tMO bF dA U rF V d R
jGC UU
WOz e ULMO jGC dOG l WKzU UcL w WKzU WKB uL WOz dOG WU uBUG w dUE c dOH sJL uKL `D vK lu jGC U l WKzU qOUL w UGuKL `D u uuL Ue uKL w Wzc UG Ue sO qB UOJOUM Ue QWOzc e uKL v ld w Ue b s be uKL `D u jGC U S tOK UM
d W u l
WU d W vK jGC dOG l UL w WHKL UG WOz b hKUG iF WOz vK jGC dOQ b
u jGC d u eOdH
2N
2O
2CO
[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[
e???OK w???zUOLOJ dMUOKtLU wL UuU l{ bvK hM d???M u???UqOUL w UG eOd VUM du WOzULjGC l??? U???d U???UM
UGK wze
rKF q
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qBH WK
ROL WU uK WU W d WOzc lAL uKL s qJ uBIL `{
WOzc w dRL quF d wQ U V qJA w WOzc UOM v udU
d W bM uuB d s r W UL WK W bM UL r w uOUu UdJ s lA uK s VdL KL WK
W v bd r d d W bM U r w lA uK dOC W uOUu buK WOL ?
U uOUJ bu uOUJ buK s qJ uK WU Q XLK uuuKO U ULNM qJ uKL d wu vK uuuKO
ULNM qJ ROL WU V
W ULMO WUD s dO WOL v WU UL w UNU bM _ sQ WuN dH nO
b WOU UUNB
UG rEF WOz ULMO UL w UOu_ sObON buK U s q WOz UH dH nO dE fH X b WKOK UL w d_
wQ UL q w WOB WU d
wDdO Vc udJ buK l w c WO uL b
UL uuB buK uOUu UMGMdO uO ?
UL w dO WOz t WO UdL b CH
3(CH
2)
8OH
(l) CH
3OH
(l)
CH3(CH
2)
8CH
3 (l) I
2 (S) ?
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WOMObON WDd S N O H sO WD
Cl N O H sO WOLU WD
F
N
O
H
sO WOJOUdJO U u?
sOu sO QAM WD
UL w UN bM VD u u uJ WO uL b CH
3CH
2OH CH
4
C8H
18 KCl ?
WO qK uJ w c UL w UFD `K c UL w UNM d uJ w uO WOz
ULz qI qzu w UG WOz ULMO sOU qzu w WKB uL iF WOz e ?d W UH l
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qOULeOd wU qBHuK dOC v U KL qL bM L qOUL s dOJ v WOuO UMUO w UuO UC uL oU uK dOC bM pc UL v `KL s WUM WOL WU{S p wK
eOd c s dOFK WFL dD U uKL eOd UL qBH c W bF pM lu
uKL eOd uBIL `{u uKL eOd s dOFK WHKL dD bF
d_ quF u bM eOd vK VcL WOL d sO eOd s dOF dD oKF WOU qzU q
nOH UU oKF WOU qzU q
qOUL eOd s dOF d
s sOF r w WcL `KL dJ WOL vK wKL uKL dJ uKL c bLFVcL s WMOF WOL w cL WOL vK bO eOd KDB ULF vK uOzUOLOJ oH b VcL
WOzUL qOUL vK qBH cN UM w ed u
UNM QM eOd s dOFK WHK d UM
cLK Wu* WM
bu VcL cL UOL s Ud SVcL w cLK r WK WuL WM w
dOFK WOzUOLOJ UUMB w WU ULF WFzU w WOKJ WuL WM UbM eOd vL WKJWOL vK WbK r b UMb U U VcL UK cL UNO uJ w qOUL eOd seOd s dOF w ULF WFzU w WOL WuL WM UbM eOd vLO VcL cLWKJ bu uKL UuJ b s dOF r bzU VcL cL s q UNO uJ w qOULw ULF WFzU w rWK ? WuL WM UbM eOd vL r bu d uJLWMU sOF uK eOd s dOFK WLz d_ r WK WIdD bb r WbOB VD U
WKJ s qN r UO uJ WKzU qOUL w L UOIK qN UN WdFL WuL
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WuL WM s dOF sJL cL WK b b wb sL VK c b bM UWO WO{Ud WFU cLK WOLJ
x [cL WOL
VcL WOL cL WOL
cLK WOLJ WuL WM
uLK b WKOKI eOd W w WU d eOd b b ULWObFL Uu_ eOd WOAF WdA bOL eOd q WO w WOzUOLOJ
(ppb) uOK s e (ppm) uOK s e bu c s UL wUce wMF ppm ppbuK e uOK wUOK w U???c e??? wMF
uK e
rKF q
WO WK_ sFL cLK WuL VM U WOHO dF
s r vK u uK w uuB bObON WOKJ WuL WM V UU r w NaOH
x cL WKVc* WK c* WK NaOH ? WOKJ WuL WM q
[ x
rr , tU eOd r tL wzU iL uK dOC W HCl WK U U
x cL WKuK; WK WOKJ WuL WM q
wQ UL uKL WK U sJL
r,
rr,
x
r tUx
uKL r uKL WK x HCl WKuKL WK uKLK WOKJ WuL WM
x HCl WK[
r , , x HCl WK
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U wKJ eOd uK s Ud dOC W BaCl22H
2O WK V UBaCl
2
wzUL uU buKJ WOuL WKJ urBaCl2
uU buKJ WOuL WKJ q
ur BaCl22H2OBaCl
2r vK u tS uKL s r UMb U
BaCl2
r [ vK u uKL s r S tOK UMBaCl
2r vK u BaCl
22H
2O r q UL
BaCl2r vK u uK dOC BaCl
22H
2O WK
r, x ,
Wu*
qB UMS UL s sOF r WK w uOUu buK UFD `K s q s WKJ fH UM dJ uuK dJ s WKJ fH UM u d_ pc sOuKL eOd WOKJ WuL WM fH vKULeOd WOKJ WuL WM fH vK UC qBM UMS UL s r fH w dJ bzUL
d bF uJ sOuKL w WU sOuKL s q w cL Ue b q sJvK bLF uKL uK YO nK sOuKL w cL Ue b XM pKFb wMF w edU UN edWuL u eOd s d dOF v ULKF Q bI uKL eOd
uKL s d w cL u
WO WO{Ud WFU WuL s dOF sJL
WcL UL u bd uKL r du WuL
cL u b YOdKU uKL r
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WO WK_ sFL WuL bu qOUL eOd U WOHO dF
w (CH3OH)
uUO r[ W s ZUM WuLU uKL eOd V U
wzUL tuK s r
u , uUOL WKuUOLK WOuL WKJ uUOL u b q
, [[ cL u bd uKL r
KCN uOUu bOUO s r[ W s dOC sJL c uKL r V U [ uKL eOd BO
u , [ KCN
WKKCN? WOuL WKJ KCN u b q
cL WKd uKL r x cLK WOu* WKJ
[r(
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rKF q
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r x WOuL WKJ x WuL WKJd [ x ur [ x [
(NH4)2SO4 r [ sOF eOd qOU dOC UA
NaCl NaOH H2SO
4
r tF U r tF wL _ uLqLF uD
U eO bU WU WU w UJ WK b Wb UN UJ w r wu NaCl s OK l{
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d wL b w t UL s qOKI UJ w uuL `KL wL b v qOG n{ UL s qOKI d b UJ q
b oM vK uuL r W v wL b w uKL r qL
uKL eOd V tM Wb cL `KL WK b d uL bU WIU uD d cL WK
cLK WOuL WKJ du uKL eOd
? WOu*
UMb S uKLK uL eOd wDF tuK s d w cL u b Q XLKFWU c w uKL eOd vL r VcL s b duKO w cL u bWO{U uB ? edU t edWOuLU
VcL WK ? u cL u b
rG VcL WK rGu WOuL
rGr x
r cL WK
r VcL WK x ur cLK WOuL WKJ ?
