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Contrastive Analysis of Stress in English and

Kurdish

Dr.Abbas Mustafa Abbas Rawand Sabah Ahmad College of Languages Shaqlawa Technical Institute University of Sulaimani Technical Institutes Board

Abstract

The title of this study is a’ Contrastive Analysis of Stress in English and English’. It deals with stress in both English and Kurdish languages to point out the areas of differences and similarities between them and to show the difficulties that face Kurdish learners of English language. The two languages have different rules and patterns of using stress. It is concluded that: A. Stress in Kurdish is a morphological phenomenon whether a syllable attracts or repels the primary stress is determined by morphology, i.e. it depends on whether the word is simple or derived, and whether the derivative is created by an inflectional or a derivational affix. Since all derivational affixes attract the stress on to themselves, while most inflectional affixes, repel it.Stress in English is mainly a phonological phenomenon, i.e. the position of the primary stress is determined by resorting to phonological factors such as length, loudness, prominence, the number of the syllables in a word, etc, although suffixes can have a role in assigning stress, those that attract the stress are few in number. B. Kurdish is a syllable- timed language, i.e. whether a syllable is stressed or unstressed its vowel will preserve its quality and remain a full vowel with all its distinctive features. English, on other hand, is a stress-time language, where the vowels of the unstressed syllable, lose their quality and are reduced to a schwa. Thus, Kurdish learners of English tend, or are inclined to use the strong forms of functions words in all contexts, and give equal time and prominence to all the syllables of English words, regardless of whether they are stressed or unstressed. Hence, their version of English lacks the rhythmic beats characteristic of the native or native-like pronunciation. The differences mentioned above are main factors of the difficulties by Kurdish learners.



46

1.0 Introduction

James (1980: 3) defines contrastive analysis “as a linguistic

enterprise aimed at producing inverted (i.e. contrastive, not comparative)

two valued typologies on the assumption that languages can be

compared."

In his preface, James (1980: III – IV) states that teachers and

learners will be better able to plan their learning and teaching; better able

to conquer the difficulty and consequently better able to direct learning

and teaching effort. It is on this basis that a range of contrastive analyses

published in 1960. James places contrastive analysis as an interlinguistic

enterprise which sees language not only as a form but also as a function

in context, not only as system to be described but as system to be

acquired. Furthermore, James (1980:145- 14) states that contrastive

analysis has goals in predicting and diagnosing errors of second

language committed by learners with a knowledge of first language, and

for making testing instruments for these kind of learners.

Contrastive linguistics is a kind of comparison which is concerned

with noting and describing similarities and differences. It is different

from typological linguistics and comparative historical studies which

concern about grouping languages typologically and genetically.

Contrastive linguistics depends on theoretical linguistics because it is

difficult for a researcher to reach relevant facts without a theoretical

background. In addition, contrastive linguistics also depends on

descriptive linguistics since no comparisons of languages can be

conducted without prior description. That is a contrastive linguistics is an

area of linguistics in which a linguistic theory is applied to a comparative



47

description of two or more languages which need not be genetically or

typologically related. Such comparison very much depends on the theory

applied to be successful. In reference to cross language comparisons, the

term contrastive is most frequently used. But various authors have been

trying to replace it with other terms, like cross-linguistic studies and

confrontative studies (Krzeszowski 1990:9-11).

Mackey (2006: 498) defines contrastive analysis as "the

hypothesis that difficulties in language learning may be attributed to

differences between the first language and second language" .He

(2006:435) states that differences between the learner's first language

and second language are the main problematic sources for the second

language learners, and the phonology and grammatical structures of

languages are compared to predict difficulties. Though, latest research

has shown that language differences do not reliably predict language

learning difficulty, and very few of the errors produced by second

language learners can be traced to their first language, but the errors are

the result from developmental processes without regarding first language

background. In another word, contrastive analysis shows the linguistic

description of at least two languages (L1 and L2), which are compared or

contrasted so as to highlight points of similarities, or differences.

