Contemporary Western Translation Theories: Approaches and Propositions

• Theory? Theory?

• Why and What?Why and What?

• Recognition and revelationRecognition and revelation

• Descriptions of the realityDescriptions of the reality

• Reflections on the truthReflections on the truth

• Understanding of ourselves and all our Understanding of ourselves and all our activitiesactivities

• Accumulation of knowledgeAccumulation of knowledge

• Rich thoughtsRich thoughts

• Modes of thinkingModes of thinking

• Perspectives/ views/ believesPerspectives/ views/ believes

/ propositions/ arguments/ / propositions/ arguments/

Chinese scholars of translation

• 许钧 南京大学；吕俊 南京师范大学；许钧 南京大学；吕俊 南京师范大学；• 廖七一 四川外院；朱志渝 香港理工；廖七一 四川外院；朱志渝 香港理工；• 张南峰 香港岭南；李运兴 天津师范；张南峰 香港岭南；李运兴 天津师范；• 林克难 天津外国语；谢天振 上海外国语；林克难 天津外国语；谢天振 上海外国语；

许渊冲 北京大学；罗选民 清华大学；谭许渊冲 北京大学；罗选民 清华大学；谭载禧；刘宓庆；杨晓荣；穆雷；张美芳；载禧；刘宓庆；杨晓荣；穆雷；张美芳；孙艺风；黄忠廉孙艺风；黄忠廉

Journals of translation

• TargetTarget

• Perspectives in TranslotologyPerspectives in Translotology

• The TranslatorThe Translator

• MetaMeta

• BabelBabel

• Chinese Translators’ JournelChinese Translators’ Journel

• Foreign Languages and Their TeachingForeign Languages and Their Teaching

• Foreign LanguagesForeign Languages

• Foreign Languages Teaching and Foreign Languages Teaching and ResearchResearch

Contents

1. The linguistically-oriented approach 1. The linguistically-oriented approach

2. Literary scholars as predecessors of 2. Literary scholars as predecessors of Translation Studies Translation Studies

3. Translation Studies as a new trend of 3. Translation Studies as a new trend of research research

4. The Cultural Turn in Translation 4. The Cultural Turn in Translation Studies Studies

5. The German Functionalist Approach5. The German Functionalist Approach

6. Philosophical Theories of Translation6. Philosophical Theories of Translation

--Philosophical hermeneutics--Philosophical hermeneutics

--Deconstructionist--Deconstructionist

7. Post-colonial theories7. Post-colonial theories

8. Feminist theories8. Feminist theories

• Cognitive approaches to translationCognitive approaches to translation

• Empirical research in Translation Empirical research in Translation StudiesStudies

• Sociological approach to translationSociological approach to translation

Theory? Why and What?

• Reflection and recognitionReflection and recognition

• Systematic and logicalSystematic and logical

• Abstract and concreteAbstract and concrete

• From the reality---”the real world of our From the reality---”the real world of our experience”---to conclusionsexperience”---to conclusions

• From presuppositions to confirmations From presuppositions to confirmations

• Theoretical conceptsTheoretical concepts

• PropositionsPropositions

• Theories---coherent, consistent, Theories---coherent, consistent, systematic elaboration/explicationsystematic elaboration/explication

• Approaches/perspectivesApproaches/perspectives

• Theoretical modelsTheoretical models

• Paradigms Paradigms

Aspects of an approach

• The historical settingThe historical setting

• Theoretical sourcesTheoretical sources

• Key concepts/propositionsKey concepts/propositions

• RepresentativesRepresentatives

• Publications---monographs/Publications---monographs/anthologies/articlesanthologies/articles

• Arguments/issues/pros and consArguments/issues/pros and cons

• ApplicationsApplications

• Influence in the theoretical circleInfluence in the theoretical circle

• Significance/contributionsSignificance/contributions

• DevelopmentsDevelopments

The linguistically-oriented approach

In the 1960s, during the boom of the linguistic In the 1960s, during the boom of the linguistic

theories which are commented as strictly theories which are commented as strictly

scientific, there emerged linguistic scholars who scientific, there emerged linguistic scholars who

developed theoretical approaches to translation. developed theoretical approaches to translation.