eOd fH ULN sOuK Uc S WuL s d bOH WOuLU uKL eOd s dOF bFp X b uJ ULNO VcL cL ozU b sO WM S wuL
U uKL wuL eOd uL eOd d W UH UHU dOG ULN RpU d
WO WK_ w UL WOuL UU `O{u sJL
U d w pOdJ iL s r W bM ?WOuLU uKL eOd V UrG r r x rr [ r x UL WU UL WK q
u H
2SO
4WK
WOuL tK H2SO4 u b
? H
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rG VcL WK WOuL
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U U r qJ r [ U W bM uuB buK WOz XU UuKL cN WOu vB w
r [ UFD `KL WOuL WKJ q
U rG w WcL `KL WK U d w WcL `KL WKr x [
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H2SO
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uKL WOu Wu V
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WO WF s cL WK b
x cL WKuKL WK WOKJ cLK WuL WM
x
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WuLU uKL eOd V
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WO WO{Ud WFU edU tM dF wuL dJ UOI b bu
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WO WK_ sFL wuL dJ UU dF
U u u u s uJ uK w UL uJ s qJ wuL dJ V Uu uKL UuJ u b uL q
uJ u buJ u b UL u b uJK
ULK
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sdOK s r[ UL s r[ vK u uK UuJ qJ wuL dJ V Uur [ ULK r [ sdOKK WOuL WKJ q
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ur [ uuKJK WOuL WKJseMK WOuL WKJ x uL b seM WK seM r [ [ x [
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x seM WKuKL UuJ q uL seMK WOKJ WuL WM
[ x [
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nHL uKL w wN jI VcL WOL u ULNMO bOu nHL uKL w cLWM WHK eOd qOU dOC s UMMJL t w nOH b WOL sLJ edL uKL s dQD W v R cL s b dOG WK W od s b qOK eOd uK dOC _ WKOK QD
U uKL nOH UU d WO WO{Ud WFU WUF pMJL dOnHL uKL w cL u b edL uKL w cL u b
duKL r x uKLeOd cL u b UL
SnHL uKLr x nHL uKL eOd edL uKL r x edL uKL eOdudU
x xwU uKL eOd _ uKL eOd YOwU uKL r _ uKL r
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nOH UU `{u WO WK_
tM r UNL tM WOL c [ eOd uuB bObO uK UUCL UL r V [ UeOd ` v UL s WOL UNO nO{
nOH WUF oOD qwU uKL eOd x wU uKL r _ uKL eOd x _ uKL r [ x [ x r
r [ x wU uKL r
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r s r nOH s dOC sJL c [ eOd HCl uK r V U
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nOH WUF oOD qwU uKL eOd x wU uKL r _ uKL eOd x _ uKL r
[x
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r d r [ x nHL HCl uK r
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r WuLU edL iL eOd U uI q
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2SO
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r iL WKur WOuL tK edL iL u b
u [ [[
[
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nOH WUF oODnHL uKL eOd x nHL uKL r edL uKL eOd x edL uKL r
[ x d[ [ x
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uKDL edL uKL r
eOd rr[ tU c edL pOdJ iL uK r V UtU eOd pOdJ iL s r dOC tKJU
rr[nOH uU oOD s sJL v r W v WKJ W s eOd dOOG eK qeOd x rr WUJ eOd iU uK w r qJ H
2SO
4WK
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nHL uKL eOdxnHL uKL redL uKL eOdxedL uKL r
rr [ x r rr [ x r[ [[ x
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qBH WK
WOuL wuL dJ WuL WO d
U d [ w Ba(MnO4)
2s r [W s uJ uK Wu V
[ eOd CuSO4.O uK s b d dOC eK CuSO
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U r w (NH4)
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uKL s r dOC
r[ vK u c uKL r V [ eOd Ni(NO3)2
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WO WOzUL qOUL s q Wu V uK d [ w c uU u [
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V dHB W bM U r r [ w `KL c WOz XU S dH Wbd bF Xd uK w KL WK bd bF ZUM uKL Wu
d W dOG `KL c WOz s ZM U ?
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c HNO3
tK s eOd r r [ tU nHL pdOM iL r V rr [ edL iU WU ULU edL iL s r nOH dOC sJL
nHL edL iL s q WOu Wu V HNO3
tK s [ eOd
buKJ Uu s rGK uOUu Uu s rGK vK U s r u rr [ b WU XLK Uu_ c s qJ WuL bu eOd V
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qOULK WFU u YU qBHjGC WUJ UNB W UOKG W q eOL WOzUeO u UN WOIM WKzU UL XLKFiF w nK qOUL b b u jGC d W s WMOF d dOQ X U
eOd vK jI bLF u c iF dE fH X UN uJL wIM VcL s UNueOd d U qOULK WFU u ULqOULK WFU u vb uKL w cLWU s sJL UdO d WK_ c UOu cL u vK u c bLF q UNOK
vK U uJ qBH cN p bF UNMqOULK WFU u dF
uKLK U jGC UH vK eOd d dF
uKL UOK W UH vK eOd d dF uKL bL W UH vK eOd d dF uKLK uL jGC vK eOd d dF
qOULK WFU uU WIKF WOU qzU q
WOu_ dO qOULK WFU u
e qJ c u qzU Ue WOU vK bLF uI iF UNCF qzU Ue jddOQ bM WOzUeOH tu iF w dOG dH qzU Ue WOd WUD w jd c rJ
dUD dO U WU{ jGC d W q wU qUF qzU vK
uKLK U jGC UH
l UBIMU b qzU WOL S WdG d W bM uH U w UL q qzU s WOL Xd uI UNMqzU d Wd w dR b qu UM d WOKL XL nOJ d V se d`D v e q S `D vK UNM d qzU q w uI c uJ YO tUe sO WULwU eO v dN tS UL Ue l tU u vK VKGK WOU WOd tU XU qzUiF u UL WOUJ l tK s fO qzU `D vK s b d WOKL d
U s qzU cHM v dL d WOKL nJ d d qzU v dL Ue
rJ U w qzU Uu UL
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p qUI qzU `D u uuL dH w dL Ue dBM dU qzU be Xu d l sJ nUJ Wd s d d Wd uJ Wb w Ue iF nUJl Ud U v d Wd qI WUG WU w Ue b U V nUJ WdwJOUM e WU w t suBL U qzU UEM nu WU c w d W u
qJA sFL
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uKL `D s d w VcL
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wI U s r U w UMF{ qJA w UL oKG eO q sOKBHM sU UMF{ WOLJ b c UL nHLdUD dOpOdJ iL uK s r U w UMF{w uKL r U hI b) U w UL r b u Xu d l sU_ w qzU