2.0 Contrastive Analysis of Stress in English and Kurdish

2.1 Similarities of Stress in English and Kurdish

2.1.1 Degrees of Stress



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Kurdish is similar to English in that words in isolation can have

different degrees of stress. In both languages, phonetically or in the

absence of phonology, various degrees of stress can be found when the

word is said in isolation as in:

A. In English:

noun Verb

a. abstract Abstŕact

b. address Adŕess

c. attribute attŕibute

d. ćontent content

f. ćontrast contŕast

g. ćontact contact

h. ćonvert convert

i. defect Deféct

j. conflict confĺict

k. éscort Esćort

l. insert Inśert

m. object Obȷect

n. overwork overwórk

o. ŕecap Rećap

p. śuspect susṕect

B. In Kurdish:

a. /′kara/ (He is a fool.) a sentence

b. /kar′a/ (butter) a word



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c. /′baša/ (It is good.) a sentence

d. / ba′ša / (goodness) a word

2.1.2 Functions of Stress

Stress has several different functions in both Kurdish and English.

Stress can be used as a grammatical device to distinguish adjectives and

and nouns in both languages, that is, stress is used to change the meaning

of word, grammatical category of word.

We note that, stress in both languages helps hearers differentiate

similar words, and mark the information bearing words in an utterance.

Speakers of both languages may wish to emphasize or to make a contrast

in meaning, as it is indicated in:

She ate three oranges.

Increasing loudness in the stressing of a command in both

languages conveys an extra degree of imperativeness and associated

emotion. While, decreasing loudness conveys the necessity for quietness

in the situation.

In Kurdish, stress depends on the speaker to emphasize any word,

as stress can be used to contrast one reference in a prediction with

another comparable reference expressed or implied and the stress

interacts with high pitch. Thus, speakers in both languages may wish to

put stress on any content word in the sentence to emphasize it. In both

English and Kurdish stress is phonemic; that is, there is a difference in

meaning between two words with different stress patterns. Sometime this

'



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difference in meaning involves the part of speech or the verb tense of the

word.

2.1.3 Stress in Simple Words

The position of the primary stress in English is unpredictable, that is

it can fall on any syllable of the word, and it can shift in connected

speech. There are general rules, which account for the place of stress in

numerous words, but these are small generalizations that can be made

about stress placement. The position of stress is not invariable in

Kurdish, that is, it does not always fall on a certain syllable of a word,

but it is predictable: it falls on the last syllable of a simple and a

compound word and on the last a derivational suffix in derived words.

The only fact that disturbs the general rule of stress placement in

Kurdish is the negative verbal prefix, which invariably attracts the stress

onto itself.

2.1.4 Stress in Compound Words

In Kurdish, stress in compound words falls on the final syllable as

in: (Saeed 1998:59).

a. /Käniyäwaka 'piřbü/ (The spring was filled.)

b. / Käniyäwaka piřb'ü / (The spring is filled now.)

In English, the stress is on the second part of the compound if the

first part of the compound is an adjective, as in: black ՛board. The

second part of a compound noun is also stressed if the object in the

second part is made out of the material in the first, as in: wooden ՛table,

'



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or if the first part tells us where the second part is, for example: car ՛key.

In English stress may often be put on the second element if the

compound noun is not a noun, as in: second ՛class and long sighted.

2.1.5 Stress and Derivative Affixes

In Kurdish, affixation can affect the placement of stress, the

position of primary stress in derivatives depends on the nature of the

affix, Fatah (1980:189-190) and Muhammad (2005:21-3). For example:

a. /de/ (village) /dehät/ (villages)

b. /piyäw/ (man) /piyäwän/ (men)

c. /mäl/ (house) /mälän/ (houses)

d. /bäx/ (garden) /bäxän/ (gardens)

e. /kuř / (boys) /kurgál/ (boys)

English is similar to Kurdish, in this respect in that to some extent

affixes affect the stress placement.

2.1.6 Rules of Word Stress

In both languages, there are some general rules indicating stress

placement, for example in English, it is a rule that stress is on the first

syllable for two syllable nouns, and on the last syllable for two syllable

verbs, likely in Kurdish, it is a rule that stress is on the final syllable of

isolated items. Furthermore, in Kurdish it is a rule that phrases like

(N+N, N+adj, and N+ pronoun) have stress on their final word of the

phrase. Compounds have their own rule in English, for example,

compound nouns (N+N), (Adj+N) have stress on the first part, and for



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compounds like (prep+verb), the stress is on the last part of the verb part.

Compounds like (Adj+p.p) have stress on the last part of the verb part.

2.1.7 Sentence Stress

In Kurdish, and English sentence stress is different from word stress

in that sentence stress depends on the meaning which the utterance

conveys, because in both languages, parts of speech (verbs, nouns,

adjectives, adverbs) receive stress in isolation (that is, they carry more

weight or volume stress, sense, content, or meaning than others) but this

stress placement changes when words are put together to form a

sentence, that is, they receive different stress. In the sentence stress of

both languages, any word can be emphasized according to the speaker's

intention.