——Eugene A. Nida (American linguist)Eugene A. Nida (American linguist)

1964 1964 Toward a Science of TranslatingToward a Science of Translating

1969 1969 The Theory and Practice of TranslationThe Theory and Practice of Translation

Based on his experience in Bible Based on his experience in Bible translating, he applied linguistic concepts translating, he applied linguistic concepts in terms of a scientific orientation to in terms of a scientific orientation to linguistic structures, semantic analysis, linguistic structures, semantic analysis, linguistic transfer, and transformational linguistic transfer, and transformational grammar in the analysis of translation. grammar in the analysis of translation.

• He posited dynamic equivalence in He posited dynamic equivalence in translation which is commented as the translation which is commented as the principle of equivalent effect.principle of equivalent effect.

Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. receptors in the source language.

Translating consists in reproducing in the Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closet natural receptor language the closet natural equivalent of the source-language equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.secondly in terms of style.

— —J. C. Catford (British linguist)J. C. Catford (British linguist)

1965 1965 A Linguistic Theory of TranslationA Linguistic Theory of Translation

Based on his translation theory on the Based on his translation theory on the systemic grammar concept of Halliday, systemic grammar concept of Halliday, which analyzes language as which analyzes language as communication, operating functionally in communication, operating functionally in context and on a range of different levelscontext and on a range of different levels—phonology, graphology, grammar, lexis; —phonology, graphology, grammar, lexis; and ranks—sentence, clause, group, and ranks—sentence, clause, group, word, morpheme,etc.word, morpheme,etc.

• He made a distinction between formal He made a distinction between formal correspondence in text category and correspondence in text category and textual equivalence in any portion of text.textual equivalence in any portion of text.

• He considered 2 kinds of shift that He considered 2 kinds of shift that occurred when formal equivalence is not occurred when formal equivalence is not possible between a pair of languages.possible between a pair of languages.

Translation shifts are thus departures Translation shifts are thus departures from formal correspondence in the from formal correspondence in the process of going from the source process of going from the source language to the target language. language to the target language.

——The Leipzig School (German linguists)The Leipzig School (German linguists)

• Representative scholar—Albercht Representative scholar—Albercht NeubertNeubert

1991 1991 Translation as TextTranslation as Text

Applying text analysis in translation.Applying text analysis in translation.

He helped establish the wide spread He helped establish the wide spread movement to introduce formal and movement to introduce formal and empirical rigor into translation studies, empirical rigor into translation studies, leading The Institute for Applied leading The Institute for Applied Linguistics at Kent State University for Linguistics at Kent State University for American Translation Studies.American Translation Studies.

• Wolfram Wilss, Katharina Reiss, Werner Wolfram Wilss, Katharina Reiss, Werner KollerKoller

Translation Studies was defined as a sub-Translation Studies was defined as a sub-discipline of applied linguistics. They discipline of applied linguistics. They intended to adopt scientific methods to intended to adopt scientific methods to dismiss traditional subjective discussion dismiss traditional subjective discussion on translation.on translation.

1977 Wilss, Wolfram, The Science of 1977 Wilss, Wolfram, The Science of Translation. Problems and Methods Translation. Problems and Methods

Literary Scholars as Literary Scholars as predecessorspredecessors

of Translation Studiesof Translation Studies

They were literary scholars under the They were literary scholars under the branch of comparative literature and branch of comparative literature and confine themselves exclusively to literary confine themselves exclusively to literary translation.translation.

They came from Low countries and small They came from Low countries and small European countries, such as Netherlands, European countries, such as Netherlands, Belgium, Israel, etc.Belgium, Israel, etc.

Representatives: Representatives:

James Holmes Itamar Even-ZoharJames Holmes Itamar Even-Zohar

José Lambert Gideon Toury José Lambert Gideon Toury

André Lefevere Theo Hermans André Lefevere Theo Hermans

Susan Bassnett Mari TymmotzcoSusan Bassnett Mari Tymmotzco

1985 The Manipulation of Literature: 1985 The Manipulation of Literature: Studies in Literary Translation and Studies in Literary Translation and Translation StudiesTranslation Studies

Their anthology of essays led to their Their anthology of essays led to their variant title—the Manipulation School variant title—the Manipulation School

“ “From the point of view of the target From the point of view of the target literature, all translation implies a literature, all translation implies a degree of manipulation of the source degree of manipulation of the source text for a certain purpose” (Hermans text for a certain purpose” (Hermans 1985:9). Translating is rewriting. 1985:9). Translating is rewriting.