UL bI U
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WO WK_ sFL tUuJ W WdF s uKLK U jGC U dF
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uK; UOK W UH
jGC l qzUK U jGC UbM U w d W UNQ qzU UOK W ULKF ]djGC s q dUD dO Uc u uKL U jGC YO qzU `D lu wU
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uK UOK W V u r [U uC VdL WOuL WKJ XU UdOU jG{ uJ UbM U r w Uc VdL c s r [ vK uQ ULK [ d W bM wIM UL bM wKG c jGC fH u
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uK; bL& W UH
uK vK u d wI U vK u ULb sOU Uc k k S WOM dH W ed w sOUJ UMF{ wK
uKL s d uB bL b wIM UL QwwUbKQKdO UOL uI dFv U????A U w Z????K s`KL s d????O UOL U????LrdL Z????K v????KU UO uIzU???? nOC(Antifreeze) b????L b????{W??? ?uKOK UO???? d???? v????dL w UL bL
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UNO Wzc WKB VzuA s qzu WOIM d b s bOL WId
l Ud VUM uKL bL W w UH ULKF b bWO{U uB cL eOd
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UcL s bF bL XU UOKG XU hK w b
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c qB nOJ d uKL r w Ue U
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wQ UL d UL w NaCl uKL tM nB d d UL w CaCl2 uK bL W w UH
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dK U d dK WU UH v WOzUOLOJ UH nMB
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w UH bI U WOzUNM bb d eO d q d W qJA
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X d vK b UL eOL d W w UH XE pKF oU UAM pzd bFvL dK UNUB w UH s uM c q pOO_ iL l bb qUH s
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Wd UOLOJ WOzUOLOJ UHK WIdL Wd dOG Wb vMF w UOLOJ vK oKDWd UOLOJ w WOU_ rOUHL iF v wQ ULO dFM (Thermochemistry)
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HgO(s)Hg
(l)+ 1/2O
2(g)H =+90.7 kJ
t qUH w WbL uL UOL l Ud Wd WOzUOLOJ WUFL wH WLO VUMw UL sFL bF fHM qUH pcH WLO d{ V U bF WOzUOLO WUF d{ bM
WO WUFL w UL (H2O
2 sObON bO u qK U
H2O2(l)H2O(l)+ 1/2O2(g) H=-98.2 kJ
qK bM WIKDML d WOL V.H
2O
2s u
.H2O
2s r
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q
c u uKO [ S UuB uJ H2O
2s b u qK ZM WUFL s
bFU WUFL d{ wMF H2O
2s u qK S
2H2O2(l)2H2O(l)+O2(g) H = 2 X 98.2 kJ = -196.4 kJ
u uKO [ WIKDML d WOL uLU UNKUI U v WKJ qu V H
2O
2s r qK s WIKDML d U
uu rr WOuL WKJ dGU WKJ H2O
2u b
qUFLU WUFL dC UM 1/2H
2O
2(s)1/2H
2O
(s)+1/4O
2H=1/2X 98.2 kJ=49.1 kJ
u uKO H2O2 r qK s WIKDML d WOL S cuKO H WLO uJ UOL d qUH w LtJ bM qUHK H U UC dOGWO WUFL w sO u UL u
CH4(g)
+2O2(g)CO
2(g)+2H
2O
(g)H=-890.0 kJ
H WLO X dK UU ` qUH k WIU qUH WUF fJ bMWO WUFL w sO u UL u uKO
CO2(g)+2H2O(g)CH4(g)+2O2(g) H=+890.0 kJ
d uLL U t H WLO S UH s WuL s UU wzUOLOJ qUH U Uw UL sFL UH cNH rOI
w qUHKH V U Cu
(s)+1/2O
2(g)CuO
(s)
WO Wd UFL bUCu
2O
(s)+1/2O
2(g)2CuO
(s) H
1=143.7 kJ
CuO(s)
+Cu(s)Cu
2O
(s) H
1=11.5 kJ
q
WuKDL WUFL ZM sOUFL UMFL UM kCu
(s)+1/2O
2(g))CuO
(s) H=155.2 kJ
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uKDL s V w qUH R?Sn
(s)+2Cl
2(g) SnCl
4(s) H=544.6 kJ
qUH fJ bMH WLO U bF w wK_ qUH d{ bM
HWLO U
(Hiss's Law) f uU
c UL vK bLF uN State function WU W u H d uL w dOG rKFd dOG cQ p `O{u wzUNM l{u v uuK UN dL w uD qUH tJK d W bM qzU UL s b u u bMF UOKG W bM UL d VUBL
WO WUFL w sO u UL u uKO v U WOKLF c S b u jG{H
2O
(l)+41 kJH
2O
(g)
fH bb dA u uKO ULz hL U ULU u v qzU UL s u u t WOzUNM WU fH UEMK WOzb WU
H2O
(l)H
2O
(g) H=+41 kJ
sOO sOKUH s ZU u qUH c w d W s oU qUH v dEM sJL
H2O
(l)H
2(g)+ 1/2O
2(g) H=+283 kJ
H2(g)
+ 1/2O2(g)H
2O
(g)H=-242 kJ
WUG tUuJ v qzU UL s b u qOK u uKO eK t v_ WUFL s UM sOsObO b u sO u
b u l sO u qUH bM ZM u uKO WUD WOL sO WOU WUFL UUL U s b u suJ sObO
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wQ ULH UNO UL sOIU sOUFL lL bMH
2O
(l)H
2(g)+ 1/2O
2 H=+283 kJ
H2(g)
+ 1/2O2(g)H
2O
(g) H=-242 kJ
H2O
(l)+H
2(g)+ 1/2O
2(g)H
2(g)+ 1/2O
2(g)+H
2O
(g) H=+41 kJ
vK qB WKULL UuJL cbF
H2O
(l)H
2O
(g)H=+41 kJ
UNJK w odD s dEM iG WU dE fH X wzUOLOJ qUHKH o UL ZMtLU wL UuU l{ c f rUF tO qu U c qUH
d uL w dOG S UH s WuLL wzUOLO qUH s dOF r f uU
f uU VJ UH cN d uL w dOGK d uLL U qUH cN
WO{U uB
H=H1+H
2+H
3+.......
w UL sFL U qUH d U f uU oOD dF
w qUHKH V UN
2(g)+2O
2(g)2NO
2(g)
sOO sOUFLbU
2NO(g)N
2(g)+ O
2(g) H= -180 kJ
2NO(g)
+O22NO
2(g) H=112 kJ
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q
p WuKDL WUFL U ULNFL ZU uJ YO UDFL UFL VJH Uw UL WOU WUFL UI v_ WUFL fJF
N2(g)+O2(g)2NO(g) H1= 180 kJ
2NO(g)
+O2(g)2NO
2(g) H
2= -112 kJ
N2(g)
+ 2O2(g)2NO
2(g) H = H
1+H
2= 68 kJ
wQ UL Wd WOzUOLOJ WUFL VJ
N2(g)
+2O2(g)2NO
2(g) H=68 kJ
w qUHKH V R?2Al
(s)+Fe
2O
3(s)2Fe
(s)+Al
2O
3(s)
sOO sOUFL bU
2Al(s)
+ 3/2O2(s)
Al2O
3(s) H=1601 kJ
2Fe(s)
+ 3/2O2Fe
2O
3(s) H=-825.5 kJ
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qBH WK
WO UKDBLU uBIL `{ dK UL qUH WU W UEM f uU Hd uL w dOG
dK U UN dK U WO UH d 2C
(graphite)+2H
2(g)C
2H
4(g) H=52.3 kJ
H2(g)
+Cl2(g)2HCl
(g) H=-185 kJ
2H2S
(g)+3O
2(g)2H
2O
(g)+2SO
2(g) H=+1125 kJ
uKDL s V w qUH 2CH
3OH
(l)+3O
2(g)4H
2O
(g)+2CO
2(g) H=-1453 kJ
sO_ s WOU WOL l uUOL s u qUH bMH V H bI WUM uL WU WKUHL uL WU wQ U rdU `{
sO_ l XdJ qUHH d uL w dOG V 2S
(s)+3O
2(g)2SO
3(g)
WO UFL UbS
(s)+O
2(g)SO
2(g) H= -297 kJ
2SO3(g)2SO
2(g)+O
2(g) H= 198 kJ
H2 (g)
+ 1/2O2(g)H
2O
(g) H= 286 kJ w qUH w
VU Ud sObON U s r d bMH
U r uJ bMH u uKO UbI WUD s WOL U d V w dGU sObON U WOL ?