In neutral focus sentence, both SVO and SOV languages, in simple

transitive sentences, main stress falls on the object and secondary stress

falls on the subject (Kahnemuyipour 2009:117). Kurdish as being an

SOV language falls under this generalization, for example in both

sentences objects take main stress while subjects take secondary stress as

in:

a. Tom met Jane

b.Azad qalamaki Kri

2.2 Differences of Stress in English and Kurdish

2.2.1 Degrees of Stress

Stress in Kurdish language is different from stress in English

language in that in Kurdish phonetically only three levels of stress can be

found they are: primary, secondary and tertiary whereas in English,

writers have different account for the number of the degrees of stress.

2 1

1 2



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For example, according to American structuralist tradition, four degrees

of stress are found (primary, secondary, tertiary, and weak), others like

Gimson (1970), by means of intonation, realizes four degrees of stress

(primary accent, secondary pitch prominent, secondary accent and

unstressed syllables), and someone like Crystal (2003: 435) recognizes

three degrees of stress most commonly (primary, secondary, and weak

stress).

By all means, we can say that, Kurdish, unlike English, in that, the

weak stress is not available in Kurdish language as vowel in an

unstressed syllable will preserve its quality and remain a full vowel with

all its distinctive features. Despite all that in Kurdish only one degree of

phonemic stress is available which is called primary stress /՛/, whose

placement is largely but not entirely predictable (McCarus 1958: 34;

Fatah 1980:182-183 and Ahmad 1986: 80).

English is commonly believed to have two levels of stress, though in

some treatments, has even been described as having four levels (primary,

secondary, tertiary, and quaternary), but these contradicts with opinions

of phoneticians such as Ladefoged (1982: 105-6) in that those levels are

only phonetic detail and not true phonemic stress. In Kurdish, only one

phonemic degree of stress is realized, though in Kurdish three other

levels phonetically realized (primary, secondary, tertiary).

2.2.2 Functions of Stress

In Kurdish, contrastive stress is accompanied by the perception of vowel quantity. This kind of contrast cannot be regarded as a minimal pairs because the contrast is between words and sentences or phrases and words, not between words and words. Stress moves away from the final



54

syllable of proper nouns to the first syllable when the noun is used in direct address as in:

a. /kuráka/ (the boy)

b. /ḱuraka/ (you boy)

c. /piyäwaḱa/ (the man)

d. /ṕiyäwaka/ (you man)

But, this is not found in English, that is, we donot have any function of contrastive stress to make contrast between a sentence and a word, or phrases and words and vice versa. Instead in English, stress is used to make a contrast between words and words, to change nouns to verbs and vice versa, Stress also has a syntactic function in distinguishing between a compound noun such as a 'hot dog (a from of food) and an adjective followed by a noun, as in the phrase a 'hot 'dog (an overheated animal); compound nouns have a single stress on the first element, and the adjectival phrases have stresses on both elements. Stress can also be used as a grammatical device to distinguish adjectives and verbs, and adjectives and nouns Kingdon (1958.xii), Fudge (1984:10) and Chomsky and Halle (1968: 26-7).

In English, stress is also used to contrast compounds and phrases, for example a combination such as white book is regarded as a phrase and the stress is on the second part whereas a combination like bĺue stocking is regarded as a compound since stress is on the first element Hancock (2003: 64-6).

2.2.3 Stress in Simple Words

In Kurdish, stress is on the final syllable of isolated items regardless

of the number of syllables though it does not always fall on certain

syllable but it is predictable to some extent Kadir (1983: 79), Ahmad

(1986: 82) and Mackenzie (1961:51). In English, according to Jones



55

stress is unpredictable; Kingdom and Fudge think that stress placement

is rule bound depending on the properties of affixes. Later Chomsky and

Halle (1968: 26-7) believe that stress is based on the segmental makeup

of the word. Stress system in English is unpredictable though there are

few number of stress placement rules, McMahon (2002:120).

2.2.4 Stress in Compound Words

Kurdish, unlike English in the way compounds are formed. For example

in Kurdish compounds are either linked by vowels like /a/, /u/ or by any

other vowels, Amin (2004: 285- 286).