Translation Studies Translation Studies

as a new trend of research as a new trend of research

Leading scholar--- James S. HolmesLeading scholar--- James S. Holmes

His seminal article---His seminal article---

The Name and Nature of Translation The Name and Nature of Translation Studies 1972Studies 1972

Contributions—Contributions—

• Translation Studies be established as a Translation Studies be established as a disciplinediscipline

• The conceptual scheme for the disciplineThe conceptual scheme for the discipline

• Descriptive studies as the methodology for Descriptive studies as the methodology for the disciplinethe discipline

• The empirical nature of translation studiesThe empirical nature of translation studies

The two main objectives:The two main objectives:

• to describe the phenomena of translating to describe the phenomena of translating and translations as they manifest and translations as they manifest themselves in the world of our experiencethemselves in the world of our experience

• to establish general principles by means of to establish general principles by means of which these phenomena can be explained which these phenomena can be explained and predicted (Holmes 1988:71).and predicted (Holmes 1988:71).

Israeli ContributionsIsraeli Contributions

——Polysystem theoryPolysystem theory

Itamar Even-Zohar postulated the Itamar Even-Zohar postulated the polysystem hypothesis for the polysystem hypothesis for the aggregate of literary systems including aggregate of literary systems including all canonized and non-canonized forms all canonized and non-canonized forms in a given culture. in a given culture.

The term “Polysystem” refers to the entire The term “Polysystem” refers to the entire network of correlated systems, literary and network of correlated systems, literary and extra literary, within a society. extra literary, within a society.

Within a literary polysystem, there exists Within a literary polysystem, there exists a hierarchical structure of differing a hierarchical structure of differing subsystems of different types of subsystems of different types of literature—canonized, non-canonized, literature—canonized, non-canonized, and translated literature.and translated literature.

Literary subsystems Literary subsystems

• canonized canonized

• non-canonizednon-canonized

• translated literaturetranslated literature

They constantly struggle for a more central They constantly struggle for a more central position than others to maintain a primary position than others to maintain a primary position in the culture. Central--shaping position in the culture. Central--shaping the center of the polysystem.the center of the polysystem.

Secondary position---peripheral Secondary position---peripheral system---conforming to the established system---conforming to the established literary norms and conventional forms literary norms and conventional forms

The role translations play in the culture The role translations play in the culture influences/conditions translation influences/conditions translation strategy.strategy.

If it is primary, the translator is more If it is primary, the translator is more concerned with the linguistic and cultural concerned with the linguistic and cultural features of the source text to produce an features of the source text to produce an adequate translation, whereas if it is adequate translation, whereas if it is secondary, the translator is prepared to secondary, the translator is prepared to emphasize the literary conventions and emphasize the literary conventions and cultural features of the target cultural features of the target system(Gentlzer 1993:117). system(Gentlzer 1993:117).

Gideon Toury carried out descriptive Gideon Toury carried out descriptive translation studies to emphasize target-translation studies to emphasize target-orientation and to derive translational orientation and to derive translational norms. The shift of direction--- norms. The shift of direction---

• source-oriented→target-orientedsource-oriented→target-oriented

• prescriptive→descriptiveprescriptive→descriptive

• textual→extra textualtextual→extra textual

• microscopic→macroscopic--- socio-cultural microscopic→macroscopic--- socio-cultural contextcontext

• socio-cultural factors/conditions of the text→socio-cultural factors/conditions of the text→

features of the situation→translation process features of the situation→translation process

↓ ↓ ↓ ↓

translator’s behavior→product/outcometranslator’s behavior→product/outcome

＼ ／＼ ／ Regularities of translational activityRegularities of translational activity

↓ ↓

translational normstranslational norms

↓ ↓

translation universalstranslation universals

The Cultural Turn The Cultural Turn

in Translation Studies in Translation Studies

Representatives—André Lefevere, Susan Representatives—André Lefevere, Susan Bassnett Bassnett

1990 1990 Translation, History and CultureTranslation, History and Culture

The manifesto of a major change of The manifesto of a major change of emphasis in translation studies. emphasis in translation studies.

The study of the practice of translation The study of the practice of translation began to consider broader issues of began to consider broader issues of context, history and convention. context, history and convention.