w qUHKH V 2N
2(g)+5O
2(g)2N
2O
5(g)
WO UFL bUH
2(g)+ 1/2O
2(g)H
2O
(s) H=-285.8 kJ
N2O
5(g)+H
2O
(g)2HNO
3(g) H=76.6 kJ
1/2N2(g)
+ 3/2O2(g)
+ 1/2H2(g)HNO
3(g)H=-174.1 kJ
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UNUO d d uL w dOG UJ wU qBH
WU dOG c p sO WOzUOLOJ UHK WIdL Wd dOG oU qBH w XUH dK U UH UM Xd WUM uL WKUHL uLK WUD u s
UNUO w WKLFL _ w U d WOL UO sJL nOJ UN WU vK U uJ qBH cN p bF UNM WU s sJL UdO d WK_ c
WOzUOLOJ WOzUeOH Wd dOG UJ bF UNBzUB sO Wd dFL nB
Ud dF rLB
Wu bU u iL qUH UF d fOI qUH d U w uLK WOUOI suJ d b wzUOLOJ jd WU WdFL wzUOLO qUH d uL w dOG V
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d uL w dOG sdOF d
s wzUeOH dOG wzUOLOJ qUHK UF d bF d uL w dOG s dOF sJLp vK WK_
s WOU WOL uu UL s b u d bM dL d WOL w d d WO UFL w `{u u UL sO_ U
CH4(g)
+2O2(g)
CO2(g)
+2H2O
(g)H=-882 kJ/mol
CH3OH
(l)+3/2O
2(g) CO
2(g)+2H
2O
(g)H=-715 kJ/mol
UOK UL s u W WUBL d WOL w W d
NaOH(s) Na+(aq)+OH_
(aq) H=-40 kJ/mol
NH4NO
3(s) NH
4
+
(aq)+NO
3
_
(aq)H=+26 kJ/mol
rKF q
sJL UF d??O?? j???? w??? b??????uJ p bM wzU
U ZUM b u uJ bM dL d WOL w UF d bU l iL qUH s UL s
HCl(aq)
+NaOH(aq)
NaCl(aq)
+H2O
(l)H= -58 kJ/mol
UdUM s UL s b u uJ VUBL d uL w dOG w suJ d WO UFL w sO u UL WOUOI dE w WO_2C
(s)+3H
2(g)C
2H
6(g) H
f=-85 kJ/mol
H2(g)
+ 1/2O2(g)
H2O
(l) H
f=-286 kJ/mol
d UNB d qH s dOFK d d UMd d nOH
WKFA WFL qJA sO RUM WFLA w b w Wd dOG UJ s W b
UNUFdK U UN U dOG
WKFA WFL qJA
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qUH d
(Calorimetry) qUH d UO
vL UN w qUH dS wzUOLO qUH b WO WBLL dL d WOL UO sJLWU tb uJ Wd WF WuKF u l UL u U dFL (Calorimeter) dFLd U sJLdFL q d fM pc dFL jO l d U u
tUu dFL UbI UN w d WOL U s qUH
ULNOU w sOOLJ V d R
UNM dFL s bb u UM(Coffee- Cup Calorimeter) QJ dF*
UN sdO wu U s WuMB Q s dFL s uM c uJwU VOC pc qJA w UL d eO UDG s cHM UDsJL pc dK bO WU sdO wu U UL uKL pd
UL s uIHL WBLL d WOLJ WU qUHK d WOL UH WLO UOI dFL c `KB pc dFL q uuLq qOUL w b w UH d UOI dFL c qLFw U ZM w UH d UOI rz dO tMJ UF d
d UH q dO UUH d U UNO lHdQJ dFL qJAWO WF s uIHL WJL d U sJL UIU XLKF UL
WOuM d x r uKL WK uIHL WJL d
d U d x ru uKLKx x
v s U r sO W d WOL V R r u ULK WOuM d ULK
rKF q
WOL w WOuM dW ld W dUL s b d db uOOKO Ww W???d?????? W??F????ld W d WOLW U r d W
b uOOKO
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Bomb CalorimeterWKMI dF*
qUHK dOG U tK w bu uH s WuMB WJOL tb eF U s UN c uJ qJA dE UL s dO WOL w uLG uJ WKM vL uIL uH s uMB
d eO d d
U
d U
uu
WKMI dFL qJA
rKF q
w UH uJ U UOK UL d?? W??WKLFL UL WOL _WOL d??O??? ? dFL w??
WKOK WKMI w uu
lHd jG{ X wIM sO_ UNO qb r WKMI U w UL s WuKF dOG WK l{uv R d s WOL bu UL WKMI q dL WOzUdN d od s UNUF r u WLO UOI dFL c b d lu UE ULC UO tJd r c UL d W l
jGC w dOG UNUB w UH wH
YO s WKMI dFL QJ dFL sO U RULNM q VUM c qUH
oKG uH dFL w UEM u qUH d
rKF q
s d?? U??u?? U??M?? dFL vL dFL
wK
qUH d WIKF* UU(
(Heat of Neut ralizat ion) UF d
uKL UF WuL WUFL Ub WOu VM Wu bU uK l u iL uK e bMWO UFL tMO UL U UK ZMO
HCl(aq)
+NaOH(aq)
H2O
(l)+ NaCl
(aq)+WU
H2SO
4(aq)+2NaOH
(aq) Na
2SO
4(aq)+2H
2O
(l)+WU
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WO dBL WUFLU UF qUH qOL sJL
H+(aq)
+ OH_
(aq) H
2O
(l)2+ WU
w UL sFL UF qUH s WUM WUD U WOHO dFsO UF qUH qJA sO UpuKbON iL uKeOd r tL HCluK sr l dudu eOd NaOH
d W XFH YOd V bILqUH
uK
s r
eO
dNaOH
HCl uK s r eOd
uKL s r UFL
UF qUH wO{u r qJA
r rr U uKL WU dH oU qUH d U q YO HCl iL u b V
d rx
eOd uL bu[ d r x duu[ bUI u b S qLU
uKL UN w d WOL V d U d x WOuM d x uKL WK WJL d WOL
u W x [ x r u uKO [ HCl u , UN w d WOL
iL s u qUH s WUM d WOL V u[ u uKO[ iL s u s WUM d WOL
u uKO
HCl(aq)
+NaOH(aq)
NaCl(aq)
+H20
(aq)H = -58 kJ/mol
rKF q
XMO WIOb U U U??F???? d??? bM uu uKObU l u iL qUH
W vK Wu
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qUH bM WIKDML d WOL dF w UF d vL oU qUH w WuLH WLOb u suJ bUI s WUM OH_Uu s b u l iL s WUMH+ Uu s b u
buI uL UH s bF UF d b sO d W vK UL s
buI uL UH s bF UF d bUF dUF qUH-58 kJ/molHCl
(aq)+NaOH
(aq)NaCl
(aq)+H
2O
(l)
-58 kJ/molHBr(aq)
+NaOH(aq)
NaBr(aq)
+H2O
(l)
-58 kJ/molHNO3(aq)
+KOH(aq)
KNO3(aq)
+ H2O
(l)
ucL UH lOL UF d S b s k ULu UFL lOL w b tH qUH _ WU
H+(aq)
+OH_
(aq)H
2O
(l)+WU
rKF q
WOCL qOUL uJ V WbUI
uJ v p WHHWU{ bM WUM dw bUI v?? iLU???F?????? W??O??K??L??F?? W????O????WOKLF WO fO jI
UC nOH
UF d UO UA_ uL
HCl puKbON iL b r wL wzU UL jO dF NaOH uuB bObO
qLF uD
sOL sO w q du eOdNaOH uK du eOd HCl uK dC
r WF sOKBHMWU sOuKL d W `B v td W wzU UL w WOL b l{
d W w UH V bUI s r v iL uK s r n{ uKL UNO q d W vK q
UF d V
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fHM sOuKL d W fOI uK qJ d eO qLF UL oU UAM w RdDIL ULU tK bF eOL
WO U w d W w dOG V ru[ uKLK WOuM d XLK RuK s r v eOd HNO
3pdM iL uK s r WU{ bM
eOd NaOHNaOH uK s r v eOd HNO
3iL uK s r WU{ bM
eOdbUI uK s r v eOd HNO
3iL uK s r WU{ bM
eOd NaOH
d d
dU qJA b WUDK WbOKI WOOzd UBL r s wFOD UG d rH jHM bFWU v U uu s rd vK WUD s d u v UNKu r UL sO Wb w
bF d w UNb WOU WU ZM t d b WOu WKMdF w qUH d uu s WdF WOL d s WIKDML d WOL UWF UL WOL WdFL dFL w UL d W w dOG UO r rUL s WdF WOL vKd WOL V wUU dFL UL jOL UNB w d WOL V dFLK WdU w UNHU WLOI w WIKDML d WOL U WBLL d WOL uu s WIKDML
UO{U UNM dF
jOL w WBLL d WOLd U dx dFLK Wd WF d U d x ULK WOuM dx dFL w UL WK
w UL sFL UN Wd WLOI U UL d d U WOHO dF
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uu u iF d d sO b wQ ULOuu u iF d d b