Fatah (1980:184-187) illustrates that stress in isolated words (simple

or compound words) falls on the final syllable. Morphologically three

types of compounds can be found:

A. compounds which are linked by the vowel /a/;

/ käniya'äw / (water spring)

/ hawratrishq'a / (thunder)

/ kicam'i:r / ( daughter of prince )

/ kurapäš'ä (son of pashä)

B .compounds which are linked by / u/;

/ hätuč'o / ( traffic )

/ äwuhaw'ä / ( weather )

/ bäwubor'än / ( rainy storm )

/därub'är/ (trees)

/mäluh'äl/ (house and condition)

C. and compounds which are not linked by any vowels;

/ sark'är / ( worker team leader )



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/ gošt' fr'oš / (butcher)

/sawzafr'oš/ (grocer)

But in English, compounds are formed by the combination of two

nouns, a noun and an adjective, a verb and a preposition Kenworthy

(1987: 64-5) and Cruttenden (1997:16-7), for Example:

board! blacka big a. What

!board blackb. Look at that small

In Kurdish, primary stress in compound words generally falls on the

final syllable of words while secondary stress falls on the final syllable

of the first element of the compound, and thus the first word loses its

primary stress and reduces it to a secondary stress Kadir (1983:78) and

Musa 2009:72-3).

This is different in English since stress generally falls on the first

element of the compound Quirk and Greenbaum ( 1973: 451-2).

2.2.5 Stress in Derivatives and Affixes

In Kurdish all derivational affixes attract the stress on to

themselves, while most inflectional affixes, repel it Fatah (1980:187-

188).

Sometimes, when there are chains of stressed affixes, the stress is

attracted by the last stressable affix:

a. / g'or / (grave)

b. / gorist'än / (cemetery, grave yard)

c. / g'oristänak'a / (the grave yard)



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Even, if there are some unstressed and stressed suffixes in order, the

stress goes on the last stressable suffix:

a. / part՛ ük / (book)

b. / partüka՛ ka / (the book)

c. / partükak՛ än / (the books)

d. / partükak'änim / (my books

e. / partükak՛ äntän / (your books)

The suffixes –aka (the) and –an (plural marker) attract stress onto

themselves, as in these words:

a. /piy'äw/ (man)

b. /piyäwáka (the man)

c. /piyäwakán (the men)

Thus, the stress which is normally located on the last syllable of the

root moves forward and backward according to the nature of the affixes

attached. As far as adjectives and nouns are concerned, there is however,

a stressable zone, comprising the last three syllables of the word. The

position of primary stress in verbs is a different matter. Since the

formation of tense and aspect in Kurdish, involves prefixes and since

some of these are stressable, stress tends to be initial in verbs.

Ahmad (1986: 83) shows inflectional suffixes which are inherently

stressed such as the definite suffix /-aká/ the, the comparative and

superlative suffixes /-tír/ more and /tirın/ most, and the plural suffix /-án/

and other plural suffixes such as /-gəl/,/-hát/.The addition of some

suffixes to words receive the primary stress without changing the

meaning, such as those suffixes forming plurals like (/än/, /at/, /hät/, /ha/,

and/gal/) e.g.



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a. /de/ (village) /dehät/ (villages)

b. /piyäw/ (man) /piyäwän/ (men)

c. /mäl/ (house) /mälän/ (houses)

d. /bäx/ (garden) /bäxän/ (gardens)

e. /kuř / (boys) /kurgál/ (boys)

The suffix /am/ which forms ordinal numbers from numberal,

receives stress, for example:

a. / da/ (ten) / daham/ (the tenth)

b. / šaš/ (six) / šašam/ (the sixth)

Personal pronoun suffixes receive stress, when they are added to

verbs and nouns to act as subjects and possessive pronouns, e.g.

Singular Plural

M In

i(t) N

(t) N

a. / daxwenim/ (I study.) / daxwenin / (We study.)

b. / daxweni(t)/(You study.) / daxwene (t) / (He/she, studies.)

The suffix /əkə/ which works as definite article is always stressed e.g.

/kuř/ (boy) / kuřaka/ (the boy)

Though, stress is shifted to the final syllable when the suffix /an/linked

to the suffix /əkə/,e.g.

/ kuřaka/ (the boy) /kuřakän/ (the boys)



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There are also inflectional prefixes namely negative and imperative

particles which are always stressed e.g.

a. /näřom/ (I don't go.)

b. /mařo/ (Don't go.)

c. /niya/ (There is not.)