The object of study has been redefined; The object of study has been redefined; What is studied is the text embedded in What is studied is the text embedded in its network of both source and target its network of both source and target cultural signs and in this way TS has cultural signs and in this way TS has been able both to utilize the linguistic been able both to utilize the linguistic approach and to move out beyond it. approach and to move out beyond it.

This shift of emphasis is the “cultural turn” in This shift of emphasis is the “cultural turn” in Translation Studies.Translation Studies.

To study and understand: To study and understand:

--complex manipulative textual --complex manipulative textual processes (rewriting)processes (rewriting)

--the selection of a text for --the selection of a text for translationtranslation

--the role of the translator, patron, --the role of the translator, patron, editor, publishereditor, publisher

--what criteria determine translation --what criteria determine translation strategiesstrategies

--how the translation is received in the --how the translation is received in the target systemtarget system

--extra textual --extra textual constraints/ideology/power/institution/genderconstraints/ideology/power/institution/gender

--postcolonial translation--postcolonial translation

The German Functionalist The German Functionalist theoriestheories

Scholars of the functionalist approach Scholars of the functionalist approach came from the linguistic background. came from the linguistic background.

— —Katharine Reiss—text types—Katharine Reiss—text types—language functions—translation language functions—translation criticism (assessment of translations)—criticism (assessment of translations)—purpose—function in the communicative purpose—function in the communicative situation—translation strategy situation—translation strategy

Reiss posited functional equivalence at Reiss posited functional equivalence at text level, including language functions of text level, including language functions of text types and translation strategies. text types and translation strategies.

— —Translational action proposed by Holz-Translational action proposed by Holz-Mänttäri in light of communication theory Mänttäri in light of communication theory and action theory—Human activity is and action theory—Human activity is purpose driven→human purpose driven→human interaction/intercultural communication—interaction/intercultural communication—translation process→communication translation process→communication process involving communicators and their process involving communicators and their roles.roles.

— —Hans Vermeer—action theory—Hans Vermeer—action theory—purpose of the activity—skopos purpose of the activity—skopos theory→intended receiver with the theory→intended receiver with the background of culture-specific world background of culture-specific world knowledge , knowledge , expectations/communication needs in expectations/communication needs in the target situation → communicative the target situation → communicative functions.functions.

It is no longer the source text which sets It is no longer the source text which sets the standards for the translator’s decisions the standards for the translator’s decisions in the translation process, but the intended in the translation process, but the intended receiver of the translation, whose receiver of the translation, whose reception will be entirely guided by target reception will be entirely guided by target culture expectations, conventions, norms, culture expectations, conventions, norms, models, real-world knowledge, models, real-world knowledge, perspective, etc.perspective, etc. （（ Nord 1997a:46Nord 1997a:46 ）） . .

Purpose →process—Purpose →process— strategy/method→product—functionsstrategy/method→product—functions ↑ ↑ ReceiverReceiver

purposes

Translator’s

Communication

Special

— —Christiane NordChristiane Nord

Functionality +loyalty (shared responsibility Functionality +loyalty (shared responsibility among all the communicators)among all the communicators)

. .

• Nord posits that the translator has to take the Nord posits that the translator has to take the responsibility towards the author, the initiator responsibility towards the author, the initiator and the target recipient, and this and the target recipient, and this responsibility is loyalty which is a moral responsibility is loyalty which is a moral principle indispensable in the relationships principle indispensable in the relationships between human beings who are partners in a between human beings who are partners in a communicative actioncommunicative action

The translator should respect the original The translator should respect the original author while adapting to the purpose of the author while adapting to the purpose of the translation. The loyalty principle shows translation. The loyalty principle shows concern on the social relationships concern on the social relationships between the translator and other between the translator and other participants in the translation process. participants in the translation process.

The propositions of the functionalist The propositions of the functionalist theory approach translation from the theory approach translation from the perspective of action theory and cross-perspective of action theory and cross-cultural communication theory and cultural communication theory and emphasize the function and purpose in emphasize the function and purpose in translational action that is regarded as translational action that is regarded as an activity of cross-cultural an activity of cross-cultural communication. communication.