rduu ULuu uKO d d
C
udJ,
CH4
UOL,C
4H
10UuO
C2H
4sOK
C2H
2sOKO_,
C2H
5OH uU
C6H
6seM,
H2 sObON,NH
3UOu_,
N2H
4sbON,
Hf WOu* suJ d
UdUM s UL s b u suJ WUBL d WOL UNQ ULK WOuL suJ d dF
UNQ WOUOI dE ULKF d b Hf
edU UN ed WOUOI dE w WO_q d dFL WUu uL s dO bF suJ d UIu b U jG{WOU UH
Mg(s)
+1/2O2(g)
MgO(s)
Hf=-602 kJ/mol
C(s)
+O2(g)
CO2(g)
Hf=-393.5 kJ/mol
d UIA dJ suJ d q dU qJA UN suJ d UO sJL u UM
UH cN suJ d bb sJL nOJq U sJL rOI c bU b w UL uL s dO bFHfsb ULKF U
WO WUFL bU Wb dO uL WOuL suJ d H qUH d s
WKUHL uLKHf WUM uLKH
fqUHKH
w UL sFL wzUOLOJ qUHKH U dF
rKF q
s???u???J?? ???? d????????? UNU w dUMFK WOuL
dH dIL
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WO WUFL w UL uu uKO , U seMK d d XU UC
6H
6(l)+15/2O
2(g) 6CO
2(g)+3H
2O
(l)H = -3268.5 kJ/mol
seMK WOUOI suJ d V q
dH O2 ? Hf WuN qzU seMK H
f
u uKO [ udJ bO wU UG Hf
u uKO [ qzU ULK Hf
u uKO [ qUHKH WO WUFL w rOI c uF
WKUHL uLKHfuL WUM uLKHfuL qUHKHH
2O
(s)H
fx C
6H
6(s) H
fx CO
2H
fx
, x , x [ , [
, [ u uKO ,
uL iF WOUOI suJ d rO bULu u uKOH
fULu u uKOH
f
Al2O
3(s)
CaCl2(s)
CaCO3(s)
CH4(g)
CO(g)
CO2(g)
CuO(s)
Fe2O
3(s)
Fe3O
4(s)
HCl(g)
HI(g)
HF(g)
[
[
[[ [[
[[[
H2(g)
Al(s)
H2O
(g)
H2O
(l)
SO2(g)
H2O
(s)
HgO(s)
KOH(s)
MgO(s)
NaCl(s)
NaOH(s)
SO3(g)
dHdH
[
[
[[
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bU UMOF w qUHK H WLO V U
8Al(s)
+3Fe3O
4(s) 4Al
2O
3(s)+ 9Fe
(s)
qdH bb uOMLH
f pc dH dIL UNU w dUMF suJ d
?Hf suJ d
uu uKO , Fe3O
4
uu uKO , Al2O
3
WKUHL uLKHf WUM uLKH
f qUHKHWO WUFL w uF
, x , , , u uKO [
(Bond Energy) WDd WU
WUBLHd WOL nK pc dK U UNCF U UH iF XE pKFu dJ W WUD bF w sO sOWDd WU vL UL sOF p dOH d qUH s
wQ UL WUG WU w WOzUOLOJ WDd s b
rKF q
dJ W WUD
U???? W??O??zU??O??L??O?? W???D???s WUM WUD b??I??WDd pK uJ
H2(g)
H(g)
+ H(g)
H = +436 kJ
H - H H H
Cl2(g)
Cl(g)
+ Cl(g)
H = +243kJ
(Cl - Cl) Cl Cl
s q WKUHL uL w jd WU uL U dK U uJ qUH uI sJLWUM uL w jd WU uL
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jd iF WDd WUD U ULO sO w bjd iF WU b
WDdWUDWDdWUDWDdWUD
uu uKOuu uKOuu uKO H-HH-C
H-N
H-O
H-F
H-S
H-Cl
H-Br
H-I
N-N
O-O
F-F
Cl-Cl
Br-Br
I-I
C-C
C-N
O-O
O-C
C=O
N=N
WO WF bU p sOF qUH d U b w WbL WDd WU rO b sJLWuJL jd WU uL uJL jd WU uL qUHKH
H2(g)
+F2 2HF
(g)
b w jd UU bU wU qUHKHV U
H2(g)
+Cl2(g)
2HCl(g)
wU b qL qUd r w jdu uKO WDd WUWuJL jdu uKO WDd WU
H-H2(H-Cl), x
Cl-Cl uLLu uKO ,uJ* jd WU s d WuJ* jd WU k
WuJL jd WU uL uJL jd WU uL qUHKHu uKO , , [ x
dK U qUH uJ
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qBH WK
wQ ULO WOB WU d w ZUMK (H
f) WOuL suJ d UU UN d uL w dOG uJ w UFL
2C(s)+O2(g) 2CO(g) 2Ca(s)+O2(g) 2CaO(s) C
2H
2(g)+ H
2(g)C
2H
4(g) 3Mg
(s)+N
2(g)Mg
3N
2(s)
U w qUHKH d uL w dOG WLO S b vK ULU H
2(g)+I
2(g)2HI
(g)
u uKO u uKO u uKO u uKO
wQ UL q s WOB UF d ?dK UL qUHK WUH WLO jOLK d oKD dK UD qUH
dK U qUH b bM oKDM d dK U qUH b bM d qUH U
u uKO U UMOu WOuL suJ d XLK
w wU qUHKH WLO S2Al
2O
3(s) 4Al
(s)+3O
2(g)
u uKO u uKO u uKO u uKO
w qUHKH WLO V b vK ULU N
2(g)+2H
3(g) 2NH
3H = 1676 kJ
UHbI UL U d uKO , u dF w u , UbI U U s WOL Xd d d XU dFL w _ UNB w d qL UL d W w
uu uKO [ U ULK WOuL
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bu WK
w `KDBL r l{u uLF w `OB UNF{ l uLF w UKDBL sO o
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WO_ dUMWKMI dFLWOzUeO WOKL d hL w d WOL UOI b
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N2(g)
+2H2(g)
N2H
4(s)
sOO sOUFL ULFU pN2H
4(s)+O
2(g)N
2(g)+2H
2O
(l) H = -622 kJ
H2(g)
+1/2O2(g)
H2O
(l) H = 285.8 kJ
r UuOK WOuL WKJ XLK SC4H
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4H
10(g)+13/2 O
2(g) 4CO
2(g)+5H
2O
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wQU VWuD_ w UuO u b
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ru , ULK WOuM d b UUuOK Wd WLOI
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WFAL UudbON _ qBHUNOK oKD w UdL sdOb UuJ d dUM sObON l b udJ UIU XLKFwuO wUM q_ udJ Ud Wb WuCF UOLOJ h WuCF UdL r
bOL UHEML F cG q UO wu rEF w WOL UN wUMD UdO qOL
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WuCF UdL w WOzUOLOJ jd dF UudbON U bF
UUJ_ s bF WOe UGO UL VJ sON u udJ u jd dF
UUJ_ w qUA dF UNUH UdOC d dF UUJ_ wL
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udJ c bdH u vK dBMF c b v udJ Ud d U uFU_ UJ_ WHK WOe q WuJ Wu jd UNCF U
sO_ q d dUM c U vK UNb v WU{U VOdUOMuUN sOdOM
vK b??u?? u??d??J?? rH UNM UJ b
UL XOdG
rKF q
udJ c wdJ UM
VOd dF IVA WuLL vK b b s WOU b w lI eK udJpKH UL pKHU vL U vK dF s b ( 126C) udJ c wdJ
b WOU tO dJ u WOUL uJ c u u d pKH
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p s pK UL _ s sOu vK qOBH
Y
Z
X
s pKH qJ
qL jI sOdJ l c u u qUL d pK spKUL qJA w UL
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Y
Z
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p pKH qJ
vK Wu UdJ c ULKF b jI UdJ W u udJ UL
tK U WUI WM w UNOK dF lu w WIdD c 1s22s22p2
wQ UL udJ
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UdJ vL UdJ WF u udJ c n=2dO_ fOzd WUD u sO oULUdL suJ c UN jd w WIdD WOzUOLOJ UND suJ w udJ UNKLF RUJ
UdL pK WOzUeOH WOzUOLOJ u w dO dOQ UN uJ
w uuL U dI WU v uu q s UNCF jd dUMF uI sJLp UdJU WKL p uJ v udJ vF WU c v uuK WKOM UG
c pK ed ULEM t_ wU Ud qJA WOUA j WF suJ
WuCF Ud* w WOzUOLOJ WDd
rU WOUA WD vL WDd WuCF UdL w c jdU_ u UL UdL pK WOzUeOH WOzUOLOJ hzUB bb wWDd c uJ dEM
s b WdE UM vL R UJ W??D? ? WdEU????e???? b????? W??d??E??