The imperative particle /bi/ is also stressed when added to the stem

of the verb and used with second person singular and plural, though the

prefix is deleted in compound verbs and the stress moves to the

beginning of the word (Kadir 1983: 80-83).

a. /'bixo/ (eat) /'bixon/ (eat)

b. /rä'bwasta/ (Stand up.)

Furthermore, Ahmad (1986: 82-84) realizes that derivatives and

compound nominals likewise receive primary stress on the vowel of the

derivational suffixes.

a. / därtäš / (carpenter)

b. / däništǘ/ (inhabitant)

c. /Hawler'i:/ ( from Hawler)

d. / xawt'ín / (to sleep)

e. / xänadän/ (noble)

f. / biräyət'í/ (brotherhood)

g. /dargawän/ (warder)

h. /jangäwár/ (fighter)

i. / kärmənd/ (employee)



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In English, although suffixes can have role in assigning stress, but

those that attract the stress are few in number Benua (1997:180-194);

McMahon (2002:123); Hancock (2003: 68-70) and Teschner and

Whitley (2004:36-9).

According to Kenworthy (1987: 63-5) English affixes affect the stress

placement in the word and might have the following patterns:

1- The stress is on the first syllable in many common nouns

and adjectives, for example:

brother desk man

sister orange cheese

2- Words with two and three syllables which have prefixes like

(be, in, dis, ex, un) can always have the stress on the second or

third syllable, for example:

repeat begin dislike

increase exhaust displease

The following suffixes are never stressed in English:

a. ly Quietly

b. al musical, original

c. ive administrative, primitive

d. ent/ant equivalent, assistant

e. ic Automatic



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3- Nevertheless, some suffixes can manifest where the stress will

fall. There are suffixes which cause the syllable before the suffix

to be stressed, as in the following suffixes:

a.-ive(im pressive) -iate(deviate)

b.-ient(incipient) -iary(pecuniary)

c.-iant(deviant) -iable(negotiable)

d.-ial( substantial) -ish(diminish)

e.-ion(invention) -ify(identify)

f.-ic(geologic) -ium(premium)

g.-ian(median) -ior(superior)

h.-ious(infectious) -io(radio)

j.-ical(economical) -iar(familiar)

k.-ity(opportunity) -ible(impossible)

4- Some suffixes cause the stress to be placed on the fourth

syllable from the end of the word. This is applicable only to

four or more syllable words, as in:

a.-ary(particulary)

b.-ator(investigator)

c.-mony(alimony)

d.-acy(intimacy)

e.-ory(category)

2.2.6 Rules of Word Stress

In English, stress assignment in words relies on four factors: the

form-class (noun, verb, adjective, etc) of a word; the number of syllables

in a word; the distinction between strong syllables and weak syllables,



62

and identification of certain specific affixes and especially suffixes

Kreidler (1997: 135-9); Ashby and Maidment (2005 158-9); Maurice

(2006: 1-2); and Collins and Mees (2008:127-9). We can note that stress

system in English is a phonological phenomenon since the position of

the primary stress is determined by resorting to phonological factors

such as length, loudness, prominence, the number of the syllables in a

word. Kurdish is different in that stress in Kurdish is a morphological

phenomenon because stress depends on whether the word is simple or

derived, and whether the derivative is created by an inflectional or a

derivational affix Muhammad (2005:21-3); Ahmad (1986: 84 -86) and

Fatah (1980:192-3).

2.2.7 Sentence Stress

In Kurdish, shifting stress from one syllable to another syllable

mostly changes a word to a sentence as in/roisti'n/ to go and /'roistin/

they go while in English, shifting stress cannot change a word to a

sentence and vice versa Marif (1976:73). Another point is that, changing

stress in sentences, in Kurdish, can make different meaning in terms of

time while this is not found in English Quirk et al (1962: 318); Behne

(1990:1) and Kahnemuyipour (2009:16-27).

English is a stress-time language, where the vowels of the

unstressed syllable, lose their quality and are reduced to a schwa and

function words are often spoken faster and with less volume as if they

are being squeezed in to the gap between regular stressed beats Collins

and Mees (2008:130).Kurdish, on the other hand, is a syllable- timed

language, i.e. whether a syllable is stressed or not its vowel will maintain



63

its quality and remain a full vowel with all its distinctive features. That is

why, Kurdish learners of English are tending to use the strong forms of

functions words in all situations, and give equal time and prominence to

all the syllables of English words. For this reason, their version of

English lacks the rhythmic beats characteristic of the native or native-

like pronunciation.

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