Philosophical Theories Philosophical Theories

of Translationof Translation

— —Philosophical hermeneuticsPhilosophical hermeneutics

Traditional—Schleiermacher—Traditional—Schleiermacher—understanding/interpretation of a text as a understanding/interpretation of a text as a circular movement/a provisional and circular movement/a provisional and unlimited process—the starting point is unlimited process—the starting point is from the perspective of the individual’s lifefrom the perspective of the individual’s life—pre-interpretation—non-canonized —pre-interpretation—non-canonized

The understanding of a text cannot be The understanding of a text cannot be standardized. Time, space, and standardized. Time, space, and individuality must be allowed, leading to individuality must be allowed, leading to different, extending interpretations in different, extending interpretations in consequence. consequence.

Every individual begins with a pre-Every individual begins with a pre-interpretation on the premise of one’s interpretation on the premise of one’s previous experience, which restrains and previous experience, which restrains and limits one’s understanding. Thus, the limits one’s understanding. Thus, the interpretation or understanding of a text interpretation or understanding of a text can never be fixed. It changes and can never be fixed. It changes and develops in the context of the text that is in develops in the context of the text that is in constant development. constant development.

Martin Heidegger—modern hermeneutics Martin Heidegger—modern hermeneutics propositions---propositions---

• Every type of translation is explication Every type of translation is explication and all kinds of explication are and all kinds of explication are translations. Translating is an activity of translations. Translating is an activity of understanding, explicating, understanding, explicating, paraphrasing.paraphrasing.

• All explications are based on the premise All explications are based on the premise of preinterpretation that limits and defines of preinterpretation that limits and defines explications.explications.

• The classic translation problems—time The classic translation problems—time passes in space, language changes and passes in space, language changes and distorts, interpretation differs, and original distorts, interpretation differs, and original meaning recedes.meaning recedes.

Hans-Georg Gadamer—modern Hans-Georg Gadamer—modern philosophical hermeneuticsphilosophical hermeneutics

• Historical interpretation--- The subject and Historical interpretation--- The subject and the object involved in understanding exist the object involved in understanding exist historically with the evolution of history / in historically with the evolution of history / in the historical context/ in the historical form.the historical context/ in the historical form.

• Fusion of horizons—subject/object—Fusion of horizons—subject/object—hold respective horizons---the hold respective horizons---the perspective and prospect for perspective and prospect for understanding—the two horizons merge understanding—the two horizons merge into a single whole —both transcend the into a single whole —both transcend the previous horizons to attain a view previous horizons to attain a view horizonhorizon

• Effected history—subject/object—remain Effected history—subject/object—remain an evolving process—The text is open to an evolving process—The text is open to infinite interpretations, extending forever in infinite interpretations, extending forever in all possibilities without limit. all possibilities without limit.

The meaning of the text transcends the The meaning of the text transcends the times in which it is created, and is times in which it is created, and is interpreted differently by people of interpreted differently by people of different times. It can never be canonized.different times. It can never be canonized.

— —Deconstructionist approachDeconstructionist approach

Anti-tradition--- emphasizes differences---Anti-tradition--- emphasizes differences---challenges the concept of the original---challenges the concept of the original---breaks down even the notion of the breaks down even the notion of the author---emphasizes the substantial loss author---emphasizes the substantial loss of meaning in translation of meaning in translation

Classical Classical Modern Modern

coherence coherence discontinuities discontinuities

unity unity reversals reversals

harmony harmony contradictions contradictions

articulated articulated silences silences

representation representation gaps gaps

identity identity differences differences

Jacques Derrida, an outstanding Jacques Derrida, an outstanding representative of deconstruction representative of deconstruction suggests that deconstruction and suggests that deconstruction and translation are inexorably translation are inexorably interconnected, intimating that in the interconnected, intimating that in the process of translation, différance is process of translation, différance is visible to the highest degree possible. visible to the highest degree possible.

The process of translation manifests a The process of translation manifests a mode of differing and deferring that mode of differing and deferring that subverts modes of traditional and subverts modes of traditional and metaphysical thinking that have metaphysical thinking that have historically dominated assumptions historically dominated assumptions about translation. about translation.

He points out: “ In the limits to which it is He points out: “ In the limits to which it is possible or at least appears possible, possible or at least appears possible, translation practices the difference translation practices the difference between signified and signifier”( Derrida between signified and signifier”( Derrida 1981, as cited in Gentzler 1993:146). 1981, as cited in Gentzler 1993:146).

• 7. Empirical Research in Translation 7. Empirical Research in Translation StudiesStudies

• 8. Cognitive Approach to Translation8. Cognitive Approach to Translation