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l qb dHL dJ vK u c v_ c pK S WOUA WD suJ sO d bMWIDM vL sOc wu sO WdA WIDM suJ UC dH dJ vK u c WOU c s pK
qJA w UL qb
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sOc wu sO qu wLu uL vK WDdqb WIDM
H1 H HH1
H H
qb qJA
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WMN* _
q d Ud uJ dOH w XKA UN UdL s bbF uJ RUJ WD WdE d]UL WOudbON UdL
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tU ULKF U UbM WFOD w uu dO dHL VdL c dI dO t sO Ud
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j WFQ WU udJ UOL VdL WOe WGOB s sO
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t_ wU qJ qJAudJ u rEM
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_ c w UL WMNL _ u bb uNH US p RUJ WD WdE ULKF u p
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WF vK uB UJU k qJ udJ w RUJ UdJ lu v UdE c WUD u w tM vK_ UH 2p pK v 2s pK wdJ b UIU p dH UdJ
wQ UL sON WOKL w v_ uD w
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1s2
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2pz.
l l ULO u s j l suJ vK U RUJ WdE V udJ Xjd uJ luL sL WHK s U WbL udJ UdJ _ sObO jd U sOHK sOu s UOL w l_ jd U WUD w WUJ dO UNM WUMWU UNMO Ue lOL WUJ UOL w l_ jd WIOI WU uJ sJL UNMO
c b nOJ [ UCq udJ w dHL WF_ UdJ uI v p UuIb d r p dOH U WUD fH UC WUJ UWOKL w UH 2p pK v 2s pK s dJ UI wK WOU uDbb WF udJ b `B YO 2s pK l W 2p Z2p s W 2s s b pK s X _ c _ WUJUN qJA fH WUD fH UN Q eOL sp3 r UNM q vK oK bI
2s,2p UNM XuJ w _ s U U nK
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usp3 pK qJ
+-
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Z
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Y
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Y
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X
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Y
Z
X
2s
+++C
109
.5
sp3
sp3sp3
sp3
sp3 WF U 2p W l2s pK jK
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wQ UL WUM WMNL _ eOLsON s WUMsp3 b uJ L UN WuJL _ b U WMNL _ b
Wp ls pK +-
qJA w dNE UL dO d dOG ULb sOze s sN pK q uJ _ s qJA dH w U b WMNL _ UN WuJL
UNCF s _ c bU L V WMNL _ sO Ue sJL U vB v
NH3
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2O U??L?? e???
sp3 sON
rKF q
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5 We
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5N
109.5 sp3
120 sp2
180 sp
u YK udJ u wdH qJA uJ C2H
4sOKO e qJsp2sON
U 2s pK l 2p s sOJK jK udJ wHJ WU c w 120 tO jd U
qJA w UL sON YUp
pK vIsp2
W6C
1s2
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6C
1s2
.
sp2
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sOKO e w udJ w U WOHO `{u w qJA
p
C
sp2
sp2
sp2
p
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sp2
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p
C
sp2
sp2
sp2
p
Csp
2
sp2
sp2120 120
udJ w sO WD suJ sp2 W U2p s sOJK l2s pK jK qJA
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sp2 pK U 1s sObO w l udJ w s q w WMNL sp2 wJK sO jd bq u j b uJ pc WOU udJ w t tUA pK l jdO udJ u YU
W U udJ w sWD WD s WuJ WOzUM WD C2H4 w udJ w sO jd w WD u vK bUFL sNL dOp pK qb s QAM WOUwu sO qu uL X u WOU c w tKO l v_ udJ
qJA dE WD r jd s uM c vK oKD sOcsOKO e
H
C
H
H
C
H
WD
WD5KO e
(p - p)
(sp2 - sp2)
C
sp2
sp2
Csp
2
sp2
pp
WD suJp wJK
s H
sH
sH
s
H
sp2
sp2
sp2
sp2
s H
s
H
s
H
sH
C C
WD 5bON cs udJ 5csp
(sp2 - s)
(sp2 - s)
WD suJ2p WD suJsp2 -sp2 qJA
udJ w sO WO WD vK e c u C2H
2 sOKO_ e qJ spsON
s b pK l udJ w s q w2s
pK jK r WU c w qJA dE sON d UJKH vI 2p
6C
1s2
2S
2Px
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1s2
.
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sp wJK U2p s b pK l2s pK jK qJA
sJL ULNMO jd W sOKO_ e pc wD wbM qJ ULN sOUM sp wJK qJA dE oU UL w sOK UG WKUL WIdD udJ w sO wD b dOH
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wD suJp qb
pp
sp
pp
spC C HsH s
5KO e
180
H C C H
WD suJ sp wJK qb
p
C
p
sp sp
p
C
p
sp sp Csp C spsp sp
pppp
sOKO_ e w jd uJ qJA
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2 WO WDdU vL UdJ W U bF u WU w WOzUM
udJ s UdO l WOUA j udJ Xu sJL UudbONU WUM UdL UbM vL jI sObONqJA w UL WOU UudbO WOUHO UudbO v UNHOMB
jI WOUHO UudbON v qBH c w dFM wU
u????????? U????????????d??????u??d??J?? d??B??M?? v??K??dFjI sObONWuCF UdL j
UudbON
(C , H)UudbON
WOUHOWOUseM vK utUIA
WFA dO UUJ_ WFA
WOIK dO(C
nH
2n+2)
WOIK(C
nH
2n)
UMOJ_UMUJ_(C
nH
2n-2)
WOIK dO(C
n
H2n
)
WOIK(C
n
H2n-2
)
`O b n
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(Isomerization in Alkanes) UUJ_ w qUA
C4H
10w U u UL WOe WGOB fH UN l WHK WOzUOLO WOzUeO u UN UUJ_ iF
sJL UJ_ WKK w udJ b ULK UJ_ w UA u WOUL e
UuO e w UL dQ ud l u w UUJ_ s b WOUL c uIsOKUA qJ vK dNE YO UuO e p vK U
CH3
CH2
CH2CH
3CH
3CH CH
3
CH3
UuOe UuO
qUA rU UHB iF w UN WUF WOe UNGO w uL iF d dU dFe_ U wMF (Isomerization)WKK w udJ b ULK UAL b UL eb ULMO U UJb UA b b YO UJ WUL
UC20
H42
UuJ_ UAqUA u???? s?? qUA wzUM qUAwdH qUA wbMN
UdO
rKF q
UUJ_ WOL
UUE (IUPAC)Uu_ WOIOD W UOLOJK wb U bLwQ UL WuCF UdL WOL UU
r cR UJ u lAL udbON sOdK UF r UC r udJ b vK b w WOMO WLKJ s UJ_
b dE r WUN w lDIL UNO
a????U???? s?????? Y??????????Uu
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wQ U l WdHL q UudbON WOL ?_ VdL UdF bu e w udJ s WKu WKK u s Y
WOMO WLKJ V rCH
3CH CH
2CH
2CH
2CH
3
CH3
UJ u _ VdL r S pc udJ s X s WKK u uJ YO
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dH r U ULN dHK d_ dD s b WKuL WKK w udJ rd
CH3
CH CH2
CH2
CH2
CH3
CH3
1 2 3 4 5 6
sObON b qI YO qOJ lDILU _ UJ_ WKK s WdHL WuLL vL lAL UNd r s oA WdHL WuLL r Q ULK b c wK_ UNUJ s UNO
b q v s VdL r WUN qb l wK_
R- WOKOJ_ UuL* WOL b
WGOBrWuLLr
CH4UOCH3qOO C2H
6UC
2H
5qO
C3H
8UdC
3H
7qOd
C4H
10UuOC
4H
9qOuO
UJ_ r UNOK WdHL WOKOJ_ WuLL r r Wd r dH UNOK uuL udJ r lCUJ qOO - 2 vL oU UL w UJ_ _
q WO lUIL b WOKOJ_ WuLL fHM lu s d w _ UJ_ dH bM wU w wzUM WuLL dJ b vK b _ UJ_ r
wQ UL U_ sO qu u l UIU d UL dH lu UO bF rOd b UL
UuO qOO wzUM - 321CH
3
2CH
3CH
4CH
3
CH3
CH3
WKK d s b rOd uJ _ VdLK WuJL udJ vK dH s d u bM UdH d_ udJ c d_
UuO qOO w - 322 CH3
CH C CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
1234
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WOL w Uu bu vK UIOD WO WK_
CH3
C CH3
CH3
F
123 CH3 CH2 C CH2 CH3
CH3
CH2CH
3
12345
Ud qOO -2- uK -2 UM qOO -3- qO -3
CH3
CH2
CH CH2CH
2CH CH
3
CH3
1234567
CH3CH
2
CH3
CH CH2
C CH3
CH3
CH3
12345
CH3
?
U qOO - 2- qO - 5 UM qOO w - 4 22
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c UuLL c s b sO b WuLL c pK UNM XdH
WOuduUN Ud* iF b
Ud UC w YuKJ u w udJ
CFC uKH
YK WOC WuLL cVdL w rWKFuKUd uK CluKUMuK BrudUuOud IuUuO u
r UMOuU vK WuL b c w v??_ WF_ WuCF UdL vK oKDq qOJ_ bOU
CH3
CH2
CH CH CH2CH
2CH
3
CH3
1 2 3 4 5
CI
6 7 CH3 CH CH2 CH CH3
CH3
54321
CI
U qOO - 4- uK - 3 UM qOO - 4- uK - 2
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Br CH2
CH
CH CH2I
CH3
4321
F
CI CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 Br1234
UuO qOO- 3- u- 4- uK- 2- ud- 1 UuO uK - 4- ud - 1
Uu UE V w UJ_r U
CH3
CH2
CH CH2CH
2CH CH
3
CH3
1234567
CH3CH
2
U qOO- 2- qO - 5 WuL qO WuL r o pcK rOL d o qO WuL w d k qb_ VOd V qOO
WOOzd UuJL b tQ ULK UM qOO w -4 2 2 UJ WOUM WGOB r RsOUHK
Uu UE V WO UUJ_ r R
CH3
CCH
2C
CH
3
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH2CH
2C
CH
2CH
CH
2CH
3
CH2CH
3CH
3
CH3
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UUJ_ dOC% d
wQU UNM UM UUJ_ dOC d b UM
qOJ_ bOU e
sOU l uJ w cL qOJ_ bOU qUH r YO UUJ_ dOC dD dN s wWO UFL w `{u u UL nHL puKbON iL w
CH3I
Zn/HCI
CH4
b??O??U?? U????d?? WOU_ uL s qOJ_
WdOC UOLOJ w
rKF q
4
CH33
CH2
2
CH
1
CH3
Zn/HCl
CH3CH
2CH
2CH
3
BrUuOud - 2 UuO -
UOMd nu RO9
WO WUF WUFL V UL l UOMd Vd WKUF s p
RMgBr+H2OR-H +Mg(OH)Br
UL l CH3CH
2MgBrVd qUH p vK U
ed t UOMd nU qUH s dC RMgX
d_ u??u?? Mg l?? RXU
rKF q
CH3CH
2MgBr+H
2OCH
3-CH
3+Mg(OH)Br
qOJ_ bOU l UOMd nu qUH
u_ q UUJ_ U qOJ_ bOU l UOMd Vd qUH YORMgBr +RBrR- R + MgBr
2
qOOL bOd l CH3CH
2-MgBrqUH s Ud dOC p vK U
CH3CH
2- MgBr + CH
3BrCH
3-CH
2-CH
3+ MgBr
2
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UduKJU p s vM WuHL q UUJ WNUA UNUH UuOuKJU
UuO d_ UUJuKJU iF wQ ULO
(C3H6) UduKJUs dOJ q WDd W U We u YK tKJX uJ Ud WIK S c [ WuHL WKK UJ_WIK WOzUOLOJ UH vK du c fJFM We du vL bb duu UL WIK `H p du c s hKK e qOL YO Ud
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4ed
CH2
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H2C
H2/Ni
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CH2
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H OH H HuUd - 1 Ud
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Cl2
, Fe Cl3
CH2 CH2 CH2
Cl Cl
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2) H2O
(C4H
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uL iF w VdL c du {_ U wU qJ tpc u wu tM jd U uJ U UU duMB Xe WOFOD
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10) UJuKJU (C
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(Boat) UI qJ (Chair) wdJ qJ UL sOO vK buO UJuKJU
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U
wd
`D
UJuKJU UMuKJU UJ qJA
UNUIA UUJ_ iF Ub
UNM dc WOU{ Ub UM uu UUJ_ b v WU{U
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pO uKUM q WuCF UdL U dOC w UOL(Naphtha) UHM
qJA b ud s WuJ UNIK UNUIA WFAL UUJ s WOIK Ud
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U nOEM d w l:(Mineral Oil) wbF* Xe
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:(Lubricating Greases) rOA u
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:(Petrolatum) d
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WUM w W=KB UL U{ lL WUM w b dO WOe WK UUJ s uJUdO qOL ULd rdL iF
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_ qBH WK
WO d UudbON sON WOUA WDd WuCF UOLOJ
UudbON U U udJ Ud d U U
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4H
10 C
6H
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14
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UM qOO - 3 - ud - 3 Udud - 2 UuOud - 2
s q l uuB eK qUH s tOK uB sJL c udbON U UuOud - 1 ? qOde bu qO bu
bU WUF UNUOK W U V WO UudbON V UM qOO - 2 UJ UM qOO wzUM - 3 3 U UJ qOO - 2
WKQ U{u UUJ_ WOL Uu UE w WOzd uM d
WO UKDBL s qJ uBIL U qUA ? WUL WKK edO qUH
_ sON ? WOKOJ_ UuLL
WO UdLK WOzUM mOB r UuO qOO wzUM - 3 2 UM qOO - 3 UM qOO - 3 - uK - 2 UJ qO - 4 - qOO wzUM - 3 3 ?U qOO wzUM - 5 2 UuO qOO w - 3 2 2 ?
UJ qO wzUM - 3 3 - 3 2 2
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Uu UE LF WO UdL UL V CH
3CH
2CCH
2CH
3
CH3
CH3
? CH3CH CH2CH3CH
3
CH3(CH2)CH3
CH2 CH2
BrCl
? CH3CH2CHCH3Br
UNM ]r r WO UdL UAL WOzUM mOB r C
6H
14 ? C4H9Br C4H10 C
3H
6BrCl C4H8Cl2 ? C3H6Br
wQ UL q w WOB WU d w UUJ qL w WGOB
C10
H18 C3H8 ? C4H4 C6H12
CH3
CH CH3
CH3
VdLK lzUA r
UMe UuOe ? UuO qOO - 3 UuO qOO - 2 UUJ WUF WOe WGOB
CnH
n CnH2n-2 ? CnH2n+2 CnH2n uuB eK l qOde bu qUH s ZUM UJ_
UM qOO - 2 Ud ? UJ UuO qOO wzUM - 3 2 C
3H
7MgBrbOd uOOMG qOd ROL s ZUM UJ_
d UL w UuO ? UJ Ud
uCF ZUM r WO UHK UF V WOOd mOB ULFU puKbON iL l UduKJU WKUF
fLA u{ uu uKJ s b WOL WUu UJuKJU WMK
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WOMOHO_ UudbON UMOJ_
UudbON s UeOL U c sOOU ud w sO We WOzUM WD uu UMOJ_ ULW bLFWFAL UdL s UUA d uJ UdL c S WDd c uu dE UUJ_ WFAL
WDd c s ZUM wbMN qUA vK WeL WDdK eOLL wzUOLOJ UAM vK UMOJ_ UOLOWOzUM WDd
uJ ud W WKB uJ YO WOzUM WD suJ w udJ dA UbMwU UL udJ u jd uJ d o c sp2 u s UNMON
w sO WD sOuJ (sp 2 ) s UJK q b
WU_ udJ j w U u ULudJtUA p pK l udJ w qLFL dO p pK qb WD vb WOU WD UuJO d_ udJ vK uuX u UdJ uJ pc UC sOdJ vK u
WO Uud t{u UL WD u c uL
rKF q
ue Wb tc?? u?????? W??F????A??L?? d??O??wUM sL v?? ueu sL c Zu U sUUL uJ tS VOK
WOUMB be
H
C
H
H
C
H
WD
WD5KO e
1.33A
pp
p
C sp2
p
Csp2sp2
sp2
sH
sH
sp2
sp2
s H
s H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
sOKO e w sON
c UL bsOKO e suJ wb???? b????? ???O???{u??? l????
b vK c
U??A
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WDd s dB u udJ w sO WOzUM WDd dc s b WD u UL WD s u WD]S pc ULNMO WU_w `{u u UL udJ w sO WDd u u b Wd lML
WIU Uud
ZM lA dO U u UMOJ_ WKzU d j (C2H
4) sOKO bF
dK d dOJ s dO UOLJ
UL s b e eM uJ Ud dOC WFL UuO dD dt lOL lI Uu UD ZUM sOK e uJuU e s
WMNLsp2
uu WO p b u w
rKF q
s?????O?????K?????????? U????????????? d??O??C???? w?????? q???L???F?????????u??J???? s??O??K??O?? q???zU???HOCH
2CH
2OH
bLK UC qzU u??d??O??C???? w???? q???L???F?????????WKb d dLK
WAL WUM wd???????? d???O??????J??? ? ?? U??L?? q??u???? s?? U????q vK u wudJ s?? WKuWUu dOG q v
jGC d
UMOJ_ WOL
WIA c sLC WFzU UL UMOJ_ d_ CnH
2nw WOIK dO UMOJ WUF WGOB
UJ_ WUN w lDIL b YO udJ s bF fH vK u c UJ_ r sw b w `{u u UL sOK lDILU
v_ WF_ UMOJ WFzUA UL_ b
udJ bsOJ_qJAsOKOCH2 CH2sOKOdCH2 CH CH3sOKOuOCH2 CH CH2 CH3
sOKOuOeCH3 C CH2CH
3
WDd v dOA dOG iF l UMOJ_ vK WOLK (IUPAC) Uu UE bu oD pcwQ UL WOzUM
sOJ u b WOzUM WD vK WuL WFAL dO UdLK UF r qUIL UJ_ s WIAL cK lDIL s b slDI UC
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WDd pK v d_ dD s rOdU b WOzUM WDd vK Wu WKK u U WO WK_ w `{u u UL sOJ_ r o rd sOJ_ w WOzUM WDd lu v dOA
CH3CH CH CH
3CH
2CH
3CH
2CH
3
sOuO -2 sOuO -1
1 2 3 4 5
CH3CH CH CH CH
3
CH3sOM - 2 - qOO - 4
WO UdL r R
CH3CH CH CH CH
3
CH3
CH3
CH3 CH2 CH CH CH3
Cis-Trans-Isomersim b{l UMOJ_ w qUA
wbMN qUA dUE vL U dNE udJ w sO WOzUM WDd u WOb WU WO
UbM dUE c QAM udJ wc WDdL UuLL cK WOdH WOM luLU vMF wsOHK WOzUM WDd w udJ w s qJ UKBL UuLL Uc uJl wMF d bU WObMN UAL sO eOOL sJLudJ wc UKBL UuLL uJ UbMF b{ wMF d sOU w UU U dU WKUALK ed wdH U fHMWObMN UAL dU WKUALK edO sOU sOOd
p `{u WO WK_ UU jI nK
rKF q
W uJ VUG w tsOuO - 2 - U????????NB
UN????????B W?? s?? q??d??E?? s??O??u??O?? - 2 - uK w UNOd WOUFH
WKHCH
3
C C
H CH3
H
CH3
C C
H
CH3
sOuO - 2 - sOuO - 2 -
UF UNuK pc WOzUeOH UNUH w nK UUU WObMN UAL v U s b UM
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UMOJ WOzUeOH u)
d seM q WODI dO UcL w c UNMJ UL w UMOJ_ c Uc uuKJ
UL WU s q WU UN UuL UMOJ_ WUJ
s qKI VFA S pc udJ b U l UMOJ_ UOK W e UOKG W ?UOKG W
U WuLL WOzUeOH u iF UBK sO w bUMOJ_ s
rKF q
W??? U?????? V????
sOuO - 2 - U???????OK????uF sOuO - 2 - stOD UH
UMOJ_ iF WOzUeOH Xu WOe' mOB b
budJrWGOB
UNB W
UOKG W
sOCH2 CH
2
sOdCH2 CH CH3sOuO CH
2 CH CH
2CH
3
sOuOCH
3CH
3
C C
H H
sOuO
HCH3
C C
H CH3
sOM CH2 CHCH
2CH
2CH
3
sOM CH
2CH
3CH
3
C C
H H
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budJrWGOB
UNB W
UOKG W
sOM HCH3
C C
H CH2CH3
sOuOqOO CH
2 C CH
3
CH3
sOJ CH2 CHCH
2CH
2CH
2CH
3
sO CH2 CHCH
2CH
2CH
2CH
2CH
3
sO CH2 CHCH
2CH
2CH
2CH
2CH
2CH
3
sOu CH
2 CHCH
2CH
2CH
2CH
2CH
2CH
2CH
3
sOJ CH2 CHCH
2CH
2CH
2CH
2CH
2CH
2CH
2CH
3
UMOJ_ dOC% d
UNM dc WHK dD UMOJ_ dOC sJL
uJ s U* e
w uJ s U e e od s sOJ v uJ qu sJLWO WUF WUFL w UL d uu wCL j
rKF q
s??L?? h???d??? d????E???? t?????b UNS uJu dOC w WO UL
UMOJ_ s dO
C C
OHHu
5J
H+ dC C + H
2O
WO WUFL w sO u UL uU e s sOKO dOC sJL L
CH3CH
2- OH
H2SO
4
170 CH2 CH2 + H2OuU sOKO
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WO WUFL qL R
CH3
CH2
OHH
3PO
4
220-200uU
uOMOL_ bO q bU qU `D vK uJ U dS uJ s U e e sJL pc 350 d W vK Al2O3
CH3CH
2OH
Al2O
3
350 CH2 CH2 + H2OuU sOKO
WO WUFL qL RCH
3CH
2CH
2OH
95% H2SO
4
170uUd
qOJ_ bOU s 5bON bOU e
sOU ud w s sObO sOuUN bI r YOl Udud - 2 sO bM LWu bU u wu j ww sO u UL sOd ZM wu j w edL uOUu bObO
WO WUFLrKF q
q???O???J???_ b????O????U???? WOz WO UL qLFW??u??C??F?? U??O??L??O??J?? w????
WdOCCH
3CH
Br
CH3+
KOH
wud CH2 CHCH3 + KBr + H2O
sOd -1
UuOud -2
sOuO - 1 ZM wu j w edL uOUu bObO l UuOud - 1 sO bM
CH3CH
2CH
2CH
2Br
KOH
wud CH3CH2 CH CH2UuOud -1 sOuO -1
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(Vicinal Dihalides) U* qOJ_ bOU wzUM s UMOuUN e
WO WUFL tMO UL pO iL w sOU uu bOUN wzUM sO p r
CH3
CH
Br
CH
Br
CH3
Zn
d CH3CH CHCH3 + ZnBr2
sOuO - 2UuOud wzUM